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ILLINOIS  LI3RARY 
AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 
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I 


THE 


UNIYERSAL  ASSISTANT, 

AND  , 

COMPLETE  MECHANIC; 

CONTAINING  OVER 

ONE  MILLION  INDUSTRIAL  FACTS, 

6ALGULATI0HS,  RECEIPTS,  PROCESSES,  TRADE  SECRETS,  RULES, 
BUSINESS  FORMS,  LEGAL  ITEMS,  ETC.,  IN  EVERY 
OCCUPATION,  FROM  THE 

HOUSEHOLD  TO  THE  MANUFACTORY, 


BY  R.  MOORE. 


Ellustrated  with  500  Engravings. 


Let  us  have  Facts,  real,  certain,  unmistakable  Facts,  there  can  be 
no  Science  without  them."— ROBERT  DICK. 


Price  in  Cloth  Binding,  $2.50  ;  in  Leather  Binding,  $3.50.  Free  by  Mail  to  any 
Address  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  or  Great  Britain,  by  remitting  the  price  to 
R.  Moore,  No.  73  Beekman  St.,  New  York,  U.  S.  A.  Parties  will  save  Ex- 
press charges  by  ordering  single  copies  sent  by  Mail,  instead  of  by  Express,  CCD. 
Agents  wanted.    See  next  page. 

i^eb  ¥orft: 

R.  MOORE,  73  BEEKMAN  STREET. 
WM.  DUNHAM,  EDITOR  OF  "THE  MILLER,"  69  MARK  LANE, 
LONDON,  ENGLAND.       TAMES  SPIERS, 
36  BLOOMSBURY  STREET,  W.  C,  LONDON 

1882. 


Alaska,  7  23  A.M. 
Albany,  12  13  r.iM. 
Atlanta,  11  30  a.m. 


AuRusta,  Ga.,  11  39  a.m. 
Baltimore,  Md.,  12  02  r.M 
Eanpior,  Mel  t2  33  p.m. 
Bath,  Me.,  12  29  p.m. 


Boston,  Mass.,  12  24  p.m. 
Buffalo.  N.  Y.,  II  52  a.m. 


Camb'ge,  Mass.,  12  24  r.M 
Charlest'n,  S.C.,  11  43  a.m, 


Chicago,  111.,  II  17  a.m. 
Cincinnati,  O.,  11  30  a.m. 


Cleveland,  P.,  11  41  a.m. 
Columbia,  S.C.,  11  44  a.m. 


Columbus,  0.,  II  36  a.m. 
Danville,  Va.,  11  50  a.m. 


Denver,  Col.,  1008  A.m. 
Detroit,  M^ch.,  11  36  a.m 
Dubuque,  la.,  11  05  A.M. 


Galveston, Tex.,  1049  a.m. 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  12  54  p.m. 


Hamilton  Ont.,  11  49  a.m. 
Hannibal,  Mo.,  11  07  a.m. 


Hartford,  Ct.,  12  17  p.m. 


Havana,  Cuba,  11  38  a.m. 


Houston,  Tex.,  10  44  a.m. 
Indianap's.  Ind.,  11  24A.M. 


Jacksonv'e,  111.,  11 07  a.m. 
Jeff'n  City,  Mo. ,10  59  A.M. 


Kalama,  W.  T..  8  58  a.m. 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  10  49  a.m 


Knoxv'e,  Tenn.,  11  32  A.M 
Laramie.  Wy  T.,  10 12  a.m 


Louisville,  Ky.,  11  26  a.i\i 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  10  41  a.m. 


Little  Rock,  Ak.,  10  59  a.m 
London,  Eng.,  5  08  p.m. 


Macon,  Ga.,  11  37  a.m. 
Memp's,  Tenn.,  11  08  a.m 


Meridian,  Miss..  11  14  a.m 


Mexico,  10  32  a.m. 


Milwau'c,  Wis.,  11 16  a.m 
Minneapolis,  10  55  a.m. 
Mobile,  Ala.,  ix  16  a.m. 


FOR  MEASUREMENT  OF  TIME 
SEE  PAGE  773. 

Table  Showing  the  Time'ln 
Various  Parts  of  the  World 
when  it  is  Noon  at 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


COPYRIGHT,' 

1879, 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


Moncton,  N.  B.,  12  4-^  p.m. 
.\Iontreal,  Can.,  1214  p.taI 


Nashv'e  Tenn.,  ii 


N.  Haven,  Ct.,  12  16  p.m. 


N.  London,  Ci.,  12  20  p.m. 
New  York,  12  12  p.m. 


N.  Orleans,  La.,  11  08  a.m. 


Omaha,  Neb.,  10  44  a.m. 


Ottawa,  Can.,  12  05  p.m. 
Paducah,  Ky.,  11  16  a.m. 


Panama,  11  50  A.M. 


Paris,  France,  5  17  p.m. 


Pensacola,  Fla.,  11  19  p.m. 
Philada.,  Pa.,  12  07  p.m. 


Pittsburg,  Pa.,  11  48 


Port  Hope,  Can.,  ii  54  a.m. 


Pt.  Huron,Mch. 


[1  34  A.M- 


Portland,  Me.,  12  27  p.m. 


Portsm'th,  Va.,  12  03  p.m. 
Provide'ce,  R.I.,  12  22  p.m- 


Quebec,  Can.,  12  23  p.m. 
Quincy,  111.,  11  07  a.m. 


Richmond,  Va.,  11  58  A.M. 
Rome,  Ga.,  11  32  a.m. 


St.  John,  N.  B.,  12  44  P.M. 


St.  Johns,  N.  F.,  i  37  p.m. 


St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  10 50 A.M. 


St.  Louis,  Mo.,  II  07  A.M. 


St.  Paul,  Minn.,  10  56  a.m^ 
St.  Step'n,  N,B.,  12  39  A.M. 


Salt  Lake  City,  9  40  a.m. 
Santa  Fe,  10  04  a.m. 


San  Francisco,  8.58  A.M. 
Sauk  St.  Marie,  11. 31  a.m. 


Savannah,  Ga.,  11  44  a.m. 
Selma,  Ala.,  11  20  a.m. 


Shreveport,  La.,  10 57 a.m. 
Sioux  City,  la.,  10  42  a.m. 


Tcrre  Haute,  11  18  a.m. 


Toronto,  Can.,  11  51  a.m. 


Vincennes,  Ind.  11  17  a.m. 


Vera  Cruz,  10  43  a.m. 


Vicksb'g,  Miss.,  11  05  a.m. 
Wilming'n,  NC,  11 58  a.m. 


Active  Agents  furnished  with  permanent  and  profitable  employment  every- 
where selling  om-  Publications.  New  Illustrated  128-page  Catalogue  of  nearly 
3,000  Standard  Bo®l£§,  with  Contents  Pamphlet  of  the  Universal 
Assi§tant  and  Complete  Meclianic,  terms,  etc.,  to  Agents,  sent  free 
to  any  address.       IS,  MOOI&E,  7^  MceUmun  gt.,  Mew  ¥ork. 


&  o3 


I  PREFACE. 


,5        This  work  is  issued  with  the  design  of  supplying  very 

jV  important  omissions  in  the  author's  antecedent  writings  and 
compilations.    His  most  fervid  acknowledgments  are  due 

•v.  for  the  great  encouragement  accorded  to  his  previous  efforts, 
and  the  favorable  opinions  expressed  regarding  them.  Tha 
result  has  been  that,  stimulated  by  the  experience  of  the 
past,  he  has  in  the  present  work,  made  special  exertions  to 
present  an  immense  array  of  rare  and  most  valuable  infor- 
mation relatino:  to  Commerce  and  the  Industrial  Arts.  The 
,  vital  concerns  of  health,  home,  domestic  felicity,  and  other 
-  all-important  interests,  have  also  received  due  attention, 
and  to  make  the  information  more  comprehensive  and  com- 

•,  ^  plete,  he  has  quoted  largely  from  his  previously  published 
works,  wherever  he  judged  it  necessary  to  do  so.  These 
extracts  include  a  few  items  for  machinists  use,  and  the 
diagrams  for  saw-filing,  selected  from  the  "  Boston  Machin- 
ist  "  and  Halley's  work  "  On  Saw-filing,"  by  permission  of 
the  publishers,  John  Wiley  &  Son,  of  New  York,  together 


G 


TREFACE. 


with  a  few  extracts  from  the  "  Watchmakers'  Manual,"  by 
permission  of  the  Publishers,  Jesse  Haney  &  Co,  New  York. 
In  addition  to  the  matter  above  alladed  to,  many  valuable 
tables  are  now  published  for  the  first  time,  together  with 
much  new  and  most  important  matter  specially  adapted  for 
the  use  of  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  mechanical  men 
in  both  hemispheres.  A  past  experience  of  many  years 
devoted  to  the  welcome  taslc  of  supplying  technical  informa- 
tion to  business  men,  mechanics,  &c.,  has  qualified  the 
author  to  judge  regarding  their  wants,  and  to  act  intelli- 
gently in  endeavoring  to  supply  them.  His  effort  has  been 
to  act  as  the  harbinger  of  mechanical  improvements  and 
general  progress,  and  he  can  say  without  ostentation,  that 
the  present  work  is  the  result  of  prolonged  and  continuous 
labor ;  the  best  authorities  have  been  consulted,  and  endea- 
vors have  been  made  to  make  it  plain,  easily  understood, 
and  commensurate  with  the  exacting  requirements  of  this 
progressive  age. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Baking,  Cooking  and  Preserving  Receipts   9 

Farmers,  Stock-owners,  Horse-shoers,  Liverymen's  and  Veteri- 
nary Receipts,  Bee-keeping,  &c   3L 

For  Lumbermen,  Builders,  Contractors,  Mill-owners,  Ship- 
builders, Ship-owners,  Navigators,  Quarry-men,  Stone-cutters, 

Merchants,  and  Business-men   74 

Natural,  Mechanical,  and  Scientific  Facts,  &c   117 

For  Dyers,  Bleachers,  Hatters,  Clothiers,  Furriers   134 

Medical  Department,  Maintenance  of  Health,  &c   147 

Grocers,  Confectioners  and  Manufacturers'  Department   201 

Tanners,  Curriers,  Boot,  Shoe,  and  Rubber  Manufacturers, 

Marble  and  Ivory  "Workers,  Bookbinders,  &c   240 

Painters,  Cabinet-makers,  Varnishers,  Polishers,  Piano  and 
Organ  Manufacturers,  Gilders,  Bronzers,  Architects,  Builders, 
Masons,  Bricklayers,  Plasterers,  Kalsominers,  Stucco  Workers, 

China  Decorators,  Potters,  Glass-makers,  Stainers,  &g   253 

Watchmakers,  Jewellers,  Gilders,  Colorers,  Refiners,  Gold  and 
Silversmiths,  Burnishers,  Diamond  cutters,  Lapidaries,  Sweep- 
smelters,  Enamellers,  <fec   307 

For    Engineers,  Engine-drivers,  Firemen,   Engine  Builders, 

Locomotive  Shops,  &c . . ;   354 

Power  required  for  various  machines,  &c  435-441-442 

On  Water-wheels,  Wheel  Gearing,  Hydraulics,  &c   443-626 

Boring,  Drilling,   and  Mining  Machinery,  Gold  and  Silver 

Mining,  &c   448-581 

For   Blacksmiths,    Tool-makers,  Cutlers,   Locksmiths,  Saw, 

Spring,  and  Safe  Manufacturers,  &c   457 

Machinists'  Department   446 

For  Iron,  Brass,  Bell,  Type,  and  Stereotype  Founders,  Iron 

Manufacturers,  &c   ^90 

For  Mill-owners,  Factories,  &g   504-559 

For  Plumbers,  Gas,  and  Steam  Fitters,  Bronzing,  Lacquering, 

Brass  Finishing,  Soldering,  &c  

Tinmen's  Diagrams,  Measurements,  Receipts,  (fee   oa^ 

Facts  for  Gas  Companies  and  Consumers,  Tables  and  Illustra- 
tions   532 

Gunsmiths,  Engravers,  Die-sinkers,  Photographers,  &c   ^  543 

For  Printers  and  Publishers,  Paper  Manufacturers,  &c   |  578_57() 

Oil  Manufacture,  &c   553 

Calculations  for  Contractors,  &g  131-303-557 

Warming  of  Buildings,  Value  of  Fuel,  The  Compass   560-561 

Sugar  Refining,  Corn  Starch,  Button  M'frs,  &g   565-566 

Iron  and  Brass  Tube,  Lead  Pipe,  Cutlery  and  Needle  Manufac- 
turers  5e7-56S-560-?i70 

Gold  and  Steel  Pen,  and  File  Manufacture,  &c   571-572 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

PACE 
(  414-418 

Portraits  and  Notices  of  Eminent  Engineers,  &c  •<  430-440 

I  47;^-474 

Smelting  of  Metals,  Ac  583-584-586 

Useful  Items  for  Daily  Remembrance   587 

Interest  Table  at  0  and  7  per  cent   597 

Ready  Reckoner  for  Coal,  Hay,  &g.,  at  any  rate  per  ton   298-290 

Ready  Reckoner  for  Pounds,  Yards,  Bushels,  Ac,  at  sight  t)00-004 

Expectancy  of  Life,  Weight,  Stature,  &c.,  of  Man   605 

Weights  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe  from  1  to  2,-i  ins.  diam   GOG 

Weights  of  Brass,   Copper,  Steel,  Lead,  Plate  Iron,  Flai  Cast 

Iron,  Wrought  Iron  Pipe,  Planting  Table,  ttc   G07 

Torsional  Strength  of  Metals,  Capacities,  Size  and  Weight  of 

Coppers,  Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Cast  Iron   G08 

Weights  of  Round,  Square,  and  Plat  Cast  Iron,  Flat  Steel, 

Moulders' and  Pattern  Makers*  Tables   CC9 

Strength  of  Iron  Columns,  Capacities  o£  Cisterns,  Weights  of 

Cordwood,  Arithmetical  Signs  and  their  Signification   GiO 

Ready  Reckoner  Table  for  Board,  Wages,  Rent,  (fee,  Weight  of 

'  Lead  Pips,  Different  Sizes,  Capacities  of  Cribs,  Boxes,  ic   595-611 

Diameters,  Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles.,  612-615 

Diameter,  &c.,  of  Circles,  Contents  of   Vessels  in  Gallons,  Area 

in  Feet   ^  616 

Scantling  and  Timber  Measurement  Tables  G17-618 

Lumber  Measurement  at  Sight,  1  inch  board  measure ...  ...  619 

Lumber  and  Log  Measurement,  Net  Proceeds  of  Logs,  &,g.   C20 

Cubical  Contents  of  Round  Logs.  Masts,  Spars,  &c   ('21 

Cordwood  and  Bark  Measurement  at  Sight   (/23 

Miscellaneous  Tables  for  Mechanics   623-634 

Rules  Tables,  &c.,  for  Engineers  and  Mill-owners,  &o  G35-()87 

Facts,  Calculations,  &c.,  for  Agriculturists,  &c   688-'(37 

Geological  Facts,  with  Diagram   728-735 

Age,  Origin,  and  Ultimate  Duration  of  the  Earth   735-746 

Tables,  Estimates,  &c.,  for  Printers  and  Publishers   746-760 

Information  Concerning  Patents   760-763 

Facts  Relating  to  Human  Life,  Population  of  the  Globe,  High- 
est Mountains,  Longest  Rivers,  &c . . . .   ,   762-773 

Measurement  of  Time,  the  Circle,  Zones,  &c   778-775 

On  Telegraphy,  Photography,  &o   776-784 

On  Hunting  and  Trapping   785-791 

Directions,  Tables,  &c.,  for  Merchants  and  Book-keepers   791-803 

Business  Forms  for  Merchants,  Mechanics  and  Farmers   803-825 

Special  Laws  of  49  States,  Territories  and  Provinces   828-923 

Facts,  Tables  and  Processes  Relating  to  Metallurgy,  Gold  and 

Silver  Mining,  Treatment  of  Ores,  &c   934-951: 

Quartz  Machinery,  Stamp  Battery,  &c   954-955 

Metallurgy  of  Gold— full  details,  Illustrated   957-9('0 

Metallurgy  of  Silver — complete  details,  Illustrated   960-981 

Description  of  Furnaces  used  in  Roasting  Ores   9S2-991 

Blowpipe  Assay,  Fluxes,  Hydrostatic  Weighing,  Cupellation. ..  991-995 
To  Identify  and  Test  Metallic  Ores,  Chemistry,  Geognostic 

Situation,  &c,,  of  Metals  995-1008 

Dry  and  Humid  Assay  of  Ores,  Reduction  of  Photographic 

Wastes,  &c   ..1009-1013 

Valuable  Processes  in  Various  Trades  » , . , » , ,  , ,  1013-1  Olfi 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  DEPABTMENT. 


Note. — The  observant  tradesman  ■will  notice  that  the  following 
formulce  may  be  adapted  for  smaller  quantities,  or  for  household  use, 
in  any  desired  instance,  by  a  proportionate  subdivision  of  the  ma- 
terials used. 

Hop  Yeast. — ^Boil  9  ozs.  of  hops  with  3  pails  of  water  ;  put  9  lbs. 
of  good  flour  in  a  tub,  and  strain  enough  of  the  hop-water  over  it  to 
make  it  into  a  stiff  paste  ;  beat  it  up  thoroughly  ;  strain  in  the  rest  of 
the  hop-water  iuto  the  paste  ;  let  it  stand  until  lukewarm  ;  then  add 
4^  qts.  stock  yeast.  It  will  rise  1  to  3  inches,  but  do  not  disturb  it 
until  it  drops. 

Stock;  or  Malt  Yeast. — Boil  12  ozs.  of  good  hops  with  4  pails  of 
water  for  about  5  minutes;  then  strain  off  enough  of  the  liquid 
among  8  lbs.  of  good  sifted  flour  in  a  tub,  to  render  it  hito  a  stiff 
paste,  working  it  up  thoroughly  with  a  clean  stick  ;  then  add  the  rest 
of  the  liquid  to  the  paste;  let  it  stand  till  lukewarm,  and  pulverize 
any  remaining  lumps  with  your  fiugers.  Now  add  about  8  lbs.  malt 
and  6  qts.  stock  yeast;  allow  it  to  work  in  a  warm  place  till  it  rises 
and  falls  again,  which  will  occupy  from  8  to  12  hours ;  strain  through 
a  hair  sieve  and  stand  in  a  cool  place.  In  warm  weather  4  gals,  cold 
water  might  be  added  to  tlie  above,  previous  to  stocking  it  away. 

Compressed  Yeast. — This  yeast,  so  extensively  used  in  Europe, 
is  obtained  by  straining  the  common  yeast  in  breweries  and  distil- 
leries until  a  moist  mass  is  obtained,  which  is  then  placed  in  hair 
bags,  and  the  rest  of  the  water  pressed  out  until  the  mass  is  nearly 
dry.  It  is  then  sewed  up  in  strong  linen  bags  for  transportation.  It 
will  keep  a  long  time,  and  is  very  highly  esteemed  by  bakers.  See 
Vienna  Bread. 

Ferment. — Boil  2  pecks  of  good  potatoes,  strain,  and  place  them 
in  a  ferment  tub;  add  8  or  9  lbs',  flour,  and,  with  a  masher,  iutermi.x 
all  thoroughly  together  and  turn  in,  say,  G  or  8  gals,  water,  or  enough 
to  make  it  milkwarra ;  add  2  gals,  stock  yeast,  set  it  in  a  warm  place, 
allowing  it  to  rise  aiid  fall,  not  letting  it  stand  very  long  after  it  falls, 
as  it  is  liable  to  sour  in  warm  weather;  strain,  and  all  is  ready. 

Note. — Good  yeast  for  the  purpose  of  renewing  your  old  stock 
may  be  made  by  boiling  a  peck  of  clean  potatoes  in  4  pails  of  water; 
when  about  done,  add  12  ozs.  hops,  and  boil  the  potatoes  until  soft; 
put  12  lbs.  flour  into  a  clean  tub ;  make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  part  of 
the  hop-water;  next  add  the  whole,  including  potatoes  and  hops, 
ru^.bing  tlie  potatoes  through  a  coarse  sieve,  letting  it  stand  till  luke- 

0 


10 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


warm ;  then  stock  avraj.  This  is  for  renewing  your  old  malt  or  hop 
yeast  when  the  latter  runs  out,  and  not  for  general  use;  or  it  may  be 
Bubstituted  by  yeast  from  another  shop. 

Setting  Sponge. — For  a  quantity  of,  say,  3  barrels  of  flour,  put  it 
in  tho  trough;  sift  it ;  add  4^  pails  of  ferment,  and  about  4^  water 
(cold  water  during  warm  weather,  and  warm  water  during  coll);  in- 
termix and  work  it  up  smooth,  allowing  it  to  rise  and  fall<  when  it  is 
ready.  A  delay  in  the  process,  for  tlie  space  of  30  minutes  or  so, 
may  bo  effected,  if  desired,  by  tlie  addition  of  a  handful  of  salt  when 
the  sponge  is  being  set.  The  sponge  being  ready,  9  lbs.  of  salt,  in- 
cluding tiie  last  mentioned,  are  now  weighed,  dissolved,  and  turned 
hito  tlie  sponge,  together  with  9  pails  of  water  (of  2^  gals,  to  each 
pail);  mix  all  thoroughly  and  knead  the  dough,  letting  it  get  a  good 
proof,  when  it  will  be  ready  to  mix  up  into  loaves.  A  good  method 
for  warm,  weather  to  work  flour  that  is  new  and  soft,  is  to  make  your 
dough  right  up,  straining  in  all  your  ferment,  salt  and  water,  with- 
out setting  any  sponge.  When  the  dough  rises  well,  work  it  down, 
turning  up  the  sides,  and  allow  it  to  rise  once  more  previous  to 
throwing  it  out  of  the  trough,  adding  alum  if  desired.  With  flour 
that  works  soft  and  clammy,  requiring  9  lbs.  of  salt  to  the  batch, 
omit  4i  pounds,  and  substitute  2i  lbs.  alum,  1  lb.  of  alum  being 
equivalent  to  2  Iha.  salt.  Alum  assists  inferior  flour  in  making  whito 
bread.  The  rule  here  laid  down  is  8  ozs.  salt  to  each  pail  of  water, 
but  a  little  more  might  be  used  occasionally  with  benefit. 

London  White  Bkead. — The  common  proportions  used  by  the 
London  bakers,  are:  Flour,  1  sack;  common  salt,  4^  lbs.;  alum,  5 
ozs. ;  yeast,  4  pts. ;  warm  water  for  the  sponge,  about  3  gals.  Tho 
alum  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  whiteninrf  the  bread,  but  Liebig  has 
demonstrated  that  this  purpose  may  be  better  subserved  by  tho  use 
of  dear  lime  water  in  mixing  up  the  dough. 

It  is  the  commendable  ambition  in  the  English  bakers  to  impart 
that  peculiar  tint  so  highly  prized  by  connoisseurs,  and  so  success- 
fully produced  at  Vienna  and  Paris.  At  Vienna,  it  has  long  been 
known  that  if  the  hearth  of  an  oven  be  cleaned  with  a  moistened 
wisp  of  straw,  the  crust  of  bread  baked  in  it  immediately  after  pre- 
sents a  rich  yellow  tint;  the  theory  is  that  the  aqueous  vapor  retained 
in  the  oven  has  a  beneficial  effect. 

The  proper  temperature  of  the  oven  is  between  200°  and  225<' 
Centigrade,  equivalent  to  424°  and  480°  Fahr.,  and  may  be  Icnown 
by  the  emission  of  sparks  from  a  piece  of  wood  rubbed  on  the  oven. 

The  dough  loses  about  l-7th  of  its  weight  if  baked  in  batches,  but 
fully  §  if  baked  in  small  loaves  and  placed  in  the  oven  separately. 
The  best  bread  contains  about  ll-16ths  of  its  weight  of  added  water, 
and  common  bread  often  much  more  than  ^.  The  proportion  of  wa- 
ter in  the  London  bread  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years,  owing 
to  the  use  of  the  fraudulent  method  of  making  the  dough  with  rice 
jelly  or  moss  jelly,  in  which  Iceland  moss,  Irish  moss,  or  other  moss- 
es are  used,  by  boiling  7  lbs.  of  moss  in  10  gals,  of  water,  and  using 
the  resultant  jelly  in  making  70  lbs.  of  flour  into  dough,  which  is 
then  fermented  and  baked  in  the  usual  way.  It  is  said  that  flour 
treated  in  this  way  will  yield  fully  double  its  weight  of  good  bread. 
According  to  Heern,  100  lbs.  of  wh eaten  flour  will  yield  at  least  125 
to  126  lbs.  of  bread — some  say  135  lbs. ;  100  lbs.  of  rye  meal,  131  lbs. 
of  bread.   A  ^  oz.  carbonate  of  magnesia,  added  to  tho  flour  for  a 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


11 


it-lb.  loaf,  materially  improves  the  quality  of  the  bread  even  vvheD 
made  from  the  very  worst  seconds  flour. 

Paris  Baker's  White  Bread.— Oa  80  lbs.  of  the  dough  left 
from  the  previous  day's  baking,  as  much  luke-warm  water  is  poured 
as  will  make  320  lbs.  flour  into  a  rather  thin  dough.  As  soon  as  tliig 
has  risen,  80  lbs.  are  taken  out  and  reserved  in  a  warm  place  for  next 
day's  baking.  One  pound  of  dry  yeast  dissolved  in  warm  water  is 
then  added  to  the  remaining  portion,  and  the  whole  lightly  kneaded. 
As  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  "  risen,"  it  is  then  made  ii  to  loaves,  and 
shortly  afterwards  baked,  the  loaves  being  placed  in  the  oven  with- 
out touching  each  other,  so  that  they  may  be  "  crusted  "  all  round. 


bread,  confessedly  inferior  to  none  in  the  world,  are:  Flour  100  lbs. ; 
water  and  milk,  9  gals. ;  salt,  G  lbs.  4  ozs. ;  pressed  yeast,  18  lbs.  12 
ozs.  According  to  Prof.  Horsford,  good  fresh  middlings  flour  will 
compare  favorably  with  the  average  Hungarian  flour  used  in  Vienna. 
The  fresh  pressed  yeast  is  obtained  by  skimming  the  froth  from  beec 
mash  in  active  fermentation.  This  contains  the  upper  yeast,  which 
must  be  repeatedly  washed  with  cold  water  until  only  the  pure  white 
yeast  settles  clear  from  the  water.  This  soft,  tenacious  mass,  after- 
the  water  has  been  drawn  off,  is  gathered  into  bags  and  subjected  to 
hydraulic  pressure,  until  there  remains  a  semi-solid,  somewhat  brit- 
tle, dough-like  substance,  still  containing  considerable  water.  This 
is  the  pressed  yeast,  which  will  keep  for  eighty  days  in  summer,  and 
much  longer  on  ice.    For  use  it  should  be  fresh  and  sweet. 

The  mixing  is  commenced  by  emptying  the  flour  sacks  into  a  zinc- 
lined  trough  about  2^  feet  wide  and  8  feet  long,  half  round  in  form. 
Then  with  a  pail  holding  about  5  gals.,  equal  parts  of  milk  and  wa- 
ter are  poured,  and  left  to  stand  until  the  mixture  attains  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room,  between  70°  and  80°  Fahr.  It  is  then  poured  into 
one  end  of  the  trough  and  mixed  with  the  bare  hand  with  a  -small 
portion  of  the  flour  to  form  a  thin  emulsion.  The  pressed  yeast  is 
next  crumbled  finely  in  the  hands,  and  added  in  the  proportion  of  3^ 
ozs.  to  every  3  qts.  of  liquid,  and  then  1  oz.  of  salt  in  same  propor- 
tion is  intermingled  through  the  mass.  The  trough  is  now  covered 
and  left  undisturbed  for  |  of  an  hour,  and  after  this  the  rest  of  the 
flour  is  incorporated  with  the  mass  in  the  above-named  proportions. 

The  mass  of  dough,  being  allowed  to  rest  for  2^  hours,  becomes  a 
smooth,  tenacious,  puffed  mass  of  yellowish  color,  which  yields  to 
indentation  without  rupture  and  is  elastic.  It  is  now  weighed  into 
pound  masses,  and  each  lump  is  cut  by  machinery  into  12  small 
pieces,  each  |  inch  in  thickness.  Of  each  one  of  these,  the  corners 
are  brought  together  in  the  centre  and  pinched  to  secure  them.  Then 
the  lump  is  reversed  and  placed  on  a  long  dough  board  for  further 
fermentation,  until  the  whole  batch  is  ready  for  the  oven.  Before 
being  introduced  into  the  latter,  the  rolls  are  again  reversed  and  re- 
stored to  their  original  position,  having  considerably  increased  in 
volume,  to  be  still  farther  enlarged  in  the  oven  to  at  least  twice  the 
size  of  the  original  dough.  In  the  oven  they  do  not  touch  each  other, 
and  tlie  baking  occupies  about  15  minutes.  To  glaze  the  surface  they 
are  touched  in  the  process  of  baking  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  milk, 
which  besides  imparting  to  them  a  smooth  surface,  increases  the 
brilliancy  of  the  slightly  reddish  cinnamon  color  and  adds  to  the 
grateful  aroma  of  the  crust. 


The  Secrets  of  Vienna 


12 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  IlECEirTS. 


Aktiatkd  Brkad. — T1>G  water  used  in  fomiin^j  the  (lonp;h  is  placed 
h\  a  vessel  capable  of  withstanding  a  high  pressure,  and  carbonic  acid 
gas  l3  forced  into  it  to  the  extent  10  or  12  atmospheres.  Tlic  watei 
will  absorb  and  retain  it  wliatevcr  may  be  its  density,  in  qnantitiea 
equal  to  its  own  bulk,  so  long  as  it  is  retained  in  a  close  vessel  under 
pressure.  The  flour  and  salt,  of  which  the  dough  is  to  be  formed,  is 
next  placed  in  another  powerful  vessel  of  a  spheroidal  form,  con- 
structed with  a  simple  kneading  aj^paratus  working  from  without 
nnd  operating  through  a  closely  packed  stuffing-box.  Into  this  ves- 
sel is  forced  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  in  the  aerated  water  vessel, 
then  by  means  of  a  pipe  connecting  the  two  vessels,  the  aerated 
water  is  drawn  into  the  Hour  and  the  kneading  apparatus  is  operated 
at  the  same  time,  the  water  acting  simply  as  limpid  water  among  the 
flour,  forming  a  pasty  mass  of  the  requisite  tenacity.  The  pressure  ia 
now  withdrawn,  and  the  gas  escapes  from  the  water,  and  in  doing  so, 
raises  the  dough  in  a  beautiful  and  rapid  manner,  the  intermixture  being 
thorough  and  complete.  The  mixing  vessel  may  have,  say,  an  inter- 
nal capacity  of  10  bushels  ;  to  fill  this  with  the  inflated  bread  dough 
only  3^  bushels  of  flour  are  required.  In  the  intermixture  of  water 
with  flour  the  pasty  mass  measures  rather  less  than  half  the  bulk  of 
the  original  dry  flour,  or  aljout  IJ  bushels  instead  of  3^,  the  expand- 
ed dough  repre'sents  nearly  5  parts  gaseous  to  one  solid.  The  subse- 
quent baking  expands  it  to  a  mucli  greater  extent,  making  tho 
proportions  of  gaseous  to  solid  in  all  about  10  to  1.  It  must  be  self- 
evident  that  this  bread  is  very  pure,  nothing  but  flour,  water,  and 
salt,  being  used,  and  reliable  experiments  have  demonstrated  that 
118  loaves  can  be  made  from  the  same  weight  of  flour  Avhich  by  fer- 
mentation will  make  only  105  or  lOG,  the  loss  in  the  latter  being 
caused  by  the  emission  of  carbonic  acid  gas  through  the  dough  dur- 
ing the  process  of  fermentation  and  manufacture.  In  baking  this 
bread,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  have  the  heat  admitted  through 
the  bottom  of  the  oven,  with  means  of  regulating  the  heat  of  the  top, 
so  that  the  bread  is  cooked  through  the  bottom,  and  the  heat  subse- 
quently admitted  above  towards'the  last,  in  order  to  perfect  the  top 
crust.  These  precautions  are  taken  owing  to  the  low  temperature  of 
the  dough  when  placed  in  the  oven,  caused  by  the  use,  of  cold  water 
in  the  baking  process,  and  the  sudden  expansion  on  rising  inducing 
a  temperature  of  40°  Fahr.,  lower  than  ordinary  fermented  dough. 
This  in  connection  with  its  slow  springing  until  it  reaches  the  boiling 
point,  renders  it  desirable  to  delay  the  formation  of  the  top  crust 
until  the  last  moment. 

Another  Aerated  Bread. — 1.  Dissolve  1  oz.  o£  sesqui-carbon- 
ate  of  ammonia  m  water,  sufficient  to  make  Tibs,  of  flour  into  a  dough, 
which  must  be  formed  into  loaves,  and  baked  immediately.  2. 
Divide  3  lbs.  flour  into  two  portions  :  mix  up  the  first  with  water, 
holding  in  solution  2  ozs.  bicarbonate  of  soda  ;  then  mix  the  second 
portion  of  flour  with  water,  to  which  1  oz.  of  muriatic  acid  has  been 
added  ;  knead  each  mass  of  the  dough  thoroughly.  When  this  is 
done,  mix  both  portions  together  as  rapidly  and  perfectly  as  possible, 
form  the  mass  into  loaves  and  bake  immediately.  This  bread  con- 
tains no  yeast,  and  is  very  wholesome.  Note. — Carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia and  muriatic  acid  chemically  combined,  form  common  salt. 

Healtht  Mixed  Bread. — Boil  3  lbs.  of  rice  to  a  soft  pulp  in 
water;  pare  and  cook  by  steam  6  lbs.  of  your  beat  potatoes,  mash 
your  potatoes  and  rub  them  up  with  rice  pulp  ;  add  to  the  whole  6 


BAKING  AND   COOKINa  RECEIPTS. 


13 


lbs.  flour  ,  make  all  into  a  dough  with  water,  ferment  witli  yeast,  let 
It  stand  a  proper  length  of  time,- and  then  iDlace  it  in  the  oven  to  bake. 

Akother  ExCELiiENT  Bread. — Kuead  21  lbs.  flour  with  9  lbs  of 
pared  and  mashed  potatoes,  from  which  the  water  has  been  well 
Bteamed  off  previous  to  mashing  :  mix  together  while  the  potatoes  are 
warm,  adding  about  3  or  4  spoonfuls  of  salt.  Then  add  about  3 
qts.  milk-waiTli  water,  with  9  large  spoonfuls  of  yeast  gradually  to 
Uae  potatoes  and  flour  ;  knead  and  work  it  well  into  a  smooth  dough, 
and  let  it  stand  4  hours  before  putting  into  the  oven. 

Fkench  Bread.— Take  nice  rice,  |  lb.  ;  tie  it  up  in  a  thick  linen 
bag,  giving  it  enough  room  for  it  to  swell :  boil  from  three  to  four 
hours  till  it  becomes  a  perfect  paste  ;  mix  while  warm  with  7  lbs. 
flour  ;  adding  the  usual  quantities  of  yeast,  salt,  and  water.  Allow 
the  dough  to  work  a  proper  time  near  the  fire,  then  divide  into  loaves, 
dust  them  in,  and  knead  vigorously. 

Dyspepsia  Bread. — The  following  receipt  for  making  bread  has 
proved  highly  salutary  to  persons  afflicted  with  dyspepsia,  viz.  : — 3 
quarts  unbolted  wheat  meal  ;  1  quart  soft  water,  warm  but  not  hot ; 
1  gill  of  fresh  yeast  ;  1  gill  molasses,  or  not,  as  may  suit  the  taste  ;  1 
teaspoonf ul  of  saleratus. 

For  the  sake  of  the  industrious  house-wife,  and  not  for  bakers,  as 
they  are  supposed  to  know  already,  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  30. 
minutes'  baliiug  will  suffice  for  1  lb.  loaves  and  cakes  ;  and  15  minutes 
additional  for  every  lb.  after  the  first  for  larger  ones.  Thus  a  1  lb. 
loaf  requires  -|  hour,  a  2  lb.  loaf  2  hour,  and  a  4  lb.  loaf  IJ  hour, 

Superior  Bread  from  Buckwheat  Meal. — To  2  qts.  of  sifted 
buckwheat  meal,  add  hot  water  enough  to  wet  the  same,  when  suf- 
ficiently cooled,  add  1  teaspoonf  ul  or  more  of  salt,  half  a  pint  of 
yeast,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  molasses  ;  then  add  wheat  flour 
enough  to  make  it  into  loaves  (it  should  be  kneaded  well)  ;  and  when 
risen  light,  bake  or  steam  it  three  or  more  hours.  If  this  should  get 
sour  while  rising,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  a  little  saleratus, 
dissolved  in  water.  For  bread  from  Indian  meal  proceed  in  the  samo 
way,  using  it  instead  of  buckwheat  meal. 

Corn-Meal  Bread,  No.  1. — Take  2  qts.  of  corn  meal,  with  about 
a  pint  of  (tliiu)  bread  sponge,  and  water  enough  to  wet  it  ;  mix  in 
about  a  half  a  pint  of  wheat  flour,  and  a  tablespoonful  of  salt ;  let  it 
rise  and  then  knead  well  the  second  time  ;  bake  1^  hours. 

Corn-Meal  Bread  No.  2. — Mix  2  qts.  of  new  corn-meal  with 
three  pints  of  warm -water;  add  1  tablespoonful  of  salt,  2  table- 
spoonfuls  of  sugar  and  one  large  tablespoonful  of  hop  yeast:  let  it 
stand  in  a  warm  place  five  hours  to  rise  ;  then  add  1^  teacupf uls  of 
wheat  flour,  and  a  half  pint  of  warm  water.  Let  it  rise  again  1^ 
hours,  then  pour  into  a  pan  well  greased  with  sweet  lard,  and  let  it 
rise  a  few  minutes.    Then  bake  in  a  moderately  hot  oven,  1^  hours. 

Corn-Meal  Bread,  No  3. — Take  2  qts.  of  white  corn-meal,  1 
tftblespoonful  of  lar(i,  1  pint  of  hot  water  ;  mix  the  lard  in  water  . 
stir  it  well  that  it  may  get  heated  thoroughly,  and  add  one-half  pint 
of  cold  water.  When  the  mixture  is  cool  enough,  add  two  well- 
beaten  eggs,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  home-made  yeast.  Bake 
1  hour  in  a  moderately  heated  oven.  If  for  breakfast  make  over 
night. 

Best  Boston  Brown  Bread.— Take  100  lbs.  of  Indian  meal ;  50 
lbs.  rye  meal  ;  and  10  lbs.  flour  ;  sift  and  intermix  together  in  the 
trough ;  strain  in  four  gals,  molasses ;  2  gals,  fei  mcnt  c>r  yeast ;  dissolve  1 


UAKINO  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


lb.  soda  .md  4  Iba.  salt  in  water  and  add  that.  Now  add  water 
enough  to  mix  all  rather  stiff,  mixing  well  and  breaking  all  lumps. 
Now  mix  in  water  enougli  to  form  a  batter  sufticiently  thin  to  remain 
even  on  top  :  allow  it  to  stand  2  or  3  hour,s  after  mixing,  before  put- 
ting it  into  the  pans  and  oven,  then  bake  Irom  C  to  10  hours  iu  ft 
slow  oven. 

Boston,  on  Soft  Crackers.— First  sift  in  4  bairels  cif  flour  into 
the  trough,  add  2  pails  of  stock-yeast,  and  about  9  pails  of  Avater  ; 
mix  all  into  a  sponge  and  allow  it  to  stand  until  it  rises  and  falls 
twice.  The  sponge  will  require  about  0  or  8  hours  to  become  ready, 
if  it  sours  a  little,  so  much  the  better.  Usually  it  is  set  about  noon 
for  the  work  next  daj"-,  and  if  set  warm,  for  using  stoclc  yeast  instead 
of  ferment,  it  will  come  less  rapidly.  The  sponge  being  ready,  add 
to  it  from  8  to  10  pails  more  water  ;  mix  and  break  the  sponge  up 
well,  making  a  stiff  dough,  and  let  it  stand  until  next  morning.  Itia 
requisite  that  the  dough  should  be  sour,  to  ensure  good  crackers. 
When  ready,  remove  a  sample  of  it  sufficient  for  one  ovenful  of 
crackers  ;  take  it  to  another  part  of  the  trough,  and  add  to  it  from  5 
tp  6  lbs.  of  butter  or  lard,  the  proportion  to  be  added  to  be  estimated 
by  the  dimensions  of  the  piece  so  separated  ;  soda  in  solution  is  now 
to  be  added,  made  by  dissolving  soda,  1  lb.  in  cold  water,  1  qt,  and 
the  detached  piece  of  dough  may  be  intermixed  Avith  1  pt.  of  the 
liquid,  representhig  8  ozs.  of  soda,  but  the  exact  quantity  required 
must  be  ascertamed  by  the  acidity  or  age  of  the  dough,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  an  experienced  practitioner.  Mix  the  soda  and  butter 
thoroughly  into  the  dough,  and  put  it  through  the  rollers  repeatedly 
or  until  smooth.  Place  a  sample  of  this  dough  in  the  oven  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  it  contains  the  proper  quantity  of  soda.  When 
baked,  too  much  soda  will  induce  a  yellow  appearance,  and  more 
dough  without  soda  must  be  added  ;  a  deficiency  of  soda  will  be  in- 
dicated by  a  sour  smell,  and  in  that  case  more  soda  must  be  added. 
When  all  is  right,  the  dough  is  put  through  the  machine,  and  the 
succeeding  batch  of  crackers  is  commenced  by  selecting  another 
piece  of  dough  and  proceeding  as  above,  adding  the  butter  and  soda 
in  the  required  i)roportion,  each  batch  requiring  more  soda  on  ac- 
count of  the  increasing  acidity  acquired  by  long  exposure  to  the  air. 
Another  way.— Set  the  sponge  on  the  previous  night,  and  the 
next  day  instead  of  making  dough  of  it,  select  a  portion  of  the  sponge, 
adding  it  to  the  butter  and  soda  as  above  directed,  working  them  well 
Into  it,  and  adding  flour  enough  to  make  a  stiff  dough,  and  it  is  ready 
for  the  break.  When  you  detach  part  of  the  sponge  to  make  the 
batch,  add  water  enough  to  the  sponge,  and  stir  it  up  with  moro 
flour,  thus  continuing  to  renew  the  sponge  as  fast  as  it  is  used. 

Soda  Crackers  are  made  by  the  same  process,  of  the  same  dough  ; 
after  using  the  scraps,  add  a  little  more  butter,  rolling  them  thmuer 
and  cuttmg  them  square. 

Oyster  Crackers  are  made  of  the  same  dough,  using  the  scraps 
also.  Butter,  Sugar,  and  other  crackers  are  made  the  same  way, 
adding  respectively  butter  and  sugar. 

Cream  Crackers.— Rub  together  14  lbs.  flour  and  1  lb.  butter  ; 
then  add  1  lb.  pounded  sugar,  48  eggs,  and  flavor  ;  mix  thoroughly, 
and  work  it  quite  stiff  and  smooth  ;  roll  out  quite  thin  ;  cut  them  with  a 
cutter  in  the  form  of  a  oak  leaf  ;  put  them  into  boiling  water  and 
boil  till  they  float  ;  remove  with  a  skimmer  and  dry  them  on  cloths, 
and  bake  on  clean  pans  without  being  buttered,  iu  a  warm  oven 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  IlECEIPTS. 


15 


Cheap  Lady  Cake. — Break  up  2  lbs.  butter,  mix  in  3  lbs.  sugar, 
rubbing  well  together  for  5  or  10  minutes,  add  2  pts.  whites  o£  eggs, 
a  third  at  a  time,  beat  all  up  light,  then  add  4  lbs.  flour,  and  1  oz.  soda, 
dissolved  in  2  pts.  miilc,  and  2  ozs.  cream  tartar  ;  intermix  all  well  to- 
gether, bake  in  pans  about  1.^  ins.  deep,  in  loaves  that  will  weigh  from 
2  to  3  lbs.,  when  baked,  take  out  of  the  pans  and  frost  on  the  under 
eide.    Mark  in  slices  £  of  an  inch  thick. 

Frost  Cakes. — Beat  2  lbs.  butter  and  3  lbs.  sugar  together  until 
quite  light,  add  30  eggs,  10  at  a  time,  beating  after  each  addition,  tlieu 
a  little  ext.  lemon,  add  3  lbs.  fiour,  stir  just  enough  to  mix  ;  put  ia  flat, 
square  pans,  greased,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven,  when  done,  frost  on 
the  under  side  and  mark  in  squares. 

Citron  Frost  Cake  is  made  similar  to  the  above,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sliced  citron  when  the  flour  is  added,  or  preferably  put  tho 
citron  on  the  batter  after  it  is  in  the  pans.    Bake  as  the  last. 

Shrewsbury  Cake. — Rub  2  lbs.  butter,  and  2  lbs.  of  sugar  to- 
gether, add  24  eggs,  G  at  a  time,  beating  them  in,  dissolve  and  add 
twice  as  much  soda  as  will  lie  on  a  dime  in  a  little  water,  mix  in  4  lbs. 
flour,  roll  and  cut  out  with  any  plain  or  fancy  shaped  cutter,  put  on 
buttered  tins,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Lemon  Cake. — Rub  together  G  lbs.  of  light  brown  sugar,  and 
2  lbs.  of  lard  or  butter,  add  16  eggs,  12  qts.  of  milk  with  2  ozs.  of  soda 
dissolved  therein,  2  ozs.  ammonia,  a  few  drops  extract  of  lemon  for 
flavor,  and  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  stiff  batter;  drop  them  eitJier 
with  the  hand  or  with  a  spoon,  into  scalloped  pans,  and  sprinkle  a  few 
currants  on  the  top  of  each,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  ovon. 

Rock  Cake. — Rub  together  4  lbs.  sugar,  and  8  lbs.  of  flour,  make  a 
hollow  in  the  middle,  and  add  G  eggs,  1^  pts.  milk,  1  lb.  8  oz.  of  but- 
ter, and  2  oz.  ammonia,  mix  all  together,  roll  out  aud  cut  out  Mnth  a 
plain  cutter,  rather  thick,  put  on  pans,  and  witn  a  fork  scratch  the  top 
of  each  until  it  is  quite  rough.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 
-  Cur  Cake. — Break  up  2  lbs.  butter,  add  3  lbs.  sugar,  and  IG  eggs, 
a  third  at  a  time,  beat  up  light,  add  5  lbs.  flour,  2  pts.  milk,  and 
ammonia  2  ozs.,  make  all  smooth  by  thorough  mixing.  Bake  in 
small  pans  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Wedding  Cake. — Rub  4  lbs.  butter  and  4  lbs.  light  brown  sugar 
well  together,  adding  40  eggs,  one  quarter  at  a  time,  beating  well,  then 
add  2  pts.  molasses,  2  pts.  good  brandy,  1  oz.  each  of  mace,  nutmeg, 
cassia,  and  cloves,  all  well  blended  in  and  mixed  with  the  mass,  the:> 
add  5  lbs.  flour,  8  lbs.  currants,  9  lbs.  stoned  raisins,  and  3  lbs.  citron, 
intermix  all  thoroughly,  j)ut  it  in  pans,  spread  smooth  on  top,  and  \t'n 
ready  for  the  oven.  These  materials  will  make  4  loaves  of  9  lbs.  each, 
and  will  require  careful  baking  for  from  4  to  G  hours  in  a  cool  oven, 
otherwise  it  will  be  burnt  on  the  outside.  To  frost  this  amouut  of 
cake  beat  up  the  whites  of  10  eggs  in  a  bowl,  with  sufficient  pulverized 
siio;ar  to  render  the, mixture  stiff  enough  to  spread  on  the  cake, 
using  a  wooden  spoon  (probably  2^  lbs.  Aviil  be  required),  beat  all  to- 
getlier  for  15  or  20  minutes  :  spread  it  on  the  cake,  after  the  latter 
becomes  cool,  and  set  it  away  until  the  next  day,  when  another  coat 
of  the  frosting  composition  must  be  applied,  aiid  the  cake  set  away 
until  the  day  following  to  await  the  final  ornamenting.  This  is  ef- 
fected with  the  assistance  of  ornamenting  tubes,  &c.,  together  with  a 
frosting  composition  of  a  much  stiff  er  consistence  than  that  previously 
used.  Note. — One-half,  or  even  one-quarter  of  the  above  quantity  of 
cake  will  be  found  amply  sufficieut  for  most  occasions. 


16 


IJAIUNG  AND  COOKING  Kl'.CEirTS. 


Akottikk  Wf-ddino  Cakk, — UsG  2  Its,  sugar,  3  lbs.  flour,  8  nutr 
nic;j;n,  18  Ci^gs,  1  oz.  allspice,  1  oz.  cloves,  3  lbs.  currants,  2  lbs.  citron, 
3  li)s.  HiilUina  raisins,  a  littlo  ammonia,  and  1  gill  brandy.  Proceed 
Avith  tlic  jiiixtiirc  as  directed  in  the  foregoing,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

CocoAjJi'T  Cakks. — To  each  lb.  of  grated  cocoanuts  add  1  lb.  of 
powdered  sugar  and  the  wliites  of  4  eggs,  pnt  all  in  a  kettle 
and  cook  on  tho  firo  for  about  30  minutes,  stirring  well  all  the 
time,  and  avoid  burning,  cook  to  a  soft  and  nnisliy  consistence,  turn 
it  out  and  add  to  each  lb.  of  cocoanut  as  previously  weighed  2  ozs.  of 
llour,  Avorking  it  "vvell  into  tho  mixture.  Now  put  it  in  well  greased 
pans,  selecting  a  small  ijiece  in  your  hands,  rolling  it  round  and  lay- 
mg  it  on  the  jiaus,  x^uttiug  them  about  1  inch  ai^art,  to  aUow  for  spread- 
ing, and  bake  in  a  cool  oven. 

Queen  Cake. — Rub  together  2  lbs.  sugar  and  2  lbs.  butter,  next 
add  IG  eggs,  1  pt.  mil]?,  1  oz.  of  ammonia,  stir  all  well  together,  then 
add  the  flour  ;  bake  in  square  pans  with  a  few  currants  on  top. 

Drop  Cake. — Rub  togetlier  3  lbs.  sugar  and  1^  lbs.  of  butter,  add 
13  eggs,  iu  3  different  lots,  3  pts.  of  sour  millc,  1-^  ozs.  soda,  1|  ozs.  of 
^immonia,  flavor  with  ext.  lemon,  stir  all  well  together,  add  flour  suffi- 
cient to  make  a  stiff  batter,  drop  on  buttered  pans,  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

Molasses  Pound  Cake.  —Mix  together  1  gal.  molasses,  3  lbs.  but- 
ter, 8  eggs,  2  qts.  water,  8  ozs.  of  soda,  and  add  sifted  flour  sufficient 
to  make  a  stiff  batter.    Bake  in  small  scalloped  pans,  in  a  cool  oven. 

Cross  Buns. — Work  24  lbs.  dough,  2  lbs.  sugar,  2  lbs.  butter,  12 
eggs  and  a  little  cinnamon  into  the  dough,  and  set  away  to  rise;  then 
pinch  them  off  in  about  2  oz.  pieces;  mould  them  up;  pin  out;  put 
on  pans,  and  mark  them  across  with  a  knife,  or  cross  them  with 
strips  of  dough. 

Gold  Cake. — Rub  together  2  lbs.  butter,  and  2^  lbs.  brown  sugar : 
add  the  yolks  of  30  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time,  beating  all  well  up  ;  add 
1  qt.  milk  with  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  it,  stir  well  up  ;  and  add  4  lbs. 
flour  ;  1  oz.  cream  tartar  ;  a  little  lemon  extract ;  mix  all  up  lightly, 
and  bake  in  small  pans  in  a  warm  oven. 

New  York  Sponge  Cake. — Beat  IG  eggs  and  2  lbs.  sugar  together 
about  5  minutes  ;  next  add  2  ozs.  ammonia,  1  pt.  milk,  and  flavor  ;  mix 
all ;  add  the  flour,  stirring  carefully,  but  sufficient  to  mix.  Bake  in 
little  round  pans,  in  a  warm  oven. 

Lady  Cake. — Rub  2  lbs.  butter  and  4  lbs.  sugar  together  until  it  is 
qxtite  light;  then  add  the  whites  of  60  eggs,  one-fourth  at  a  time, 
beating  well;  next  flavor  with  a  littlo  oil  of  almonds;  stir  slightly ; 
then  add  2  lbs.  flour  and  1  lb.  corn  starch,  and  stir  up  lightly.  Bake 
in  a  slow  oven  and  turn  over  and  frost  on  the  under  side. 

Ground-rice  Cakes. — ^Rub  together  2  lbs.  butter  and  4  lbs.  sugar; 
add  16  eggs ;  beat  up  thoroughly ;  add  2  pts.  milk,  4  ozs.  ammonia, 
and  flavor  with  lemon ;  stir  all  up ;  add  4  lbs.  of  rice  flour,  and  mix 
thoroughly ;  drop  on  buttered  pans  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  bake. 

Cream  Cakes. — Take  1  qt.  water,  and  1  lb.  dark  coarse-grained , 
lard;  boil  together  in  a  kettle,  and  then  stir  in  17  ozs.  of  best  quality- 
flour;  boil  all  4  or  5  minutes,  or  until  it  is  quite  smooth;  then  turn  it 
out  on  a  board,  and  scra^De  the  kettle  with  a  knife ;  now  put  your 
paste  in  the  kettle  again,  witli  10  eggs ;  stir  well  together  until  all  is 
smooth ;  then  add  18  or  20  more  eggs,  or  until  the  batter  is  of  the 
right  thickness ;  next  dissolve  ^  oz.  soda  in  a  little  water,  and  mix  in 
thoroughly;  drop  on  pans  slightly  greased;  wash  them  on  top  with 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


17 


egg,  and  bako  in  a  quick  oven.  They  "will  require  IG  tc  18  mimites 
to  bake  with  a  proper  lieat.  Wlaen  baked,  remove  from  tl  e  fire ;  si)lit 
them  through  tlie  centre  and  fill  them  vrith  the  following  cream: 
Place  on  the  fire  1  qt.  milk  in  a  kettle,  mix  4  oz.  flour,  8  oz.  Avhito 
sugar,  4  eggs,  and  a  little  salt  in  another  vessel ;  when  the  milk  boils, 
turn  in  the  mixture,  stirring  briskly ;  when  it  boils,  remove  from  the 
fire,  and  flavor  with  lemon  or  vanilla  as  desired. 

EocK  Cakes. — Rub  Avell  together  6  lbs.  flour,  and  2  lbs.  butter, 
making  a  cavity  in  the  middle ;  put  in  2  lbs,  sugar,  2  lbs.  currants,  8 
eggs,  dissolved  soda,  1  oz.,  and  a  little  ess.  lemon,  with  milk  sufficient 
to  mix  up  stiff;  now  take  a  four-pronged  fork  and  work  of  pieces  of 
dough  the  size  of  walnuts ;  place  on  pans,  and  bake  in  a  cool  oven. 

Snow  Cakes. — ^Rub  2  lbs.  butter  and  2  lbs.  sugar  well  together; 
then  add  the  whites  of  24  eggs,  3  at  a  time;  beat  up  well;  add  12  ozs. 
flour,  2^  lbs.  of  arrowroot;  add  the  flavor  and  mix  lightly.  Make  (5 
loaves  of  this  quantity,  either  round  or  square;  put  lemon  peel  on 
top,  and  bake  in  a,  cool  oven. 

Moss  Caice. — Rub  6  lbs.  of  flour  and  3  lbs.  of  butter  well  together 
then  add  2  lbs.  sugar,  8  eggs,  and  flavor  with  ess.  of  lemon ;  mix  well 
together  until  smooth  and  stiff.  Now  take  a  piece  the  size  of  an  egg 
push  it  through  a  sieve,  and  form  it  in  bunches  to  resemble  moss 
put  on  buttered  pans,  and  bake  very  carefully  in  a  moderate  oven  to 
a  delicate  brown  color. 

New  Yokk  Lunch  Cake.— Rub  together  14  lbs.  flour,  2  lbs.  but- 
ter; then  add  3  qts.  milk,  1  oz.  soda,  1  oz.  tartaric  acid,  and  8  ozs.  ar- 
rowroot; mix  all  quite  stiff,  break  it  well,  and  snap  them  off  about  as 
big  as  walnuts;  pin  them  out;  dock  them  full  of  holes,  and  bake  on 
clean  pans  in  a  warm  oven. 

Tea  Cake.— Rub  12  lbs.  of  flour  and  6  lbs.  of  butter  together;  add 
G  lbs.  sugar,  24  eggs,  2  ozs.  of  soda,  4  ozs.  cream  tartar;  flavor  and 
add  milk  sufficient  to  make  a  nice,  soft  dough;  mix  up  lightly,  roll 
out,  and  cut  with  any  fancy-shaped  cutters,  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

Fancy  Cake. — Rub  together  4  lbs.  sugar  and  3  lbs,  butter;  add 
40  eggs  in  4  different  lots ;  add  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  a  little  milk ; 
mix  well;  then  stir  in  4  lbs.  of  flour;  1  oz.  cream  tatar;  a  little  ex- 
tract of  lemon;  mixing  all  well  together,  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Raisin  Cake. — Rub  together  1  lb.  butter  and  IJ  lbs.  poAvdered 
sugar;  add  18  eggs,  one  third  at  a  time,  beating  well  in;  add  J  oz. 
dissolved  soda,  stirring  well  in;  add  a  little  ext.  lemon;  2  lbs.  2  ozs.  of 
flour;  1  lb,  1  oz,  sultana  raisins;  and  mix  all  well  together.  Bake  in 
a  slow  oven  in  pans  about  IJ  inches  deep. 

Pound  Cake. — Break  up  and  well  mix  1  lb.  of  fresh  butter 
with  1  lb.  of  powdered  sugar;  add  10  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time,  beating 
up  lightly;  add  lib,  of  flour  ;  a  very  little  soda  ;  mix  all  so  as  to  make 
the  flour  sm.ooth ;  bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

Silver  Cake. — Rub  together  2  lbs.  butter  and  4  lbs,  powdered 
BUgar;  add  the  whites  of  30  eggs,  in  3  lots  at  a  time;  beat  up  well; 
add  2  pts,  milk  with  1  oz,  soda ;  6  lbs,  flour,  1  oz.  cream  tartar ;  with 
a  little  vanilla  flavor;  mix  up  lightly  and  bake  as  the  last. 

Ginger  Snaps. — Put  2  qts.  molasses;  l-^-  lbs.  of  lard;  3  ozs.  ol 
ground  gmger;  2  ozs.  of  soda,  and  1  pt.  water,  into  a  bowl.  Mix  all 
together;  add  flour  enough  to  make  a  stiff  dough;  then  work  in  2 
lbs.  sugar;  roll  thin;  cut  in  long  strips  in  rolls  on  the  table;  cut  them 
off  with  a  knife  or  cutter  the  desired  size;  put  on  buttered  tins; 
flatten  them  down  a  little  with  the  hand,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven 
2 


18 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS, 


GiNOKR  Cake.— Put  12  Cfcgfj  and  2  pts.  crcnm  on  tlic  fire  in  a  cop- 
per or  tin  dish;  stir  until  warm;  then  add  2  lbs.  butter;  2  lbs.  sugar; 
10  ozH.  gin<2;cr;  allow  it  to  stay  on  a  slow  fire  and  continue  stirring  till 
tlio  butter  is  melted;  then  set* off ;  when  cold  add  8  lbs.  Hour;  mix  up 
emootli;  roll  out  thin,  and  cut  with  a  circular  cutter;  place  on  pa^er, 
and  bake  in  a  liot  oven. 

Cinnamon  Cakks.— Put  12  eggs  and  G  dessert  spoonfuls  of  ro-o 
water  into  a  bowl ;  whisk  together,  and  add  2  lbs.  fine  sugar,  and  1 
oz.  of  ground  cinnamon  and  llour  sufficient  to  make  a  nice  stiff  paste; 
roll  them  out;  cut  into  any  desired  shai)e,  and  bake  them  on  jjapcr, 
in  a  slow  oven. 

Seed  Cakes. — ^Rub  together  1  lb.  butter  and  2  lbs.  flour;  then  into 
a  hollow  in  the  centre;  put  4  lbs.  sugar;  2  qts.  milk;  4  ozs.  caraway 
seeds,  and  a  little  ammonia ;  mix  up,  but  do  not  work  it  ihuch;  roll 
out ;  cut  with  a  small  cutter,  and  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

SriCE  Cake. — Mix  together  3 lbs.  siigarandl^  lbs.  butter;  add  IJ 
pts.  milk;  15  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time;  ^  oz.  ammonia;  one  nutmeg 
and  a  half;  |  lb.  currants;  5  lbs.  flour.  Mix  up  well  and  bake  in 
deep,  square  pans  in  a  slow  oven. 

New  York  Fancy  Cake.— Rub  together  2  lbs.  sugar  and  1  lb. 
butter;  add  12  eggs  a  few  at  a  timo^  beat  all  up  well;  add  |  qt.  of 
Bourmilk;  lbs.  flour;  §  oz.  soda;  §  oz.  cream  tartar,  and  extract 
of  lemon  for  flavor.    Mix  up  smooth  and  bake  in  scalloped  ])ans. 

Machine  Jumbles. — Rub  together  3  lbs.  sugar  and  2  lb.  4  ozs. 
butter  ;  add  12  eggs  a  few  at  a  time,  beat  all  up  well ;  j  oz.  of  ammo- 
nia; l|  pts.  milk;  a  little  ext.  lemon,  and  5  lbs.  4  ozs.  of  flour;  and 
stir  suiRciently  to  mix. 

Champagne  Biscuits.— Work  up  2  lbs.  butter  in  a  basin  to  a 
thick  cream;  add  2  lbs,  of  sugar;  2  lbs.  flour;  36  yolks  of  eggs;  1  oz 
caraway  seeds ;  a  little  salt;  whisk  up  the  whites  of  the  3G  eggs  and 
add  them;  get  a  sheet  of  strong  paper;  fold  it  in  reversed  plaits  like  a 
fan,  to  form  trenches  about  !  inch  deep;  fill  a  biscuit  forcer  with  par^ 
of  the  batter;  force  out  some  finger-like  biscuits  into  the  trenches 
about  3  inches  long;  sifting  sugar  over  them,  and  bake  them  of  a 
light-fawn  color  in  a  moderate  oven. 

"Cream  Tartar  Biscuit.— Work  in  3  lbs,  sifted  flour  with  2  ozs. 
butter;  add  2  ozs.  cream  tartar;  dish  the  middle  and  pour  in  1  pt. 
milk  and  1  pt.  water,  previously  adding  1  oz.  soda  to  the  milk;  mix 
all  up  briskly,  but  don't  make  it  too  stiff.  Flatten  it  out;  cut  with  a 
biscuit  cutter;  place  them  on.  buttered  tins  close  together  and  bake  in 
a  quick  oven. 

Washington  Cake. — ^Rub  together  4  lbs.  sugar  and  2  lbs.  8  ozs. 
of  butter;  IG  eggs;  2  pts.  water  and  2  ozs.  of  ammonia;  with  flout 
sufficient  to  make  a  suitable  dough  to  roll;  cut  out  with  a  scalloped 
cutter,  and  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

Brandy  Snaps.— Mix  up  1^  pounds  flour,  I  lb.  butter,  |  lb  sugar, 
^  oz.  (jloves,  and    pint  molasses.   Mix  all  together  and  bake. 

Washington  Pie. — Rub  together  1  lb.  butter,  and  1^  lbs  powder- 
ed sugar,  add  1  pt.  of  eggs,  a  little  at  a  time,  beat  up  well,  add  oz. 
soda  dissolved  in  ^  pt.  milk  ;  flavor  with  ext.  lemon,  stir  up,  and  add 
2  lbs.  flour  and  1  oz.  cream  tartar  ;  mix  together,  put  on  pans  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

Another. — Rub  together  2  lbs.  lard,  3  lbs.  powdered  sugar,  and 
add  1  qt.  eggs,  a  little  at  a  time,  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  1  qt.  millc.,  2 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEirTS. 


19 


ozs.  cream -tartar,  a  little  lemon,  extract  and  4^  lbs.  flour  mix  all 
together  and  bake  as  above. 

FiLiiiNG  FOR  THE  ABOVE  PiES, — Add  to  stcwcd  and  stralncd  dried 
apples,  I  lb.  of  sugar  to  each  lb.  of  apples,  boil  all  together  for  2  hour 
Stirring  well  ;  fill  with  this,  or  use  cranberry  jelly  or  currant  jelly  or 
raspberry  jam,  or  the  latter  intermixed  with  stewed  dried  apples,  or 
apple  filling  alone  is  very  good.  A  good  filling  for  sliced  apple  pies  is 
made  by  slicing  sour  apples,  bottom  your  plates  add  tlie  sliced  apples 
with  enough  powdered  sugar  to  sweeten,  adding  cinnamon,  salt  and 
a  little  butter,  with  water  until  the  plate  is  two-thirds  full,  then  cover 
with  puff-paste,  and  trim  it  round  in  proper  style  with  a  knife. 

Lemon  Pies. — Rub  together  1  lb.  butter  and  1^  lbs.  flour  with  cold 
water  suflicient  to  make  a  good  stiff  dough  to  bottom  your  plates  with, 
rimming  them  around  with  puif-paste,  and  fill  with  the  following 
mixture  :  put  into  a  bowl  the  juice  of  3  lemons,  the  grated  rind  of  1 
with  1^  lbs.  of  finely  powdered  sugar  and  9  eggs.  Mix  thoroughly, 
and  fill  your  plates  with  the  mixture  ;  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Another  filling. — 3  lemons,  G  eggs,  f  lb.  sugar,  \  pt.  milk,  with  salt 
and  nutmeg.    Mix  as  the  last. 

Another  withoxit  lemons. — 1  lb.  sugar,  ^Ib.  flour,  10  eggs,  Jpt.  milk, 
^  oz.  tartaric  acid,  a  little  lemon  essence  and  salt. 

Frosting  for  Lemon  Pies. — 4  ozs.  pulverized  sugar,  whites  of  G  eggs 
beaten  to  a  stiff  froth  and  the  sugar  gradually  added  to  it,  intermix 
thoroughly,  cover  the  pies,  top  them  off  with  this  frosting,  run  them 
into  a  moderate  oven  and  bake  them  to  a  nice  brown. 

Short  Puff  Paste  for  Pies.— Mix  together  4  lbs.  flour,  1^  lbs. 
butter,  add  4  eggs,  a  little  salt  and  1  pt.  water  or  a  little  more,  work 
all  to  a  smooth  paste,  spread  out  with  the  hand,  put  l^lbs.  more 
butter  in  the  middle,  fold  the  dough  over  the  butter,  so  as  to  cover  it, 
let  it  stand  5  minutes,  sift  flour  over  the  paste  and  on  the  slab,  roll 
out  to  the  length  of  7  feet  and  3  feet  wide  (for  half  this  quantity  one 
half  of  these  dimensions  will  be  required)  Fold  it  over  and  turn  so 
that  the  sides  will  face  you,  repeating  the  rolling  twice,  when  the 
paste  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Common  Paste  for  Ties. — Rub  together  4  lbs.  flour,  and  4  lbs.  of 
lard  with  salt  sufficient ;  add  just  water  enough  to  mix  the  dough  ;  it 
may  be  better  to  put  flour  on  the  bench,  malie  a  set  of  it,  adding  the 
Bait,  lard,  water,  and  stirring  together. 

Paste  to  cover  Pies. — Mix  togother  1^  lbs.  of  lard  or  butter 
with  2  lbs.  flour  witli  suflicient  salt  and  water  to  mix.  Cranberry 
pies  should  have  strips  of  puff  paste  across  the  top,  the  edges  wet,  and 
a  strip  of  puff  paste  placed  aromid  the  rim,  keeping  this  strip  ^  inch 
outside  of  the  edge  of  the  plate,  as  it  will  contract  while  baking. 

Custard  for  Pies. — Put  12  eggs,  ^  lb.  sugar,  ^  oz.  salt,  and  a  little 
ext.  lemon  into  a  bowl,  beat  well  together,  add  2  qts.  milk  and  strain. 

Filling  for  Squash  Pies. — Thoroughly  clean  5  lbs.  of  squash,  slice 
it  up  and  stew  it  ;  when  thoroughly  cooked  drain  off  the  water,  rub 
to  a  mush  through  a"  strainer,  then  add  1^  lbs.  sugar,  6  eggs,  2  qts. 
milk,  I  oz.  ginger,  a  little  ext.  lemon,  and  salt  sufficient. 

Filling  for  Mince  Pies.— Boil  3  lbs.  of  chopped  meat,  clear  of 
bones  and  tough  pieces,  chop  fine ;  peel,  core  and  chop  9  lbs.  of  good 
apples,  add  4^  lbs.  brown  sugar,  3^  qts.  molasses,  3  ozs.  each  of  nut- 
meg, cassia,  cloves  and  allspice,  3  lbs.  raisins,  1^  lbs.  currants,  1^  pts. 
brandy,  1  gill  cider,  f  lb.  salt.  Mix  all  the  in^edients  together  in  a 
vessel,  omitting  the  apples  and  brandy,  intermix  well  together;  tJiou 


20 


BAKING  AND   COOKING  IIECKIPTS. 


add  them  aiid  rcdnco  to  tho  proper  consistency  with  water.  Cover 
with  a  cloth,  tyinj?  it  down  tiglitly  to  prevent  evaporation  and  set  away 
in  a  cool  place  for  use. 

ICK  CkIs AM  M  ANUFACTURE.— Beat  thc  required  quantity  of  ice  very 
fine  in  a  stout  baj?  or  by  any  other  means,  and  add  fine  salt  in  ratio 
of  one  part  of  salt  to  four  parts  of  ice,  mixing  thoroughly  with  a  stick. 
Tack  the  compoimd  neatly  in  thc  freezer  around  the  cylinder  to  thc 
top,  then  put  in  the  cream  (which  should  ho  cool)  you  v/ish  to  freeze, 
and,  after  covering,  proceed  to  turn  the  crank  back-  and  forth  alter- 
nately 10  or  12  times  eacli  way  until  the  cream  is  sufficiently  thick  to 
beat,  which  will  be  known  by  tho  opposition  to  the  beater,  "then  turn 
forward  quite  briskly  for  a  short  space  in  order  to  impart  an  even  and 
good  appearance  to  the  cream  ;  make  thorough  work  of  the  beating, 
then  remove  the  beater,  fill  the  pail  with  ice  and  salt,  and  set  away  to 
harden.  It  will  not  do  to  introduce  additional  ice  or  salt,  or  allow  it 
to  grow  stiff  Avhile  beating,  or  beat  it  too  much,  or  to  retard  the  freez- 
ing process  by  pouring  off  water  from  the  melted  ice.  The  right  time 
to  beat  it  is  when  it  is  dense  enough  to  rise,  or  about  tlie  thickness 
of  light  batter,  if  beaten  when  rigid  the  product  will  not  be  so 
Satisfactory.  As  the  cream  expands  in  freezing,  tho  cylinder  should 
be  filled  f  full  and  no  more. 

Strawherry  and  Raspberry  Cream  Ice. — 1.  Pass  3  lbs.  of  picked 
strawberries  or  raspberries  through  a  coarse  hair-sieve,  add  1^  qts. 
double  cream,  2^  lbs.  sifted  sugar,  mix  well  together,  freeze  as  above, 
and  mould  it.  If  a  deep  red  is  desired,  it  may  be  imparted  by  a  few 
dro])s  of  cochineal. 

2.  Ice  cbea?.:,  Best  Quality. — Beat  well  together  9  eggs  with  1| 
lbs.  sugar  ;  boil  3  qts.  good  cream,  set  it  off  for  a  short  space  to  cook, 
then  add  the  sugar  and  eggs,  flavor  with  vanilla,  etc.,  to  suit  the  taste. 
Let  it  cool,  i^lace  in  the  freezer  and  proceed  as  above. 

3.  Substitute  for  cream. — Boil  1  qt.  of  good  milk  with  1^  ozs.  of 
-  arrowroot,  having  first  brought  the  milk  to  the  boiling  point  and 

mixed  tlie  arrowroot  smooth  with  a  little  cold  milk,  remove  from  tho 
fire;  add  2  fresh  eggs,  8  ozs.  of  powdered  sugar,  stir  well,  allow  it  to 
cool  and  flavor  previous  to  putting  in  the  freezer. 

4.  Chocolate  Cream  Ice. — Grate  f  lb.  of  the  best  French  choco* 
late  into  1-^  qts.  of  l)oiling  milk,  allow  it  to  boil  till  thick,  adding  |  lb. 
sugar  ;  add  when  cool,  Ij  qts.  cream,  stirring  well,  and  empty  into 
the  freezer.  The  addition  of  8  eggs  and  lemon  flavor  to  the  above 
will  greatly  improve  it. 

5 .  Ginger  Ice  Cream. — Boil  together  1  qt.  milk,  1  lb.  sugar,  8  ozs. 
piilverized  ginger,  and  4  j^olks  of  eggs,  until  it  commences  to  thicken. 

G.  Oranrje  Cream  Ice. — Mix  together  in  a  stew-pan,  1  qt.  milk  or 
cream,  1  lb.  sugar,  the  juice  of  8  oranges,  the  rinds  of  4  oranges  rub- 
bed on  the  sugar,  and  4  yolks  of  eggs,  until  the  compound  begins  to 
thicken  ;  stir  briskly,  and  strain,  freezing  when  cool,  as  above. 

7.  Pine  Apple  Cream  Ice. — Put  on  the  fire  in  a  copper  or  tin  vessel 
lib.  of  strained  pine  apple  pulp,  12  ozs.  sugar,  1^  pts.  milk  or  cream, 
and  3  yolks  of  eggs  ;  beat  sufficiently  to  thicken,  not  to  boil  the 
cream,  strain  the  mixture  into  a  vessel  and  set  aside  to  cool  previous 
to  freezing.  See  other  formulae  for  ice  cream  under  the  Grocers'  Dept. 

Cream  Tartar  Biscuit. — Use  2  qts.  flour,  2 teaspoonf uls  of  soda, 
2  ditto  cream  tartar,  2  pts.  milk.  Mix,  and  follow  tbe  ditrectous  for 
cream-tartar  biscuit  given  above,  and  bake  in  a  wirm  oven. 


BAKING  AND  COOKINa  KECEirTS.  21 


CocOANUT  Deops. — 1  lb.  grated  cocoauut,  J  lb.  Tvhito  siisar,  the 
whites  of  6  eggs,  cut  to  a  stiff  froth.  You  must  have  enough  whites 
of  egg  to  wet  the  whole  mixture.  Droi^  on  buttered  plates,  in  pieces 
the  size  of  an  egg. 

FiiENCH  Rolls. — 1  ounce  of  butter,  1  lb.  of  flour,  1  gill  of  home- 
made yeast,  1  egg,  milk  enough  to  make  a  dough.  Rub  the  butter 
through  the  flour,  beat  the  egg  and  stir  in,  then  add  the  yeast,  milk, 
and  a  little  salt.  Knead  the  dough  ;  when  it  is  light,  mould  it  out 
into  large  biscuits,  and  bake  them  on  tins. 

Muffins.— A  quart  of  milk,  2  eggs,  2  spoonfuls  of  yoast,  2  lbs.  of 
flour,  a  lump  of  butter  size  of  an  egg — which  i.s  to  be  melted  in  tlio 
milk — and  a  little  salt  ;  the  milk  is  to  bo  warmed,  and  the  ingredients 
added.  Let  it  rise,  and  then  turn  the  mixture  into  buttered  pans, 
and  bake  to  a  light  brown. 

Bath  Cakes.— MLx  well  together,  1  lb.  flour,  |  lb.  butter,  5  eggs 
and  a  cupful  of  yeast,  set  the  wliole  before  the  fire  to  rise  ;  after'it 
rises,  add  i  lb.  wliite  sugar,  and  1  ounce  caraway  seeds  well  mixed 
in,  and  roll  the  paste  into  little  cakes,  bako  them  on  tms. 

No.  1  Cbackees. — Butter,  1  cuj) ;  salt,  1  teaspoon  ;  flour,  2  qts. 
Rub  thoroughly  together  with  the  hand,  and  wet  up  with  water  ; 
beat  well,  and  beat  in  flour  to  make  quite  brittle  and  hard ;  then 
pinch  off  pieces  and  roll  out  each  cracker  by  itself. 

Sugar  Ckackers. — Flour,  4  lbs.;  loaf  sugar  and  butter,  of  each 
^Ib.  ;  water,  l^pts.  ;  make  as  above. 

Naples  Biscuit. — White  sugar,  eggs,  and  flour,  of  each  4  lbs.  < 

Lemok  Biscuit.— Take  3^  lbs.  white  sugar,  4  lbs.  flour, '  I 
ounce  salcratus,  ^  lb.  suet,  a  littlo  milk  to  wet  the  dough,  cut 
them  out  about  the  size  of  marbles,  put  them  on  pans  a  little  greased, 
and  bake  them  in  a  hot  oven  and  flavor  them  with  essence  of  lemon. 

Abernethy  Biscuit. — Take  8  lbs.  of  flour,  lb.  of  butter,  1  quart 
of  sweet  milk,  12  ounces  of  sagar,  1  ounce  of  caraway  seeds,  G  eggs  ; 
mix  dough  of  the  above,  break  them  in  pieces  of  about  two  ounces, 
mould  them  off,  roll  them  out,  prick  them  and  bako  them  in  a 
moderate  oven. 

Savoy  Biscuit. — ^Tako  of  sugar  the  weight  of  14  eggs,  of  flour 
the  weight  of  G  eggs,  beat  the  yolks  and  whites  of  12  eggs,  separate, 
grate  in  the  rind  of  a  lemon  ;  after  being  in  the  oven  a  few  minutes 
grate  on  some  sugar.  You  may  add  peach- water,  or  lemon  juice, 
or  any  flavoring  extract. 

Ginger  Snai'S. — ^Take  7  lbs.  of  flour,  1  qt.  of  molasses,  1  lb.  of 
brown  sugar,  1  lb.  butter,  2  ounces  ground  ginger,  and  tlien 
take  1  gill  of  water,  £  of  an  ounce  of  saleratus  ;  mix  them  all  into 
doughj  and  cut  them  out  something  larger  than  marbles,  and  bako 
them  in  a  modea-ate  oven. 

York  Biscuit.— 3  lbs.  flour,  ^  lb.  butter,  |  lbs.  sugar;  wet  up,  and 
raise  with  sour  milk  and  saleratus. 

Traveller's  Biscuit^ — 2  lbs.  of  flour,  I  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  I  lb. 
butter,  1  teaspoonful  of  dissolved  saleratus,  milk  sufficient  to  form 
a  dough.  Cut  up  the  butter  in  the  flour,  add  the  sugar,  and  put 
in  the  saleratus  and  milk  together,  so  as  to  form  dough.  Knead 
it  till  it  becomes  perfectly  smooth  and  light.  Roll  it  in  slieets  about 
i  of  an  inch  thick,  cut  the  cakes  witli  a  cutter  or  the  top  of  a 
tumbler.   Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 


22 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


Baking  Powdkr  for  Biscuit, — Bicirbonato  of  soda  4  lbs.,  cream 
of  t'lrtar  8  lbs.  TIicso  ingredients  Klionld  bo  thoroughly  dried  and 
uell  mixed,  and  put  up  proof  against  dampness.  Use  al)out  3  tea- 
spoonfuls  to  each  quart  of  flour,  mix  up  with  cold  water  or  milk, 
and  i)ut  it  into  the  oven  at  once. 

BiiowN  Bread  for  Biscuits. — Com  meal  4  qts.,  rye  flour  .3  qts., 
wheat  flour  1  qt.,  molasses  2  tablespoonfuls,  yeast  U  tablespoou- 
fuls,  soda  2  tcaspoonfuls.    Mix  during  the  evening  for  breakfast. 

Mince  Pies— Meat  1  lb.,  suet  S^lbs.,  currants,  raisins  and  pluma 
2  lbs.,  one  glass  brandy  or  Avme,  allspice,  cinnamon  .'iud  cloves  to 
your  taste,  sugar  sufficient  to  sweeten.    Baked  in  a  short  crust. 

Pruit  Pies. — For  all  kinds  of  fruit  ines  have  your  fruit  sweet- 
ened to  your  taste,  and  then  jDut  iu  a  short  crust.  Bake  in  a  hot 
oven. 

Pumpkin  Pie. — Stew  the  pumpkin  dry,  and  make  it  like  squash 
pie,  only  season  rather  higher.  In  the  country,  where  this  real 
larikee  pie  is  prepared  iu  perfection,  ginger  is  almost  always  used, 
with  other  spices.  There,  too,  part  cream,  instead  of  milk,  is  mLxed 
with  the  pumx)kin,  which  gives  a  richer  flavor. 

Lemon  Pie. — 1  lemon  grated,  2  eggs,  ^  cup  of  sugar,  1  cup  of  mo- 
lasses, 1  of  water,  and  3  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.    This  makes  3  pies. 

Lemon  Pie  with  three  crusts.— A  layer  of  crust,  a  layer  of  le- 
mon, sliced  fine,  a  little  sugar,  layer  of  crust  again,  and  sugar  and 
lemon  again,  then  the  upper  crust. 

Another  Wmj. — 1  cup  of  sugar,  1  cup  sweet  millc,  1  egg,  1^ 
lemon  the  grated  peel  and  juice,  1  tablespoonful  of  flour;  then 
after  baking,  tlie  white  of  an  egg  beaten,  sweetened,  and  put  on 
the  top  ;  then  set  in  the  oven  and  browned. 

Crujuj  Pie. — Mince  any  cold  meat  very  finely,  season  it  to  taste, 
and  put  it  into  a  pie-dish  ;  have  some  finely-grated  bread  crumbs; 
with  a  little  salt,  pepper,  and  nutmeg,  and  pour  into  the  dish  any 
nice  gravy  that  may  be  at  hand ;  then  cover  it  over  with  a  thi-clc 
layer  of  the  bread  crumbs,  and  put  small  pieces  of  butter  over  the 
top.   Place  it  in  the  oven  till  quite  hot. 

AVashington  Pie. — 1  cup  of  sugar,  third  of  a  cup  of  butter,  half 
a  cup  of  sweet  milk,  1  and  a  third,  cup  of  flour,  1  egg,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  soda,  1  of  cream  of  tartar,  lemon  flavor.  Grease  2 
round  tins,  and  put  in  the  above.  Bake  until  done.  Then  put  it 
on  a  dinner  plate,  spread  with  nice  apple-sauce,  or  sauce  of  any 
kind  ;  then  another  layer  of  cake  on  top.  It  is  nice  without  sauce, 
but  sauce  improves  it. 

Fruit  Pie. — 1  cup  of  sugar,  1  of  water,  tablespoonful  of  flour,  tea- 
spoonful  of  lemon  essence  (or  lemon  grated),  1  teaspoonful  of  cream 
of  tartar,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  a  cup  of  dried  currants 
mix  and  boil,  stirring  to  prevent  the  flour  from  settling. 

Chicken  Pie. — Take  one  pair  of  good  young  chickens,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  small  strips  of  salt  pork,  put 
in  saucepan  with  water  to  cover  it,  boil  for  half  an  hour,  add  flour 
and  butter  to  thicken  the  gravy,  have  ready  a  large  dish,  served 
witli  paste,-  put  all  in  the  dish  covered  with  a  good  rich  paste.  Bake 
for  half  an  hour. 

Veal  Pot  Pie. — Take  2  pounds  of  best  veal,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  half  pound  of  salt  pork,  eliccd  thin,  four  quarts  of  cold 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  KECEirTS.  23 

water pepper  <ind  suit  nil,  put  on  the  Urc  *  .iftcr  boiling  for  1 
hour  liave  3  pounds  of  light  bread  dough,  inck  smrJl  pieces,  say- 
cue  ounce  pieces,  put  in  saucepan,  with  tlio  veal  and  porlf,  and  let 
it  boil  for  twenty  minutes.  Servo  as  soon  us  taken  from  tho 
lire. 

Plum  ruDDiKG. — Pound  G  crackers,  and  soak  them  oven  night  in 
milk  enough  to  cover  tliem,  then  add  '6  pints  of  millc,  4  or  5  eggs, 
raisins  ^  lb.,  spice  vrith  nutmeg  and  sweeten  Avith  sugar  and 
molasses.   Bake  about  2  hours. 

Tapioca  Pudding. — Pick  and  mash  a  coffee  cup  full  of  tapiocri., 
nnd  pour  upon  it  1  pint  boiling  mUk  ;  after  standing  ^  an  hour,  add 
another  pint  of  cold  milk,  with  sugar  and  raisins  if  you  desire. 

Baked  Puddikg. — 5  tablcspoonfnls  of  corn  starch  to  1  quart  of 
milk,  dissolve  the  starch  in  a  part  of  the  milk,  heat  tho  remainder 
of  the  milk  to  nearly  boiling,  having  salted  it  a  little,  then  add 
the  dissolved  starch  to  the  milk,  boil  3  minutes,  stirring  it  briskly  ; 
allow  it  to  cool,  and  then  thoroughly  mix  with  it  3  eggs,  well  beat- 
en, with  3  tablespooufuls  of  sugar  ;  flavor  to  taste  and  bako 
it  ^  an  hour.    This  pudding  ranks  second  to  none. 

Orange  Pudding. — Take  1  lb.  of  butter,  1  lb.  of  sugar,  10  egg?, 
the  juice  of  2  oranges,  boil  the  peel,  then  poimd  it  fme  and  mix  it 
with  tho  juice.  Add  the  juice  of  1  lemon,  a  wineglassful  of 
brandy,  wine  and  rose-water.  K  you  do  not  have  the  fruit  add 
the  extracts. 

CocoANUT  Pudding.  To  a  largo  grated  cocoanut  add  tho  whites 
of  G  eggs,  ^  lb  of  sugar,  G  ounces  of  butter,  ^  a  wineglassful  o£ 
rose-water,  and  baked  in  or  out  of  paste. 

Rice  Pudding.— Tako  1  lb.  of  rice,  boiled  well  with  rich  millc, 
stirring  well  until  it  is  soft,  and  then  add  ^  lb.  butter,  12  eggs,  Avell 
beaten,  and  spice  to  your  taste,  and  bake  it. 

Hard  Times  Pudding. — ^  pint  of  molasses  or  syrup,  ^  pint  water, 
2  teaspoonfuls  of  soda,  1  teaspoonful  of  salt,  flour  enough  to 
make  a  batter  ;  boil  in  a  bag  3  hours.   Eat  it  with  sauce. 

Baked  Apple  Pudding.— Pare  and  quarter  four  large  apples,  boil 
them  tender  with  tho  rind  of  a  lemon  in  so  little  water  that  when 
done  no  water  may  remain,  beat  them  quite  fine  in  a  mortar,  add 
the  crumb  of  a  small  roll,  ^  lb.  butter  melted,  tho  yolks  of  5  and 
whites  of  3  eggs,  juice  of  ^  lemon,  sugar  to  your  taste,  beat  all 
well  together,  all  in  paste. 

Ground  Kice,  or  Sago  Pudding.— Boil  a  large  spoonfnl  of  it, 
heaped,  lq  1  pmt  milk  with  lemon  peel  and  cinnamon;  when  cold, 
add  sugar,  and  nutmegs,  and  4  eggs  well  beaten. 

Custard  Pudding.— Take  1  pint  milk,  4  spoonfuls  flour,  G  eggs, 
spice  to  your  taste  and  bake. 

Winter  Pudding.— Take  tho  crust  of  baker's  loaf  of  bread,  and 
fill  it  with  plums,  boil  it  in  milk  and  water. 

Baked  Potato  Pudding.— Baked  potatoes  skimmed  and  mashed, 
12  oz,,  suet  1  oz.,  cheese,  grated  fine,  1  oz.,  milk  1  gill.  Mix  tho 
lx)tatoes,  suet,  milk,  cheese  and  all  together,  if  not  of  a  proper 
consistence,  add  a  little  water.   Bako  in  an  earthen  pot. 

College  Pudding, — |  lb.  of  stale  bread,  grated  ;  the  same  quan- 
tity of  beef  suet,  chopped  very  fine  ;  1  lb,  of  currants,  ^  nutmeg, 
few  cloves,  a  glasa  of  brandy,  2  or  3  eggs,  2  spoonfuls  of  creara  or 


24 


liAKING  AND  COOKIXG  IIKCEIPTS. 


milk;  mix  tlicso  ^voll  tosctlicr,  and  raako  into  a  p.isto  in  tho  filiano 
of  eggs.  Fry  tlicni  gently  over  a  clear  lire,  in  i  lb.  of  butter  ;  let 
tlicm  bo  of  nice  brown  color  all  over.  You  may  add  blanched 
almonds  and  Hwcetineats.    Servo  them  up  witli  wine. 

Family  Pudding. — 1  quart  of  Hwcct  milk,  1  pint  of  bread  cmmbs 
Boalced  in  tho  milk,  3  eggs  well  beaten,  1  teacujiful  of  sugar,  littlo 
inaco,  6  good  tiirt  apples,  pared,  cores  duf/  out,  and  stand  tlicn\ 
in  tho  pudding,  and  steam  until  tlie  apples  "uro  woR  done.  An  hour 
v/ill  Kuilice. 

CoTTAGK  PcJDDiNG. — 1  cgg,  1  cup  of  Bugar,  1  of  Rwcct  milk, 
1  tcaspoonfiil  of  soda,  2  of  cream  of  tartar,  1  pint  of  Hour,  and  a 
littlo  salt.   To  bo  eaten  witli  milk  and  sugar. 

GiusEN  GoosEBERiiiEs  mako  a  nice  pudding  by  stirring  a  pint  of 
them  into  a  pint  of  batter,  and  cither  baking  or  boiling. 

Lejion  Pudding. — Melt  G  oz.  of  butter,  pour  it  over  tho  samo 
quantity  of  powdered  loaf  sugar,  stirring  it  well  till  cold,  tlicn 
grate  tho  rind  of  a  largo  lemon,^  and  add  it  with  8  eggs  well  beaten 
and  tho  juice  of  2  lemons  ;  stir  tho  whole  till  it  is  completely 
mixed  together,  and  bako  tho  pudding  with  a  paste  round  tho 
'  dish. 

Sauces  Aia>  Ckeams  for  Puddings. — 1.  Take  equal  quantities 
of  sugar  and  molasses,  boil  them  together,  and  stir  in  a  littlo 
flour.  2.  Take  the  juice  of  an  orange,  a  cup  of  sugar  and  the  samo 
of  good  cream.  3.  Good  sour  cream  made  very  sweet  with  sugar, 
■with  or  without  seasoning,  makes  a  good  sauce.  4.  Beat  2  eggs 
well,  then  add  a  cup  of  stewed  apples  and  a  cup  of  sugar. 

Beef  Steak  with  Onions. — Prepare  a  rump  steak  by  pounding 
it  till  quite  tender,  season  with  salt,  pepper  and  fresh  butter,  put 
in  the  steak  and  fry  it,  when  bro^vn  on  one  side  turn  over,  do  not 
let  it  scorch,  when  nicely  done  take  it  up,  put  a  little  flour  over 
the  steak,  then  add  gradually  a  cup  of  hot  water,  seasoned  with 
more  salt  and  pepper,  if  necessary  ;  then  put  tho  water  over  the 
fire  and  boil  again,  and  pour  over  tlio  steak. 

Peel  2  dozen  onions,  put  them  ou  to  boil  with  about  2  quarts 
of  wfiter  an  hour  hefore  the  steak  is  put  on  to  fry.  When  the  steak 
is  done,  cut  them  up,  put  them  in  the  frying  pan,  season  well  with 
salt,  pepper,  and  hutter,  sprinkle  with  flour,  stir  all  well  together, 
place  over  tho  fire,  stir  often  to  prevent  scorching ;  when  they  are 
a  little  brown  and  soft,  turn  them  over  the  steak. 

Seasoning  for  Stuffing.— 1  lb.  of  salt,  dried  and  sifted  ;  half 
.  an  ounce  of  ground  white  pepper  ;  two  ounces-  of  dried  thj-me ; 
1  oz.  of  dried  marjoram  ;  and  one  oz.  of  nutmeg.  "When  this 
seasoning  is  used,  parsley  only  is  required  to  bo  chopped  in  sulS- 
cicnt  quantity  to  make  tho  stuffing  green.  Tlio  proportions  are— 
J  pound  of  bread  crumbs  ;  3  eggs  ;  |  lb.  of  suet ;  ^  oz.  of  sea- 
soning ;  and  the  peel  of  half  a  lemon,  grated. 

EcoNOMiCAii  Sour. — ^Put  into  a  saucepan  one-pound  pieces  of 
ctale  bread,  tlixee  large  onions  sliced,  a  small  cabbage  cut  fine, 
a  carrot  and  turnip,  and  a  small  head  of  celery  (or  the  remains  of 
any  cold  vegetables ),  a  tablespoonf ul  of  salt,  a  tablespoonful  of 
I)ej)per.  a  bunch  of  parsley,  a  sprig  of  marjoram  and  thyme. 
Put  these  into  two  quarts  of  any  weak  stock,  (tho  liquor  in 
which  mutton  has  been  boiled  will  do,)  and  let  them  boil  for 


BAKING-  AND  COOKING  RECEirXS.  25 


two  hours  ;  rub  throiTgli  a  fine  liair-siero,  add  a  pint  of  neAV 
milk,  boil  up,  and  servo  at  once. 

Vegetable  Soup. — Take  a  sliin  of  a  beef,  3  large  carrots,  3  largo 
yellow  onions,  G  turnips,  |  lb.  of  rice  or  barley;  parsley,  leeks, 
{summer  savory  ;  put  all  into  a  soup-kettle,  and  let  it  boil  four 
hours  ;  add  pepper  and  salt  to  tasto  :  servo  altogether.  It  makes 
a  good  family  soup. 

Vea  Soup. — Beef  5  lbs.,  water  5  qts.,  G  largo  carrots,  G  good 
turnips,  3  large  onions,  salt  sufficient,  put  it  on  a  good  slow- 
fire,  let  it  boil  3  hours,  then  strain  all  the  broth  from  meat  and 
vegetables,  and  then  add  3  lbs.  of  sphtpeas  to  the  broth;  set  it  on 
a  slow  fire  for  2  hours,  stirring  often,  so  that  all  the  peas  will  dis- 
solve ;  take  1  lb.  fresh  sausage  meat,  fried  to  a  crisp  and  fried  bread 
crumbs ;  put  altogether,  add  a  few  fine  herbs,  and  serve  hot. 

rmcASSEE  CniCKEKS. — Take  2  large  young  chickens,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  put  in  cold  water  for  1  hour  to  take  all  the  blood  out,  then 
put  in  saucepan  to  parboil  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  from  saucc- 
jiau  drained  well,  have  ready  1  qt.  good  fresh  cream,  2  oz.  good 
butter,  1  oz.  of  flour,  all  weU  mixed  togetlier  ;  put  in  saucepan 
with  the  chickens  ;  put  on  the  fire  to  boil  tender  ;  season  with 
pepper  and  salt ;  served  with  toast  bread  in  the  bottom  of  the 
dish. 

B.ucED  Tomatoes. — ^Wash  the  tomatoes,  tako  out  the  seed,  malco 
a  dressing  of  crumbs  of  bread  and  onions  chox)ped  fino ;  add 
salt,  butter  and  pepper.   Bake  and  serve  hot. 

Stewed  To3iatoes. — Scald  the  tomatoes  with  hot  water,  tako 
off  the  skins,  put  them  in  an  earthen  vessel,  strain  off  the  water, 
and  add  butter,  salt  and  pepper  to  tasto. 

Masked  Turnips. — Wash  turnips,  boil  well,  tako  them  up  in  tlic 
colander,  press  out  all  the  water,  mash  very  fino  ;  season  with  salt, 
butter  and  sugar.   Servo  hot  with  trimmings. 

Hashed  Meat.— Tako  2  lbs.  of  fat  corned  beef,  well  boiled  and 
cold ;  1  lb.  of  well  boiled  i>otatoes,  cold  ;  1  largo  white  onion  ; 
l)ut  in  chopping  tray,  mince  it  fine,  put  all  in  saucepan  together, 
add  2  ozs.  butter  ;  pepper  and  salt  to  tasto  ;  add  boiling  water  to 
make  it  soft ;  set  it  on  a  slow  fire,  stirring  it  often.  When  well  stewed, 
serve  hot.   It  makes  a  fine  relish  for  breakfast. 

Lobster  Salad. — ^Take  inside  of  large  lobster,  minco  fino,  tako 
yolk  of  2  eggs  boiled  hard  and  mashed  fine,  with  four  tablespoou- 
fuls  of  sweet  oil;  pepper,  salt,  vinegar,  and  mustard  to  taste;  mix 
well;  add  celery  or  lettuce  to  taste;  thou  when  serving,  garnish 
with  hard-boiled  eggs. 

Succotash. — Tako  1  doz.  ears  of  com,  cut  tho  grains  from  tho 
cob,  add  1  qt.  of  Lima  beans,  and  mix  with  the  corn ;  put  it  on  to 
boil  in  3  qts.  of  water  with  1  lb.  of  pork  cut;  add  black  pepper  and 
salt  to  taste.  When  the  water  has  boiled  away  to  h  tho  original 
quantity,  serve  in  a  tureen  as  soup. 

Maocaroni  Soup, — 4  lbs.  of  lean  beef,  4  qts.  of  water,  carrot, 
turnip,  onions  ;  set  it  for  4  hours  till  all  mix  together  ;  strain  it  all 
through  a  sieve  ;  have  2  lbs.  of  maccaroni  broken  into  pieces  of  ono 
inch  long  ;  put  all  into  a  saucepan  togctherj  and  let  it  boil  for  10 
minutes,  and  sen'O  it  hot. 

Boiled  Custakd,  oit  Mock  CKEAJi.—Tako  2  tablespoonfuls  com 


26 


BAKING  AND  COOKING-  RECEIPTS. 


Btarch,  1  qt.  of  milk,  2  or  3  eggs,  ^  a  tcnRpoonful  of  salt  and  a  Rmall 
piece  of  butter  ;  heat  the  milk  till  nearly  boilin';  and  add  tlie  starcli, 
previously  dissolved  in  1  qt.  of  milk,  then  add  the  eggs,  well  beaten, 
Avith  4  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar  ;  let  it  boil  up  once  or 
twice,  stirring  it  brisldy,  and  it  is  done.  Flavor  Avitli  lemon  or 
vanilla,  or  raspberry,  or  to  suit  your  taste. 

Lkmon  CiiEAM. — Take  a  pint  of  thick  cream  and  put  to  it  tho 
yolks  of  two  eggs,  well  beaten,  4  oz.  of  fine  sugar  and  tho  thin 
rind  of  a  leraou  ,  boil  it  up,  then  stir  till  almost  cold  ;  put  the  juico 
of  a  lemon  in  a  dish  or  bowl  and  pour  tho  cream  upon  it,  stirring 
till  quite  cold. 

FiiuiT  Cjieams.— Take  ^  oz.  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  a  littlo 
water,  then  put  1  pt.  of  good  cream,  sweetened  to  tho  taste  ;  boil 
it.  When  nearly  cold  lay  some  apricot  or  raspberry  jam  on  tho 
bottom  of  a  glass  dish  and  pour  it  over.   This  is  most  excellent. 

Raspberky  Ckea]m. — Put  C  ozs.  of  raspberry  jam  to  1  qt.  of 
cream,  pulp  it  through  a  lawn  sieve,  add  to  it  tho  juico  of  a  lemon 
and  a  little  sugar,  and  whisk  it  till  thick.  Servo  it  in  a  dish  or 
glasses. 

To  roast  fowls  the  firo  must  bo  quick  and  clear.  If  smoky  it 
will  spoil  both  tlieir  taste  and  looks.  Baste  frequently,  and  keep 
a  white  paper  pinned  on  the  breast  till  it  is  near  dono. 

TuiiKEY. — A  good  sized  turkey  should  be  roasted  2^  hours  or 
8  hours — very  slowly  at  first.  If  you  wish  to  make  plain  stuffing, 
pound  a  cracker  or  crumble  some  bread  very  fine,  chop  some 
raw  salt  pork  very  fine,  sift  some  sago,  (and  summer  savory,  or 
fiweet  marjoram,  if  you  have  them  in  tho  house,  and  fancy 
them, )  and  mould  them  all  together,  seasoned  with  a  little  pepper. 
An  egg  worked  in  makes  the  stuffing  cut  better.  ' 

IJoiLED  TuEiiEY.— Clean  the  turkey,  fill  tho  crop  with  stuffing, 
and  sew  it  up.  Put  it  over  the  firo  in  water  enough  to  cover  it, 
let  it  boil  slowly — ^take  off  all  the  scum.  When  this  is  done,  it 
should  only  simmer  till  it  is  done.  Put  a  littlo  salt  into  tho  water, 
and  dredge  the  turkey  in  flour  before  boiling. 

Roast  Ducks  and  Geese. — Take  sage,  wash  and  pick  it,  and  an 
onion  ;  chop  them  fine,  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  put  tliem  in  tho 
belly  ;  let  the  goose  be  clean  picked,  and  wiped  dry  with  a  cloth, 
inside  and  out ;  put  it  down  to  the  fire,  and  roast  it  brown.  Duck 
are  dressed  in  the  same  w-ay.  For  wild  ducks,  teal,  pigeons,  and 
other  wild  fowls,  use  only  pepper  and  salt,  with  gravy  in  the  dish. 

Roast  Chicken'. — Chickens  should  be  managed  in  roasting  the 
game  as  turkeys,  only  that  they  require  less  time.  From  an  hour 
to  an  hour  and  a  half  is  long  enough. 

BorLED  Chicken. — A  chicken  should  bo  boiled  tho  same  as  a 
turkey,  only  it  will  take  less  time — about  35  minutes  is  guffl- 
cient.  Use  the  same  stuffing,  if  any,  and  servo  it  up  with  parsley, 
or  egg-sauce. 

Broiled  Chicken.— Slit  them  down  the  back  and  season  with' 
pepper  and  salt ;  lay  them  on  a  clear  firo  of  coals,  tho  insido  next 
the  fire  till  half  done,  then  turn  and  broil  to  a  fine  browu  color. 
Broil  about  35  minutes. 

Boiled  Pigeons. — Boil  them  about  15  minutes  by  themselves  ;  then 
boil  a  piece  of  bacon  ;  serve  with  slices  of  bacon  and  melted  butter. 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


27 


Fisn  CnowDER.— Fry  a  few  slices  of  salt  pork,  dress  .and  cut  tho 
fish  ill  small  pieces,  pare  and  slice  the  potatoes  and  onions,  then 
place  them  in  the  kettle,  a  layer  of  fish,  then  of  the  fried  porlc, 
potatoes,  onions,  &c.,  seasoning  each  layer  with  salt  and  pepper. 
Stew  over  a  slow  fire  30  minutes. 

Roast  Beef. — The  sirloin  is  considered  the  hest  for  roasting. 
Spit  the  meat,  pepper  the  top,  and  baste  it  well  while  roasting 
with  its  own  dripping,  and  throw  on  a  handful  of  salt.  When  tho 
'  smoke  draws  to  the  fire,  it  is  near  enough  ;  keep  the  fire  bright 
and  clear.  From  15  to  20  minutes  to  the  lb.  is  tho  rido  for  roast- 
ing. 

Beep  Boiled.— Tlie  round  is  tho  best  boiling  piece.  Put  tho 
meat  in  the  pot,  with  water  enougli  to  cover  it ;  let  it  boil  very 
slow  at  first — this  is  the  great  secret  of  making  it  tender — take  oi'f 
the  scum  as  it  rises.  From  2  to  3  hours,  according  to  size,  is  tho 
lule  for  boiling. 

Beep  Steak. — ^Tlie  inside  of  the  sirloin  makes  tho  best  steak ; 
cut  about  I  of  an  inch  thick — have  the  gridiron  hot,  put  on  the  meat 
and  set  it  over  a  good  fire  of  coals— turn  them  often.  From  8  to  10 
minutes  is  the  rule  for  broiling. 

Roast  Pork.— Take  a  leg  of  pork  and  wash  it  clean— cut  tho 
skin  in  squares — make  a  stuffing  of  grated  bread,  sage,  onion, 
pepper  and  salt,  moistened  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg.  Put  this 
under  the  skin  of  the  knuckle,  and  sprinkle  a  little  powdered  sago 
into  the  rind  where  it  is  cut ;  rub  the  whole  surface  of  tlio  skin 
over  with  a  feather  dipped  in  sweet  oil.  8  lbs.  will  require  about 
three  hours  to  roast  it. 

The  Shoulder,  Loi2f,  or  Cnnaj,  and  Sp^sjre-Rid  are  roasted 
in  the  same  manner. 

Roast  Veal.— Pursue  about  tho  same  course  as  in  roasting  poric. 
Roast  before  a  brisk  fire  till  it  comes  to  a  brown  color  ;  then  you  lay 
it  down,  baste  it  well  with  good  butter,  and  when  near  done,  Avith  a 
little  flour. 

Roast  Mutton. — The  loin,  haunch,  and  saddle  of  mutton  and 
lamb  must  be  done  the  same  as  beef.  All  other  parts  must  be  roast- 
ed with  a  quick,  clear  fire  ;  baste  it  when  you  put  it  down,  and 
dredge  it  with  a  little  flour,  just  before  you  take  it  up.  A  leg  of  mut- 
ton of  six  pounds  will  require  1  hour  to  roast  before  a  quick  fire. 

To  Boil  Eggs. — ^In  3  minutes  an  egg  will  boil  soft,  in  4  tlio  whito 
p.art  is  completely  cooked,  in  10,  it  is  fit  for  a  salad.  Try  their  fresh- 
ness in  cold  water,  those  tliat  sink  the  soonest  are  tho  freshest. 

Sausage  Meat. — Take  2  lbs.  lean  meat,  1  lb.  fat  pork,  chop  fine, 
and  mix  with  2  tablespoonfuls  black  pepper,  1  of  cloves,  7  of  powder 
cd  sage,  and  5  of  salt. 

Apple  Custard.— T.ako  apples,  pared,  cored,  and  slightly  j5tewed, 
Bufficient  to  cover  the  dish,  8  eggs,  1  qt.  of  milk  ;  spice  to  your  taste  ; 
bake  it  §  of  an  hour. 

New-England  Apple-sauce  or  Butter. — Boil  2  brls.  of  new 
cider  down  to  ^  a  brl.  Pare,  core,  and  slice  up  3  bushels  of  apples 
(sweet  apples  are  preferable),  and  put  them,  into  the  cider  thus  re- 
duced, and  still  kept  boiling  brisMy.  Stir  the  wliole  mass  constnntly,  to 
prevent  burning,  till  of  the  consistence  of  soft  butter.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  pulverized  allspice,  added  during  tho  boiling,  is  an  iiuprovO' 


28 


BAKIXO  AND  COOKIxa  HECEirTS. 


nont.  Boil  in  n  brass  hcttlo,  and,  wlion  clone,  put  it  into  a  wooden 
lixkin,  or  a  small  cask,  and  it  will  keep  for  years. 

Arri.ic  HuTTKii  (rcnnsT/lvania  Method). — Boil  new  cider  down  to  \. 
Pare,  cut,  and  core  equal  quantities  of  Bweet  and  sour  apples.  Put 
the  sweet  apples  in  a  laigo  kettle  to  soften  a  little  first,  as  they  are 
the  hardest.  Add  enougli  boiled  cider  to  cook  them.  After  boiling  * 
an  hour,  stirrin^j  often,  put  in  the  sour  apples,  and  add  more  boiled 
cider,  witli  molasses  cnougli  to  sweeten  moderately.  Boil  until  ten- 
der, stirring  to  prevent  burning.  Puck  in  firkins  or  stone  pots  for 
winter  use. 

iRisn  Stew. — Take  4  lbs.  good  breast  of  fat  mutton,  cut  in  small 
pieces  ;  2  largo  white  onions  ;  10  large  potatoes,  well  peeled  and 
Bliccd  ;  put  all  in  saucepan  together,  -ndth  fine  herbs,  pepper  and 
salt  to  suit ;  a  little  salt  pork  is  a  good  addition  ;  \  lb.  of  flour  ; 
^  lb.  good  fresh  butter,  well  rubbed  together,  and  let  it  boil  for  ono 
Lour,  and  have  it  well  cooked. 

ArPLB  Dumplings. — G  eggs,  1\  lbs.  of  flour,  some  butter  to  your 
taste,  and  tablespoonfid.  of  yeast,  and  sufficient  milk  to  make  a 
dough  to  roll  out  ;  when  raised,  cut  in  small  pieces,  put  in  the  apples, 
f  and  cook  for  f  of  an  hour  ;  servo  with  Avhite  sugar  or  wine  sauce. 

Boiled  Poultry. — Take  largo  chickens,  well  cleaned  with  cold 
water,  put  in  saucepan  with  water  to  cover,  boil  1  hour ;  served 
with  sauce. 

Hashed  Turkey.— Take  meat  from  boiled  fowls,  chop  fine,  put  in 
saucepan,  with  seasonings  to  suit  taste.   Served  on  toast 

Boiled  Maccaroni. — Take  2  lbs.,  break  in  smaU  pieces,  put  in 
warm  water  to  steep  1  hour,  drain  off,  put  in  saucepan  with  2  qts. 
fresh  cream,  with  grated  cheese  ;  seasoned  with  red  pepper. 

Strasburo  Potted  Meat. — ^Take  1^  lbs.  of  the  rump  of  beef,  cut 
into  dice,  put  it  in  an  earthen  jar,  with  ^  lb.  of  butter,  tie  the  jar 
close  up  with  paper,  and  set  over  a  pot  to  boD  ;  when  nearly  done, 
add  cloves,  mace,  allspice,  nutmeg,  salt,  and  cayenne  pepper  to 
taste,  then  boil  till  tender,  and  let  it  get  cold,  poimd  the  meat, 
with  4  anchovies  mashed  and  boned,  add  lb.  of  oiled  butter, 
work  it  well  together  with  tho  gravy,  warm  a  little,  and  add 
cochineal  to,  color  then  press  into  siiaU  pots,  and  pour  melted 
mutton  suet  over  tlie  top  of  each. 

Bologna  Sausages.— Take  equal  quantities  of  bacon  fat  and  le&u 
beef,  veal,  x)orIc  and  beef  suet ;  cliox)  them  small,  season  with  pep- 
per, salt,  &c.,  with  sweet  herbs  and  sage  rubbed  fine.  Have  well 
Avashed  intestines,  fill,  and  prick  them  ;  boil  gently  for  an  hour, 
and  lay  on  straw  to  dry. 

Ricu  Sausages.— Take  30  lbs.  of  chopped  meat,  8  oz.  fine  salt, 
2J  oz.  pepper,  2  teacups  of  sage,  and  1^  cups  of  sweet  marjoram, 
jiassed  through  a  fine  sieve,  or,  if  preferred,  thyme  and  summer 
savory  can  bo  substituted  for  the  latter. 

How  to  save  your  Ice  Bill.— Get  a  quantity  of  empty  barrels  or 
boxes  during  the  coldest  time  in  the  winter,  and  put  a  few  inches 
of  water  in  each;  the  evening  when  the  cold  is  most  intense  is  the 
best  time  to  do  this.  After  the  water  is  frozen  solid,  fill  up  agam, 
repeat  the  process  imtil  the  barrels  are  full  of  solid  ice,  then  roll 
them  into  your  cellar,  cover  them  up  with  plenty  of  sawdust 
or  straw,  and  your  ico  crop  i3  safely  harvested. 


BAKINa  AND  COOKING  RECEirTS.  29 

Charlotte  Rcsse. — Take  1  pt.  milk,  dissolve  with  heat,  3  oz. 
isinglass  and  1  lb.  sugar;  add,  after  it  is  cool,  1  qt.  beaten  cream 
and  flour,  suit  your  taste  and  line  out  some  mould  with  sponge 
cake,  and  put  the  cream  in  it  and  cool. 

Wine  Jelly.— Take  1  pt.  water  and  3  oz.  isinglass,  1^  lb.  sugar, 
the  juice  of  2  lemons,  and  dissolve  that  and  let  it  come  to  a  boil, 
theii  add  wine,  brandy  and  spice  to  your  taste,  and  strain  it  through 
a  cotton  or  flannel  cloth  and  put  it  in  moulds  to  cool. 

To  Make  Apple  Molasses. — Take  new  sweet  cider  just  from  the 
press,  made  from  sweet  apples,  and  boil  it  down  as  thick  as  West 
India  molasses.  It  should  be  boiled  in  brass,  and  not  burned, 
as  that  would  injure  the  flavor.  It  will  keep  in  the  cellar,  and  ig 
said  to  be  as  good,  and  for  many  xjurposes  better,  than  West  India 
molasses. 

i^^Acid  fruits  should  be  cooked  in  bright  tin,  brass,  or  beU 
metal,  and  poured  out  as  soon  as  they  are  done.  Brown  earthen 
vessels  should  never  be  used,  as  they  are  glazed  with  white  lead, 
a  poison  which  very  readily  unites  with  an  acid. 

Jellies. — Lemon  Jelly. — Isinglass,  2  oz.  ;  water,  1  qt.  ;  boil  ;  add 
sugar,  1  lb.  ;  clarify  ;  and,  when  nearly  cold,  add  the  juice  of  5 
lemons,  and  the  grated  yellow  rinds  of  2  oranges  and  2  lemons  ; 
mix  well,  strain  off  the  peel,  and  put  it  into  glasses  or  bottles  ; 
Hartshorn  Jelly. — Hartshorn,  1  lb.  ;  water  1  gal.  ;  peel  off  2  lemons  ; 
boil  over  a  gentle  fire  till  sufficiently  thick  ;  strain  and  add  loaf 
sugar,  h  lb.  ;  whites  of  10  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth  ;  juice  of  G  lemons  ; 
mix  well  together,  then  bottle.  Isinglass  Jelly. — Put  4  oz.  isinglass 
and  2  oz.  cloves  into  1  gal.  water  ;  boil  it  down  to  half  a  gal. ;  strain  it 
upon  4  lbs.  of  loaf  sugar  ;  add,  while  cooling  a  little  wine  ;  then  bot- 
tle. Apply  Jelhj  from  Cider. — Take  of  apple  juice,  strained,  4  lbs.  ; 
sugar,  2  lbs.  ;  boil  to  a  jelly,  and  bottle.  Gooseberry  Jelly. — Sugar, 
4 lbs.  ;  water,  2  lbs.  ;  boil  together  ;  it  will  be  nearly  solid  when  cold; 
to  this  syrup,  add  an  equal  weight  of  gooseberry  juice  ;  give  it  a  short 
boil,  cool,  then  pot  it.  Currant  Jelly. — Take  the  juice  of  red  cur- 
rants, and  loaf  sugar,  equal  quantities  ;  boil  and  stir  gently  for  three 
hours  ;  put  it  into  glasses  ;  and  in  three  days  it  will  concentrate  into 
a  firm  jelly.  Tapioca  Jelhj. — ^Wash  8  oz.  of  tapioca  well ;  then  soak 
it  in  1  gal.  fresh  water,  5  or  G  hours  ;  add  the  peels  of  8  lemons,  and 
set  all  on  to  heat ;  simmer  till  clear  ;  add  the  juice  of  the  8  lemons 
with  wine  and  sugar  to  taste  ;  then  bottle. 

Blackberry  Jelly. — ^This  preparation  of  the  blackberry  is  moro 
agreeable  than  the  jam,  as  the  seeds,  though  very  wholesome,  are 
not  agreeable  to  alL  It  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  currant  jelly; 
but  the  fruit  is  so  sweet  that  it  only  requires  half  the  weight  of  the 
juice  hi  sugar. 

Peab  Marmalade.— To  6  lbs.  of  small  pears,  take  4  lbs.  of  sugar  ; 
put  the  pears  into  a  saucepan,  with  a  little  cold  water  ;  cover  it, 
and  set  it  over  the  fi.re  until  the  fruit  is  soft,  then  put  them  into 
ccld  water  ;  pare,  quarter,  and  core  them  ;  put  to  them  three  tea- 
cups of  water,  set  them  over  the  fire  ;  roll  the  sugar  fine,  mash  the 
fruit  fine  and  smooth,  put  the  sugar  to  it,  stir  it  well  together  until 
it  is  thick,  like  jelly,  then  put  it  in  tumblers,  or  jars,  and,  when  cold, 
secure  it  as  jelly. 

Preserved  CiTR03sr .— Pare  and  cut  open  the  citron  ;  clean  all  out 


30 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  RECEIPTS. 


except  ilio  rinrl  ;  boil  till  noft.  To  1  lb.  of  citron  ndd  1  lb.  of  sugar, 
find  a  lomon  to  each  lb.  ;  put  tlio  Hw^nr  and  lemon  together,  and 
boil  it  till  it  becomes  a  syrup,  Bkimming  it  well ;  then  put  the  syrup 
and  citron  together,  and  boil  it  an  liour. 

Scotch  Makimalade.— Talce  of  tlio  juice  of  Seville  oranges  2 
ptf?.,  yellow  honey,  2  lbs.    Boil  to  a  proper  consistence. 

llASPP.BRKY  Jam.— Allow  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit, 
mash  tlie  raspberries  and  put  them,  with  the  sugar,  into  your 
jn-escrving  kettle.  Boil  it  slowly  for  an  hour,  skimming  it  welL 
Tie  it  up  with  brandy  paper.  All  jams  are  made  in  the  game 
manner. 

Frbkcii  Honey. — White  Bugar,  1  lb. ;  6  eggs,  leaving  out  the 
Ts^hites  of  2  ;  the  juice  of  3  or  4  lemons,  and  the  grated  vind  of  2, 
and  ^  lb.  of  butter ;  stir  over  a  slow  fire  until  it  is  of  the  consis- 
tency of  honey. 

Almond  Blano  Mange. — Take  four  ounce  of  almonds,  Fix  oz, 
BUgar,  boil  together  with  a  quart  of  water,  melt  in  this  two 
ounces  of  pure  isinglass,  strain  in  a  small  tin  mould  to  stiffen  it, 
^hen  wanted,  dip  the  mould  in  hot  water  and  turn  it  out. 

Lemon  Blanc  Mange. — Pour  a  pint  of  hot  water  upon  half  an 
ounce  of  isinglass  ;  when  it  is  dissolved,  add  the  juice  of  three  lemons, 
the  peel  of  two  lemons  grated,  six  yolks  of  eggs  beaten,  add  about  a 
good  wine-glass  of  Madeira  wine  to  it ;  sNYeeten  to  your  taste  ;  let  it 
Boil ;  then  strain  it  and  put  it  in  your  moitlds. 

Molasses  Preserves. — Boil  1  qt.  of  molasses  about  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  to  a  thickish  consistency,  then  add  G  eggs  well  beaten,  and  a 
spoonful  of  flour.  Boil  a  few  minutes  longer,  stirring  constantly, 
then  set  off  the  fire,  raid  flavor  with  lemon  or  allspice  as  desired. 

Fruit  Extracts,  &c. — Good  alcohol,  1  qt. ,  oil  of  lemon,  2  oz.  Break 
and  bruise  the  peel  of  4  lemons,  and  add  to  them  alcohol  for  a  fe-.7 
days,  then  filter.  For  currants,  peaches,  raspberries,  pine  apples, 
strawberries,  blackberries,  &c.,  take  alcohol  and  water  half  and  half 
and  pour  over  the  fruit,  entirely  covering  it,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few 
days.  For  essence  of  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  mace,  vanilla,  &c.,  pulver- 
ize either  article  thoroughly,  and  put  about  2  oz.  of  the  resulting  pow- 
der to  each  pint  of  reduced  alcohol,  agitato  the  mixture  frequently 
for  2  weeks,  then  filter  and  color  as  desired. 

Measures  for  Housekeepers. 


AVlieat  flour  1  lb  is  1  quart. 

Indian  meal  1  "2  oz  "  1  quart. 

Batter  when  soft. ,  1 1  " 
Ijoaf  sugar, broken  1"  ....  "  1  " 
White  sugar,  powd  1 ' '  1  oz. "  1  " 


Best  brown 

sugar  lib.  2 oz. 1  qt. 

Eggs  10  eggs  are  1  lb. 

Flour  8  qts.    '•' 1  peck. 

Flour  -i  pks.  "  1  husiu 


Liquids. 


16  large  tablespoonfula  are  14  pint. 
8  large  tablespoonf  uls  are  1  gill. 
4  large  tablespoonf  uls  are   %  gill. 

2  gills  are..   1/2  pint. 

2  pints  are   1  qt. 


4  qts.  are  1  gallon. 

A  common  sized  tumbler  lioids  14  * 
pint. 

A  common  sized  wine-glass  "  l^  a 
gill. 

25  drops  are  equal  to  1  teasijooiif  ul 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS.  31 


^    FARMERS  AND  STOCK   OWNERS'  DEPART- 
MENT. 

Rarey's  Directions  for  Breaking  and  Training  of  HoRSESi 
— In  training  horses  you  mnst  remember  that  there  are  certain  natural 
laws  that  govern  them.  For  instance,  it  is  natural  for  him  to  kick 
Avhenever'he  gets  badly  frightened  ;  it  is  natural  for  him  to  escape 
from  whatever  he  thinks  will  do  him  harm.  His  faculties  of  seeing, 
hearing,  and  smelling,  have  been  given  him  to  examine  everything 
new  that  he  is  brought  in  contact  with.  And  so  long  as  you  present 
him  with  nothing  that  offends  his  eyes,  nose,  or  ears,  yon  can  then 
handle  him  at  will,  notwithstanding,  he  may  be  frightened  at  first,  so 
that  in  a  short  time  he  will  not  be  afraid  of  anything  he  is  brought  in 
contact  with.  All  of  the  whipping  and  spurring  of  horses  for  shying, 
stumbling,  &c. ,  is  useless  and  cruel.  If  he  shys,  and  you  whip  him 
for  it,  it  only  adds  terror,  and  makes  the  object  larger  than  it  would 
otherwise  be  ;  give  him  time  to  examine  it  Avithout  punishing  him. 
He  should  never  be  hit  with  the  whip,  under  any  circumstances,  or 
for  anything  that  he  does.  As  to  smelling  oil,  there  is  nothing  that 
assists  the  trainer  to  tame  his  horse  better.  It  is  better  to  approach  a 
colt  with  the  scent  of  ht»ney  or  cinnamon  upon  your  hand,  than  the 
Bcent  of  hogs,  for  horses  naturally  fear  the  sceiit  of  hogs,  and  Avill 
attempt  to  escape  from  it,  while  they  like  the  scent  of  honey,  cin- 
namon, or  salt.  To  aifecta  horse  with  drugs  you  must  give  him  some 
preparation  of  opium,  and  while  he  is  under  the  influence  of  it,  you 
cannot  teach  him  anything  more  than  a  man  when  ho  is  intoxicated 


i 


82 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


with  liquor,  Anotlicr  thin.cr,  yon  iniir,t  roi-ncmlicr  to  tront  liini  Itindly, 
ior  tlusrc  you  require  ol)cdicnco  from  .luy  subject,  it  is  l)eUer  toliavo 
it  reudered  from  a  scusc  of  lovo  tluin  fear.  Yoii  sliould  he  curcful 
not  to  eliafo  tlio  lips  of  your  colt  or  hurt  h'lfi  mouth  in  any  Avay  ;  if 
you  do  ho  will  dislike  to  have  tlio  "bridle  on.  After  he  is  taught  to 
follow  you,  then  put  on  the  harness,  ])utting  your  lines  through  the 
shaft  straps  aloug  the  side,  and  teach  him  to  yield  to  the  reins,  turn 
short  to  the  right  and  left,  teach  him  to  stand  still  before  he  is  ever 
hitched  up  ;  you  then  have  control  over  him.  If  he  gets  frightened, 
the  lines  should  he  used  as  a  telegraph,  to  let  him  know  what  you 
want  him  to  do.  No  horse  is  naturally  vicious,  hut  always  obeys  hia 
trainer  as  soon  as  ho  comprehends  "what  ho  would  have  him  do  ; 
you  must  be  firm  with  him  at  the  same  time,  and  give  him  to  under- 
stand, that  you  are  the  trainer,  and  that  he  is  the  horse.  The  best  bit:j 
to  be  used  ito  hold  a  horse,  to  keep  his  mouth  from  getting  sore,  is  a 
straight  bar-bit,  4^  inches  long  between  the  rings  ;  this  operates  on 
both  sides  of  the  jaw.  while  the  ordinary  suaffle  forms  a  clamp  and 
presses  the  side  of  the  jaw.  The  curb  or  bridoon  hurts  his  under  jaw  so 
that  he  Avill  stop  before  he  will  give  to  the  rein.  To  throw  a  horse,  put 
,  a  rope  12  feet  long  around  his  body  in  a  running  noose,  pass  it  down 
'  to  the  right  fore  foot  through  a  ring  in  a  spancil,  then  buckle  up  tho 
left  or  near  fore  foot,  take  u  firm  hold  of  youx  rope,  lead  him  around 


FAmiEES*  EECEIPT3, 


33 


until  he  is  tired,  give  liim  a  sliovo  -u-itlx  yonr  slioulder,  at  the  same 
time  drawing  up  the  right  footwhicli  hrin^-^  him  on  his  laiee?,  liold 
liim  steady,  and  in  a  few  moments  lie  will  lie  down.  Never  attempt 
to  hold  him  still,  for  the  more  he  scuffles  the  better. 

Take  your  colt  into  a  tiglit  room  or  pen,  and  with  a  long  whip  com- 
mence snapping  at  the  colt's  hind  leg,  taking  care  not  to  hit  above  the 
hocks,  stopping  immediately  when  the  colt  turns  his  head  towards 
you ;  while  his  head  is  towards  you,  approach  him  witli  the  left  hand 
extended  toward  him,  holduig  your  whip  iu  the  right,  ready  to  snap 
him  as  soon  as  he  tunis  his  head  from  you.  In  this  way  you  can  soou 
get  your  hands  upon  him.  As  soon  as  you  have  done  this,  be  careful 
to  caress  him  for  his  obedience,  and  snap  him  for  his  disobedience. 
In  this  way  he  will  soou  learn  that  he  is  safest  in  your  presence  with, 
his  head  towards  you,  and  in  a  very  short  time  you  cannot  keep  him 
away  from  you.  Speak  Idndly  and  firmly  to  liim,  all  the  time  caress- 
ing him,  catling  by  name,  and  sayhig,  "  Ho,  boy,"  or  "  Ho,  Dma,"  or 
Bome  familiar  Avord  that  he  will  soou  lenrn. 

If  a  colt  is  awkward  and  careless  at  first,  you  must  bear  with  him, 
remembering  that  we,  too,  were  awkward  when  young ;  allowing 
him  his  own  way,  until  by  degrees  he  will  come  in.  If  "he  is  wilful, 
you  must  then  change  your  course  of  treatment,  by  confining  him  ia 
puch  a  way  that  he  is  powerless  for  harm  until  he  submits.  If  ho  is 
disposed  to  run,  use  my  polo  check  on  him  ;  if  to  kick,  fasten  a  rope 
around  his  under  jaw,  pass  it  through  the  collar  and  attach  it  to  hig 
liindfeet.  In  this  way  one  kick  will  cure  him,  as  the  force  of  theblow 
falls  on  his  jaw.  If  he  should  be  stubborn,  lay  him  down  and  confine 
him  until  you  subdue  liim,  witliout  punishing  him  with  the  whip. 

Colts  should  bo  broke  witliout  blind-bridles  ;  after  tl^ey  are  weU 
broke,  then  you  may  put  on  blinds.  Bridles  without  blinds  are  the 
best  unless  you  want  to  speed  your  horse,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  him  from  seeing  the  whip.  Colts  should  be  well  handled  and 
taught  to  give  readily  to  the  rein  before  they  are  hitched  up.  If  you 
hitch  them  up  the  first  thing  and  they  become  frightened,  then  you 
have  no  control  over  them  ;  but  if  you  teach  them  to  start,  sto]\  and 
stand  at  the  word  before  they  are  hitched,  then  you  can  govern  them. 

Cruelty  to  Horses — Besides  the  cruel  punishment  inflicted  upon 
horses,  by  the  careless  and  heartless  driver,  he  is  subjected  to  se- 
vere punishment  in  the  winter  season,  by  being  comj^elled  to  take 
frozen  bits  into  his  mouth  in  cold  weather,  tearing  the  slcin  from  the 
tongue  and  the  roof  of  his  mouth,  producing  a  heavy  inflammation  in 
the  mouth  and  throat ;  he  gets  poor,  hidebound,  and  the  sympathetic 
nerves  of  the  head  take  np  the  inflammation,  carry  it  to  the  head  and 
eyes,  frequently  producing  blindness,  and  a  hundred  other  diseases. 
The  whip  should  be  used  as  an  instrument  of  pleasure  instead  of  tor- 
ture ;  and  your  bits  should  be  wound  with  flamiel  or  leather  ;  so  that 
IK)  frozen  iron  will  come  in  contact  with  his  mouth,  lips  or  tongue. 

Rarey's  Liniment. — Sulphuric  ether,  4  ozs.  ;  hartshorn,  4  ozs., 
oil  of  origanum,  4  ozs.  ;  alcohol,  4  ozs.  ;  sweet  oil,  4  ozs.  Shako 
well  before  using.  For  sprains  on  horses,  &c.,  apply  by  rubbing  and 
cover  with  a  tight  flannel  bandage.  For  headache,  rub  a  httle  on  thd 
temples  and  apply  a  bandage  wet  with  the  liniment  to  the  forehead. 

Rarey's  Wizard  Oil.— Oil  of  origanum,  6  ozs.  ;  alcohol,  G  ozs.  ; 
{jpirita  turpentine,  1  oz, ;  camphor,  1  oz.   Shako  well  beXoro  usii^^, 
3 


31 


farmers'  KECEirTS. 


Raeey^s  DTRE0TION3  FOR  SHOEING  HoKSES.— ''Tliero  fivG  very 
feT7  blacksmiths  that  ever  once  thhik  what  a  complicated  piece  of 
machlDery  the  foot  of  a  horse  is,  and  hy  one  careless  blow  tlicy 
frequently  stop  the  working  of  this  machine.  The  majority  of  smiths, 
as  soon  as  they  pick  lip  a  horse's  foot,  go  to  work  paring  the  heel, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  convenient  part  of  the  foot,  andthere- 
loy  destroy  the  heel  and  braces  of  the  foot,  causing,  in  many  instances, 
■contracted  heels.  The  heels  of  a  L^rse  should  be  well  kept  up  and  tho 
toe  down.  By  lowering  the  heels  you  throw  the  entire  weight  of  your 
liorse  upon  the  back  tendon  of  the  legs,  and  thereby  produce  lameness 
Irom  overtaxing  a  very  important  set  of  tendons.  By  keeping  up  tho 
lieel  you  throw  the  weiglit  ui>ou  the  wall  of  the  foot.  In  this  position 
you  prevent  stumbling,  cliclving,  <S:c.  Next  the  sheer  commences  to 
pare  away  the  sole,  thins  it  down  until  he  can  feel  it  spring  with  his 
thumb.  Ask  him  why  he  does  this,  and  he  gives  you  no  reason, 
except  from  custom  ;  next  comes  the  bars  or  braces  of  the  foot,  they 
are  smoothed  dowii ;  next  in  his  ruinous  course,  comes  the  frogs  o£ 
the  feet,  they  are  subjected  to  the  same  cutting  and  smoothing  pro- 
cess. AH  the  cutting,  paring,  and  sm.oothing  'of  the  soles,  bars,  or 
frogs  is  a  decided  injury  to  the  horse  as  v.^ell  as  to  the  owner.  All  tho 
corns  in  the  land  are  produced  by  this  process  of  paring.  The  frogs 
have  been  i^laced  in  the  foot  by  nature  to  expand  the  wall  of  the  foot, 
and  as  soon  as  you  commence  to  cut  it,  the  oily  substance  commences 
to  leak  out,  it  drys  up,  becomes  hard,  losing  its  oily  substance,  malicu 
the  wall  hard  and  dry,  inducing  it  to  crack.  The  nerves  of  the  feet 
are  very  sensitive,  and  smiths  should  be  very  careful  not  to  prick  tlio 
foot,  as  it  requires  quite  a  time  to  relieve  them.  The  foot  is  a  xery 
complicated  piece  of  machinery,  and  if  you  keep  a  horse  well  shod 
find  his  foot  in  good  condition,  you  can  then  generally  manage  tho 
balance.  The  feet  suffer  from  being  kept  too  dry.  Horses  that  stand 
on  board  floors  should  have  their  feet  wet  every  daj^,  or  there  shouI(l 
be  a  vat  five  inches  deep,  five  feet  long,  and  three  wide,  filled  Avith 
water  and  clay,  in  which  each  horse  can  stand  for  one  hour  per  v>'cek, 
unless  his  feet  are  feverish,  then  he  should  be  kept  in  it  an  hour  per 
day,  or  until  the  fever  subsides.  Another  source  of  injury  to  horses' 
feet,  IB  the  habit  of  patroniziug  cheap  blacksmiths.  If  a  man  can 


FARMERS  RECEIPTS. 


35 


drive  anaJl,  he  then  sets  up  a  sign  as  a  farrier  or  a  veterinary  snrgeon, 
when  in  fact  he  knows  nothing  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse' a  foot; 
not  having  spent  any  time  or  money  in  acquiring  the  necessary  mfor- 
mation,  he  can  afford  to  shoe  a  few  shilHngs  cheaper  than  a  well-in- 
formed man,  hut  tlie  patrons  of  such  cheap  shoeing  are  generally  the 
Buff  erers.  All  horse-shoers  should  be  well  skilled  vetermary  surgeons, 
or  there  should  be  a  skilful  surgeon  attached  to  every  shop.  Another 
source  of  poor  shoeing  and  injury  is  the  loss  of  elasticity  of  the  frog, 
refusing  to  perform  its  proper  functions  ;  the  heel  contracts,  the  foot 
rolls,  and  you  have  a  sore  horse  for  ten  or  twelve  months,  for  it  re- 
quires this  long  to  relieve  a  horse's  suffering  from  bem-g  badly  shod. 

Under  the  circumstances,  the  first  thing  that  touches  the  road  or 
the  floor  of  the  stall,  should  be  the  frog,  and  the  wall  of  the  foot 
should  be  kept  cut  so  as  not  to  prevent  it  from  touching  at  every  step; 
and  no  man  that  owns  a  horse  should  ever  allow  a  blacksmith  to  cut 
the  soles,  bars,  or  frogs  of  his  horse's  feet.  Nature  has  adapted  the 
frogs  to  all  description  of  roads,  climates,  and  weather,  without  being 
pared.  So  man^y  horses  have  been  ruined  by  this  process  of  paring, 
that  there  are  "now  several  establishments  in  this  country  that 
manufacture  India  rubber  pads,  thinking  thereby  to  supply  the  wasted 
frog  and  the  elasticity  of  the  natural  foot.  The  frog  is  insensible  to 
pressure,  and  you  may  place  the  whole  weight  of  your  horse  on  the 
fro^  and  he  will  suffer  no  inconvenience,  as  maybe  seen  from  shoeing 
with  one  of  my  corn  shoes  ;  besides,  this  is  the  only  reliable  way  to 
cure  contracted  feet;  by  throwing  the  weight  upon  the  frog,  you  force 
them  up  between  the  walls  ;  it  acts  as  a  wedge,  and  soon  relieves  the 
contracted  feet.  Smiths  should  never  have  their  shoes  hot  when 
fitting  them,  as  the  application  of  liot  iron  extracts  the  oily  substauco 
from  the  hoof.  The  amount  of  cruel  j)unishment  inflicted  on 
liorses  by  cross-grain  blacksmiths,  is  another  source  of  poor  shoeing. 
As  soon  as  the  horse  does  not  stand  the  smith  gets  angry,  and  com- 
•mences  whipping  and  jerking  the  animal,  which  only  adds  terror  to 
it,  so  that  he  soon  refuses  to  go  to  the  shop  if  he  can  avoid  it ;  it  is 
natural  for  horses  to  dislike  to  be  shod,  because  the  hammermg  shocks 
the  nervous  system,  until  they  are  accustomed  to  it.  lie  should  be 
taught  to  stand,  and  his  feet  v>'ell  handled  at  home,  before  he  is  ever 
■brought  to  the  shop  by  the  owner.  You  then  save  the  horse  pounding, 
and  the  smith  an  immense  amount  of  labor  that  he  never  gets  any  pay 
for,  for  no  man  ever  thinks  of  paying  anything  extra  for  shoeuig  a 
bad  horse.  Tlie  wall  of  the  foot  should  never  be  rasped  above  the 
nail  holes,  and  as  little  below  the  clenches  as  possible  ;  all  the  rasping 
and  filing  but  tends  to  thin  and  weaken  the  wall  by  cutting  the  fibers 
of  the  foot.  The  nails  should  be  counter  sunk  into  the  shoe,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  chance  for  the  clenches  to  rise.  No  horse  interferes 
with  the  heel  or  toe  ;  it  is  always  the  side  of  the  foot.  The  habit  of 
turning  the  iuside  of  the  shoe  under  causes  a  number  of  horses  to  in- 
terfere, that  would  not  if  they  were  shod  straight  in  the  inside. 
Spread  the  lieelsas  wide  as  possible  ;  set  the  outside  a  little  under  ; 
keep  the  toes  full.  For  clicking  horses,  raise  the  heels  high,  cut  the  toes 
Bliort.  For  speedy  cuts,  place  your  toe  corks  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to 
the  inside  of  the  centre  of  your  shoe;  keep  the  heels  wide  apart.  For 
corns,  put  on  a  shoe  with  a  prong,  for  the  main  rim,  so  as  to  cover  the  en- 
tire frog,  pare  the  wall  lower  than  the  frog,  soashia  entire  weight  will  be 


3G 


farmers'  receipts. 


thro-vm  on  tlio  froj?.  Ilavo  tlio  inner  corlc  not  quite  so  sharii  as  tlio 
outer  one,  so  tluit  if  lio  stops  upon  tlio  other  foot  it  will  not  cut  it ; 
make  the  Blioes  as  lij^litan  i)OHsiblo  consistent  with  good  service,  as 
they  arc  ordinarily  made  just  al)Out    too  heavy." 

To  Tkicvknt  lioKsics  KicKiMG  IN  THE  Statx. — Fasten  a  short 
trace-chain  about  2  feet  Ion;?,  by  a  strap  to  each  hind  foot  A  better 
way  is  to  have  tlie  stalls  made  wide  enough  so  that  the  horse  can  turn 
in  them  easily.  Close  them  'with  a  door  or  bars,  and  tuni  the  animal 
loose.  After  a  while  ho  will  forget  the  habit,  and  stand  tied  without 
further  trouble. 

To  Cuke  Broken  Legs.— Instead  of  summarily  shooting  the 
horse,  in  the  greater  number  of  fractures  it  is  only  necessary  to  par- 
tially sling  the  horse  by  means  of  a  broad  piece  of  sail,  or  other 
strong  cloth  placed  under  the  animal's  belly,  furnished  with  2  breech- 
ingsand2  breast  girths,  and  by  means  of  ropes  and  pulleys  attached 
to  a  cross  beam  above,  he  is  elevated,  or  lowered,  as  may  be  required. 
By  the  adoption  of  this  plan  every  facility  is  allowed  for  the  satisfac- 
tory treatment  of  fractures. 

Lajipas. — ^This  consists  in  a  swelling  of  the  first  bar  of  the  upper 
I)alate.  It  is  cured  by  rubbing  the  swelling  2  or  3  times  a  day  with  ^ 
'oz.  of  alum  and  the  same  quantity  of  double  refined  sugar  mixed  with 
a  little  honey. 

Gravel. — Steep  %  lb.  of  hops  in  a  quart  of  water  and  give  it  as  hot 
as  the  horse  can  stand  it. 

IlALTER  PuiiiiiNG.  A  ncw  Way  to  prevent  horses  pulling  at  the 
lialter,  is  to  put  a  very  small  rope  u:udcr  the  horse's  tail  bringmg  tho 
ends  forward,  crossing  them  on  tho  back,  and  tying  them  on  the 
breast.  Put  the  halter  strap  through  the  ring,  and  tie  the  rope  in 
front  of  the  horse.  When  the  horse  pulls,  lie  Avill,  of  course,  find  him- 
self in  rather  an  uncomfortable  position,  and  discontinue  the  eHort  to 
free  himself. 

Hide  Bound. — To  recruit  a  hide  bound  horse,  give  nitrate  potassa 
(or  saltpetre)  4  oz.,  crude  antimony  1  oz.,  sulphur  3  oz.  Kitrate  of 
potassa  and  antimony  should  be  finely  pulverized,  then  add  tho 
sulphur,  and  mix  the  whole  well  together.  Dose,  a  tablespoonful  of 
this  mixture  in  a  bran  mash  daily. 

To  Prevent  Horses  from  Jumping. — ^Pass  a  good  stout  surcingle 
around  his  body  ;  put  on  his  halter,  and  have  the  halter  strap  long 
enough  to  go  from  his  head,  between  his  fore  legs,  then  through  the 
surcingle,  and  back  to  one  of  his  hind  legs.  Procure  a  thill  strap, 
and  buclde  around  the  leg  between  the  foot  and  joint,  fasten  tho 
halter  strap  in  this — shorter  or  longer,  as  the  obstinacy  of  tho  case  may 
require.  It  is  also  useful  to  keep  colts  from  running  where  there  is 
likely  to  be  danger  from  the  result ;  if  the  thill  strap  should  cause  any 
Boreness  on  the  ieg,  it  may  be  womid  with  a  woollen  cloth,  and  it  would 
be  well  to  change  it  from  one  leg  to  another  occasionally. 

Big  Leg.— To  cure,  use  the  "Blistering  Liniment"  with  regularity 
every  tliird  hour  imtil  it  blisters.  In  3  days  wash  the  leg  with  liuseed 
oil.  In  6  days  wash  it  clean  with  soap  and  water.  Repeat  every  6 
days  until  the  swelling  goes  down.  If  there  should  bo  any  callo;p 
left,  apply  spavin  ointment. 

Soke  Breasts. — Tliis  generally  occurs  in  the  spring,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  plowing.   At  times  tho  fault  is  in  having  poor  old 


FAEMEES'  KECEIPTS. 


37 


collars,  find  not  having  the  collar  vyell  fitted  to  the  horse's  breast;  and 
oiten,  the  hames  are  either  too  tight  or  too  loOvSe,  There  is  a  great 
difference  in  horses  about  getting  chafed  or  galled,  and  at  times  it  has 
seemed  to  be  impossible  to  Ivcep  their  breasts  from  getting  sore  ;  but 
a  thorough  application  of  strong  alum  water  or  white  oak  bark  to  the 
breasts  of  the  animal,  3  days  before  going  to  work,  toughen  them  so 
that  they  will  not  get  sore.  Another  excellent  plan  iz,  when  you  let 
your  team  rest  for  a  few  moments  during  work,  to  raise  the  collar  and 
pull  it  a  little  forward,  and  rub  the  breast  thoroughly  with  your 
naked  hand. 


The  Check:  Rein  ok  Horses. — ^We  desire  to  register  an  earnest 
protest  against  this  barbarous  appendage  to  horses'  harness.  It  re- 
tards the  horse's  progress  in  every  position  both  while  he  is  at  worlc, 
and  while  travelling  on  a  journey.  It  is  both  useless  and  cruel  in 
every  sense  of  the  word,  witliout  any  compensating  qualities  to  recom- 
mend it.  Mr.  Angell,  of  the  "  Boston  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals,"  wlio  has  travelled  over  a  great  part  of  Europe 
in  the  interests  of  humanity  to  our  dumb  servants,  says,  that  the  use 
of  the  check  rein  is  confined  to  America  alone,  being  deservedly  dis- 
carded every  where  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  The 
reason  why  it  is  so  discarded,  was  very  graphically  explained  by  an 
extensive  horse  o^vner  in  Glasgow,  as  he  remarked,  in  conversation 
with  Mr.  Angell,  that  "We  canna  get  the  wark  cot  o'  the  horse  Avi' 
the  check  rein."  To  check  rein  a  horse,  is  equivalent  to  trussing  a 
man's  head  backward  towards  his  back  or  heels,  and  compelling  him, 
while  bound  in  this  position,  to  do  duty  with  a  loaded  wheelbarrow. 

Feeding  Horses  on  the  Road.— Many  persons,  in  ti-avelling, 
feed  their  horses  too  much,  and  too  often,  continually  stuffing  them, 
and  not  allowing  them  to  rest  and  digest  their  food  ;  of  course  they 
suffer  from  over-fulness,  and  carrying  unnecessary  weight.  Horses 
should  be  well  fed  in,  the  evening,  and  must  not  be 'stuffed  too  full  in 
the  morning,  and  the  travelling  should  be  moderate  on  starting  when 
the  horse  has  a  full  stomach.  If  a  horse  starts  in  good  condition,  he 
can  go  20  or  25  miles  without  feeding.  Tlie  provender  required  by 
horses  while  travellmg  or  engaged  in  ordinary  farm  work,  per  day, 
may  be  stated  thus  :  Hay  20  lbs.,  oats  3  gals.,  'water  4  gals.  Muddy 
water  is  the  best  for  horses,    Beeves  require  20  lbs.  of  hay  and  6 


•>S  FAiniElls'  RECEIPTS. 


pals,  of  water  i)cr  clay.  Quantity  -will  vary  in  every  case  according  to 
the  size,  condition,  brood,  &c.,  togetlier  Avitli  the  kind  of  worlc  iu 
wliicli  tliey  are  employed. 

Itou. — To  cure  a  horse  affected  -with  itch,  first  reduce  his  daily 
allowance  of  food,  putting?  him  on  low  diet  and  tiien  give  him  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  antimony,  and  at 
the  end  of  a  week  or  10  day.s  the  sores  will  have  disappeared  and  the 
horse  will  be  covered  with  a  fine  coat  of  new  hair. 

STOprAGE  OF  Urink. — Symptouis  :  Frequent  attempts  to  urinate, 
looking  round  at  his  sides,  lying  down,  rolling  and  stretching.  To 
cure,  fciko  h  lb.  of  hops,  3  drs.  oil  of  cami)hor;  grind  and  mix.  Mako 
this  into  3  pills.  Give  1  every  day,  with  a  drench  made  of  a  small  spoon- 
ful of  saltpetre  and  2  oz.  of  water.    This  Avill  cure  as  a  general  thing. 

To  CuKK  Balky  IIokses. — One  method  to  cure  a  balky  horse 
is  to  take  him  from  the  carriage,  whirl  him  rapidly  around  till  he  is 
giddy.  It  requires  two  men  to  accomplish  this, — one  at  the  horse's 
tail.  Don't  let  him  step  out.  Hold  him  to  the  smallest  possible  circle. 
1  dose  will  often  cure  him,  2  doses  are  final  with  the  worst  horse  that 
ever  refused  to  stir.  Another  plan  is  to  fill  his  mouth  with"  the  dirt  or 
gravel  from  the  road,  and  he  will  at  once  go,  the  phDosophy  of  this 
being  that  it  gives  him  something  else  to  think  about. 

Dr.  Cole's  King  of  Oils.— 1  oz.  green  copperas  ;  2  oz.  white 
vitriol ;  2  oz.  common  salt  ;  2  oz.  linseed  oil  ;  8  oz.  molasses.  Boil 
over  a  slow  fire  fifteen  minutes  in  a  pint  of  urine ;  when  almost 
cold,  add  1  oz.  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  4  oz,  of  spirits  of  turpentine. 
Apply  to  wounds  with  a  feather.    A  very  powerful  liniment. 

Sloan's  Horse  Oint3Ient.— 4  oz.  resin  ;  4  oz.  bees-wax  ;  lard, 
8  oz.  ;  honey,  2  oz.  IMix  slowly  and  gently,  bring  to  a  boil  ;  then 
add  less  than  1  pint  spirits  turpentine  ;  then  remove  ar.d  stir  till  cool. 
Unsui-passed  for  horse  fiesli,  cracked  hoofs,  human  flesh,  &c. 

Mexican  Mustang  Liniment. — Petroleum,  olive  oil,  and  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia,  each  equal  parts,  and  niLx. 

Merchant's  Gargling  Oil.— Take  2.^  gals,  linseed  oil ;  2^  gals, 
spirits  turpentine  ;  1  gal.  western  petroleum  ;  8  oz.  liquor  potass.  ; 
sap  green,  1  oz.  ;  mix  all  together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Arabian  Condition  Powders. — Ground  ginger,  1  lb  ;  sul])hnret 
of  antimony,  1  lb.  ;  powdered  sulphur,  1  lb  ;  saltpetre,  1  lb.  Mix  all 
together,  and  administer  in  a  mash,  in  such  quantities  as  may  be  re- 
quired.  The  best  condition  powder  in  existence. 

Blistering  Liniment. — 1  part  Spanish  flies,  finely  powdered  ;  3 
of  lard  ;  and  1  of  yellow  resin.  Mix  the  lard  and  resin  together, 
and  add  the  flies  wl'ien  the  other  ingredients  begin  to  cool.  To  render 
it  more  active,  add  1  pint  spirits  turpentine. 

Medicated  Food  for  Horses  and  Cattle.— Take  linseed 
cake  and  pulverize  or  grind  it  up  in  the  shape  of  meal,  and  to  every 
CO  lbs.  of  this  ingredient,  add  10  lbs.  Indian  meal  ;  2  lbs.  sulphurefc 
of  antimony  ;  2  lbs.  ground  ginger,  1^  lbs.  of  saltpetro,  and  2  lbs. 
powdered  sulphur.  Mix  the  whole  thoroughly  together,  put  iu  neat 
boxes  or  packages  for  sale  or  otherwise  as  desired,  and  you  will  have 
an  article  equal  iu  value  to  "  Thorley's  Food,"  or  almost  any  other 
l)reparation  that  can  be  got  up  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  stock  or 
curijig  disease  in  every  aise  when  food  or  medicine  can  be  of  any  use 
whatever.   This  aiticio  can  ]iG  fed  iu  any  dcfjired  quantity,  beginning 


FAmiEES'  RECEIPTS. 


S9 


with  a  fo-w  tablcspoonfuls  fit  a  time,  for  a  horso,  mixing  it  -with  his 
gicain,  and  in  the  same  proportion  to  smaller  animals,  repeating  tho 
dose  and  increasing  the  qnantity  as  tho  case  may  seem  to  require. 

I.OTiox  roK  Mange. — Eoil2oz.  tobacco  in  1  quart  water  ;  strain  ; 
add  sulpliur  and  soft  soap,  each  2  oz. 

For  Stuaixs  and  Swellings.— Strong  vinegar  saturated  with 
common  salt,  used  warm,  is  good  for  strains  and  reducing  swellings, 
i  oz.  of  white  vitriol  ;  1  oz.  of  green  copperas  ;  2  teaspoonlulsOf 
gunpowder,  all  pulverized  together,  and  dissolved  in  1  quart  of  soil; 
water,  and  used  cold,  rubbing  iu  thoroughly,  is  one  of  the  best  appli- 
cations knoAvn  for  reducin<^  swellings. 

Hoof-Bound  Wash. — Spirits  turx-)entinG.  4  oz.  ;  tar,  4  oz.  ;  whale 
en,  8  oz.   Mix,  and  apply  to  the  hoofs  often. 

To  Toughen  Hoofs. — ^^Vash  them  frequently  in  strong  orine,  and 
turn  brine  upon  the  bottoms,  and  soak  a  few  minutes  each  time. 

Sckatches. — Cut  off  the  hair  close,  and  wash  the  legs  in  strong 
soap-suds  or  urhie,  or  wash  with  warm  vinegar  saturated  with  salt, 
and  afterwards  dress  over  with  a  small  quantity'-  of  hog's  lard. 

Coucn. — Quit  feeding  musty  hay,  and  feed  roots  and  laxative  food. 
Sprinkle  human  urmo  on  his  fodder,  or  cut  up  cedar  boughs  and  mix 
with  his  grain  ;  or  boil  a  sn:iall  quantity  of  flax-seed,  and  mix  it  in  a 
mash  of  scalded  bran,  adding  a  few  ounces  of  sugar,  molasses,  or 
honey  Administer  lukewarm.  If  there  should  be  any  appearance 
of  heaves^  put  a  spoonful  of  ground  ginger  once  per  day  in  his  pro- 
vender, and  allow  him  to  drink  freely  of  lime  v>-ater. 

Si'LiT  on  Broken  Hoof. — Let  tlie  blacksmith  bore  two  holes  on 
each  side  of  the  crack  or  split ;  pass  long  nails  through  tlie  holes  and 
clinch  tiglit.  After  anointing  Avith  tho  lioof-bound  liquid,  it  will 
Boon  grow  together. 

Colic  Cuke.— Bleed  freely  at  the  horse's  mouth  ;  then  take  ^  lb. 
raw  cotton,  wrap  it  around  a  coal  of  fire,  so  as  to  exclude  the  air  ; 
when  it  begins  to  smoke,  hold  it  under  his  nose  till  he  becomes  easy. 

To  Cuke  DisxEMrER. — Take  1^  gals,  of  blood  from  the  neck  vein  ; 
then  administer  sassafras  oil,  1^  oz.    Cure,  speedy  and  certain. 

Founder  cured  in  24  Hours. — Boil  or  steam  stout  oat-straw  for 
half  an  liour,  then  wrap  it  around  tho  horse's  log  quite  hot,  cover  up 
with  wcfc  woollen  rags  to  keep  in  the  steam  ;  in  six  hours  renew  tlie 
application,  talve  1  gal.  of  blood  from  the  neck  vein,  and  give  1  quart 
Ihisecd  oil.   He  may  be  worked  next  day. 

Cuke  for  Staggers.— Give  a  mess  twice  a  week,  composed  of 
bran,  1  gal.  ;  sulphur,  1  tablespoonf ul  ;  saltpetre,  1  spoonful ;  boiling 
sassafras  tea,  1  quart ;  assafoctida,  1^  oz.  Keep  the  horse  from  cold 
water  for  half  a  day  aftertvards. 

Klng-bone  and  Spavin  Cure. — Venice  tunpentine  and  Spanish 
flies,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  euphorbium  and  aqua-annhonia,  of  each  1  oz.  ; 
red  precipitate,  \  oz. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  i  oz.  ;  lard,  1^  lbs.  PuJ- 
verize  all,  and  put  into  the  lard  ;  simmer  slowly  over  coals,  not 
scorchmg  or  burning  ;  and  pour  off,  free  of  sediment.  For  ring- 
bones, cut  off  the  hair,  and  rub_  the  ointment  well  into  the  lumps 
once  in  48  hours.  For  spavins,  once  in  24  hours  for  3  mornings. 
Wasli  well  previous  to  each  application  with  suds,  rubbing  over  tho 
place  witli  a  smooth  stick,  to  squeeze  out  a  thick,  yellow  matter. 
Til  is  lia-s  removed  very  largo  ring-bones. 


40 


FA.EMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


ANOTnr.n  Cuhe.— T;ilco  sTvcot  oil,  4  oz.  ;  spirits  turpentine, 

2  oz.  ;  oil  of  ist(;iie,  1  oz.  ]\lix,  and  Jipply  threo  times  per  day. 
If  the  lior.so  is  over  four  year  old,  or  in  any  (^I'se  when  this  isuotHiiOi- 
cicnt,  in  addition  to  it,  you  AviJl  lit  a  l)ar  of  lead  just  above  it,  wirin,!:? 
the  ends  to;^X!ther,  so  it  c<ji)stautly  wears  upon  the  enlargement ;  anii 
the  two  toi^ether  will  cure  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten.  in  six  weeks. 

Cuke  von  Bone  Spaviks— 5?oOO  Rkcii'E.— Corrosive  sublimate, 
quicksilver,  and  iodine,  of  each  1  oz.  Kub  the  quicksilver  and  iodino 
together  ;  then  add  the  sublimate,  and  lastly  the  lard,  rubbing  them 
thoroughly.  Shave  off  the  hair  the  size  of  the  bone  enlargement ; 
grease  all  around  it,  but  not  where  the  hair  is  shaved  oif,  this  pre- 
vents the  action  of  the  medicine,  except  on  the  spavin.  Tlien  rub  in 
as  mnch  of  the  paste  as  will  lie  on  a  3-cent  piece,  each  morning,  for 

3  or  4  mornings.  In  from  7  to  8  days,  the  whole  spavin  will  come 
ont ;  then  wash  the  wound  with  suds  for  an  liour  or  so,  to  remove 
the  poisonous  effects  of  the  paste  ;  afterwards  heal  up  the  sore  with 
any  good  Jiealing  salve,  or  Sloan's  Horse  Ointment,  as  per  recipe 
above,  keeping  the  sore  covered  wliile  it  is  healing  up. 

Another  very  Valuable  RECirE  For  Ring-bone. — ^Pul- 
'verized  cantharides,  oils  of  spike,  origanum,  amber,  cedar,  Barba- 
does  tar,  and  British  oil,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  oil  of  wormwood,  1  oz.  ; 
spirits  turpentine,  4  oz.  ;  common  potash,  ^  os.  ;  nitric  acid,  6  oz.  ; 
sulphuric  acid,  4  oz.  ;  lard,  3  lbs.  Melt  the  lard,  and  slowly  add  the 
acids  ;  stir  well,  and  add  the  other  articles,  stirring  till  cold  ;  clip  off 
the  hair,  and  apply  by  rubbing  and  heating  in.  In  about  3  days,  or 
when  it  is  done  running,  wash  off  with  soap-suds,  and  apply  again. 
In  old  cases,  it  may  take  3  or  4  weeks  ;  but,  in  recent  cases,  2  or  3 
applications  have  cured. 

Another. — Pulverized  cantharides,  oils  of  origanum  and  amber, 
and  spirits  turpentine,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  olive  oil,  ^  oz.  ;  sulphuric  acid, 
3  drams  ;  put  all,  except  the  acid,  into  alcohol ;  stir  the  mixture,  add 
the  acid  slowly,  and  continue  to  stir  tiU  the  mixture  ceases  to  smoke; 
then  bottle  for  use.  Apply  to  rin^-bone  or  spavin  with  a  sponge  tied 
on  the  end  of  a  stick,  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed  into  the  parts  ;  twenty- 
lour  hours  after,  grease  well  with  lard  ;  and  in  twenty-four  hours 
more,  wash  off  well  with  soap-suds.  One  application  is  generally 
sufficient  for  spavins,  hut  may  need  two  ;  ring-bones,  always  two  or 
three  applications,  three  or  four  days  apart,  which  prevents  loss  of 
Lair.   This  will  stop  aU  lameness,  hut  does  not  remove  the  lump. 

Splint  and  SPA^^N  Liniment.  Oil  of  origanum,  6  oz.  ;  gum 
camphor,  2  oz.  ;  mercurial  ointment,  2  oz.  ;  iodine  ointment,  1  oz.  ; 
melt  by  putting  all  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  setting  it  in  a. 
Icettle  of  hot  water.  Apply  it  to  bone  spavins  or  splints,  twice  daily, 
iox  four  or  five  days,  and  a  cure  is  guaranteed. 

Poll  Evil  and  Fistula. — Common  potash  dissolved  in  ^  pint  of 
■water,  1  lb.  ;  add  |  oz.  belladonna  extract,  and  1  oz.  gum  arable  dis- 
solved in  a  little  water  ;  work  all  into  a  paste  with  wheat  flour,  and 
bottle  up  tight.  Directions  :  Avash  the  sores  well  with  Castile  soap- 
suds ;  then  apply,  tallow  all  aromid  them.  Next,  press  the  above 
paste  to  the  bottom  of  all  the  orifices  ;  repeat  every  two  days  till  tho 
callous  fibrous  base  around  the  poll  evil  or  fistula  is  completely  de- 
stroyed ;  put  a  piece  of  oil-cloth  Over  the  sores,  and  afterwards  heal 
up  with  ^loan's  Uorse  Ohitment. 


POINTS  IN  A  HORSE. 


41 


DIAGRAM  OF  A  SOUND  HORSE. 


POINTS  IN  A  HORSE. 

16.  Neck. 

17.  Breast. 

18.  Shoulder. 

19.  Withers. 

20.  Arm. 

21.  Eore-arm. 

22.  Fore-legs. 

23.  Knee. 

24.  Cannon-bones. 

25.  Nape. 

26.  Crest, 

27.  Middle-hand. 

28.  Back. 

29.  Back-hand. 

30.  Loin. 

31.  Hip. 

32.  Croup,  or  Eiimp. 

33.  Dock. 

34.  Elbow. 

Comparative  Vat.ue  op  Food  fob  Horses,— 100  lbs.  of  good  ca^ 
is  equivalent  in  value  to  59  lbs.  of  oats,  57  lbs.  of  corn,  275  of  carrots, 
64  lbs.  of  rye  or  barley,  105  lbs.  of  wheat  bran,  400  lbs.  of  green 
clover,  275  lbs.  of  green  corn,  374  lbs.  of  wheat  straw,  442  lbs.  of  rye 
straw,  400  lbs.  of  dried  corn  stalks,  45  lbs.  of  wheat,  59  lbs.  of  com, 
62  lbs.  of  sun-flower  seeds,  69  lbs.  of  linseed  cake,  195  lbs.  of  oat 
straw,  105  IVs.  Df  wheat  bran;  1  lb.  of  oil  cake  is  equal  to  14  lbs  cab 
bage. 


1.  Forehand. 

2.  Forehead. 

3.  Face. 

4.  Nose. 

5.  Wings  of  the  nose. 
C.  Muzzle. 

7.  tTaw. 

8.  Throat. 

9.  Windpipe,  or  Throt- 

tle. 

10.  Point  of  the  Shoul- 

der. 

11.  Chin. 

12.  Curb  of  the  Chin. 

13.  Outer  corner  of  the 

Eye. 

14.  Inner  corner  of  the 

Eye. 

15.  Foretop. 


35.  Girth. 

36.  Barrel  (the  Ribs). 

37.  Flank. 

38.  Quarter. 

39.  Thigh. 

40.  Stifle. 

41.  Hamstring. 

42.  Point  of  the  Hock. 

43.  Hocks. 

44.  Fetlocks. 

45.  Small  Pasterns. 

46.  Large  Pasterns. 

47.  Crown  of  the  Hoof. 

48.  Hoof. 

49.  Heels. 

50.  Head. 

51.  Mane.orManoTIax 


42 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 
Tlie  above  diagram,  copied  from  a  circular  issued  Toy  L.  W.  Warner 
&  Co.,  manufacturers  of  Dr.  Herrick's  Horse  Medicines  at  67  Murray 
St.,  N.  Y.,  is,  notwithstanding  its  lugubrious  appearance,  of  tlie  iit- 
most  value  to  owners  of  horses  ;  for,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
following  references  descriptive  of  the  variwis  numbers,  indications, 
&c.,  it  will  prove  of  great  utility  in  identifying  and  locating  diseases 
in  many  doubtful 
-     C  Glanders. 


J  Discharge  from  the  Kostrils. 
j  Membrane. 
L  Glandular  Swellings. 
Caries  and  Diseases  of  the  Jaw. 
Fistula  Parotid  Duct. 
Diseases  of  the  Eye. 
Scars  on  Forehead  and  over  the 
Eyes. 

Scars  from  old  Fontanels  and 
Brain  Diseases.  9.  Poll  Evil. 
Prurigo,  or  Mane  Scab. 
Fistulous  Yfithers. 
Saddle  Galls,  Sitfasts,  &c. 
Fistulous  Tail.    14.  Rat  Tail. 
Falling  of  the  Fundament. 
Luxation  of  Patella,  or  Whirl 
Bone  Displaced. 

17.  Hernia  or  Rupture. 

18.  Broken  Ribs.    19.  Farcy. 

20.  Sores  from  Constant  Bleeding. 

21.  Bridle  Swellings. 

22.  Fistula  and   inflammation  of 

Parotid  Gland. 


4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 

8. 

10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
15. 
16. 


23. 


Phlebitis. 
Vein. 


24.  Sore  Throat. 

25.  Tumors  caused  by  Collar. 

26.  Capped  Elbow  or  Tumoi 

27.  Wind  Galls. 

28.  Mallenders  and  Sallenders. 

29.  Splint.    30.  Capped  Knee. 

31.  Broken  Knees  and  Open  Joint. 

32.  Clap  of  the  Back  Sinews. 

33.  Riiigbone. 

34.  Acute  and  Chronic  Founderer. 

Ring  Foot.  25.  Grogginess. 
56.  Quittor. 

37.  Tread  on  the  Coronet  and 
Overreaches. 
Sand,  Toe,  Cow  and  Quarter. 
Cracks. 

39.  Girth  Swellings. 

40.  Wind  Colic,  Fret,  Gripes,  oi 
Belly-ache. 

41.  Thorough  pin. 

42.  Capped  Hocks. 

43.  Swelled  or  Sprung  Sinews. 

44.  Scratches. 
j45.  Spavin. 


or  inflamed  Jugularj46.  Curb.   47.  Swollen  Legs. 


FAIlilEKS'  KECEIPTS. 


43 


To  Tathe  IIorvSE3.— Take  finely-grated  horse  castor,  oils  of  rlio- 
cTiuin  aud  ciimiu  ;  keep  them  iu  separate  bottles  well  corked  ;  put 
some  of  the  oil  of  cumm  on  your  haud,  and  approach  the  horse  on 
tlie  windy  side.  He  will  tlien  move  toward  you.  Then  rub  some  of 
the  cumin  on  his  nose,  give  him  a  little  of  the  castor  on  anytliing 
he  likes,  and  get  eight  or  ten  drops  oil  of  rhodium  on  his  tongue.  You 
can  then  get  him  to  do  anything  you  like.  Be  land  aud  attentive  to 
the  animal,  and  your  control  is  ceilain. 

Best  Rejmedy  for  Heavks. — Balsam  of  fir  and  balsam  of  co- 
paiba, 4  oz.  each,  and  mix  with  calcined  magnesia  suflicieutly  tliick 
to  make  it  into  balls  ;  and  give  a  middling-sized  ball  night  aud  morn- 
ing for  a  week  or  ten  days. 

OurvB  FOR  BoT3  IN  HoRSES.— Givo  the  horse,  first,  2  quarts  of 
new  milk,  and  1  quart  molasses  ;  15  minutes  afterwards,  give  2  quarts 
very  strong  sage  tea  ;  30  minutes  after  the  tea,  give  3  pints  (or  enough 
to  operate  as  physic),  of  curriers'  oil.  The  molasses  and  milk  cause 
the  hots  to  let  go  their  hold,  the  tea  puckers  thera  up,  and  the  oil 
carries  them  completely  away.    Cure,  certain,  in  the  worst  cases. 

Liniment  for  Sweent. — Alcohol  aud  spirits  turpentine,  of  each 
8  oz.  ;  camphor-gum,  pulverized  cautharides,  and  capsicum,  of  each 
1  oz,  ;  oil  of  spike,  3  oz.  ;  mix.  Bathe  this  liniment  iu  with  a  hot 
iron,  and  a  cure  is  sure  to  follow. 

For  Looseness  or  Scouring  in  Horses  or  Cattle.— Tormcu- 
til  root,  powdered.  Dose  for  a  horse  or  cow,  1  to  1^  oz.  It  may  bo 
stirred  into  1  pint  of  milk,  and  given  ;  or  it  may  bo  steeped  in  1^ 
pints  of  milk,  then  given  from  three  to  six  times  daily,  until  cured. 

Scours  and  Pin-Worms  in  Horses  and  Cattle.— White  ash 
barij  burnt  into  ashes,  and  made  into  a  rather  strong  lye  ;  then  mix 
^  pint  of  it  with  1  pint  warm  water,  and  give  all  two  or  three  times 
daily.  This  will  certamly  carry  off  the  worms,  which  are  the  cause, 
in  most  instances,  of  scours  and  looseness. 

English  Stable  Linement,  very  strong. — Oil  of  spike,  aqua- 
ammonia,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  each  2  oz.  ;  sweet  oil,  and  oil  of 
amber,  each,  1-^  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum,  1  oz.  Mix. 

Colic  Cure  for  Horses  and  Persons.— Spirits  turpentine, 
3  ox.  ;  laudanum,  1  ox.  ;  mix  ;  and  for  a  horse  give  all  for  a  dose,  by 
putting  it  into  a  bottle  with  half  a  pint  of  warm  water.  If  relief  is 
not  obtained  in  an  hour,  repeat  the  dose,  adding  half  an  ounce  of  the 
best  powdered  aloes,  well  dissolved.    Cure,  certain. 

For  Persons,  a  dose  would  be  <  from  1  to  2  teasi^oonfuls  in  warm 
tea  ;  children  or  wealc  persons,  less. 

Liniment  for  fifty  cents  per  gallon, — Best  vinegar,  2  qts.  ; 

Eulverized  saltpetre,  ^  lb.  ;  mix,  aud  set  iu  a  cool  place  till  dissolved, 
ivaluable  for  old  swellings,  sprains,  bruises,  &c. 
Shoeing  Horses. — A  smith  who  shod  for  the  hunt,  and  who  said 
that  he  would  have  to  shut  up  shop  if  a  shoe  was  lost,  as  it  might 
cause  the  loss  of  a  hOrse  worth  a  thousand  iiounds,  fastened  the  shoo 
as  follows : — As  lie  drove  the  nails,  he  merely  bent  the  points  down 
to  the  hoof,  without  twistmg  thcjn  off,  as  the  usual  practice  is  ;  he 
then  drove  the  nails  home,  and  cluiched  them.  He  then  twisted  off 
the  nails,  and  filed  them  lightly  to  smooth  them,  thus  having,  as  ho 
lemarked,  a  clinch  and  a  rivet  to  hold  the  nails. 
Horse  Ail. — Make  a  slow  fire  of  old  shoes,  rags,  herbs,  &c. 


41 


farmers'  receipts. 


When  fired  a  little,  pmother  bo  as  to  make  a  c^reat  smoko  and  steam, 
then  set  a  barrel  Avitlioiit  heads,  over  tlio  lii  o,  and  liold  the  horse's 
head  down  iu  the  barrel,  and  smoke  him  well.  Tlils  will  soon  pro- 
duce a  copious  runjiing  at  the  nose,  and  he  will  be  so  well  pleased 
that  he  will  voluntarily  hold  his  head  mthe  smoke.  Continue  this 
half  an  hour  or  more  daily,  meanwhile  give  him  potatoes  and  warm 
bran  mashes,  and  gently  physic  if  there  be  much  costivencss  which 
the  laxative  I'ood  will  not  remove.    If  he  has  fever,  treat  him  for  it. 

Saddle  and  Hajiness  Galls,  &c.— White  lead  and  linseed  oil, 
mixed  as  for  paint,  is  nnrivallcd  for  healing  saddle,  harness,  or  col- 
lar galls  and  bruises.  Try  it,  applymg  with  a  brush.  It  soon  forms 
an  air-tight  coating  and  soothes  the  pain,  powerfully  assisting  nature. 

G  UKASE  Heel. — Ley  made  from  wood-aslies,  and  boil  Avhite-oak 
bark  in  it  till  it  is  quite  strong,  both  iu  lye  and  bark-ooze;  when  it  is 
cold,  it  is  fit  for  use.  Wash  off  the  horse's  legs  with  Castile  soap; 
when  dry,  apply  the  above  ley  Avith  a  swab  fastened  on  a  long  stick 
to  keep  out  of  his  reach,  as  the  smart  caused  by  the  application  might 
make  him  let  fly  Avithout  much  warning;  but  it  is  a  sure  cure,  only- 
it  brings  off  the  hair.  To  restore  the  hair  after  the  cure  is  effected, 
make  and  apply  a  salve  by  stewing  elder  bark  in  old  bacon ;  then  form 
the  salve  by  adding  a  little  resm,  according  to  the  amount  of  oil  Avhen 
stewed,  or  h  lb.  resin  to  each  pound  of  oil. 

Valuable  Remedy  for  Heaves. — Calchied  magnesia,  balsam  of 
fir,  balsam  copaiba,  of  each  1  oz. ;  spirits  turpentine,  2  oz. ;  put  them 
all  into  1  pint  best  cider  vinegar;  give  for  a  dose,  1  tablespoon ful  iu 
his  feed,  once  a  day  for  a  week;  then  every  other  day  for  2  or  3  months. 
"Wet  his  hay  Avith  brin.e,  and  also  his  other  feed,  lie  will  cough  moro 
at  first,  but  looser  and  looser  till  cured. 

To  DisTixGUisn  akd  Cure  DisTEjn?EB. — ^Wet  up  bran  with  rather 
rtronglye;  if  not  too  strong,  the  horse  will  eat  it  greedily.  If  they 
have  the  distemper,  a  free  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  a  conse- 
quent cure,  Avill  be  the  result,  if  continued  a  few  days;  but  if  only  a 
cold,  with  swellings  of  the  glands,  no  change  Avill  be  discovered. 

Ke:medy  roK  Fou>,'der. — DraAV  about  1  gal.  blood  from  the  neck; 
then  drench  the  horse  Avith  linseed  oil,  1  qt. ;  noAV  rub  the  fore-legs 
long  and  Avell  with  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  Avithout  scaldhig, 

riiYSic-BALL  FOR  IIORSES.— Barbadocs  aloes,  from  4  to  5  or  6 
drams  (according  to  size  and  strength  of  the  horse);  tailrate  of 
potassa,  1  dram;  ginger  and  Castile  soap,  each  2  drams;  oil  of  anise, 
oi"  peppermint,  20  drops;  pulverize  and  make  all  into  one  ball,  with 
thick  gum  solution.  Feed  by  giving  scalded  bran  instead  of  oats,  for 
two  days  before  giving  the  physic,  and  during  its  operation. 

Physic  for  Cattle. — Take  half  onlj'-  of  the  dose  above  for  ahorse, 
and  add  it  to  glauber-salts,  8  oz. ;  dissolve  all  in  gruel,  1  quart,  and 
give  as  a  drench. 

Hoof- AIL  in  Sheep. — Muriatic  acid  and  butter  of  antimony,  of 
each  2  oz. ;  white  vitriol,  pulverized,  1  oz. ;  mix.  Lift  the  foot,  and 
drop  a  little  of  it  on  the  bottom,  only  once  or  twice  a  week.  It  kills 
the  old  hoof,  and  a  new  one  soon  takes  its  place. 

Superphosphate  of  Lime,  the  greatest  Agrtcultural  Dts- 
COA'ERY  OF  THE  Age. — Take  a  large  puncheon,  large  tub,  or  barrel, 
and  put  into  it200  lbs.  water;  add,  very  slowly  and  cautiously,  100  Ihs. 
of  pure  sulphuric  acid;  you  must  be  very  careful,  AAiihe  liaiidliug  tlua 


FAKMEKS'  EECEirXS.  45 

article,  not  to  let  it  touch  yonr  sl^iri  or  clothiiig,  as  it  will  instantly 
blacken  the  skiu,  and  destroy  the  clothing,  wherever  it  conies  in  con- 
tact; and,  when  mixed  with  water,  it  engenders  a  very  mtense  heat.  I 
Into  this  mixture  throw  200  lbs.  of  bones,  no  matter  how  old  or  use-' 
less  they  may  be.  The  sulphuric  acid  instantly  attacks  and  enters 
into  combination  with  the  bones,  reducing  them  to  a  pasty  consistence, 
and  completely  dissolving  them.  Keep  under  cover,  and  turn  them 
over  occasionally,  while  the  process  is  gomg  on ;  and,  when  com- 
pleted, dump  out  the  whole  contents  on  the  barn  floor  or  on  a  plat- 
form of  boards,  and  thoroughly  work  into  the  mass  four  times  its 
bulk  of  dry  bog-earth  or  dry  road-dust;  mix;  and  iDulverize  completely 
with  a  wooden  shovel.  The  bog-earth  acts  as  an  absorbent  or  drier, 
retaining  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  compound,  and  rendering  it 
easy  of  uniform  distribution.  If  whole  bones  are  used,  it  will  take 
six  or  eight  weeks  to  dissolve  them;  if  they  arc  broken  with  an  axe, 
they  will  dissolve  in  about  three  weeks ;  il  they  arc  ground  ui  a  bono 
fnill,  four  days  will  be  sufficient.  This  manure  is  the  most  powerful 
fertilizer  in  existence;  and,  when  made  by  these  directions,  it  is  the 
clieapest,  as  one  ton  is  equal  to  thirty-t^vo  tons  of  barn-yard  manure. 
For  top-dressing  grass  lauds,  use  300  lbs.  per  acre;  for  corn,  potatoes, 
beans,  turnips,  &c.,  apply  450  lbs.  per  acre  in  the  drill,  mixing  with 
the  soil;  for  wheat,  rye,  oatf^,  or  barley,  400  lbs.  per  acre,  harrow  in- 
jvith  the  seed;  for  buckwheat,  ;J00  lbs.  per  acre. 

Superphosphate  in  TwENTr-Fouii  Ilouns. — Any  farmer  who 
has  got  an  apparatus  for  steaming  food  for  cattle  can  mal^e  super-^ 

Eliosphatc  in  quick  style  by  admitting  steam  from  the  boiler  into  tho 
arrel  containing  the  water,  acid,  and  ground  bones.  The  heat  thus 
generated  quickens  the  dissolution  of  tlio  bones  m  a  wonderful  man- 
ner; and,  if  the  process  is  properly  conducted,  it  will  not  take  over 
;twenty-four  hours  in  any  case.  It  is  indispensable  that  the  barrel  bo 
tightly  covered  to  retain  the  steam. 

"Fertilizer  for,  TonAcco. — Add  40  lbs.  of  tho  best  Peruvian 
(^uano  to  each  100  lbs.  of  the  superphosphate  made  by  the  above 
receipt,  and  you  will  have  one  of  the  most  powerful  fertilizers  for 
tobacco  that  can  be  made.  If  you  do  not  have  Peruvian  guano,  use  in- 
stead 30  lbs.  of  hen  manure  to  each  100  lbs.  of  superphosphate, 

IIo:ME-:MAr>E  Poudrette. — Few  fertilizers  are  wasted  with  tho 
prodigality  of  extravagance  which  attends  the  use  of  night  soil,  whilo 
the  exercise  of  a  little  care  and  attention  is  all  that  is  required  to 
secure  one  of  the  most  powerful  fertilizers  in  existence.  Night  soil 
Contahis  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  essential  to  the  gro^vth  of 
animals'  bones,  and  which  is  not  supplied  from  the  atmosphere  like 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  In  order  to  receive  the  droppings  in  a 
manageable  and  inoffensive  state,  the  vault  sliould  be  provided  with 
a  largo,  tight  box  made  of  matched  plank,  placed  to  slide  on  scantling, 
so  that  it  can  be  drawn  out,  by  attaching  a  horse,  whenever  required. 
Provide  plenty  of  dry,  black  loam  from  the  woods  or  swamps;  refuse 
charcoal,  dry  peat,  or  alluvial  deposits  answer  first-rate.  Keep  them 
dry,  in  barrels  or  boxes  on  the  spot,  under  cover ;  spread  a  thick  layer 
on  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  box,  and  at  uitervals  of  a  few  days 
throw  in  a  liberal  supply  of  these  absorbents  on  the  accumulating  de- 
posit. If  a  few  handiuls  of  plaster  are  thrown  in  occasionally,  it  wiU 
suppress  unpleasant  odors  and  increase  the  value  of  tho  manure. 


46 


FAK-MEKS'  liECEirXS. 


Tlio  emptying  of  slops  and  dish  -u-atcr  in  tlio  bo::  f^liould  be  strictly 
proliibitcd.  When  the  box  is  filled,  yoa  c;in  removo  it,  and  com-crfc 
it  into  i)oudrctto.  For  this  purpoHO  it  must  bo  worked  over  with  .in 
nd(lition:il  qiKuitity  of  muclc,  or  other  absorbent,  in  such  proportioiis 
that  it  will  form,  with  what  luw  been  previously  added,  about  tlii-oc- 
quartcrs  of  the  entire  compound.  The  working  .should  be  done  under 
a  shed,  and  the  wholo  kept  perfectly  dry.  It  sliould  be  shovelled  over 
and  muced  several  times  at  intervals,  and  finally  Bcreened,  and  made 
as  uniform  throughout  as  possible;  tho  liner  it  is  pulverized,  and  Iho 
drier  it  is  kept,  tho  better. 

Home-made  Guako  of  Uxequalt.t:d  Excellence. — Save  all 
your  fowl  manure  from  sun  and  rain.  To  prepare  it  for  use,  spread  a 
layer  of  dry  swam})  muck  (tho  blacker  it  is  the  better)  on  your  bam 
floor,  and  dump  on  it  the  whole  of  your  fowl  manure;  beat  it  into  a 
fine  powder  with  tho  back  of  your  spade;  this  done,  add  hard  wood 
ashes  and  plaster  of  Taris,  so  that  the  compound  shall  bo  composed  of 
tho  following  proportions :  dried  muck,  4  bushels ;  fowl  manure,  2 
bushels;  ashes,  1  bushel;  plaster,  1^-bi'shels.  Mix  thoroughly,  and 
spare  no  labor;  for,  in  this  matter,  the  elbow-grease  expended  wUl  bo 
well  paid  for.  A  littlo  before  planting,  moisten  the  heap  with  water, 
cr,  better  still  with  urine;  cover  well  over  with  old  mats,  and  let  it  lio 
tin  wanted  for  use.  Apply  it  to  beans,  corn,  or  potatoes,  at  the  rato 
of  a  handful  to  a  hill;  and  mix  with  the  soil  before  dropping  the  seed. 
This  will  bo  found  tho  best  substitato  for  guano  ever  invented,  and 
may  bo  depended  on  for  briu^in^^-  great  crops  of  turnips,  corn, 
potatoes,  <S;c. 

To  DissoL-vE  Laege  Bootes  ron  3IA^T^RB  -^vixnouT  Expense. — 
Take  any  old  flour  barrel,  and  put  into  tho  bottom  a  layer  of  liard- 
,wood  ashes  ;  put  a  layer  of  bones  on  the  top  of  the  ashes,  and  add 
'another  layer  of  ashes,  filling  the  space  between  the  bones  with  them  ; 
then  add  bones  and  ashes  alternately,  finishing  off  with  a  thick  layer 
of  ashes.  When  your  barrel  is  filled,  pour  on  water  (urine  is  better,) 
Just  sufficient  to  keep  them  wet,  but  do  not  on  any  account  suffer  it 
to  leach  one  drop  ;  for  that  would  bo  liko  leachmg  your  dungheap. 
In  tho  course  of  time  they  will  heat,  and  eventually  soften  down  so 
that  you  can  crumble  them  with  your  finger.  When  sufflciently 
Boftcned,  dump  them  out  of  tho  barrel  on  a  heap  of  dry  loam,  and 
pulverize  and  crumble  them  iip  till  they  are  completely  amalgamated 
into  one  homogeneous  mass  with  the  loam,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
handled  and  distributed  when  required.  You  may  rely  on  it,  this 
manuro  will  leavo  its  mark,  and  show  good  results  wherever  used. 

Substitute  Fon  Superphosphate. — ^If  you  have  inch  bono 
ground  in  a  bonc-mill,  and  cannot  afford  to  purchase  sulphuric  acid 
to  work  it  up  into  superphosphate  of  lime,  you  can  reduce  your  bones 
into  a  fine  impalpable  powder  by  simply  using  three  barrels  of  loamy 
Goil  to  every  barrel  of  inch  bones;  mix  them  together.  The  bones 
will  soon  begin  to  lieat  and  ferment,  and  continue  so  for  some  time  ; 
they  -will  then  cool  off.  You  will  then  proceed  to  chop  down  and 
I)ulverize  and  work  the  mass  thoroughly  ;  it  will  begin  to  reheat  and 
ferment  and  cool  down  again  ;  and  you  will  continue  working  it  over 
till  the  contents  are  brought  to  the  proper  state  of  fineness,  when  you 
will  have  a  fertilizer  of  astonishing  power.  It  is  only  a  year  or  two 
eincG  a  statement  appeared  in  the  "  Country  Gentleman,"  of  tho 


FxVnilEKS'  IlECEIPTS. 


47 


exi->crimentg  of  a  INTr.  ITaskelt.  with  a  niamire  prepared  after  tliig 
raetliod,  wlio  iomid  it  evou  superior  to  siiperpliospliate  of  lime. 

How    TO    DOUBLE   THE    UiiUAL.    QUANTITY    OF    MAXURE    ON  A 

(FA113I. — Provide  a  good  supply  of  Llaclt  swamp  mould  or  loam  from 
'the  woods,  within  easy  reacli  of  your  stable,  and  place  a  layer  of  this, 
one  foot  thick,  under  each  horse,  Avith  litter  as  usual,  on  the  top  of 
the  loam  or  mould.  Remove  the  droppings  of  the  animals  every 
day,  but  let  the  loam  remain  for  two  weeks  ;  then  remove  it,  mixing 
it  with  the  other  manure,  and  replace  with  fresh  mould.  By  this 
sim])le  ineans,  any  farmer  can  doui)lo  not  only  the  quantity  but  also 
the  quality  of  his  manure,  and  never  feel  himself  one  penny  the 
poorer  by  the  trouble  or  expense  incurred,  while  tlio  fertilizing  value 
of  the  ingredients  absorbed  and  saved  by  tlio  loam  can  scarcely  bo 
estimated. 

Josiah  Quincy,  jun.,  has  been  very  successful  in  Iccepiug  cattle  in 
ptables  the  year  through,  and  feeding  tliem  by  means  of  soiling. 
The  amount  of  manure' thus  made  had  enabled  him  to  improve  the 
fertility  of  a  poor  farm  of  100  acres,  £0  that  in  twenty  years  the  hay 
crop  had  increased  from  20  to  300  tons.  The  cattle  are  kept  m  a  well- 
arranged  stable,  and  are  let  out  into  the  yard  an  hour  ortv>^o  mornmg 
and  afternoon  ;  but  they  generally  appear  glad  to  return  to  theil 
quarters.  By  this  process,  one  acre  enables  him  to  support  three  or 
lour  cows.  They  are  fed  on  grass,  green  oats,  corn  fodder,  barley^' 
&c.,  which  are  sown  at  intervals  through  the  spring  and  summer 
months,  to  be  cut  as  required  ;  but  ho  remarks  that  his  most  valuable 
crop  is  his  manure  crop.  Each  cow  produces  3^  cords  of  solid,  and 
3  cords  of  liquid  manure,  or  cords  in  all.  Five  to  eight  miles  from 
Boston,  such  manure  is  wortirfive  to  eight  dollars  a  cord.  From  this 
estimate,  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  cow's  manure  may  be 
made  as  valuable  as  her  milk. 

Twenty  Dollars'  Worth  of  Manure  for  almost  Nothino. — 
If  you  have  any  dead  animal, — say,  for  instance,  the  body  of  a 
horse,— do  not  suffer  it  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  by  drawing  it  away 
to  the  woods  or  any  other  out  of  the  way  i)lace,  but  remove  it  a  short 
distance  only,  from  your  premises,  and  put  down  four  or  five  loads 
of  muck  or  "sods,  -placo  the  carcass  thereon,  and  sprinkle  it  over  with 
quick-lime,  aud  cover  over  immediately  with  sods  or  mould  sufficient 
to  make,  with  what  had  been  previously  added,  20  good  wagon- 
loads  ;  and  you  will  have  within  twelve  mouths  a  pile  of  manure 
worth  $20  for  any  crop  you  choose  to  put  it  upon.  Use  a  propor- 
tionate quantity  of  mould  for  smaller  animals,  but  never  less  than 
twenty  good  wagon-loads  for  a  horse  ;  and,  if  any  dogs  manifest 
too  great  a  regard  for  the  enclosed  carcass,  shoot  them  on  the  spot. 

Fish  Co^ipost,  Substitute  for  Boke-Dust,  ISfAiojuB  FRoar 
Fish  Refuse,  &c. — The  fish  owes  its  fertilizing  value  to  the  animal 
matter  and  bone-earth  which  it  contains.  The  former  is  precisely 
similar  to  flesh  or  blood,  consisting  of  25  per  cent,  of  fibrin,  the  rest 
being  water  ;  and  their  bones  are  similar  in  composition  to  tliose  of 
terrestrial  animals.  As  fertilizing  agents,  therefore,  the  bodies  of 
fislies  will  act  nearly  in  tlie  same  way  as  the  bodies  and  blood  of 
animals  ;  100  lbs.,  in  decaying,  produce  2^  lbs.  of  ammonia.  Hence 
400  lbs.  of  fisli  rotted  in  compost  are  enough  for  an  acre.  The  great 
effect  is  due  to  the  amiaoniacai  portion  ;  for  it  renders  the  herbage 


48 


FAlOIKrvS'  IlECEirTS. 


dark-grccn,  and  starts  it  very  rapidly.  Oiio  of  the  best  composts  is 
made  as  follows  :  Driod  bo.i^-oartli,  loam,  or  peat,  seven  barrels  ;  < 
liardwcod  ashes,  two  barrels  ;  lisli,  one  barrel  ;  slaked  lime,  ouo 
bushel,  riaco  a  tliick  layer  of  the  bop^-earth  on  the  bottom  ;  on  the 
top  of  this  put  a  layer  of  the  fish,  thcji  a  sprinklin;?  of  lime,  then  a 
a  layer  of  ashes  ;  on  top  of  the  ashes  put  a  thick  layer  of  boj^-earth, 
loam,  or  peat ;  then  another  thin  layer  of  fish,  lime,  and  ashes,  and 
so  on  till  your  materials  are  worked  in  ;  then  top  off  with  a  thick 
layer  of  the  absorbents,  to  retain  the  fertilizing  gases.  The  decompo- 
sition of  the  fish  will  proceed  very  rapidly,  and  a  very  rich  coinposl 
will  be  the  result.  It  should  be  shovelled  over  and  over  and  tiior- 
oughly  intermixed  and  pulverized.  Put  this  on  so  as  to  have  400  lbs. 
of  fish  to  the  acre.  It  may  be  applied  with  the  greatest  benefit  to  corn, 
turnips,  potatoes,  beans,  &c.,  in  the  drill,  and  broad  cast  on  the  grass. 

Sui^erphosphatecanbe  made  from  jiogy-chum,  or  the  refuse  of  other 
fish,  after  the  oil  Is  expressed,  by  dissolving  in  sulphuric  acid,  and 
afterwards  mixing  Avith  dry  loam,  precisely  as  directed  for  making 
superphosphate  with  bones.  Whale-oil  or  the  oil  of  any  fish,  when 
made  into  a  compost  with  loam,  and  a  little  lime  or  wood  ashes, 
yields  a  very  powerful  manure,  merely  mixed  with  absorbent  earth 
and  applied  at  the  end  of  the  month.  Impure  whale-oil,  at  the  rate 
of  40  gallons  per  acre,  has  ]u-oduccd  a  crop  of  23|  tons  of  turnips  per 
acre  ;  while  ou  the  same  soil,  and  during  the  same  season,  it  took  40 
"bushels  of  bone-dust  to  produce  only  22  tons  per  acre. 

Ashes  from  Soil,  by  Spontaneol's  Combustion'. — Make  your 
mound  21  feet  long  by  10^  feet  wide.  To  fire,  use  72  bushels  of  lime. 
Pii"st  a  layer  of  dry  sods"or  parings  ou  which  a  quantity  of  lime  is 
spread,  mixing  sods  with  it;  then  a  covering  of  eight  inches  of  sods, 
on  which  the  other  half  of  the  lime  is  spread,  and  covered  a  foot  thick, 
the  height  of  the  mound  being  about  a  yard.  In  twenty-four  hours 
it  will  take  fire.  The  lime  should  bo  fresh  from  the  kiln.  It  is 
better  to  suffer  it  to  ignite  itself  than  to  effect  it  by  the  operation 
of  water.  When  the  fire  is  fairly  kindled,  fresh  sods  must  be  ap- 
plied ;  but  get  a  good  body  of  ashes  in  the  first  place.  I  think  it 
may  \)Q  fairly  supposed  that  the  lime  adds  full  its  worth  to  the 
quality  of  the  ashes,  and,  when  limestone  can  bo  got,  I  would  ad- 
vise the  burning  a  small  quantity  in  the  uiounds,  which  would  bo 
a  great  improvement  to  the  ashes,  and  would  help  to  keep  the  fire  in. 

Substitute  fok  BAUN-MAmjuE, — ^Dissolve  a  bushel  of  salt  in 
water  enougli  to  slack  5  or  G  bushels  of  lime.  The  best  rule  for  pre- 
paring the  compost  heap  is,  1  bushel  of  this  lime  to  1  load  of 
Bwamp-muck,  intimately  mixed  ;  though  3  bushels  to  5  loads  makca 
a  very  good  manure.  In  laying  up  the  lieap,  let  the  layer  of  muck 
and  lime  be  thin,  so  that  decomposition  may  be  more  rapid  and 
complete.  When  lime  cannot  bo  got,  use  unleached  ashes, — 3  or  4 
bushels  to  a  cord  of  muck.  In  a  month  or  six  weeks,  overhaul  and 
work  over  the  heap,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Spriulde  the 
salt  water  on  the  lime  as  the  heap  £'oes  up. 

Sheep-Dipping  Composition. — Water,  1  gal. ;  benzine,  8  ounces  ; 
cayenne  pepper,  2  ounces.  Mis  ;  make  what  quantity  you  require, 
using  these  proportions.  Dip  your  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  composi- 
tion, and  it  will  make  short  work  of  the  vermin. 

Oat  ou  Wheat  Straw  made  equal  to  Hay.— Bring  10  gallons 


FAn:,IERS'  PwECEIPTS.  49 

•wnter  to  a  boiling  heat  ;  take  it  off  tho  fire,  and  add  to  it  at  on.t) 
3  gallons  of  linseed  luiground  ;  let  it  remain  till  it  gets  cold  ;  theix 
empty  the  whole  into  a  cask  containing  41  gallons  of  cold  water, 
and  let  it  remain  for  forty-eight  hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time, 
-■l;  will  be  reduced  into  a  thin  jelly,  like  arrowroot.  Spread  out  A 
':,on  straw,  and  sprinkle  it  over  regularly  with  the  whole  of  tho 
Liquid  from  the  cask.  The  stock  will  eat  it  up  as  clean,  and  keep 
as  fat  on  it,  quantity  for  quantity,  as  they  would  do  on  hay. 

Death  fou  Vekmix  on  Plants  or  Animals. — Pour  a  gallon  of 
boiling  water  on  one  pound  tobacco  leaves,  stram  it  in  twenty  minutes ; 
for  vermin,  on  animals  or  plants,  this  decoction  is  certain  death. 

Remedy  for  Cueculio  in  Fruit  Trees. — Sawdust  saturated  in 
coal  oil,  and  placed  at  tho  roots  of  the  tree,  will  bo  a  sure  prevent- 
ive ;  or,  clear  a  circle  around  the  tree  from  all  rubbish  ;  fill  up  all 
little  holaa  and  smooth  off  tiie  ground  for  a  distance  of  at  least  3 
feet  each  way  from  tho  tree,  then  iDlace  chips  or  small  pieces  of 
■wood  on  the  ground  within  tho  circle  ;  the  curculio  will  take  refuge 
in  large  numbers  below  tho  cliips,  and  you  can  pass  aroimd  in  tho 
mornings  and  kill  them  off. 

Grafting  Wax. — Resin,  1  lb. ;  bees-wax,  1  lb. ;  with  tallow  or  lard 
Bufflcient  to  soften  until  it  can  be  readily  applied  Avith  thchand;  melt. 

To  Cultivate  Tobacco. — To  raise  tobacco,  select  a  sheltered 
situation,  vt^hcre  the  young  plants  can  receive  the  full  force  of  tho 
sun  ;  bum  over  tho  surface  of  the  ground  early  in  spring  (new  land  is 
best),  rake  it  well,  and  sow  the  seeds  :  have  a  dry,  mellow,  rich  soil, ' 
and  after  a  shower,  when  the  plants  have  got  leaves  the  size  of  a 
quarter-dollar,  transplant  as  you  would  cabbage  plants,  3^  feet  apart, 
nnd  weed  out  carefully  afterwards.  Break  off  the  suckers  from  tho 
foot-stalks,  as  they  appear  ;  also  the  tops  of  the  plants  when  they  are 
Avell  advanced, — say,  about  three  feet  high, — except  those  designed 
for  seed,  which  should  be  the  largest  and  best  plants.  The  ripeness 
of  tobacco  is  knowii  by  small  dusky  spots  appearing  on  the  leaves. 
The  x)lants  should  then  be  cut  near  the  roots,  on  the  mornmg  of  a  day 
of  sunshine,  and  should  lie  singly  to  wither.  When  sufficiently 
withered,  gather  them  carefully  together,  and  hang  them  up  imder 
cover  to  cure  and  prepare  for  market. 

_  To  Preserve  Potatoes  fro^i  Rot. — Dust  over  the  floor  of  tho 
bin  with  lime,  and  put  in  about  G  or  7  inches  of  j)otatoe9,  and  dust 
with  lime  as  before,  then  more  potatoes,  using  about  1  bushel  of  lime, 
to  40  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  lime  improves  the  flavor  of  the  pota- 
toes, and  effectually  kills  the  fungi  which  causes  the  rot. 

An  old  veteran  farmer,  with  G3  years'  experience,  has  successfully 
fought  the  potato  rot  in  the  groimcl,  as  follows :  lie  j)la]its  them  iul 
the  latter  part  of  April,  or  beginning  of  May,  and  in  the  old  of  tho 
moon.  When  six  inches  higli  they  are  plastered  and  dressed  out 
nicely.  Now  for  the  secret.  When  blossoming,  take  2  parts  plaster,' 
and  1  part  fine  salt,  mix  well  together,  and  ])ut  1  largo  spoonful  of 
tills  compound  as  near  the  centre  of  eacii  hill  as  possible.  When 
ripe,  take  them  out  of  the  ground,  havo  them  dry  when  put  in  tho 
collar,  and  keep  them  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 

Packing  Fruits  for  Long  Distances. — Take  a  box  of  the  propci^ 
size,  soft  paipcr,  and  sweet  bran.  Place  a  layer  of  bran  on  tho 
bottom,  then  each  bunch  of  grapes  is  held  by  the_hand  over  a 


5C 


faiimi:rs'  ni:ci:rrTS. 


filiect  of  tlio  pnpcr  ;  the  iouv  coninr.s  of  tho  paper  nrc  brought  np 
to  tlic  stalk  and  nicely  secured  ;  tlien  laid  on  its  side  in  the  box, 
nnd  so  on  until  tlie  first  hiyer  is  fmislicd.  Then  dust  ou  a  layer  of 
bran,  giving  the  box  a  gentle  shalce  as  you  proceed.  Begin  tlic 
second  layer  as  tlie  first,  and  so  on  until  tlio  Avhole  is  i'uii.  The 
bloom  ol'  the  I'ruit  is  thus  i)rescrved  as  Ircsh,  at  tho  end  of  a 
;jnurney  of  500  miles,  as  if  they  wci'C  newly  fciken  from  the  tree. 
Is'ever  fails  to  preserve  grapes,  peaches,  apricots,  and  other  fruit. 

Tiiokley's  CoxuiMEXTAi.  Fooi).— 'Die  following  is  a  formula  to 
make  1  ton  of  the  food:  take  of  Indian  meaHWO lbs.,  locust  beans  finely 
ground  GOO  lbs.,  best  Ihiseed  cake  300  lbs.,  powdered  turmeric  and 
sulphur  of  each  40  lbs.,  saltpetre  20  lbs.,  licorice  27  lbs.,  ginger  3  lbs.,, 
anise-seed,  4  lbs.,  coriander  and  gentian  of  each  10  lbs.,  cream  of  tartar 
2  lbs.,  carbonate  of  soda  and  levigated  antimony  each  G  lbs.,  common 
salt  30  lbs.,  reruviaa  bark  4  lbs.,  fenugreek  22  lbs.,  mix  thoroughly. 

Cure  for  Sweli^ed  Bags  in  Cows.— An  excellent  remedy  for 
swelled  bags  in  cows,  caused  by  cold,  etc.,  is  gum  camphor  ^  oz.,  to 
sweet  oil  2  ozs. ;  pulverize  the  gum,  and  dissolve  over  a  slow^  lire. 

To  Increase  the  Flow  of  Milk  in  Cows.— Give  your  cow.g 
three  times  a  day,  water  slightly  warm,  slightly  salted,  in  whicli  brau 
has  been  stirred  at  the  rate  of  1  qt.  to  2  gals,  of  water,  You  >vill  find 
if  you  have  not  tried  this  daily  i)ractice,  that  the  cow  will  give  25  per 
cent,  more  milk,  and  she  will  become  so  much  attached  to  the  cliet 
that  she  will  refuse  to  drink  clear  water  unless  very  thirsty,  but  this 
mess  she  will  drink  at  almost  any  time,  and  ask  for  more.  The 
amount  of  this  druik  necessary  is  au  ordinary  water-pail  full  each 
time,  morning,  noon,  and  night.  Avoid  giving  cows  "  slops,"  as  they 
are  ]io  more  fit  for  tho  animal  than  the  human. 

Home-made  Stump  Machine. — Take  3  pieces  of  common  joints, 
put  them  together  iu  form  like  a  common  harrow,  letthigthe  tapering 
ends  lap  by  each  other  some  G  inches,  making  a  place  for  the  chain  to 
rest  in.  Cut  off  the  roots  at  any  distance  yon  please  from  the  stump, 
place  the  machine  at  one  side  of  the  stump,  tapering  end  up;  hitch  tho 
chain  on  the  opposite  side  and  pass  it  over  the  machine  ;  then  hitcli  a 
good  yoke  of  oxen  thereto,  and  youv.'ill  see  the  stump  rise.  Another 
method  is  as  follows:  in  tho  fall  of  the  year  bore  a  1-inch  hole  13 
inches  deep  into  the  centre  of  the  stump,  and  put  in  1  oz.,  of  saltpetre, 
filling  np  with  water,  and  plugging  the  liole  up.  In  the  spring  take 
cut  the  plug,  put  in  half  a  gill  of  kerosene  and  set  fire  to  it.  It  will  burn 
out  the  stump,  to  the  farthest  root.  Here  is  another  plan :  in  the  fall, 
with  an  inch  auger,  bore  a  hole  in  tho  centre  of  the  stump  10  inchea 
deep,  and  put  into  it  a  J  lb.  of  vitriol,  and  cork  the  hole  up  very  tight. 
In  the  spring  the  whole*" stump  and  roots  extending  all  through  their 
ramifications  will  be  found  so  rotten  that  they  can  be  easilj''  eradicated. 

To  Sprout  Onions. — Pour  hot  water  on  the  seed,  let  it  remain  2 
or  3  seconds,  and  they  will  immediately  sprout,  and  come  up 
much  earlier. 

To  Renew  Old  ORcnARDS.— Early  in  tho  spring,  plough  tho 
entire  orchard,  and  enrich  the  whole  soil  with  a  good  dressing  of 
compost  of  manure,  swamp-muck,  and  limo  ;  scrape  off  the  old 
bark  with  a  deck-scraper,  or  a  sharp  hoe  ;  apply  half  a  bushel  of 
limo,  and  tlie  same  of  ground  charcoal  round  each  tree.  Then 
apply  diluted  soft  soap,  or  strong  soap-suds,  on  the  trunks  and 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


51 


limbs,  Jifi  liigh  ns  a  man  can  reach.  Wlicn  tho  tvoos  are  in  full 
bloom,  throw  over  them  a  good  proportion  of  fino  slaked  lime, 
and  you  ^vill  reap  abundant  fruits  from  your  labors. 

To  DiiSTitOY  THE  MOTXT  on  Mi  lleii. — Dr.  AVaterman  Rays,  "  I  took 
two'white  dishes  (because  v/liito  attracts  their  auciitiun  in  tho 
night)  or  deep  plates,  and  placed  them  on  tlic  toi»  of  tlic  bivej^, 
and  fiJled  tliem  about  half-full  of  sweetened  vinegar.  Tlio  next 
moming  I  had  about  50  millers  caught  ;  the  second  night  I  caught 
50  more  ;  the  thii-d  night,  being  cold,  I  did  not  get  any,  the  fourth 
night,  being  very  warm,  I  caught  about  400;  the  fifth  niglit  I  got 
about  200." 

To  Keep  Milk  Sweet,  aztd  Sweeten  Sour.  Milk.— Fn'£  into  tho 
mUIc  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  raagTiesia. 

To  Make  Cheap  axd  Good  Vixeg.ui. — To  eight  gallons  of  clear 
ram-water,  add  G  quarts  of  molasses  ;  turn  the  mixture  into  a 
clean,  tight  cask,  shake  it  Avell  two  or  three  times,  and  add  1  pt. 
of  good  yeast.  PJaco  tlie  cask  in  a  warm  place,  and  in  ten  of 
fifteen  days  add  a  sheet  of  common  wrappmg-paper,  smeared  "with 
molasses,  and  torn  into  narrow  strips ;  and  you  will  have  good  vinegar. 
The  paper  is  necessary  to  form  tho  "  mother,"  or  life  of  the  liquor. 

Mu.  Culley's  Red  Salve,  to  cuee  the  Rot  in  Sheep.— Mix  4 
oz.  of  the  best  lioney,  2  oz.  of  burnt  alum  reduced  to  powder,  and 
^  a  ijomid  of  Armenian  bole,  Avitli  as  much  train  or  fish  oil  as  will 
convert  these  ingredients  into  the  consistence  of  a  salve.  Tho  l)onoy 
must  first  be  gradually  dissolved,  when  tho  Annenian  bole  must  ho 
Etirred  in  ;  afterwards  the  alum  and  train-oil  are  to  be  added. 

To  I]\iPiio\T3  THE  Wool  of  Sheep,  by  S^ieaiung.- Immediately 
after  tlie  sheep  are  shorn,  soak  tho  roots  of  the  avooI  that  remains  ail 
over  with  oil,  or  butter,  and  brimstone  ;  and,  3  or  4  days  afterward, 
wash  them  with  salt  and  water.  The  wool  of  next  season  will  not  bo 
much  finer,  but  the  quantity  will  bo  in  greater  abundance.  It  may 
be  depended  upon,  that  the  sheep  will  not  bo  troubled  with  the  scab 
or  vermin  that  year.  Salt  water  is  a  safe  and  effectual  remedy 
against  maggots. 

To  Mark  Sheep  withoitt  In-tttut  to  the  Wool. — To  30  spoonfuls 
of  linseed  oil,  add  2  oz,  of  litharge,  1  oz.  of  lampblack ;  boil 
rJl  together,  and  mark  tho  sheep  therewith. 

To  PitEVENT  THE  Fly  IN"  TuENiPS. — Vvom  experiments  lately 
made,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  lime  so-\vn  by  hand,  or  dis- 
tributed by  a  machine,  is  an  infallible  protection  to  turnips  against 
the  ravages  of  this  destructive  insect.  It  should  be  applied  as 
£oon  as  the  turnips  come  up,  and  in  tho  same  daily  rotation  in 
which  they  were  sown,  Tho  lime  should  bo  slaked  immediately 
before  it  is  used,  if  the  air  be  not  sufficiently  moist  to  render  that 
operation  unnecessary. 

Coloring  for  Cheese. — The  coloring  for  cheese  is,  or  at  least 
should  be,  Spanisii  anjiatto  ;  but,  as  soon  as  colormg  bcc^imo 
general  in  this  c>oimtry,  a  color  of  an  adulterated  kind  v%'as  exposed 
iov  sale  in  almost  every  shop.  The  weight  of  a  guinea  and  a  half 
of  real  Simnisb  annatto  is  sufficient  for  a  clieeso  of  fifty  pounds* 
weight.  If  a  considerable  part  of  the  cream  of  the  uiglit's  milk 
be  taken  for  butter,  more  coloring  will  bo  requisite.  The  leaner 
the  cbeese  is,  the  more  coloring  it  reqxiires.   Tho  manner  of  using 


UBRARY   ^ 

UNlVERSnt  OF  fllWOl^ 


52 


FAll.AlKRS    11  i:ci:ii'Ts. 


.iniiritto  is  to  tlo  up  in  n,  linon  r.ao;  tlio  quantity  docmcd  pufflciciit, 
and  put  it  into  ^  \)t.  of  ■\v;irm  water  over  night.  Tliis  inlusiou  is 
j)nt  into  the  tub  ot  milk  in  tho  morning  witli  tlio  vcnuet  iufnsion  : 
tlippin^  tho  ri\ii  into  tlio  millc,  and  rubbing  it  against  tlie  palin  or 
tlio  hand  as  long  as  any  color  runs  out.  Tho  yolk  of  egg  will 
color  butter. 

TiiK  GuicAT  Secrkts  roK  TRArrixf!  Foxes  and  ornKn  Game. — 
jMusk-rat  inusk  and  nknnk  musk  mixed.  (Jan  be  ])rocured  at  tlio 
druggists,  or  from  the  animals  themselves.  To  bo  spread  ou  the  bait 
of  any  trap.  Tliis  receipt  has  been  sold  as  liigli  as  .1^75.  Another, 
cosliiifj  $50,  for  minks,  &c. — Unslaked  lime,  ^  lb.  ;  sal-ammoniac, 
3oz.,  or  muriate  of  annnonia,  3  oz.  Mix,  and  pulverize.  Keep  in 
a  covered  vessel  a  few  days  iintil  a  thorough  admixture  takes 
jilacc.  Sprinkle  ou  tho  bait,  or  on  the  ground  around  tho  trap. 
Ivcep  in  a  corked  bottle. 

Food  for  Sixcixg  Birds. — Blanched  sweet  almonds,  pulverized, 
h  11).  ;  pea  meal,  1  lb.  ;  saffron,  3  grs.  ;  yolks  of  2  hard  boiled  egg;:'- 
Keduco  all  to  a  pov*-dcr  l)y  rubbing  through  a  sieve.  Place  tho  in::.- 
tare  in  a  frying  pan  over  a  fire,  and  add  2  oz.  l)ntter  and  2  oz. 
Jiouey.  Slightly  cook  for  a  few  minutes,  stirring  well,  then  set  oli! 
to  cool,  and  preserve  in  a  closely  corked  Ivottlo. 

Much  Butter  rRo:M  Little  Milk. — Take  4  ozs.  pulverized  alum, 
^  oz.  pulverized  gum-arabic,  50  grs.  of  i^epsin  ;  i)laco  it  in  a  bottle  for 
use  as  required.  A  tcaspoonful  of  this  mixture  added  to  1  pt.  of 
new  millc  will,  upon  churning,  make  2  1^  of  butter.  Agents  are  sell- 
ing this  secret  for  $5. 

CoOTOSiTJON-  FOR  DRmxo  OUT  Rats,  ETC.— Keep  on  hand  a 
quantity  of  chloride  of  lime.  Tho  whole  secret  consists  in  scattering 
it  dry  all  around  their  haunts  and  into  their  holes,  and  they  will  leave 
at  once,  or  a  liberal  decoction  of  coal  tar  placed  in  the  entrance  of 
their  holes  will  do  as  Avell. 

How  TO  FORM  Springs. — The  finest  springs  can  he  made  hy  boring, 
which  is  performed  by  forcing  an  iron  rod  into  the  earth  by  its  o^aii 
weight,  turning  it  round,  and  forcing  it  up  and  down  by  a  spring- 
j)ole  contrivance.  Tho  water  will  sometimes  spout  up  several  feet 
above  the  surface.  Iron  pipes  are  put  down  in  the  hole  after  the 
water  is  found.  Depressed  situations,  having  a  southern  exposure, 
with  rising  ground  towards  the  north,  aro  tho  best  situations  in  the 
United  States  or  the  Canadas  to  find  water. 

To  Burn  Lime  without  a  Kiln. — ]\Iako  a  pyramidal  pile  of  largo 
limestones,  with  an  arched  furnace  next  the  ground  for  putting  in 
the  fuel,  leavmg  a  narrow  vent  or  funnel  at  the  top  ;  now  cover  the 
whole  pile  with  earth  or  turf,  in  the  way  that  charcoal  heaps  aro 
covered,  and  put  in  the  lire.  Tho  lieat  will  be  more  completely 
diffused  through  the  pile,  if  tlie  aperture  in  the  top  is  partially  closed. 
Produces  a  superior  article  of  lime. 

Eye  Water  for  Horses  and  Cattle.— Alcohol,  1  tablespoonful ; 
extract  of  lead,  1  teaspoonf"ul  ;  rain  Avater,  ^  pmt. 

To  Destroy  Moss  on  Trees. — Paint  them  with  white-wash  made 
of  quick  lime  and  wood  ashes. 

To  PiiOTECT  Fruit-trees  from  attack  op  BIice,  etc.— Tar,  1 
part  ;  tallow,  3  parts  ;  mis.  Apply  hot  to  the  bark  of  the  tree  with  a 
paint  brush. 


farmers'  receiits. 


53 


Points  of  a  Good  Horse. — He  slionld  be  about  15^  hands  high 
the  head  light  and  clean  made,  wide  between  the  nostrils,  and  tha 
nostrils  themselves  large,  transparent  and  opea  ;  broad  in  the  fore- 
head, eyes  prominent,  clear  and  sparkling  ;  ears  small  and  neatly  set 
on  ;  neck  rather  shoi  t  and  well  set  up  ;  largo  arm  or  shoulder,  well 
tlirown  back,  and  high  ;  withers  arched  and  high  ;  legs  fine,  flat, 
thin  and  small-boned  ;  body  round  and  rather  light,  though  sufli- 
ciently  large  to  afford  substance  when  it  is  needed  ;  full  chest,  afford- 
ing play  for  the  lungs  ;  back  short,  with  the  hind-quarters  set  on 
ratlier  obliquely.  A  good  draught  horse  should  have  a  rather  large, 
well-shaped  head,  a  clean,  long  ear,  full  eye,  neck  rather  long,  but 
not  too  much  arched  ;  strong  Avithers,  lying  well  forward  to  catch 
the  collar  at  the  proper  angle  for  draught,  and  broad  shoulders,  well 
spread  into  the  back,  back  very  straight,  ribs  long  and  well  rounded, 
hind-legs  bent  at  the  hock,  fore-legs  forward,  hind-quarters  some- 
what round,  but  not  sufficiently  to  make  them  look  short  ;  the  mane 
and  tail  of  short,  but  not  coarse  hair,  and  with  a  fetlock  about  two 
inches  long,  broad  knees,  long  hocks,  short  shanks,  and  hard  ankles 
or  fetlock  joints,  and  round  hoofs,  well  opened  behind,  nnd  the 
nearer  you  approach  this  description  the  nearer  the  hoise  will  be  to 
perfection. 

The  Epizootic. — The  early  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  a  light, 
hacking  cough,  with  a  general  dulness,  and  an  indisposition  to  move  ; 
cold  legs,  with  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  At  first,  the 
nasal  membrane  is  pale,  but,  as  the  disease  advances,  becomes  highly 
colored,  and  the  mucous  discharge  changes  to  a  greenish  yellow 
color,  and  the  pulse  becomes  more  rapid.  As  soon  as  the  symptoms 
appear,  the  animal  should  be  kept  warm  in  the  stable,  by  blanketing. 
The  following  prescriptions  are  recommended  :  No.  1  —  Linseed  oil, 
1^  ozs. ;  turpentine,  1^  ozs. ;  liquor  ammonia  fort,  1  oz.  Mix  all 
together,  and  apply  to  the  throat.  No.  2  —  Nitrate  potash,  1^  ozs.; 
lartarized  antimony,  1^  ozs.;  digitalis,  ozs.  Pulverize  all  to- 
gether, and  give  one  night  and  morning.  If  not  very  bad,  the  digi- 
talis may  be  omitted.  The  disease  consists  of  an  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  throat,  which  gradually  extends 
li-om  the  epiglottis  downwards  till  it  reaches  the  lungs,  when  it 
.issumes  a  decidedly  dangerous  character.  The  following  will  arre:^^ 
the  disease  at  once,  if  taken  in  time:  Boil  a  handful  of  smart-weed  till 
all  the  strength  is  obtained,  and  pour  the  liquid  boiling-hot  over  thv 
usual  mess  of  oats,  and,  when  all  is  cold,  feed  them  to  the  horso 
Repeat  till  all  symptoms  disappear.  Cure  certain.  Ground  giugei 
mixed  with  the  oats,  has  also  proved  effectual. 

Age  of  Horses. — By  Teeth. — A  liorse  has  40  teeth,  24  double 
teeth,  or  grinders,  4  tushes,  or  single  file  teeth,  and  12  front  teeth, 
called  gatherers.  As  a  general  thing,  mares  have  no  tushes.  Be" 
tween  2  and  3  yeai^s  old,  the  colt  sheds  his  four  middle  teeth,  2  above 
and  2  below.  After  3  years  old,  2  other  teeth  are  shed,  1  on  each 
side  of  those  formerly  changed  ;  he  now  has  8  colt's  teeth  and  8 
horse's  teeth ;  when  4  years  of  age  he  cuts  4  new  teeth.  At  5  years 
of  age,  the  horse  sheds  his  remaining  colt's  teeth  4  in  number,  when 
his  tushes  appear.  At  6  years  of  age  his  tushes  are  up,  appearing 
white,  small  and  sharp,  v/liile  a  small  circle  of  young  growing  teeth 


51 


aro  obsorv;i!)!o.  The  moulli  is  now  complete.  At  P>  ycarr?  of  a^o  the 
teeth  luivo  lilled  up,  tlio  liorso  is  .a;;cd  iim\  hia  month  is  said  to  bo  full. 

Jli/  EiivUil. — Alt(!i'  a  horse  is  9  years  old,  a  wrinkle  coincs  on  the 
eyelid  at  the  upper  corner  of  the  lower  lid,  and  every  year  tiiereafter 
he  has  one  well  defhied  wrinkle  for  each  year  over  I).  If,  for  instance, 
a  horse  lias  three  of  tl-.cse  wriiikl(;s,  he  islU  ;  if  4,  ho  is  13.  Add  tlio 
luuiibei-  of  wrinldcs  to  'J,  and  you  will  invariably  jndgo  correctly  of.  a 
horse's  age. 

Those  who  manage  horses  should  be  careful  never  to  inflict  any 
unnecessary  ]\ain,  for  it  is  only  by  the  law  of  kindness  tliat  a  horso 
can  be  trained  and  managed.  No  man  ever  yet  struclc  a  horse,  but 
he  made  tlie  horse  the  worse  for  it.  Patience  and  kindness  will  ac- 
complish in  every  instance  -svliat  whipping  will  fail  to  do.  Horses 
having  a  vicious  disposition  are  invariably  made  so  from  cruel  treat- 
ment. Horses  are  designed  to  work,  and  daily  labor  for  them  is  as 
much  a  necessity  to  their  existence  as  to  that  of  man's.  It  is  not  tho 
luird  drawing  and  ponderous  loads  that  wear  out  horses  and  make 
tliem  poor,  balky  and  worthless;  but  it  is  the  hard  driving,  the  worry 
by  rough  and  inhuman  drivers,  that  uses  up  more  horse  flesh,  fat  and 
muscle  than  all  the  labor  a  team  performs.  Another  great  reason 
why  there  are  so  few  really  sound  animals  is  because  of  their  being 
put  to  work  too  soon.  Horses  are  not  developed  until  they  are  5,  6  or 
7  years  old,  and  they  should  do  very  little  work  until  they  reach  that 
j)eriod.  WJien  a  horse  is  worked  hard  its  food  should  chiefly  be  oats; 
if  not  worked  hard  its  food  should  chiefly  be  hay;  because  oats  supply 
more  nourishment  and  flesh  making  material  than  any  other  food; 
hay  not  so  much. 

Artificial,  Rubeerfrom Milkweed.— Tho  juiceor  sap  is  express- 
ed from  the  milk-weed  by  running  it  between  iron  rollers  and  then 
allowing  it  to  ferment  or  evaporate  to  the  consistency  of  tlun.  molasses. 
It  may  then  be  slowly  boiled  to  reduce  it  to  a  thick  mass  which  may 
be  treated  in  the  usual  way  of  manufacturing  the  genuine  rubber. 
See  Boot,  Shoe  and  Rubber  ManujYs  Dep't. 

To  Pickle  Meat  in  One  Day. — Get  a  tub  nearly  full  of  rain  or 
river  water,  and  put  two  pieces  of  thin  wood  across  it  and  set  the  beef 
on  them  at  about  the  distance  of  1  inch  from  the  water.  Heap  as 
much  salt  as  will  stand  on  the  beef  and  let  it  remain  24  hours,  then 
take  off  the  beef  and  boil  it,  and  you  will  find  it  is  completely  impreg- 
nated by  the  salt,  the  water  having  draw^n  it  through  the  meat. 

Baron  Liebig's  Great  Fertilizer. —Dry  peat,  20  bushels,  un- 
leached  ashes,  3  bushels,  fine  bone  dust,  3  bushels,  calcined  plaster. 
3 bushels,  nitrate  of  soda,  40  lbs.,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  33  lbs.,  sul- 
phate of  soda,  40  lbs.  Mix  numbers  1,  2  and  3  together,  then  mix 
numbers  5,  6  and  7  in  5  buckets  of  water.  When  dissolved,  add  the 
liquid  to  the  first,  second,  and  third  articles.  When  mixed,  add  tho 
fourth  article.  This  is  a  cheap  and  efficient  fertilizer,  and  this  quan- 
tity applied  to  one  or  two  acres  of  turnips,  beets,  oats,  corn,  wheat, 
grapes,  &c. ,  will  bring  abundant  returns. 

Another  Cheap  Fertilizer.— Ammonia,  GO  lbs. ;  nitrate  of  soda, 
40  lbs. ;  ground  bone,  250  lbs. ;  plaster,  250  lbs. ;  salt  \  bushel;  wood 
ashes,  3  bushels;  stable  manure,  20  bushels.  Use  the  above  quantity 
on  6  acres.  Labor  included,  it  will  cost  about  $15,  in  some  Placea 
less,  and  is  equivalent  in  value  to  some  fertilizers  whfch  cost  $50  oc 
iglO  ttarling  per  ton. 


FARMEKs'  RECEirTS. 


55 


To  Protect  Sheep  from  the  Gad  Fly.— In  August  anJ  Sep- 
tember this  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  where  they  are 
hatched  and  the  worms  crawl  into  the  lioad,  and  very  frequently  e^it 
through  the  brain.  In  this  way  many  sheep  are  destroyed.  As  a 
protection,  smirch  their  noses  with  tar.  Lay  some  tar  in  a  trough  or 
on  a  board,  and  strew  fine  salt  on  it.  The  sheep  Avill  finisli  the  opera- 
tion. The  tar  will  protect  tliem,  and  v/Iuit  they  cat  will  promote  theii 
health. 


"  "vil 


PORTABLE  STEAM  ENGINE. 
TmiEsniKG  BY  Steabi  Power. — A  4  horse  power  Portable  Engino 
with  G  inch  cylinder  ;  pressure  of  steam  45  lbs.  per  square  inc'a,  revo- 
lutions 140  per  minate,  lias  threshed,  under  favorable  surroundings, 
320  bushels  per  day  of  10  hours,  coal  consumed  3  cwt.  Another  engina 
of  5  horse  power  threshed  400  bushels,  coal  consumed,  4  cwt.  Ano- 
ther of  6  horse  power,  threshed  480  bushels,  coal  consumed  5  cwt. 
Another  of  7  horse  power,  threshed  560 bushels,  coal  consumed  G  cwt 
Another  of  8  horse  power,  threshed  G40  bushels,  coal  consumed  7  cwt. 
Another  of  10  horse  power  threshed  800  bushels  p^r  day,  coal  consumed 
9  cwt.    The  economy  of  these  performances  is  evident  at  a  glanca 


5C> 


FATiMEIls'  PwEOEIPTS. 


and  even  if  much  less  work  than  the  above  were  effected,  It  h  evident 
that  such  an  engine  as  the  one  j'cinescntcd  above,  would,  if  mounted 
on  wheels,  prove  a  most  vahiable  acquisition  to  any  neighborhood 
composed  of  thrifty  farmers,  wlio  miglit,  by  an  equitable  arrangement, 
become  both  the  owners  and  beneliciaries  of  the  same.    Many  porta^ 


ble  engines  are  Icnown  to  be  performing  excellent  service,  not  only  in 
tliresliing  gram,  but  in  chaffing  straw,  hay,  &c.,  food  for  cattle,  cutting 
wood  for  fael,and  sawing  logs  into  boards.  Among  other  late  inventions, 
^re  have  one  as  novel  as  it  is  meritorious,  consisting  of  a  self-propell- 
ing engine,  capable  of  moving  itself  from  one  l/>cality  or  farm  to 


farmers'  rbgeipts. 


57 


anotlier,  together  vcitli  the  necessary  fuel  and  water,  without  the  aid 
of  horses.  An  excellent  view  of  this  most  useful  invention  is  pro- 
eented  in  the  cut. 

ExcELsiOK  Axle  Grease.— Tallow,  8  lbs. ;  palm  oil,  10  lbs. ;  plum  - 
bago, 1  lb. ;  heat  and  mix  well. 

PiiOUGHiNG  Table.— Showing  the  distance  travelled  by  a 
HoKSE  IN  Plowing  an  Acre  of  Land;  and  the  quantits: 
01"  Land  Cultivated  per  Day,  Comi'uted  at  the  batk  of  16 
AND  18  Miles  per  Day  of  9  Hours. 


li  atu  oi 
rui-iow 
elice. 

Space  travel- 
led in  Plough- 
ing an  Acre. 

Extent  Ploughed 
per  Day. 

sjLJ'dtli  oi 
Furrow 
slice. 

Space  travel- 
led in  Plough- 
ing an  Acre. 

Extent  Ploughed 
per  Day. 

Irishes. 

Mies. 

18  Miles. 

IG  Jliles. 

Inches. 

3/ifes. 

18  Ililes. 

16  Miles. 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

14  1-2 
12  1-2 
11 

9  9-10 
9 

8  1-1 
7  1-2 

1  3-4 
1  1-2 
1  3-5 

1  4-5 
2 

2  1-5 
2  1-3 

1  1-8 
1  1-4 
1  1-2 
1  3-5 
1  3-4 

1  9-l( 

2  1-1( 

14 

15 
18 
17 
18 
19 
20 

7 

6  1-2 
6  1-G 
5  3-1 
5  1-2 
5  1-4 
4  9-10 

2  1-2 
2  3-4 

2  9-10 

3  1-10 
3  1-4 
3  1-2 
3  1-5 

2  1-4 
2  2-5 
2  3-5 
2  3-4 

2  9-10 

3  1-10 
3  1-4 

Rapid  Rule  to  Reckon  Cost  op  ILvy,  Coal,  &c.— Multiply  tin 
■number  of  pounds  by  half  the  price  per  ton,  and  remove  the  decimal 
point  three  places  to  the  left.  Example:  What  is  the  cost  of  764  Iba. 
of  coal  at       per  ton  ?   Ans. :  $5,348. 


Troccss :  764 
5.348 

To  Measure  Grain. — Rule. — Level  the  grain;  ascertain  the  space 
it  occupies  m  cubic  feet;  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  8,  and 
point  off  one  place  to  the  left. 

Example :  A  box  level  full  of  grain  20  ft.  long,  10  ft.  wide,  and 
5  ft.  deep,  how  many  bushels  does  the  box  contain  ?  Ans. :  800 
bushels. 

Process:  20x10x5=1000x8-1-10=800 
Or,  1000  ft. 

8 


800.0 

KC'le. — Correctness  requires  the  addition  to  every  300  bushels  of  J 
extra  bushel. 

Quantity  of  Seed  required  for  a  Given  Number  of  Hills, 
OR  LENGTH  OP  DRILL. — Asparagus.  1  oz.  to  60  feet  drill;  beet,  1  oz.  to 
50  ft.  drill;  carrot,  1  oz.  to  180  ft.  driU;  endive,  1  oz.  to  150  ft.  drill; 
onion,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill;  parsley,  1  oz.  to  150  ft.  drill;  parsnip,  1  oz. 
to  200  ft.  drill ;  radish  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill ;  spinach,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill , 
turnip,!  oz,  to  150  ft.  drill ;  peas,  1  qt.  to  100  ft,  drill ;  dwarf  beans,  1  qt. 
to  150  hills ;  com,  1  qt.  to  200  hills ;  cucumber,  1  oz.  to  50  hills ;  water- 
melon. 1  cz.  to  30  bills;  inuskmelon,  1  oz.  to  C>0  hills;  pumpkm,!  oz.  to 


53 


FAUMKIIS'  llECEIPTa. 


40  hills;  early  squash.  1  oz.  to 50  hills;  marrow  squash,  Icz,  to  10 hills 
cabbage,  1  oz,  to  3000  i)lants; caulillovver,  1  oz.  to  3000 plants;  celery, 
1  oz.  to  4000  ])hiiits;  c<;'4  plant,  1  oz.  to  2000  plants;  lettuce,  1  oz.  to 
4.0(0  plants,  pepper,  1  oz.  to  2000  plnuts;  tomato,  1  oz.  to  200C  plautH. 

QUAISTXTY  OF  SlCKD  UEQUlK]':i>  TKll  Aciil':^  ANI>  ACTUAL  WE ifiU'I- 

OF  EACH  TO  Till';  Bushel. — Wlieat,  broadcast,  l.i  to  2  bushels;  ditto, 
hi  drills,  1.2-  bushels,  weight  per  bushel,  GO  lbs;  rye,  broadcast,  l| 
bushels,  weight  5G  lbs.;  oats,  broadcast,  2  bushels,  Avcight  33  lbs.; 
timothy,  broadcast,  2  gals.,  45  lbs.  per  busliel;  red  clover,  broadcast, 
3  to  4  gals.,  GO  lbs.  per  busliel;  Avhite  clover,  broadcast,  8  lbs.,  50  lbs. 
per  bushel;  lucerne,  broadcast,  10  lbs.,  54  lbs.  per  bushel;  herd  or  red 
top,  broadcast,  1  to  1^-  bushels,  14  lbs.  per  bushel;  bluegrass,  broad- 
cast, 1  to  1^  bushels,  14  lbs.  per  bushel;  millet,  broadcast,  ^  to  1 
bushel,  45  lbs.  per  bushel;  Hungarian,  broadcast,  to  1  bushel,  50 
lbs.  per  bushel;  corn  in  lulls,  1  to  l^gals.,  5G  lbs.  per  bushel;  tur-- 
nips  and  ruta  baga,  1  lb.,  50  lbs.  per  bushel;  ouiou  sets,  28  lbs.  per 
bushel. 

The  Vitality  of  Seeds  may  be  tested  by  placing  almost  any  of 
the  larger  seeds  or  grains  on  a  hot  pan  or  griddle;  when  the  vitality 
r  is  perlect  the  grain  will  pop,  or  crack  open  with  more  or  less  noise. 
Where  tlie  vitality  is  defective,  or  lost,  it  remains  immovable  in  tho 
vessel.  A  celebrated  botanist's  recipe  for  improving  and  fertilizing 
all  kinds  of  seed,  consists  in  the  preparation  of  a  solution  of  lime, 
nitre,  and  pigeon's  dung  in  water,  and  therein  steeping  the  seed. 
Tested  on  wheat,  the  produce  of  some  of  these  grains  was  reported  at 
GO,  70  and  80  stems,  many  of  the  ears  5  inches  long,  and  50  corns 
each,  and  none  less  than  40.  The  same  botanist  (Millar)  produced 
500  i^lants  from  1  grain,  and  57G,840  grains,  weighing  47  lbs.  Grains 
of  wheat  in  different  countries  yield  from  G,  10,  16,  and  even  30  to  1 : 
Cape  wheat  80  to  1.  Barley  yields  from  50  to  120.  Oats  increase 
from  100  to  1000.  Wheat  and  millet  seed  germinate  in  one  day,  bar- 
ley in  7,  cabbage  in  10,  almond  and  chestnut  and  peaches  require  13 
months,  and  rose  and  filbert  24.  A  field  of  wheat  buried  under  an 
avalanche  for  25  years,  proceeded  on  its  growth,  &c.,  as  soon  as  tho 
enow  had  melted.  A  bulbous  root  found  in  the  hand  of  a  mummy, 
above  2000  years  old,  lately  ptroduced  a  plant.  Potatoes  planted  be- 
low 3  feet  do  not  vegetate ;  at  ^  foot  they  grow  quickest,  and  at  2,  aro 
retarded  2 or  3  months. 

CoiViPOUND  FOE  REVivma  Exhausted  Orchaeds  — Sulphate  of 
potash,  30  lbs. ;  sulphate  of  magnesia,  15  lbs. ;  salt,  35  lbs. ;  plaster  of 
Paris,  15  lbs. ;  chloride  of  magnesia,  5  lbs.  All  to  be  well  powdered 
and  mingled  with  barn  manure,  and  then  dug  in  around  the  roots  at 
the  rate  of  10  to  20  lbs.  to  a  tree.  Tliis  compound  is  assumed  to  re- 
store those  elements  to  the  soil  of  which  it,  h;is  been  exhausted  during 
many  years  of  fruit  bearmg,  and  tlie  secrcst  lias  been  sold  to  hundrcd-s 
at  extortionate  prices. 

Artificial  Manuee.— The  composition  of  Dr.  Jeannel's  artificial . 
manure  for  pot  plants,  as  detailed  to  the  Central  Horticultural 
Society  of  France,  is  as  follows: — Nitrate  of  ammonia,  400  grammes 
(a  gramme  =  15  grains);  phosphate  of  ammonia,  200  grammes  ;  ni- 
trate of  potash,  250  grammes;  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  50  gram- 
mes ;  sulphate  of  lime,  60  grammes ;  and  sulphate  of  iron,  40  gram- 
mes. One  gramme  or  15  grains  of  this  mixture  is  dissolved  in  a  litre 
of  -svater,  and  used  once  or  twice  a  week. 


FARMEKS    RECEIPTS.  f>9 


EQUIVALEIS'T  FeKTILIZIJ^G  PsorERTIES  OF  YAr.IOUS  MA^"URES.- 

1  lb.  guauo  equals  'c8  lbs.  cow  mauure,  33 farm  yard  do.,  22  swiue  do. 
21  horse,  14  human. 

Seeb  Oats. — Place  j'our  oats  in  a  heap  at  the  leeward  end  of  the 
threshmg  lloor  on  a  day  when  a  gentle  breeze  is  blowing  through  ths 
barn.  Take  a  common  wooden  flour-scoop  and  throw  the  oats  againsfi 
the  wind,  towards  the  other  end  of  the  floor.  A  few  minutes'  experi- 
ence will  enable  you  to  throv/  them  so  that  they  will  fall  in  a  semi- 
circle at  a  nearly  uniform  distance  from  where  you  stand,  the  oats 
which  fall  farthest  arc  the  best  for  seed,  and  are  to  be  carefully  swept 
together  as  fast  as  they  accumulate  m  sufiicient  quantities. 

fcsEED  Wheat  should  not  only  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  the 
Eceds  of  weeds,  but  small  grains  should  be  taken  out  with  a  separator 
or  suitable  faiming  mill,  leaving  only  the  largest,  plumpest,  and  ear- 
liest rii)ened  kernels.  To  prevent  smut,  soak  the  seed  wheat  in  brine, 
and  then  dust  it  with  imslacked  lime;  tliis  will  prove  a  perfect  preven- 
tive. 

To  PiiODUCE  THE  Peak  in  Perfection. — Pears  are  liable  to  crack 
when  the  trees  stand  in  soil  deficient  in  lime  and  potash.  These  es- 
sential elements  are  restored  to  exhausted  soil  by  the  application  of 
wood  ashes  at  the  rate  of  400  bushels  to  the  acre,  which  ensures  the 
renewal  of  the  proper  proportions  necessary  to  supply  the  require- 
ments, viz.,  dOper^cc-nt.  of  potash  and  30  per  cent,  of  lime.  This  will 
check  the  cracking  of  the  fruit.  Tested.  Applied  to  the  roots  of  the 
trees  and  vegetables,  12  qts.  of  soot  mixed  with  1  hogshead  of  water, 
is  a  most  powerful  stimulant  of  growth  and  production.  A  paint  of 
soot  and  sweet  milk  applied  to  fruit  trees  will  keep  rabbits  off. 

Salt  and  its  Uses. — Salt  appears  to  be  as  necessary  for  vegetable 
life  as  it  is  to  animal  life.  Applied  in  combination  with  other  manures 
at  the  rate  of  2  cwt.  to  the  acre,  it  never  fails  to  produce  wonderful 
results  on  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetable  j)roductions,  and  the  vor- 
acity shown  by  animals  for  salted  hay  is  well  known. 

To  Kill  the  Potato  Bug. — Mix  1  lb.  Paris  green  with  10  lbs. 
poor  flour  or  fine  wliithig.  To  use,  take  a  circular  piece  of  wood  4  or 
5  inches  in  diameter  (it  may  be  cut  out  of  a  2  inch  plank),  insert  a  mop 
handle  in  the  centre,  tack  on  an  old  tin  can  with  one  end  removed  for 
the  reception  of  the  block,  punch  the  other  end  with  holes  through 
which  to  sift  the  compound  on  the  hills  as  you  pass  along  the  rows, 
and  bore  a  hole  in  the  wooden  end  for  the  reception  of  the  mixture, 
and  fit  a  plug  to  secure  it.  The  comi)ound  shpuid  be  sifted  on  the 
bills  while  the  vines  are  V\'et  with  dew  or  rain. 

The  Striped  Bug  on  Cucumbers  and  Melons  may  be  destroyed,  1st, 
By  sifting  charcoal  dust  over  the  plants  3  or  4  times  in  successioa 
2nd,  Use  a  solution  of  1  peck  of  henhouse  manure  to  1^  gals,  water, 
and  sprinkle  the  plants  freely  with  it  alter  sunset.  Chinch-bvgs.— 
Place  any  old  rags  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees.  The  worms  will  take 
refuge  and  spin  in  the  old  rags,  when  the  latter  may  be  thrown  in  boil- 
ing water.  Caterpillars. — Use  a  solution  of  1  part  in  500  of  sulphide  oi 
pctasrjum,  sprinkle  on  the  tree  by  means  of  a  hand  syrmge.  Curculio. 
—  Make  a  very  strong  solution  of  water  and  gas  tar,  so  that  aftei 
standing  48  hours  it  will  be  powerf  ul  and  dark  colored  like  creosotr. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  curculio,  drench  the  tree  thoroughly  Avith  a 
hand-forcing  jjump,  repeating  it  every  3  daj's  for  2  weeks,  and  de- 
stroy all  fallen  fruit. 


J 


60 


farmers'  receipts. 


To  Rkmevk  Ciiokkd  Cattle.— In  cliokin!^,  tho  .iccumulation  of 
gas  (chiefly  sulphuretted  hydro^jen)  is  the  ciiuse  of  the  Jinimarfi 
death.  Tliis  gas  can  be  dccouiposed  by  forcing?  a  strong  sohition  of 
ealt  and  water  down  tlie  uninial's  tliroat ;  or,  force  tho  beast  to  jump 
over  the  bars  of  a  gate  or  fence.  When  she  touches  tlie  ground  on 
tho  opposite  side,  the  obstruction  ^ill  be  ejected.  Another  Avay  is  to 
use  four  or  five  feet  of  ^-iuch  ruljbcr  hose,  and  push  the  obstruction 
down. 

Faurow  Cows. — Feed  them  liberally,  and  they  will  give  rich  milk, 
though  perhaps  but  little  of  it.  Let  them  have  three  or  four  quaits 
of  meal  per  day  through  the  winter  and  spring,  and  do  not  stop  giv- 
ing it  wlien  the  grass  comes.  As  soon  as  it  dries  them  up,  they  will 
be  fit  for  the  butcher. 

To  Cook  Food  fou  Cattle.— 7b  Coo/c  J/a?/.— Cut  it,  wet  it  well, 
put  it  in  an  upright  tank  or  cask,  with  a  false  bottom  and  tiglit 
cover,  press  it  down  firmly,  and  pass  the  steam  in  under  the  false 
cover.  To  Cook  Corn. — Scale  as  many  barrels,  half  full,  as  you  wish 
to  cook  from  15  to  21  hours  ;  turn  on  steam  and  cook  until  done, 
and  the  barrels  will  be  fall.  To  Make  Mash. — Fill  as  many  barrels, 
half  full  of  water,  as  you  wish  to  make  barrels  of  mush ;  bring  the 
water  nearly  to  a  boil  by  passing  the  steam  to  the  bottom  ;  stir  into 
each  barrel  from  1\  to  if  bushels  of  meal  until  well  mixed  ;  then  cook 
until  done,  when  the  barrels  should  be  full.  To  Cook  Vegetables. — 
Fill  the  barrels  full,  and,  if  no  other  cover  is  at  hand,  chop  the  top 
fine  Avith  a  shovel ;  then  cover  them  up  with  meal  or  proven- 
der, and  cook  until  done  ;  have  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel"? 
to  carry  off  condensed  steam. 

To  Fatten  Sheep, — Sheep  will  fatten  readily  on  good  clover-hay 
alone,  if  the  hay  has  been  cut  in  full  bloom,  so  as  to  retain  all  itg 
juices  before  they  are  turned  into  woody  fibre,  and  of  a  good  green 
color.  A  sheep  of,  say  120  lbs,  live-weight,  will  consume  21  lbs,  of 
clover-hay  per  week,  and  increase  in  weight  2  lbs.  Allowing  that  it 
would  ordinarily  take  14  lbs.  to  keep  it  in  good  stationary  condi- 
tion, an  expenditure  of  7  lbs,  of  hay  extra  wiU  produce  1^  lbs.  of 
mutton,  worth  in  the  spring  10  cents,  — perhaps  more,  —  so  that  the 
hay  is  literally  realizing  to  the  farmer  at  the  rate  of  $30  or 
more  to  the  ton.  No  other  stock,  we  think,  will  give  a  return  for 
the  trouble  of  fattening  like  this.  To  fatten  sheep  more  rapidly, 
the  daily  addition  of  a,  small  quantity  of  oats  to  their  feed  will  pro- 
duce good  effects.  Keep  their  quarters  dry,  well-ventilated,  and 
abundantly  littered  with  clean  straw,  with  freedom  of  access  to  good 
water,  and  an  occasional  taste  of  salt.  The  health  of  sheep  during 
the  grazing  season  will  be  promoted  by  giving  the  sheep  tar  at  the 
rate  of  a  gill  a  day  for  every  20  sheep  ;  and,  if  given  pine  boughs 
once  or  twice  a  week,  they  will  create  appetite,  prevent  disease,  and 
increase  their  health.  The  best  sheep  to  keep,  both  for  wool  and  mut- 
ton, is  the  American  Merino. 

Hay  Racks  for  Sheep, — The  cheapest  and  best  rack  for  sheep 
can  be  made  of  8  boards,  4  long  and  4  short  ones,  nailed  to  4 
posts,  forming  an  enclosure  12  or  more  feet  long,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  32  inches  wide.  The  bottom  board  should  be  at  least  10 
inches  wide,  and  the  top  one  need  not  be  over  4,  with  a  space  be- 
tween of  from  G  to  8  inches,  depending  somewhat,  upon  the  size  of 
tho  sheep  that  are  to  eat,  with  their  heads  through  this  aperture. 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


61 


CojrsTRucTiOK  OF  Bee  Hives. — 
Few  departments  of  economy  and 
use  are  more  productive  of  utility, 
X)rofit,  and  real  pleasure  than  tlio 
intelligent  management  of  the  hon- 
ey hee,  but  perhaps  no  other  sub- 
ject is  less  understood  by  the  enor- 
mous masses  of  the  vast  populatiou 
who  in  every  grade  of  society, 
might  bo  benefited  by  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  subject.   In  order 
to  manage  bees  with  profit  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  discard  the  old  method  of 
suffocation  with,  sulphur,  the  old 
barrels,  liollow  logs,  straw  hives, 
boxes,  &c.,  of  the  past,  and  keep 
abreast  with  the  new  discoveries  of 
the  age.    All  that  is  required  for 
success  is  to  plan  well,  and  always 
work  in  harmony  with,  and  never 
against,  the  heaven  derived 
instincts  which  guide  tho 
marvellous  operation  of  this " 
wonderful  insect.  Fore- 
most among  the  appliances 
which  benefit  man  and  fa- 
cilitate the  labors  of  tho 
bees  we  would  mention  tho 
American  Blovable  Comb 
Hive,  cuts  of  which  are  pre- 
sented herewith. 


Directions  for  mcJcinj  ilia 
American  llive. — The  bot- 
tom board  is  ISJ  inchc? 
v.  ide,  18  inches  long  and  1:^ 
inches  thick.  The  front  and 
back  are  14|  inches  wido 
and  19^  inches  long.  Tho 
8x10  observation  door  in 
the  back,  is  cut  out  with 


buzz-saw,  3  inches  from  the  bottom,  and  thin  strios  f  in.  wide  aro 
tacked  on  the  sides  and  top  of  the  opening  even  with  the  outer  edgo 
to  leave  an  |  in.  rabbet  on  the  inside  for  the  glass.  The  door  is  fin- 
ished by  nailing  an  incli  clamp  on  end  and  side,  beveled  and  hung  to 
the  clamp  above.  Both  front  and  back  have  a  rabbet  for  the  frames 
on  the  inside,  across  the  top  4^  in.  wide  and  f  in.  deep,  and  the  samo 
extend  down  the  edge  i  in.  wide,  against  which  the  moveable  side  i3 
to  fit.  The  clamp  is  nailed  on  the  front  7^  in.  up  from  the  bottom, 
and  the  1|  in.  fly  holes  are  bored  3  ins.  from  centre  to  centre  just 
above  it. 

The  stationary  side  with  the  IJ  in.  clamp  on  the  upper  end  is  19j 
jns.  long  and  15  ins._wide.    A  part  of  the  front  is  cut  off  3  ins.  from 


C2 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


the  bottom,  to  Tc'ithin  1(|  in.  of  tho  cclffo  ncrct  to  thomovablo  side,  and 
tlio  last  surface  is  left  beveling  out  to  make  the  entrance  block  C, 
easy  of  removal,  •which  is  12;^  ins.  long,  to  tho  beveled  point,  and 
2 ins.  wide,  and  beveled  each  side  and  between  the  1^^  pillars,  1^  inn. 
np  on  the  outside,  and  g  in.  upon  the  inside,  and  the" edges  roundo(l 
o£C  to  leave  a  bee  passage  [j-  oi  an  in.  high. — (See  entrance  block  in  tho 
fiist  cut.) 

The  block  is  held  in  placo  by  tho  baso  of  tho  samo  button  that 
holds  the  entrance  slide,  B.  The  entrance  slide  13  is  Ifj  ins.  v,^idc,  15 
ins.  long,  and  g  in.  thick,  having  2  notches  g  in.  high  and  lin.  long, 
cut  to  fit  the  pillars,  C,  vv^hcn  closing  tho  hive. 

A  movable  side  to  fit  over  the  open  part  of  tho  hive,  (an  shown 
■wide  open  in  cut)  secured  by  clamps,  is  IC^ins.  long,  and  14  ins.  wido 
sit  the  top  and  ^  less  at  the  bottom  to  make  it  easy  to  remove. 

Before  nailing  tho  body  of  the  hive  together,  nail  a  clamp  3  ins. 
vide  and  12§  ins.  long  on  tho  under  side  of  the  bottom  board,  crosG- 
\7isQ  to  prevent  it  from  warping.  Use  wrought  nails  and  drive  thcia 
through  upon  a  heavy  iron  to  clinch  them,  and  nail  the  clamps  on 
tho  front  and  back  in  the  same  manner.  Tastcn  the  bottom  board  iix 
a,  vice  and  nail  tho  back  on  tho  bevelled  end  just  even  with  tho 
lower  part  of  the  observation  door,  and  iiso  tvio  or  three  long  brad 
nails  near  the  edge  nes^  to  tho  moveable  side.  Next  nail  on  tho 
stationary  side  firmly  to  tho  back  and  bottom  board,  especially  at  tho 
Iront  edge,  then  to  the  front  having  the  movable  side  in  place.  Nail 
the  clamp  on  the  npper  end  of  the  stationary  side,  nailing  through  tho 
ends  into  the  front  and  back.  Next,  nail  tho  strip  under  tho 
bottom  board  next  the  moveable  side,  which  is  14  ins.  long  by  2-^- ins. 
wide  at  the  back  end,  and  rmis  to  a  point  at  the  other  end.  Nail  tho 
11  in.  clamps  on  the  ends  of  the  movablo  side,  when  the  two  hooka 
and  metallic  buttons  are  screwed  on  tho  edge  of  the  front  and  bacic 
after  painting.  When  finished  the  movablo  side  is^  in.  shorter  than 
the  front  and  back,  to  avoid  killing  bees  that  may  be  on  tlie  stand 
when  closing  the  hive.  The  adjustable  bevelled  strips  rest  upon  tho 
frame  rabbets  next  the  stationary  side,  and  holds  the  frames  over 
against  the  movable  side.     _  _ 

There  are  nine  of  tho  movable  comb"  frames',"  and  all  are  mado 
alike.  The  bees  pass  up  into  tho  honey  boxes  through  slots  or  mor- 
tises.  Each  of  the  two  slots  in  the  projecting  edge  of  tho  top  bars,  i3 

in.  wide  and  2  ins.  long.  The  side  bars  are  7-lGtli  of  an  inch  thick,  12 
i"n .  long  and  §  wide  being  sawed  from  lumber  that  thickncsis.  The  top 
bars  lack  -|  in.  of  14  in.  in  length,  and  lack  1-lGth  of  an  inch  of  IJins.in 
j width.  They  are  sawed  7-IGtli  of  an  inch  thick  from  a  plank  which 
should  be  exactly  the  right  thickness  for  their  width. 
I  The  Improved  Comb  Guide,  which  the  bees  invariably  follow,  ia 
'constructed  in  a  manner  that  secures  straight  combs.  A  groove  is  " 
made  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  side  of  the  top  bar,  into  which  is  in- 
serted a  thin  strip  of  wood  having  its  lower  edge  coated  with  been- 
wax.  The  projecting  nails  in  the  side  bars  to  keep  the  frames  apart 
should  have  large  heads  and  be  driven  through  a  hole  in  an  iron  or 
hard  piece  of  wood,  9-16th  of  an  inch  thick.  The  frames  areheldfrom 
the  walls  of  the  hive  by  a  triangular  strip  across  the  front,  5-16 th 
in  thick,  and  the  one  on  the  back  is  not  nailed  on  until  the  glass  is  in, 
when  it  is  dressed  to  give  tho  frames  J-  in.  piay  between  tho  triau- 
gnlar  strips.  ~ 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


63 


Tho  tops  and  bottoixis  of  the  12  small  honey  boxes  are  4^  x  GJ  ins, 
raid  about  J  in.  thick.  A  slot  1^  x  3  ins.  is  cut  across  the  tops  and 
■bottoms  of  all  except  the  tops  of  six  of  tho  first  set  of  boxes.  The 
four  comer  posts  are  if  in.  square  and  5  ins.  long.  Tho  end  glass  4  x 
5  and  side  glass  5  x  G  ins.  are  held  in  place  by  a  two  prong  narrov/- 
strip  of  thi  through  the  comer  of  the  posts  and  the  prongs  bent  each 
■way  over  the  ghiss. 

The  end  pieces  of  the  caps  are  15^  ins  long,  8  J  ins.  wide  at  theendr? 
and  102  ills,  wide  in  tho  centre,  each  having  a  1;}  in.  hole,  covered  witli 
wire  cloth  on  the  inside.  The  side  pieces  are  17  ins.  long  and  8^  wide 
the  upper  edge  sawed  beveling  to  fit  the  roof  boards. 

The  roof  boards  are  20^  ins.  long,  and  each  11  ins.  -wide,  with  the 
tipper  edge  beveled  to  fit,  and  the  lower  edge  leveled  to  ntand  plumb. 
A  1\  inch  half  round  is  nailed  on  the  top  to  cover  the  joint. 

In  painting,  give  the  hives  one  coat  of  white  and  when  dry,  putty 
and  paint  the  second  coat  ;  and  while  the  paint  is  fresh,  clo.i:d,  with 
the  hive  hanging  upon  aboard  projecting  from  the  shop  wall,  G  feet 
from  the  floor,  by  passing  beneath  it  a  lighted  coal  oil  lamp  vrith  a 
small  round  wick.  Y/hcii  the  paint  is  dry  screw  on  the  hooks  and 
buttons,  giving  each  a  tap  that  it  may  fit  the  movable  side  more 
closely. 

By  consulting  the  Pcimfe?'s  Department,  beginning  at  page  1C3,  tho 
reader  will  find  an  immense  number  of  formula  for  compounding ' 
paints  of  every  description  at  the  lowest  cost.  Many  of  these  will  bo 
admirably  adapted  for  painting  bee-hives  in  a  beautiful  and  inex- 
IDCnsive  stylo. 

>  Tho  lumber  used  should  bo  thoroughly  seasoned,  and,  after  both 
sides  are  dressed,  it  should  be,  for  the  body  of  the  hive,  §  in.  thick. 
In  the  cut,  the  bottom  board,  projects  in  front  of  the  hive,  making  a 
convenient  alighting  board,  and  being  inclined,  is  kept  clean  by  tho 
bees  during  the  worlnng  season,  By  removing  the  entrance  block, 
C,  a  large  opening  is  made  for  brushing  out  litter  in  the  winter  ot 
early  spring,  and  for  hiving  new  swarms.  By  tho  use  of  the  g-malL 
slide,  B.  held  in  place  by  the  same  button,  the  entrance  can  be  con- 
tracted, if  necessary,  to  the  admission  of  a  single  bee,  thus  eHectual- 
ly  guarding  a  weak  swarm  from  robbery,  and  the  entrance  may  bo 
closed  entirely  by  making  notches  d,  in  the  slide  correspond  with 
the  pillars.  By  means  of  the  movable  side  and  the  observation  door 
at  the  back  of  the  hive  every  facility  is  furnished  for  obtaining  ho- 
nej',  observing  progress,  removing  or  adding  frames  to  strengthen 
weak  stock,  transferring,  &c.,  &c.,without  injuring  the  combs  or  irri- 
tating the  bees,  and  the  honey  boxes  on  tho  top  may  be  removed  or 
added  at  will. 

V  Another  hive  of  intrinsic  excellence  Is  called  the  Climax,  and  Filll 
another,  the  American,  with  Climax  improvements,  see  cuts.  Tho 
Climax  is  made  in  two  parts.  The  upper  part,  which  contains  tho 
boxes  (or  frame)  is'provided  with  common  trunk  rollers,  and  rests 
on  cleats,  secured  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  hive.  These  cleats  extend 
far  enough  beyond  the  hive  to  allow  the  upper  to  roll  off  from  tho 
lower  without  crushing,  dis-turhing  or  in  any  way  interfevinrj  witli 
the  labors  of  the  bees.  The  strips  formnng  the  track,  have  drcx^)  legs 
at  their  outer  ends,  and  are  hinged  just  outside  the  body  of  theliivo, 
and  when  not  in  use,  fold  up  snugly  against  the  hive.  Tho  bottom 
board  of  tho  upper  part  answers  every  purpose  of  a  honey  board. 


CA 


ON  BEE  KEEriN<5. 


Ifc  is  provided  witlx  two  tjlots  to  admit  tlio  bee;;  ;  each  slot  is  provided 
witli  ii  zinc  strip  ou  tlio  uudcr-sido,  couiiccted  by  a  wire  with  a  liaa- 


THE  CLIMAX  BEE  HTVU 


a:j:ericai^  bee  hive  ■with  climax  impkoyemsint. 

dlo  oil  llie  outside.  By  thig  simple  contrivance,  all  communicatioji 
.between  the  two  parts  of  the  hive  may  be  instantly  cut  off,  and  divi- 
diuj?  or  any  other  operation  i)erformed  without  difficulty. 

The  bottom  board  of  the  lower  part  is  made  of  plank  IJ  ins,  thiclc; 
and  is  beveled  from  the  centre  to  each  end,  and  projects  far  enough  in 
front  and  rear  t^  form  alighting  boards.  Along  the  summit  of 
the  bottom  board  is  nailed  a  triangular  strip  notched  on  the  upper- 
edge,  CorresTDonding  notches  are' made  in  the  centre  of  the  lower 
edges  of  the  bottom  bars  of  the  frames.  Then  notches  are  cut  bevel- 
ling, so  that  the  frames  are  easily  inserted  or  withdrawn,  but  when 
in  place,  are  i'mmovahle,and  will  not  shake  or  jostle,  no  matter  how 
the  liive  is  turned.  Then  there  is  a  central  rest  for  the  frames,  which 
renders  them  entirely  independent  of  each  other,  and  of  the  walls  of 
the  hive.    The  well  kuowii  propensity  of  bees  to  rlno  every  thing  to 


ON  BEE  KEEPING, 


65 


gether  that  tliey  can  is  thus  anticipated  and  prevented,  while  at  the 
8ame  time  a  free  passage  all  around,  between,  above  and  below  tho 
frames,  is  afforded.  The  lower  part  has  two  entrances  on  opposite 
Bides,  and  the  bottom  board  slanting  each  way  is  easily  kept  clean.  By 
removiagthe  entrance  block,  complete  ventilation  is  effected,  and  for 
surplus  honey  in  the  comb,  twenty-four  small  frames  above,  each  5x6 
and  2  ins.  wide  are  used.  Six  of  these  frames  are  placed  together,  top 
and  sides  close  fitting,  and  a  pane  of  glass,  5x6  inches,  placed  at 
each  end.  A  strip  of  tough  paper,  about  2  ins.  wide,  is  then  glued  to 
each  Bide  and  turned  around  on  the  glass,  which  holds  them  firmly  in. 
place.  Twelve  frames  thus  made  into  tioosurplus  boxes,  just  cover  tho 
top,  and  another  tier,  above  this,  furnish  room  for  50  lbs  of  honey,  in 
the  best  shape  for  market  or  home  use,  the  cost  of  these  frame  boxes 
being  less  than  half  that  of  the  common  glass  boxes. 

Another  important  auxiliary  to  the  apiculturist  will  be  foimd  in 
the  Honey  Extractor,  represented  herewith.  This  is  a  geared  ma- 
chine made  of  metal,  or  other  suitable  material,  fitted  with  an 


HONEY  EXTRACTORS. 

interior  arrangement  for  receiving  the  movable  frames  containmg 
the  comb  and  honey  from  the  hive.  The  centrifugal  force  generat- 
ed by  the  rapid  rotary  motion  of  the  frame  causes  the  honey  to  fly 


in  every  direction  against  the  inner  side  of  the  machine,  and  flow- 
down  into  the  vessel  beneath.  The  frame  and  perfect  comb,  minus 
the  honey,  is  then  returned  to  the  hive  to  be  again  filled  with  honey. 
This  operation  may  be  repeated  with  the  same  comb  for  twelve  or 
fifteen  years,  if  req^ed  and  the  value  of  the  device  may  be  imma- 


66 


ON  liKE  KKI<:riNC4. 


gincd  whcu  it  is  known  that  each  pound  of  the  comb,  bo  far  as  the 
labor  of  the  bees  is  conccnicd,  i.s  eciuivaleiit  or  equal  to  the  collec- 
tion of  twenty  pounds  of  honey,  Tlic  knife  rej)rescnted  herewith  is 
used  for  uncapping  honey  for  extracting. 

As  the  utility  of  the  preceding  remarks  will  bo  greatly  enhanced 
by  additional  information  regarding  bees,  wo  herewith  append  the  fol- 
lowing excellent  representations  of  the  tenants  of  the  liivo,  togethor 
with  practical  instructions  for  profitable  mauagcmeut. 


QUEEN*  DRONE.  BLACK  •WORKER.  ITAL.  WORKER. 

The  Italian  bees  are  becoming  great  farorites  wherever  they  have 
been  introduced,  and  are  rapidljr  supplanting  the  black  bees.  They 
are  credited  with  being  very  industrious  workers,  making  three 
flights  for  every  two  made  by  the  black  bees,  and  storing  much  more 
than  double  the  honey,  besides  being  more  prolific,  as  is  evidenced 
by  their  more  frequent  swarming.  Besides,  the  Italian  bee  is  very- 
hardy,  working  earlier  and  later  in  the  season  and  gatheruig  honey 
from  sources  not  frequented  by  the  common  bee. 

Useful  Hints  tor  Beginners.— 1.  Work  quietly;  avoid  sudden 
jars  ;  never  fight  your  bees,  and  always  Jceep  cool.  2.  If  you  get 
stung,  remove  the  sting,  squeeze  out  all  the  poison  you  can,  and  ap- 
ply hartshorn.  3.  Use  plenty  of  smoke ;  a  roll  of  dry  rags  or  decay- 
ed wood  makes  the  best ;  blow  in  the  entrance  and  at  the  top  of 
frames.  If  you  are  timid,  use  rubber  gloves  on  your  hands,  and,  a. 
veil  over  the  face  and  head  ;  the  veil  must  be  long  enough  to  allow 
the  vest  or  coat  to  be  put  on  over  it.  4.  When  j)asture  first  becomes 
plenty  in  the  spring  is  a  good  time  to  transfer  bees.  Always  work 
among  the  hives  during  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  the  bees  aro 
busy.  5.  Stocks  without  eggs  or  young  brood  in  June,  must  bo 
queenless  and  should  be  supplied  with  a  queen  or  queen  cell,  or  they 
will  dwindle  away  and  perish  either  by  robbers  or  moth.  6.  When 
symptoms  of  robbing  occur,  use  the  utmost  caution.  Contract  the 
entrance  of  weak  hives,  and  allow"  no  comb,  honey,  sugar  or  syrup 
to  be  around.  Avoid  opening  hives  as  much  as  possible.  7.  Avoid  an 
excess  of  drone  comb  by  the  presence  of  a  queen  in  swarms  where 
combs  are  to  be  constructed.  As  swarms  having  young  queens  sel- 
dom swarm  that  year,  less  drone  comb  is  built  in  swarms  having 
young  queens.  8.  Qniet  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  well-being  of 
an  apiary.  Do  not  place  it  near  Mills,  Steam  Works,  or  Manufac- 
tories of  any  kind.   If  possible  have  it  in  view  from  the  •windows  of 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


67 


the  family  room,  ns  much  extra  trouble  may  bo  avoided,  9.  As 
natural  talent  or  business  tact,  is  requisite,  with  education  to  success 
in  business,  so  a  careful  turn  of  mind  and  a  love  for  the  business, 
with  an  understanding  of  the  subject,  is  necessary  to  success  in  bee- 
keeping. 10.  Put  on  honey  boxes  partly  filled  with  comb  as  soon  as 
the  lower  part  of  the  hive  is  well  filled  with  honey  and  bees,  and 
v/hen  they  are  gathering  honey  plentifully;  commence  with  only  ono 
or  two  boxes  at  a  time  on  the  most  populous  stocks.  11.  In  transfer- 
ring combs  always  give  those  the  preference  that  contain  worker 


DRONE  AND  WORKEK  COMB. 

brood.  Put  brood  comb  near  the  centre  of  the  hive  in  the  order  in 
which  they  were  in  the  box  hive.  Do  your  transferring  where  rob- 
bers cannot  possibly  be  attracted,  12.  Avoid  weak  swarms,  as  they 
gather  but  little  honey,  breed  slowly,  and  are  in  danger  of  destruc- 
tion by  robbers,  the  moth,  or  eeverity  of  winter,  "Weak  swarma 
should  always  be  united  in  the  fall,  and  should  never  be  made  by 
dividing  early  in  the  season.  13.  Whenever  j^ou  notice  the  bees  run- 
ning about  the  entrance  in  the  evening  in  a  disturbed  condition,  mark 
that  hive  and  notice  it  the  next  evening.  If  the  bees  run  about 
smelling  each  other,  it  is  a  sign  they  have  lost  their  queen  and 
should  receive  attention.  14.  In  establishing  an  apiary,  select  a 
gentle  slope  to  the  south-east;  face  the  hives  in  the  same  direction,  if 
possible  have  running  water  near  ;  shade  and  protection  from  winds 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  are  important.  Set  every  hive  as  perpendi- 
cular as  a  clock — for  a  stand,  take  two  short  pieces  of  4  x  6  scantling 
and  lay  or  nail  on  a  board.   15.  To  make  queen  ca^jes,  cut  wire  cloth. 


ON  BEE  KEEriNG. 


3x4  inches;  pull  out  t-^vo  or  tlirco  trauBVCiso  wires  from  ono  of  tho  3 
inch  edges,  and  insert  tlio  projecting  ends  tluis  left  in  tlie  corres- 
ponding meshes  of  tlio  otlier  tlireo  inch  edge,  and  fasten  them ;  stop 
ono  cud  with  a  cork  or  Avood.  Wlien  yon  wisli  to  introduce  a 
queen,  put  her  in  tho  cage  and  sto]}  tlic  other  end  with  wax.  IG.  A. 
lew  inclies  of  drono  comb  is  amply  abundant  for  any  hivo, 
as  drones  consume  a  great  deal  of  honey  and  gather  none.  Tho 
movable  frame  hivo  renders  any  preventive  operation  very  easy  :  tho 
cut  will  enable  the  beginner  to  identify  the  drone  by  the  largo 
cells.  17.  In  the  Northern  States  and  British  Provinces,  ex])erimcnts 
demonstrated  that  bees  Avintered  in  the  open  air  have  consumed 
about  45  lbs.  of  honey  per  hive,  whilo.  bees  wintered  in  tho  ceilar 


COMB  SHOWING  BBOQD  AND  QUEEN  CELIi. 

dnring  the  same  period  consumed  on  an  average  only  5  Ihs  each  In 
another  case  6  hives  wintered  out  of  doors  lost  an  average  of  29^  lbs, 
in  Aveight  each,  during  3  months,  while  20  hives  in  the  cellar  lost 
only  5|  lbs,  each,  during  the  same  time.  Do  not  place  them  in  the 
cellar  until  the  severe  weather  begins  ;  giA^e  them  plenty  of  upward 
ventilation  in  order  to  pass  off  the  vapor  generated  from  the  bees  ; 
place  the  hives  in  rows  on  shelves,  keep  them  in  a  clean  dark  place, 


ON  BEE  KEEPING 


but  not  in  a  damp  or  badly  ventilated  cellar,  for  that  is  ceitain  death 
to  bees,  and  keep  wire  cloth  tacked  over  the  entrance  to  each  hive  ; 
if  a  dry;  absorbent  material  such  as  cut  straw  or  shavings,  can  be 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hive  to  receive  and  absorb  the  un- 
healthy emanations  from  the  bees,  all  the  better ;  in  out  door  wintering 
especially,  this  is  a  most  desirable  plan,  as  it  retains  the  heat  while 
it  absorbs  the  effluvia.  18,  Bees  wintered  on  their  summer  stands 
should  always  be  allowed  from  30  to  50  lbs,  of  honey  to  each  colony 
and  extra  protection  around  the  hive  if  the  cold  is  very  intense.  19. 
When  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  queen  in  the  cells  prepared  by  the 
workers.  In  3  days  they  hatch  into  small  worms  which  are  nuitured 
and  fed  , until  about  the  eighth  day  the  larvae  become  n^nil  t  .  r.nd 
are  sealed  up  in  their  cells  to  reappear  as  perfect  bees.  The  queen 
bee  emerges  in  from  10  to  17  days,  the  drone  in  24,  and  the  workers 
in  21  days  from  the  egg.  The  cut  illustrates  a  comb  showing  brood 
and  queen'cell  but  the  artist  has  not  succeeded  very  well  in  representing 
the  royal  form  with  w  hich  nature  has  endowed  her  majesty.  In  from  '6 
to  5  days  after  emerging,  the  queen  leaves  the  hive  to  meet  the  drones  ill 
the  air,  for  fertilization.  She  never  leaves  the  hive  at  any  other  times 
except  when  she  goes  with  a  swarm,  and  one  copulation  is  all  sufllcient 
to  ensure  fertility  for  life.  Under  favorable  circumstances  she  wOl 
deposit  3000  eggs'  per  day.  20.  In  introducing  an  Italian  queen  to  a 
colony  of  common  bees,  enclose  her  in  a  wire  cloth  cage  and  insert 
the  cage  in  the  centre  of  a  comb  where  the  bees  will  cluster  upon  it. 
In  36  hours  release  the  queen,  smear  her  with  honey,  and  allow  her 
to  crawl  down  among  the  bees.  21.  When  bees  are  short  of  honey 
a  good  and  cheap  food  may  be  provided  by  using  good  coffee  sugar, 
4  lbs,  added  to  water,  1  qt.,  bring  to  a  boil,  skim  and  allow  it  to  cool. 
22.  Another.  Take  of  the  best  quality  of  brown  sugar,  two  parts  by 
measure,  to  one  part  of  pure  soft  water  ;  boil  and  skim  it ;  then  to 
cveiy  quart  of  the  mixture,  add  one  even  teaspoonful  of  the  best  cream 
tartar  ;  dissolve  the  cream  tartar  before  putting  it  in.  Remiove  the 
empty  comb  with  the  frame  from  the  hive  fill  them  by  allowing  the 
syrup  to  drain  through  a  proper  strainer  into  the  cells,  and  then 
return  the  frames  to  the  hive.  With  box  hives,  use  some  good  feeder 
era  dish  of  proper  size  to  set  under  the  cap  on  the  top  of  the  hive  ; 
fill  the  dish  with  the  syrup,  and  throw  cn  fine  shavings  or  cut  straw, 
to  prevent  the  bees  from  falling  into  it.  23.  The  best  substitute  for 
bee  bread  or  natural  pollen  is  rye  flour  unbolted.  In  the  absence  of 
rye,  use  other  flour.  24.  The  damp  air  may  be  drawn  from  a  cellar 
in  which  bees  are  being  wintered  by  connecting  the  cellar  and  your 
stove  pipe  by  means  of  a  2  inch  tin  pipe  passing  up  through  the  floor. 
25.  In  hiving  bees,  use  diluted  honey  or  white  sugar  syrup,  damp  the 
inside  of  your  hive  and  gently  sprinkle  the  bees  with  the  liquid  ;  it 
will  render  them  so  happy  that  you  may  handle  them  as  you  please. 

Surplus  Honey  Stored  in  Boxes.—"  Those  having  bees  in 
common  hives,  and  who  wish  their  surplus  honey  stored  in  boxes, 
will  obtain  the  greatest  amount  and  avoid  many  disappointments  by 
attending  to  the  following  conditions  :  1.  The  boxes  should  be  tight 
and  large,  but  not  over  four  or  five  inches  high,  find  protected  from 
the  changes  of  the  weather  by  an  outer  cap.  2.  The  bees  should  be 
induced  to  commence  in  them  by  attaching  pieces  of  clean  empty 
combs  to  the  under  side  6t  the  top,  and  placing  the  boxes  directly 


70 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


over  tho  breeding  apartment,  with  largo  openings  under  each  box  to 
admit  the  bees.  3.  Early  in  the  Reason  sclcet  a  few  populous  stocks, 
givin|2f  a  box  to  each,  aiid  when  the  bees  have  commenced  in  them, 
give  boxes  to  tlie  next  strongest,  being  careful  not  to  give  too  mucli 
room  until  a  start  has  been  made.  4.  Keep  tlio  hives  cool  by  sliad- 
ing  from  the  sun,  and  if  tho  bees  cluster  outside,  Avhen  llowcrs  aro 
plenty,  ventilate  by  enlarging  the  entrances  and  giving  more  room  in 
tho  boxes  if  needed.  After  a  populous  stock  has  nearly  filled  it;} 
boxes  it  will  often  take  long  enough  time  to  finish  them,  to  havo 
half  fdled  empty  ones,  besides  the  difficulty  so  often  experienced  iu 
getting  the  bees  to  commence  in  tho  boxes  after  those  first  filled  aro 
removed,  which  objections  aro  both  overcome  in  the  American  hive, 
described  in  the  article  on  hives."    Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

Hatching  and  Ferxilization  ot?  Queens.— "In  about  eight 
days  after  the  old  queen  leaves  with  the  first  swarm,  the  most  advan- 
ced sealed  queen  is  ready  to  emerge.  During  this  time  the  old  stock 
is  without  a  hatched  queen,  the  young  queen  immediately  upon  leav- 
ing her  cell,  if  not  restrained  by  the  workers,  commences  the  work  of 
destruction  upon  her  yet  imprisoned  sisters.  She  accomplishes  thia 
by  biting  open  the  side  of  each  cell  near  its  base,  and  dispatching  tho 
unfortunate  inmate  with  her  sting.  She  is  yet  incompetent  for  tho 
raaterual  duty,  and  must  leave  the  hive  to  meet  the  drones  in  the  air 
for  the  purpose  of  fertilization.  This  once  accomplished,  the  work- 
ers, awaiting  her  safe  return,  greet  her  with  a  reverence  and  affec- 
tion never  shovra  before.  They  hasten  to  prepare  the  cells  to  receivo 
her  tiny  eggs,  and  seem  to  realize  that  on  her  existence  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  family  depends.  There  is  also  a  perceptible  change  in  tho 
queen's  form,  her  abdomen  being  a  little  swollen  and  somewhat 
lengthened,  but  not  as  much  as  at  the  height  of  the  breeding  sea- 
son. She  now  remains  the  fruitful  mother  of  the  proeperous  and 
happy  colony,"   Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

1  To  Prevent  new  Swarms  from  leaatno  their  Hives. — 
*'  Natural  swarms  occasionally  refuse  to  stay  after  having  been  hived, 
usually  in  consequence  of  heat  or  strong  odor  about  the  hive.  In 
nucleus  swarming  this  seldom  or  never  happens,  because  the  bees 
are  never  without  a  comb  containing  brood  and  honey  ;  and  they 
■will  not  leave  voluntarily.  Therefore  when  hiving  a  swarm  in  a 
moveable  comb  hive,  go  to  any  stock  that  can  spare  a  comb  contain- 
ing brood  and  honey.  Brush  back  the  bees,  being  careful  not  to 
remove  the  queen  or  any  queen-cells  with  comb,  and  place  it  ui  tho 
hive  that  is  to  receive  the  new  swarm.  It  will  not  only  prevent  tho 
bees  from  decamping  but  will  greatly  encourage  them,  and  should 
bad  weather  confine  them  to  the  hive  they  will  be  secure  from  star- 
vation. If  the  swarm  is  put  in  a  common  hive,  place  over  them  a 
box  of  honey  taken  from  the  parent  stock."  Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

The  Nucleus  System  of  Swarming.—"  The  introduction  of  a 
mature  fertile  queen  to  a  colony  tioo  loeeks  sooner  than  when  they 
swarm  naturally  is  an  advantage  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  extra 
trouble.    The  time  cjained  in  breeding  is  equivalent  to  a  swarm.  M. 

QUINEY. 

In  swarming  bees  on  this  system,  we  first  rear  a  queen  in  a  small 
cluster  nucleus  of  bees,  allowing  the  nucleus  hive  to  remam  in  its 
place  until  tho  queen  becomes  fertile,  when  ^Y0  swarm  the  bees  by 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


71 


simply  causing  tlio  two  hives  to  exchange  places.  Unlike  natural 
swarming,  the  old  queen  remains  in  tlie  parent  stock  and  its  labors 
go  on  scarcely  mterrupted.  Tlie  system  is  based  upon  the  well  known 
law,  that  bees,  after  luxuriating  upon  the  flowers,  will  return  to  tho 
exact  spot  of  their  old  habitation.  Form  a  nucleus  from  an  Italian  or 
other  populous  stock  by  blowing  a  few  whiffs  of  smoke  into  the  en- 
trance aud  opening  the  liive  ;  select  a  frame  of  comb  containing  cap' 
ped  brood,  but  especially  plenty  of  eggs  and  young  larvjB.  After 
looking  this  over  carefully,  lest  the  old  queen  be  removed,  place  it 
with  its  adhering  bees  in  the  empty  hive,  and  next  to  it  another  comb 
containing  honey,  which  will  afford  protection  to  the  brood  and  food 
for  the  hees.  As  many  of  the  old  bees 
will  return  to  the  parent  stock,  give  tho 
nucleus  hive  at  least  a  quart  of  bees 
and  set  it  on  a  new  stand  two  or  tlireo 
rods  distant.  Contract  tho  entrance  so 
that  but  one  or  two  bees  can  pass  at  tho 
same  time,  and  set  a  feed  pan  on  tho 
frames,  or  a  sponge  filled  with  sweet- 
ened water  will  supply  their  v/ants  until 
the  young  bees  go  to  work  intlieir  new 
location.  In  place  of  the  combs  removed 
from  tho  parent-stock,  set  in  empty 
frames  with  a  full  one  between.  If  tho 
frames  are  put  near  the  centre,  the  old 
stock  will  increase  all  the  faster,  as  tho 
queen  will  fill  the  new  comb  with  eggs  as 
fast  as  it  is  built.  The  removal  of  tho 
two  combs  stimulates  the  bees  to  great 
activity  by  giving  them  room  to  work, 
and  detaches  just  bees  enough  to  prevent 
their  clustering  idly  about  the  entrance. 
The  nucleus  will  construct  queen-cells 
and  rear  a  queen  as -well  as  a  wholo 
swarm.  Besides,  tho  qneen  is  easily  found  among  so  few  bees.  Wo 
now  wait  until  the  tenth  or  eleventh  day,  from  the  time  the  nucleus 
was  formed,  Avhen  we  open  it,  and  witk  a  sharp  thin  bladed  knife,  cut 
out  all  the  queen-cells  but  one  and  use  them  immediately  in  forming 
other  nucleus,  by  attachmg  one  of  them  to  a  frame  of  comb  and  beos 
taken  from  an  old  stock,  as  before  described,  and  placed  in  an  empty 
hiva  In  transferring  queen-cells  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
press  or  dent  them,  or  expose  them  long  to  the  hot  sun  or  cool  air  for 
fear  of  destroying  the  royal  occupants.  The  beginners  should  re- 
move but  one  at  a  time,  returning  the  frame  from  which  it  is  taken 
to  its  place  in  the  hive  until  the  royal  cell  is  adjusted  in  its  new  loca- 
tion. When  practicable  have  about  an  inch  square  of  comb  attached 
to  the  cell,  and  upon  taking  the  comb  or  brood  from  the  old  stock, 
make  an  opening  among  the  eggs  and  larvje  where  bees  will  be 
sure  to  cluster  upon  it  and  keep  it  warm,  and  carefully  in- 
sert it  as  shown  in  figure,  leaving  an  open  space  below  it. 
If  the  first  nucleus  was  formed  from  the  only  Italian  stock 
in  the  yard,  and  more  queen-cells  are  wanted,  remove  every  queen- 
cell  from  it,  and  add  another  comb  of  eggs  aud  brood  from  its  parent 


72 


ON  BEE-KEEPINO. 


itock.  Buo  when  no  more  queen-cells  are  needed,  leave  one  to  hatch 
and  as  by  this  tiino  the  brood  will  all  be  capped  over,  the  bees  will  be 
liable  to  follow  the  young  queen  on  her  excursions  to  meet  the  dronea. 
To  prevent  tliis,  exchange  one  of  tlie  combs  for  one  containing  egga 
and  young  larvie.  When  forming  the  other  nucleus,  young  quceiig 
will  return  unless  lost  by  birds  or  other  casualties,  to  which  all  queens 
are  once  exposed.  Such  loss  is  easily  ascertained  among  so  few  beos, 
and  we  have  only  to  insert  another  queen-cell,  adding  a  comb  contain- 
ing eggs  and  brood  and  repeat  the  trial.  Should  the  parent  stock  be 
very  populous  it  may  be  swarmed  by  taking  a  queen  from  the  nucleus 
belonging  to  a  less  populous  stock,  and  another  queen  reared  there. 

When  and  Jiow  to  tSioarm  the  Bees. — Every  populous  stock,  from 
which  a  nucleus  has  been  formed,  should  be  swarmed,  if  the  weather 
is  favorable,  as  soon  as  the  queen  in  the  nucleus  has  become  fertile, 
This  is,  usually,  in  from  six  to  ten  days  after  inserting  the  queen-cell, 
and  is  readily  determined  by  examining  the  combs  for  eggs.  We  now, 
unless  the  yield  of  honey  is  very  abundant,  confine  the  young  queen 
in  a  gauze  wire  cage.  Having  filled  up  the  nucleus  hives  with  empty 
frames,  exchange  the  places  of  the  two  hives,  bringing  the  entrance 
of  the  nucleus  hive  where  the  old  stock  has  stood,  and  where  the  mass 
of  the  old  bees  will  return  from  the  fields,  thus  throwing  out  of  the 
old  stock  swarms  of  workers  into  the  nucleus  hive  while  the  old  bees 
from  the  nucleus  will  enter  the  old  hive  and  minister  to  the  wants  of 
the  numerous  brood  of  the  parent  stock.  The  bees  must  not  be  swarm- 
ed between  the  hatching  and  the  fertilization  of  the  queen,  and  should 
they  be  swarmed  when  the  honey  harvest  has  received  a  check  from 
a  storm  or  drought,  the  bees  thus  empty  of  honey  and  consequently 
more  quarrelsome,  being  suddenly  thrown  into  the  presence  of  a 
strange  queen  (although  of  the  same  scent)  are  inclined  to  sting  her. 
To  prevent  this  she  is  caged  for  thirty-six  hours,  when  the  bees  from 
the  old  stock  will  mostly  have  joined  the  nucleus  colony  and  she  may 
be  safely  liberated.  But,  if  she  was  taken  from  another  nucleus,  we 
sometimes  let  her  remain  caged  a  day  longer,  or  smear  her  well  with 
^arm  honey,  and  drop  her  in  among  the  bees.  They  immediately 
Commence  licking  up  the  honey,  and  forget  to  sting  her.  If  from  any 
cause  the  stocks  are  swarmed  when  the  bees  are  working  but  little, 
and  after  three  or  four  days  the  nucleus  swarm  be  found  deficient  in 
bees,  it  may  be  strengthened  by  exchanging  some  of  its  empty  frames 
for  frames  of  capped  brood  from  the  parent  stock,  or  should  the  flowers 
yield  bountifully  within  a  week,  the  location  of  the  two  hives  may 
again  be  exchanged.  The  bees  will  not  quarrel  as  they  are  of  the 
eame  scent.  Unless  a  nucleus  has  been  formed  several  weeks,  or  when 
honey  is  scarce,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  treat  both  stocks,  especi- 
ally the  old  one,  to  tobacco  smoke.  This  precaution,  however,  is  only 
for  the  inexperienced,  since,  in  the  midst  of  the  swarming  season, 
when  the  flowers  are  in  profusion,  little  protection  is  needed  either  foi 
the  queen  or  the  operator. 

Hens  Made  to  Protect  Bees. — A  bee  raiser  has  patented  an  in- 
vention for  the  protection  of  bees  from  the  attacks  of  the  honey  moth, 
which  enters  the  hives  at  night,  and  rifles  the  stores.  The  idea  arose 
out  of  his  familiarity  with  the  daily  routine,  not  of  bees  only,  but  of 
hens.  Hens,  he  observed,  retire  to  rest  early;  but  bees  seek  repose 
earlier  still ;  no  sooner  are  they  sunk  into  slumber,  than  the  moth 
steals  into  their  abode  and  devours  the  produce  of  their  toil.   He  haf 


ON  BEE-KEEPING.  7S 


now  built  a  stand  of  hives  with  a  hen  house  connected.  The  bees  first 
betake  themselves  to  their  dwelling  and  settle  themselves  for  the 
night.  The  hens  then  come  home  to  roost  on  their  perch,  and  as  they 
take  their  places  upon  it,  their  weight  sets  some  simple  mechanicism 
to  work,  which  at  once  shuts  down  the  doors  of  all  the  hives.  When 
the  day  dawns,  however,  the  hens  leave  their  roost,  and  the  removal 
of  their  weight  from  the  perch  raises  the  hive  doors,  and  gives  egress 
to  the  bees  in  time  for  their  morning's  work. 


ExPiiANATiOK  OF  THE  ABOVE  CuTS.— -The  cut  A  represents  brood 
in  various  stages  from  eggs  and  larvjB  in  the  lower  part  of  the  comb  to 
brood  capped  at  e,  and  just  emerging  at/;  n,is  a  queen-cell,  just 
commenced  at  from  larvse ;  6,  a  perfect  queen-cell  capped  over  ;  a, 
a  cell  from  which  the  queen  has  just  emerged.  B  represents  queen- 
cells  destroyed  ;  C  unimpregnated  queen;  D  fertile  queen;  E  male 
moth  or  miller;  F  female  miller. 

To  Kilij  Bee  Moths. — Bee  moths  can  easily  be  killed  by  setting  a 
pan  of  grease  on  which  is  placed  a  floating  lighted  wick,  near  the 
hives  after  dark  :  the  light  will  attract  the  moths  in  large  numbera, 
when  they  will  be  destroyed  by  falling  into  the  grease. 

Many  persons  are  deriving  substantial  yearly  licomes  amounting 
to  thousands  of  dollars  from  bee-keeping,  and  it  is  credibly  reported 
that  the  late  Mr.  Quimby  left  property  valued  at  $100,000,  all  derived 
from  this  source  alone.  Mr.  Quimby  wrote  that  the  honey  gathered 
by  bees  compared  with  what  was  lost  for  the  lack  of  bees  to  gather  it, 
was  but  as  1  compared  with  1,000,  so  that  it  seems  as  if  a  careful  per- 
son, engaged  in  bee-keeping,  and  thoroug'^lly  equipped  with  all  mod- 
em appliances  for  the  business,  possesses,  as  old  honest  Sam  Johnson 


74  BEE-KEEPING,  &C. 

once  expressed  himself  rcgfirding  a  different  subject,  "The  potential- 
ity of  growing  rich  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice,"  and  what  is  oi 
still  greater  importance,  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  business  is  al- 
most inelfable  in  comparison  with  the  satisfaction  of  being  rich. 

Limited  space  forbids  the  farther  consideration  of  this  attractive 
subject  in  this  place,  and  the  author  would  conclude  by  expressing 
his  sincere  obhgations  to  the  editor  of  the  "  Bee-Keeper's  Magazine" 
for  according  permission  to  make  extracts  from  the  varied  contents  of 
an  excellent  little  manual  called  the  "Bee-Keeper's  Text  Boole,"  and 
Other  reliable  sources  of  information.  For  the  benefit  of  parties  de- 
siring further  light  on  this  fascinating  topic,  he  would  state  that  tlio 
"  Bee-Keeper's  Magazine  "  v/ili  fill  the  entire  bill  of  their  require- 
ments. It  is  a  first  rate  illustrated  monthly  journal  of  32  octavo  pages, 
devoted  exclusively  to  Bee-Culture,  edited  by  Albert  J.  King,  con- 
taining monthly  contributions  from  Mrs.  E.  S.  Tupper,  and  other 
eminent  writers  and  bee-keepers  in  both  Europe  and  America.  A 
large  space  is  devoted  to  Beginners,  giving  useful  information,  jrist 
when  it  is  needed,  throughout  the  year.  Terms  4^1.50  per  year.  Tho 
proprietors  will  send  the  Magazine  four  months  on  trial,  and  include 
a  04  page  pamphlet  (price  50  cents),  containing  a  beautiful  life-like 
chromo  of  Honey-Plants  and  Italian  Bees  in  their  natural  colors  ; 
Prize  Essay  by  Mrs.  Tupper  ;  Queen  Rearing  by  M.  Quimby ;  instruc- 
tions for  beginners,  &c.,  all  for  50  cents.  Address,  King  &  Slocum, 
CI  Hudson  street,  New  York. 

Food  for  Mocking  Birds. — Mix  well  together  corn  meal,  pea 
meal  (made  by  drying  split  peas  in  an  oven  and  then  grinding  them 
in  a  mill),  each  one  part,  moss  meal,  prepared  from  the  moss  seed 
imported  from  Germany,  ^  part,  add  sufflcient  melted  lard  not  to  make 
it  too  fat  or  greasy,  and  sweeten  with  molasses .  Fry  the  mixture  in 
a  frying-pan  for  ^  an  hour,  stirring  it  ail  the  time,  to  avoid  burning. 
Mocking,  and  other  birds  of  like  nature,  will  leave  all  other  food  for 
this. 


FOR  LUMBERMEN",  BUILDERS,  CONTRACTORS, 
MILL  OWNERS,  SHIP  BUILDERS,  SHIP  OWNERS, 
l^AVIGATORS,  QUARRYMEN,  STON^E  CUTTERS, 
MERCHANTS,  AND  BUSINESSMEN  GENERALLY. 

To  Prevent  wood  froivi  Cracking. — Place  the  wood  in  a  bath 
'of  fused  parafflne  heated  to  212*^  Fahr.  and  allow  it  to  remain  as  long 
as  bubbles  of  air  are  given  off.  Then  allow  the  parafflne  to  cool  down 
to  its  point  of  congelation,  and  remove  the  wood  and  wipe  off  tho 
adhering  wax  :  wood  treated  in  this  way  is  not  likely  to  crack. 

To  Bend  Wood. — Wood  enclosed  in  a  close  chamber  and  submitted 
to  the  action  of  steam  for  a  limited  time  will  be  rendered  so  pliant 
that  it  may  be  bent  in  almost  any  direction.  The  same  process  win 
also  eliminate  the  sap  from  the  wood  and  promote  rapid  seasoning. 

Fire  Proofing  for  Wood. — Alum,  3  parts;  green  vitriol,  1  part; 
make  a  strong  hot  solution  with  water,  make  another  weak  solutioi: 
with  green  vitriol  in  which  i)ipe  clay  has  been  mixed  to  the  consis- 
tence of  a  paint.  Apply  two  coats  of  the  first,  dry,  and  then  finish  witli 
one  ooat  of  the  last. 


lumbermen's  camp. 


75 


LUMBERMAN'S  SHANTY  OR  CAMP. 

Many  of  the  honest  farmers  and  sturdy  lumbermen  of  the  North- 
ern States,  Canada  and  New  Brunswick,  will  be  at  no  loss  to  under- 
stand the  uses  of  the  humble  mansion  represented  in  the  cut,  and 
many  a  forest  wanderer  and  weary  hunter  will  identify  the  modest 
habitation  as  the  counterpart  of  another  where  he  has  been  refreshed 
by  the  substantial  meal,  and  invigorated  by  the  peaceful  slumber  en- 
joyed under  the  hospitable  roof.  However  poor  the  lumberman  may 
be,  however  numerous  his  trials  and  privations,  and  we  are  soriy  to 
say  they  are  not  few  in  number,  this  we  will  say,  that  whether  you  are 
known  or  unknown,  rich  or  poor,  whether  you  are  bent  on  businesa 
or  pleasure,  in  the  lumber  camp  you  are  always  made  to  feel  at  home; 


*6  CUTTING    LOGS,  AC. 

the  "best  in  the  house"  is  at  your  service,  ancl  liospitality  is  dis 
penscd  with  a  princely  generosity.  Under  such  circiiinst'inces  it  is 
wiadom  to  accept  and  folly  to  refuse  the  proffered  beneficence,  and 
many  can  attest  that  they 'have  enjoyed  these  kind  offices  to  exhaust- 
ed humanity  with  a  relish  (thanks  to  the  pure  oxj'gen  so  bountifully 
Bupplied  to  their  lungs  by  a  forest  atinospliere),  known  to  but  few  in 
the  dwellings  of  the  Avealthy,  or  in  the  sumptuous  and  costly  hotels 
of  the  crowded  city,  with  their  bountiful  aud  costly  bills  of  fare,  em- 
bracing the  best  iii  the  market. 


CUTTING  LOGS  IN  THE  WESTERN  PINE  FORESTS. 

The  usual  time  for  commencing  lumbering  operations  in  New* 
Brujisw!:r,k  and  many  paits  of  Canada,  is  in  the  faU,  soon  after  the 


CUTTING  LOGS,  &C. 


77 


LOADING  PINE  LOGS  IN  THE  WESTER'N  FORESTS, 
operators,  many  of  whom  are  farmers,  have  safely  housed  their  crops, 
consisting  of  hay,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  &c. ,  and  the  work  con- 
tinues with  very  little  intermission  until  towards  spring.  It  must  he 
confessed  that  lumbering  pursuits  are  not  well  calculated  to  produce, 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  follow  them,  a  very  strong  bias  towards 
scientific  agriculture,  the  tendency  being  rather  to  produce  derange- 
ment in  that  respect,  but  there  seems  to  be  a  fascination  in  the  busi- 
ness which  very  few  who  eater  npou  it  seem  able  to  resist,  and  much 
of  the  farming  work  is  considered  by  many  as  only  of  secondary  con- 
sequence compared  with  lumbering,  being  stimulated  principally  by 
the  necessity  arising  'for  agricultural  products  in  the  lumber  camps, 
and  for  family  uses  at  home. 

In  selecting  the  site  for  a  camp,  the  principal  object  is  to  obtain  a 
central  position  within  easy  reach  of  water,  and  an  ample  supply  ol 
iimber  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  market.  It  is  also  of  great  con- 
sequence that  it  should  be  easily  accessible  for  the  purpose  of  trans- 
porting, or  "  portaging,"  as  it  is  termed,  the  substantial  supplies  re- 


78  BREAKING  A  JAM. 


BREAKING  A  JAM. 


quired  by  the  men  and  horses  engaged  in  the  work,  and  convenient  to 
a  suitable  "  lauding,"  usually  on  or  near  a  stream,  where  the  logs  are 
miloaded  to  await  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  and  the  spring  floods, 
which  are  to  convey  them  to  their  destination.  The  work  is  systemati- 
cally conducted,  every  man  from  the  boss  to  the  cook  having  his  post, 
■but  tlie  labor  is  very  severe,  and  taxes  the  utmost  energies  of  both 
man  and  beast,  some  of  the  loads  drawn  by  the  latter  being  of  enorm- 
ous bulk  and  weight.  This  kind  of  toil  continues  during  the  fall  and 
winter  months,  only  to  give  place  in  the  spring  to  another  form  of 
labor,  which  is,  if  possible,  still  more  arduous,  and  is  certainly  more 
dangerous;  that  of  "driving"  the  lumber  down  stream.  The  driv- 
^  ing  operations  are  commenced  by  rolling  the  logs  into  the  stream  on 
the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  and  guiding  them  down  the  current,  the 
poor  fellows  being  often  up  to  the  waist  in  cold  water,  and  when  a 
*' jam,"  or  lock  of  the  timber  takes  place  in  the  stream,  owing  to  ob- 
structions or  barriers  of  any  kind,  the  danger  of  "breaking"  itia 
positively  fearful,  many  having  been  killed  outright,  by  the  sudden 
*' shoot"  taken  by  the  liberated  timber  as  it  rushes  forward,  impelled 
-f  by  the  surging  floods  in  the  rear. 


ON  LUMBERINa. 


79 


In  lumbering  districts  the  season  of  active  work  for  cutting  tirabei 
ranges  from  November  until  towards  the  middle  cf  March;  in  New 
Brunswick  much  of  the  work  performed  in  (jetting  out,  or  hewing 
bircli  timber,  is  done  during  the  summer  months,  but  the  cutting  and 
haulmg  of  spruce  logs  is  the  principal  object  of  winter  operations. 
In  getting  out  birch  timber,  the  tree  is  felled  and  hewn  square  to  the 
largest  available  dimensions,  and  allowed  to  remain  till  sleighing  sets 
in  before  being  hauled  to  the  stream  for  transportation.  Owing  to 
the  density  of  birch  timber  much  of  it  is  lost  by  submergence  in  tho 
water,  and  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it  more  buoyant  it  is  usual  to 
indu'je  floatation  by  forming  connections  with  spruce  logs  or  other  tim- 
ber of  light  specific  gravity.  The  rigorous  climate  of  the  Northern 
States  and  Canada  is  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  hardy  mer- 
chantable timber,  such  as  pine,  spruce,  &c.,  but  is  inimical  to  mahog- 
any, box,  lignumvitai  and  other  dense  tropical  woods  which  require 
a  warm  climate. 

Timber  grown  in  humid,  swampy  or  wet  localities,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  cedar,  willow,  poplar,  &c.,  is  not  so  firm,  sound,  and  durable 
as  that  grown  on  dry  and  elevated  situations,  where  the  soil  is  largely 
composed  of  loam  interspersed  with  sand,  gravel  and  stones.  Trees 
selected  from  the  midst  of  tlie  forest  possess  greater  elegance  of  form 
and  are  usually  straighter,  less  knotty,  and  more  merchantable  every 
way,  than  timber  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  storms,  &c.,  on  the  con- 
fines adjacent  to  the  clearings,  or  on  hill  sides  and  exposed  places, 
sheltered  situations  being  the  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  timber, 
but  not  so  promotive  of  hardness  as  unprotected  localities,  A  dense, 
dark,  green  color  in  the  leaves  of  trees  during  June  and  July  mdicates 
a  sound,  healthy  growth,  while  the  sere  and  yellow  leaves,  scanty  in 
number,  decaying  branches,  with  spotted,  streaked,  logSelted  and  dis- 
eased bark,  indicates  defective  timber.  To  secure  timber  in  its  best 
condition  for  long  endurance,  it  should  be  cut  during  mid- winter,  say 
in  January  or  February,  and  during  July  in  summer,  and  should  be 
worked  up  as  soon  as  possible  by  sawing,  splitting  or  hewing,  mto  the 
desired  dimensions. 

The  nature  of  the  various  departments  of  the  work  is  very  well 
illustrated  in  the  cuts  presented  herewith,  which  are  engraved  in  the 
best  style  from  exceedingly  fine  photographs  of  actual  scenes  in  the 
Western  forests,  and  therefore  truthfully  depict  the  various  stages  of 
getting  out  lumber,  from  the  cutting  down  of  the  great  trees,  sawing 
them  into  lengths,  hauling  them  out,  and  finally  "  landing  "  the  logs 
on  or  near  the  stream,  in  readiness  for  the  spring  freshet  to  drive 
them  to  market.  Though  many  of  these  streams  are  too  shallow  in 
summer  to  float  an  Indian  in  the  lightest  bark  canoe,  yet,  when 
BWoUen  by  spring  freshets,  each  one  becomes  a  wide  and  deep 
river. 

litany  ingenious  contrivances  have  been  constructed  to  procure  tim- 
l>si  from  mountauis.  'A  novel  locomotive  has  been  made  in  Califor- 
nia to  run  on  the  long  flumes  that  are  used  to  float  lumber  down 
from  high  elevations.  The  wheels  fit  on  the  edge  of  the  sides  of 
the  flume,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  car  are  paddle  wheels  dipping  into 
the  water,  and  which  are  turned  by  the  swift  current.  By  a  simple 
anangement,  this  power  is  made  to  propel  the  locomotive  up  the 
flume,  and  it  runs  back  itself.  Alpnach,  in  Switzerland,  as  is  well 
kiio^\ni;  was,  during  war  time  widely  noted  for  its  famous  slide,  oi 


80 


ON  LUMBERING. 


UNLOADING  LOGS  ON  THE  LANDING. 

wooden  trough,  containing  a  stream  of  water,  in  which  the  timber 
•was  launched  with  terrific  velocity  from  the  forests  on  Mount  Pilatua 
into  Lake  Lucerne,  a  distance  of  8  miles. 

Spruce  forests  possess  a  wonderful  recuperative  power,  it  being 
•well  known  that  they  may  be  strijiped  of  merchantable  timber  dur- 
ing any  given  year,  and  ten  years  subsequently,  if  nothing  happens, 
another  harvest  will  be  ready  for  the  axe.  The  great  bane  of  all  for- 
ests is  fire,  and  the  loss  resulting  from  this  one  caiise  is  simply  incal- 
culable. While  it  is  true  that  many  forest  fires  are  accidental,  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  the  majority  are  purposely  set ;  and,  while  such 
atrocious  wickedness  cannot  be  too  severely  denounced,  it  is  equally 
true  that  owing  to  the  privacy  of  the  act,"  and  consequent  want  of 
proof,  the  offender  too  frequently  escapes  the  retribution  which  his 
enormities  deserve.  The  recent  forest  fires  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  other  places,  proved  terribly  destructive,  and  the  so-called  "  great 
Miramichi  fire"  will  be  memorable  for  generations  to  come,  on  ac« 
count  of  the  terrible  destruction  of  human  life  and  property  of  every 
kind  effected  by  it.  Many  of  the  old  settlers  on  the  Miramichi  have 
a  vivid  remembrance  of  that  awful  calamity,  and  can  recount  many 


SEASONING  OP  TIMBER.  81 


harrowing  narratives  of  suffering,  consternation,  death  and  hair- 
breadth escapes  during  that  terrible  time,  vrhen  the  sky  appeared  ag 
one  sheet  of  flame,  emitting  a  universal  rain  of  fire,  which  de- 
stroyed everything  in  its  course,  even  burning  the  soil  from  the 
earth,  rendering  thousands  of  acres  a  bfirren  desert  to  this  day. 

A  most  singular  case  of  forest-destruction  occurred  many  years 
ago,  as  related  by  the  Allemaine  Zeitung,  in  which  a  subterranean 
fire,  undoubtedly  of  volcanic  origin,  burnt  the  roots  of  250  acres  of 
forest  trees  at  Magland,  in  Switzerland,  which,  falling,  were  also  con* 
sumed  ;  flames  also,  issued  near  Lausanne, 

Seasoning  and  Preserving  Timber. — This  may  be  effected — Ist. 
By  piling  and  completely  ventilating  under  cover  for  a  period 
of  from  two  to  five  years,  for  thorough  seasoning.  2nd.  By  immer 
sion  in  water  for  a  few  weeks.  This  improves  all  kinds  of  timber, 
both  flat,  square  a}ad  round.  If  a  man  wishes  to  season  green  boards 
quickly,  let  him  throw  them  into  water,  — all  the  better  if  it  is  run- 
ning water,  —  and  the  sap  will  be  withdrawn  very  rapidly  :  a  short 
subsequent  exposure  to  the  air  wlL  be  all  that  is  necessary,  3rd. 
Fell  your  trees  during  June  and  July,  while  in  full  leaf,  and  allow 
them  to  lie  until  every  leaf  has  fallen  ;  it  is  said  the  leaves  wiU  ex- 
haust nearly  all  the  sap  from  the  tree,  leaving  it  dry  in  from  one 
month  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the  dryness  or  wetness  of  the 
weather.  4th.  Small  pieces  of  non-resinous  wood  can  be  seasoned 
perfectly  by  boiling  four  or  five  hours  ;  the  process  taking  the  sap 
out  of  the  wood,  which  shrinks  nearly  one-tenth  in  the  operation. 
5th.  Kiln-dnjing,  is  adapted  only  for  boards  and  small  timber ;  it  is  lia- 
ble to  check,  crack,  and  otherwise  mj  ure  the  wood,  unless  the  process  is 
cautiously  conducted.  Black  walnut  camiot  be  seasoned  in  this  way 
a,t  all :  for  this  wood  use  Process  No.  1.  6th.  Steaming. — This  pro- 
cess has  been  adopted  by  some,  and  has  proved  successful  in  elimin- 
ating the  sap  from  the  wood.  7th.  Kyanizing  consists  in  the  satura- 
ration  of  the  wood  with  corrosive  sublimate,  —  solution,  1  lb.  of  cJilo- 
ride  of  mercury  in  4  gals,  water.  8th.  Burnettizing . — By  this  process, 
impregnation  of  the  wood  is  effected  by  submitting  it  to  an  end-ways 
pressure  of  150  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  —  solution,  1  lb.  of  the  chlo- 
ride to  10  gals,  water.  9th,  Boucheri's  Process. — Impregnation  is 
effected  as  in  the  last  instance,  using  a  pressure  of  15  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch,  —  solution,  1  lb.  sulphate  of  copper  to  12^  gals,  of 
water.  10th.  BethoV s  Process. — As  above,  by  submitting  tlie  wood 
to  an  end- ways  pressure  of  150  to  200  lbs.  foer  square  inch,  with  creo- 
sote oil  intermixed  with  bituminous  matter,  11th.  Bobbins'  Process.— 
See  full  description  of  this  process  in  the  Mechanical  Department  of 
this  work.  12th.  Samuel  Wood's  Process,  consists  in  vaporizing  and 
withdrawing  the  sap  from  the  wood,  as  described  in  Robbins'  Process, 
and  forcing  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  at  a  pressure  of  175  lbs. 
per  square  inch  for  thirty  minutes  ;  then  finishing  with  another  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  "lime. 

In  preservmg  and  seasoning  wood  by  impregnation  with  coal  tar, 
creosote,  etc.  ,  it  is  essential  that  the  juices  of  the  wood  should  be  com* 
pletely  withdrawn  and  the  albumen  coagulated,  otherwise  decay  will 
ensue.  Wood  treated  in  this  way  repels  decay,  the  attacks  of  worms, 
etc.,  and  is  greatly  increased  in  strength  and  resilience. 

Br.  Feuchtwangei's  process  for  preserving  wood  consists  in  steai». 
G 


S2 


SEASONING   OF  TIMBER. 


'jig  the  timber,  and  injectinpj  n  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  for  eight 
nours  ;  afterwards,  soak  wood  for  the  same  period  in  lime-water. 

George  Woods,  the  celebrated  organ  manufacturer,  in  Cambridge- 
port,  near  Boston,  has  also  discovered  and  patented  a  very  valuable 
method  of  seasoning  timber. 

Lumber  is  improved  by  repiling,  and  the  shifting  of  its  position  at 
proi)er  intervals.  Violent  currents  of  heated  air  canse  cracks,  etc.,  in 
the  lumber  during  natural  seasoning  ;  a  moderate  temperature  Vs  tho 
best  in  every  respect.  The  proportion  of  water  in  different  -woods 
varies  from  2G  to  50  per  cent.  A  beam  of  green  oak  weighing  <J72  lbs. 
lost  342  lbs.  by  seasoning. 

The  best  results  are  attained  by  piling  the  lumber  under  shelter  in 
properly  arranged  piles,  elevated  on  blocks  at  least  2  feet  from  the 
ground,  each  kind  of  timbjer  by  itself,  with  1  inch  slats  interposed  be- 
tween the  boards  at  short  distances,  to  keep  them  straight,  and  pennit 
the  air  to  circulate  freely,  while  square  and  round  logs  should  bo 
stripped  of  bark  and  raised  from  the  ground. 

The  best  timber,  is  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  attain  full  ma- 
turity previous  to  being  felled.  The  aye  of  a  tree  is  easily  determined 
by  the  number  of  concentric  rings  displayed  on  the  stump.  Spruce 
and  fir  matures  very  rapidly,  pine  more  slowly,  and  oak  matures  in 
from  75  to  200  years.  White  oak  is  said  to  be  favorably  influenced 
by  the  vicinity  of  sea  water;  the  growth  of  many  other  trees  is  re- 
pressed by  it.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  great  valley  extendhig  from  Com- 
wallis  to  Digby,  is  noted  for  the  enormous  quantity  and  excellent 
quality  of  the  fruit  produced,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain 
fronting  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  propagation  of  fruit  trees  has  proved 
an  entire  failure,  and  no  man  could  form  any  conception  of  the  pro- 
digious extent  of  the  New  Brunswick  forests  from  a  steamer's  deck, 
■while  sailing  along  the  treeless,  rock-bound  coast  of  that  Province.  ■ 

The  best  timber  in  a  tree  is  always  the  part  near  the  ground.  The 
quality  of  the  wood  may  be  frequently  determined  by  a  healthy, 
fresh,  and  uniform  appearance,  free  from  w^hite  or  yellow  spots, 
blending  to  a  deeper  shade  near  the  heart.  Yelloio  stains  indicate 
the  existence  of  dry  rot,  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  the  albumen 
in  the  wood;  and  the  sapwood,  being  liable  to  early  decay  on  account 
of  the  putrefactive  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  juices,  should  be 
removed.  The  loss  to  lumbermen  from  this  cause,  when  they  are 
obliged  to  "  hang  up,"  or  abandon  their  drives,  owing  to  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  water  in  the  stream  to  float  them  to  their  destination,  is  very 
great,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  to  drive  them  down  with  the  ensuing 
fciU  or  spring  floods,  often  proves  ruinous. 

The  excellence  of  timber  is  liable  to  be  impaired  by  many  causes, 
among  others,  1.  Wind-shakes  or  circular  chinks,  or  rents,  involving 
the  separation  of  the  annular  layers  of  wood  from  each  other;  a  very 
bad  imperfection.  2.  Brash-ioood,  caused  by  deterioration  or  decay 
in  the  timber,induced  by  age,  imparting  a  brittle  crumbling  grain  to  the 
wood,  together  with  a  reddish  and  porous  appearance.  3.  Twisted  wood 
is  very  unsafe  for  long  stretches,  on  account  of  its  liability  to  break 
suddenly,  owing  to  the  screw  like  formation  of  the  grain.  4.  Splits, 
ch&^ks,  and  cracks,  if  greatly  expanded  and  enlarged,  almost  ruin 
the  timber  for  any  useful  purpose  except  the  most  common  kind; 
the  same  is  true  concerning,  5.  Knotty  timber,  which  though  it  mal 


SEASONrNG   OF  TIMBER. 


85 


be  substantial  is  not  well  adapted  for  fine  work,  but  subserves  many 
important  uses,  such  as  roofing,  fencing,  &c.  6,  Belted  timber,  con- 
sists of  trees  wliich  were  dead  and  partially  decayed  previous  to  being 
felled;  usually  very  bad.  7.  Common  rot, — Timber  and  lumber  of 
various  kinds,  are  liable  to  be  affected  in  this  way,  whenever  exposed 
to  alternate  humidity  and  dryness.  It  may  also  be  induced  by  im- 
perfect ventilation  in  sheds,  and  manifests  itself  by  yellow  decaying 
spots,  and  a  sulphur  colored  dust  in  the  apertures  and  crevices  of  the 
timber.  8.  Perforated  timber. — This  mischief  is  caused  by  worms 
and  insects  which  infest  timber  and  exist  on  the  albumen,  sugar,  &c 
contained  in  it.  Submerged  timber  is  affected  in  a  similar  manner  by 
the  ravages  of  the  Teredo  navilis,  a  genus  of  testaceous  mollusks. 
Number  of  Cubic  Feet  of  Timber  js  a  Ton  (Avoirdupois),  to- 
gether WITH  the  Weight  ik  lbs.  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Tbs: 

Culnc 

Lbs. 

Cubio 

Woods. 

per 
Cubic 

Feet 
per 

per 
Cubic 

Feet 
per 

Foot. 

Ton. 

Foot. 

Ton. 

Alder,  dry. 

Aeh,     "  1 

50. 

52.812 

44.80 
42.414 

Larch,  dry.  | 

34. 
35. 

65.8 

43.125 

Lignum  VitiB. 

83.312 

26.866 

Apple,  " 

49.562 

45.18 

Logwood. 

57.062 

39.223 

Bay, 

43.G01 
51.375 

43.601 

Mahogany.  | 

35. 

66.437 

64. 

33.711 

Beech. 

43.8 

XvTaple,  dry. 

46  876 

47.66 

a  << 

53  .'25 

Oak,  Canadian. 
«'  English. 

54  .'5 

41.101 

Birch,  cominon. 

43.8 

58.25 

38.455 

*'    American  black. 

40. 9 

"   live,  seasoned. 

66.75 

33.558 

Box. 

62.5 

39.40 

"      "  green. 

78.75 

Bullet-wood. 

58. 

'*   white  upland. 

43. 

52.09 

Butternut,  dry. 
Cedar, 

23.5 

Pear,  dry. 

41.312 

35.62 

63.860 

Plum,  " 
Poplar. 

Pine,  pitch,  dry. 
"  red. 

40.0C2 

47.47 

Cork, 

15. 

149.333 

26.31 

Cherry,  " 

44.687 

41.25 

51.. 303 

Chestnut,  " 

38.125 

36.875 

60.745 

Ebony,  mean  of  2  sets. 

79.4 

"   white,  " 

.34.625 

64.693 

Elm,  dry.  | 

41.937 

53.25 

"   well  seasoned. 

29.502 

75.773 

35.625 

62.97 

"  yellow. 

33.812 

66.218 

Fir,  white. 

35.57 

"  dry. 

28.812 

Fir,  New  England,  dry. 

34.4 

Poplar,  mean  ol  2  sorts 

28.5 

Fir,  Norway  Bpruce  " 

32. 

Rosewood,  dry. 
Satinwood,  " 

45.5 

Fir,  Riga. 
Gum,  blue,  dry. 
Hackmatack,  " 

46.9 

55.312 

£2.087 

Spruce,  " 
Tamarack,  '* 

31.25 

71.68 

37.10 

60.37 

23.937 

Hazel,  " 

53.75 

Teak,  African  oak. 

46.9 

Hemlock, 

23. 

Walnut,  dry. 

41.9 

53.42 

Hickory,  pig  nut. 

49^5 

45.252 

**     black,  dry. 

31.25 

71.68 

"       shell  ba:k. 

43.125 

51.942 

Willow. 

36.562 

61.265 

Holly,  dry. 

47.5 

30.375 

73.744 

Juniper,  " 

35.375 

Lance  wood,  dry. 

45. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  WOODS,  EXHIBITING 
THEIR  CRUSHING  STRENGTH  AND  STIFFNESS. 

Teak  6555  Beech  3079  Walnut  2371 

English  Oak  4074  Quebec  Oak  2927  Yellow  pine  2193 

Ash  3571  Mahogany  2571  Sycamore  1833 

Elm  3468  Spruce  2522  Cedar  7OC 


64  AGE,  AC,  OF  TREES. 


LOGS  ON  THE  LANDING  AWAITING  THE  SmiNG  FltESHKTS. 


Age,  &c.,  of  Trees.— An  oak  tree  in  3  years  grows  2  ft.  10|  ins. 

A  larch  3  ft.  7|  ins. ;  at  70  years  it  is  full  grown :  and  a  tree  of  79  years 
was  102  ft.  high,  and  12  ft.  girth,  containing  253  cubic  ft.  Another  of 
80  years  was  90  ft.  and  17  ft,  and  300  cubic  feet.  An  elm  tree  in  3 
years  grows  8  ft.  3  in.  A  beech,  1  ft.  8  in.  A  poplar,  6  ft,  A  willow, 
i)  ft.  3  in.  An  elm  is  full  grown  in  150  years  and  it  lives  500  or  GOO. 
Ash  is  full  grown  in  100,  and  oak  in  200  The  mahogany  is  ftill 
grown  in  200  years  to  a  vast  size.  A  Polish  oak,  40  ft.  round  had  600 
circles.  An  oak  in  Dorsetshire  in  1755,  was  68  ft.  round ;  2  near  Cran- 
borne  Lodge  are  38  and  36  ft.  There  are  yews  from  10  to  20  ft.  diara., 
whose  age'  is  from  1000  to  2000  years.  A  lime  in  the  Crisons  is  51  ft. 
round,  and  about  600  years  old.  An  elm  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  is  18  ft. 
diam.  and  360  years  old.  The  African  baobab  is  the  patriarch  of  liv- 
ing organizations ;  one  specimen  by  its  circles  is  estimated  at  5700 
years  old  by  Adamson  and  Humboldt.  The  trunk  is  but  12  or  15  ft.  to 
the  branches,  and  often  75  ft.  round.  A  cypress  in  Mexico  is  120  ft 
round  and  is  estimated  by  De  Candolle  to  be  older  than  Adamson' s 
baobab.  The  cjq^ress  of  Montezuma  is  41  feet  round.  Strabo  wrote 
of  a  cypress  m  Persia,  as  being  2500  years  old.  The  largest  tree  in 
Mexico  is  127  ft  round,  and  120  high,  with  branches  of  30  ft.  A  chest 
nut  tree  on  Mount  Etna  is  196  ft  round  close  to  the  ground,  and  5  of 
its  branches  resemble  great  trees.   De  Candolle  says  there  are  oaks  in 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  TIMBER. 


85 


France  1500  years  old.  The  Wallace  oak,  near  Paisley,  is  nearly  800 
years  old.  The  yew  trees  at  Fountain's  Abbey  are  about  1200  years 
old.  That  at  Crowhurst,  1500.  That  at  Fortingal,  above  2000.  That 
at  Braburn,  2500  to  3000.  Ivys  reach  500  or  600  years.  ,  The  larch 
the  same.  The  lime  600  or  700  years.  The  trunk  of  a  walnut  tree,  12 
ft.  in  diam.,  hollowed  out,  and  furnished  as  a  sitting-room,  was  im- 
ported from  America  and  exhibited  in  London.  The  trunk  was  80  ft 
high,  without  a  branch,  and  the  entire  height  150  ft.,  the  bark  12  ins. 
thick  and  the  branches  from  3  to  4  ft.  in  diam.  The  California  pine  ia 
from  150  to  200  ft.  high  and  from  20  to  60  ft.  in  diam.  The  forests  in 
watered  tropical  countries  are  formed  of  trees  from  100 to  200  ft.  high, 
which  grow  to  the  water's  edge  of  rivers,  presenting  a  soUd  and  im- 
penetrable barrier  of  trunks  10  or  12  ft.  in  diam.  The  dragon  tree  ia 
in  girth  from  40  to  100  ft.  and  50  or  60  feet  high ;  and  a  misosa  in  South 
America  is  described,  whose  head  is  600  ft.  round. 

Tensile  Strength  of  different  kinds  of  "Wood,  showing  the 
Weight  or  Power  required  to  tear  asunder  l  Square  Inch. 


Lbs. 

Lance  23,000 

Locust  25,000 

Mahogany  ..21,000 

Box   20,000 

African  Oak  14,500 

Bay   14,500 

Teak  14,000 

Cedar  14,000 

Ash  14,000 

Oak,  seasoned  13,600 

Elm  13,400 

Sycamore...,  13,000 

Willow  13,000 

Christiana  Deal  12,400 

Spanish  Mahogany  12,000 


Lbs. 

Pitch  Pine   12,000 

White  Pine,  (American)  11,800 

White  Oak,        "  ......11,500 

Lignum  Vitse  11,800 

Beech  11^00 

Chestnut,  sweet  10,500 

Maple  10,500 

White  Spruce  10,290 

English  Oak  10,000 

Pear  9,800 

Larch.   9,50o 

Mahogany,  Spanish  8,000 

Walnut   7,800 

Poplar  ^   7,000 

Cypress  6,000 


Buying  and  Selling  Timber. — Inch  boards,  plank,  joists  and 
scantling  are  generally  sold  by  board  measure,  the  dimensions  of  one 
foot  of  board  measure  being  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide  and  1  in.  thick. 
Round  timber  is  sold  by  the  cubic  foot,  and  when  squared  by  hewing 
or  sawing  is  estimated  to  lose  one-fifth,  hence  a  ton  of  round  timber 
is  estimated  to  contain  only  40  cubic  feet.  Square  timber,  hewn  or 
sawn,  is  also  sold  by  the  cubic  foot  and  rated  at  50  cubic  feet  to  the 
ton,  but  as  usually  surveyed,  a  ton  of  timber  contains  50  92-lG0th8 
cubic  feet. 

Pine  and  spruce  spars,  from  10  to  4J  in.  diam.  are  estimated  by 
taking  the  diameter,  minus  the  bark,  at  \  of  their  length  at  the  large 
end  ;  they  are  generally  bought  and  sold  by  the  inch  diameter,  all 
under  4  ins.  being  considered  poles. 

The  soundness  of  timber  may  be  tested  by  applying  the  ear  to  the 
middle  of  one  of  the  ends,  while  another  pai'ty  strikes  the  other  end. 
The  blow  will  be  clearly  and  distinctly  heard,  however  long  the  beam 
may  be,  if  the  wood  is  sound  and  of  good  quality,  but  if  decay  has 
set  in,  the  sound  will  be  muffled  and  indistinct.  The  toughest  part  of 
a  tree  wUl  always  be  found  on  the  side  next  the  north. 

Bp-itish  Carpentry. — The  fir  timber  in  general  use  is  imported 
fiom  Memel,  Kiga,  Dantzic,  and  Sweden.  Meme]  timber  is  the  most 
copYonient  for  size,  Riga  the  best  in  quality,  Dantzic  the  strongest, 


86  BRITISH  CAUPENTRY,  &C. 

and  Swedish  Uio  toughest.  Ri^a  timber  can  always  l>o  depended 
upon;  red  pine  maybe  Uvsed  whenever  durability  and  stren^^th  are 
objects  ;  and  Quebec  yellow  pine  for  light  dry  purposes.  Deals  are 
from  Norway,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Russia  and  Now  Brunswick.  Fot 
framing,  the  best  deals  are  the  Norway,  particularly  the  Christiana 
battens;  for  pannelling,  the  Christiana  white  deals;  for  ground  floors, 
Stockholm  and  Gello  yellows;  for  upper  lloors.  Dram  and  Christiana 
whites;  Archangel  and  Onega  planks  for  warehouse  floors  and  stair- 
cases, and  for  best  floors,  &c.,  Petersburg, Onega  and  Christiana  battens. 

100  Superficial  ft.  make  1  square  of  boardiug,  floormg,  &c. 

120  deals  are  denominated  one  hundred. 
50  cubic  ft.  of  timber  equal  1  load.  Also, 

GOO  superficial  ft.  of  inch  boards  equal  1  load. 

Battens  are  from  0^  to  7  ins.  in  breadth,  deals,  8^  to  10  ins.,  and 
planks  11  to  12  ins. 

12J  12-feet  boards  to  1  square  of  rough  boardmg  or  flooring. 

12|      "     edges  shot. 

13       "     -wrought  and  laid  folding. 

13^      "         "         "       straight  joint, 
f  14       "     .   "         "       ploughed  and  tongued. 

17  12-ft.  battens  to  1  square  of  wrought  folding  door. 

18  *'  yellow  to  a  straight  joint  floor. 

The  duration  of  well  seasoned  wood,  when  kept  dry,  is  very  great,  as 
beams  still  exist  which  are  Imown  to  be  nearly  1100  years  old.  Piles 
driven  by  the  Romans,  and  used  in  the  formation  of  bridges  prior  to 
the  Christian  era,  have  been  examined  of  late,  and  found  to  be  per- 
fectly sound  after  an  immersion  of  nearly  2000  years. 

Russian  Way  of  Stopping  Holes  in  Ships.— In  that  country, 
there  has  lately  been  invented  and  successfully  applied,  a  ready 
means  for  stopping  holes  made  in  ships  by  collision  or  otherwise.  It 
consists  of  a  plaster  made  of  two  rectangular  sheets  of  canvas  sewed 
together,  bordered  with  a  rope,  and  containing  a  water-proof  material. 
A  sounding-line  has  to  be  passed  under  the  keel,  and  brought  up  on 
the  other  side  :  then  the  plaster  can  be  lowered  to  the  hole,  and  made 
fast.  Several  cases  are  Qited  in  which  this  invention  has  been  em- 
ployed with  advantage  ;  and  a  large  number  of  Russian  ships  aio 
now  furnished  with  such  plasters.  It  is  proposed  that  men  bo  spe- 
cially trained  and  ready  for  the  manoeuvring  of  the  apparatus. 

To  Raise  the  Body  of  a  Drowned  Person. — In  a  recent  fail- 
ure to  recover  the  body  of  a  drowned  person  in  New  Jersey,  a  French- 
Canadian  undertook  the  job,  and  proceeded  as  follows  :  Having  sup- 
plied himself  with  some  glass  gallon-jars,  and  a  quantity  of  un- 
slaked lime,  he  went  in  a  boat  to  the  place  where  the  man  was  seen 
to  go  down.  One  of  the  jars  was  filled  half  full  of  lime,  then  filled 
lip  with  water,  and  tightly  corked.  It  was  then  dropped  into  the 
water,  and  soon  after  exploded  at  the  bottom  of  the  river,  with  a 
loud  report.  After  the  third  trial ,  each  time  at  a  different  place,  the 
body  rose  to  the  surface,  and  was  secured. 

To  Get  Rid  of  Rats,  &c. — Get  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  and  use  it  as  a 
funnel  to  introduce  about  IJ  ozs.  of  sulphide  of  potassium  into  any 
outside  holes  tenanted  by  rats  ;  not  to  be  used  in  dwellings.  To  get 
rid  of  Mice,  use  tartar  emetic  mingled  with  any  favorite  food  ;  thej 
will  eat,  sicken,  and  take  their  leave. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  87 

HvDKAULTG  Ceiment,— PoTvdered  clay,  3  lbs. ;  oxide  of  iron,  1  lb. ; 
and  boiled  oil  to  form  a  stiff  paste, 

ExcmEERs'  Cement.— Equal  parts  of  red  and  white  lead,  with  dry- 
ing oil,  spread  on  tow  or  canvas.  An  admirable  composition  for  uniting 
lar^e  stones  in  cisterns. 

Stone  Cement  River.— Sand,  20  parts;  litharge,  2  parts;  quick- 
Urn  e,  1  part:  mix  with  linseed  oil. 

Glue, — ^Powdered  chalk  added  to  common  glue  strengthens  it.  A 
glue  which  will  resist  the  action  of  water  is  made  by  boiling  1  lb,  of 
glue  in  2  qts.  of  slummed  milk. 

Cheap  WATERmooF  Glue. — Melt  common  glue  with  the  smallest 

SDSsible  quantity  of  water;  add,  by  degrees,  linseed  oil,  rendered 
rj'ing  by  boiling  it  with  litharge.   AVhilo  the  oil  is  being  added,  tho 
ingredients  must  be  well  stirred,  to  incorporate  them  thoroughly. 

FiKE  AND  Waterpkoof  Glue. — Mix  a  handful  of  quick-Time  with 
4  oz.  of  linseed  oil ;  thoroughly  lixiviate  the  mixture ;  boil  it  to  a  good 
thickness,  and  spread  it  on  thin  plates  in  the  shade:  it  will  become 
very  hard,  but  can  be  dissolved  over  a  fire,  like  common  glue,  and  is 
then  fit  for  use. 

Prepared  Liquid  Glue.— Take  of  best  white  glue,  1G  oa.;  white- 
lead,  dry,  4  oz. ;  r^in- water,  2  pts. ;  alcohol,  4  oz.  With  constant  stir- 
ring dissolve  the  gluo  and  lead  in  the  water,  by  means  of  a  water- 
bath.  Add  tho  alcohol,  and  continue  the  heat  for  a  few  muiutes. 
Lastly,  pour  into  bottles,  while  it  is  still  hot. 

To*Make  Grindstones  froji  Cojiimon  Sand. — ^Riversand  32  lbs. ; 
Bhellac,  10 parts;  powdered  glass,  2  parts;  melt  in  an  iron  pot,  and 
cast  into  moulds. 

Polishing  Powder  for  Specula. — Precipitate  a  dilute  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron  by  ammonia  in  excess ;  wash  the  precipitate ;  press 
it  in  a  screw  press  till  nearly  dry;  then  expose  it  to  heat  until  it 
appears  of  a  dull  red  color  in  the  dark. 

On  Saw-Mills. — To  Get  the  Most  Lumber  fro?.i  Saw-Logs. 
— ^Experience  has  abundantly  proved  to  our  satisfaction  that  this  can 
be  done  only  by  tho  use  of  the  circular  saw.  Some  parties  are  in 
favor  of  the  mulay  saw.  Human  ingenuity  has  been  so  prolific  in  tho 
invention  and  construction  of  this  kind  of  machinery,  that  the  prin- 
cipal difficulty  with  the  intending  purchaser  seems  to  be  an  inability 
to  decide  whose  machine  is  really  the  best.  Every  builder  or  inventor 
appears  to  claim  for  his  machme  such  a  perfect  constellation  of  valu- 
able features,  that  a  certain  amount  of  hesitation  in  coming  to  a  de- 
cision seems  to  be  inevitable.  In  the  stationary  form  of  saw  mills, 
the  saws  are  arranged  either  single  or  in  gangs.  Some  of  the  port- 
able kind  (circular  saw  mills)  have  an  upi>er  saw  to  complete  the  cut 
made  but  partially  through  large  logs  by  the  lower  saw.  See 
diagram.  By  the  single  movement  of  a  le^•er,  the  head-blocks  on 
which  the  log  rests,  are  simultaneously  moved  up,  movmg  the  log  a 
distance  nearer  the  saw,  adequate  to  the  thickness  of  board  desired, 
with  an  overplus  the  widtli  of  the  cut  made  by  the  saw.  By  moving 
another  lever,  a  pinion  meshing  into  a  rack  beneath  the  log-carriage  is 
made  to  impel  the  log  against  the  saw,  and  run  the  log  backwards 
after  the  board  is  cut.  These  movements,  on  the  best  coustructed 
machines,  are  made  with  surprising  velocity,  some  of  them  being  ac- 
credited with  having  cut  over  G0,000  feet  of  lumber  in  one  day. 


88 


OLD  FASHIONED  SAW-MILL,  AC. 


The  performance  of  a  36  horse-power  steam  engine  attached  to  a 
modern  saw-mill,  is  equivalent  to  that  of  75  saw-pit3  requiiiug  the 
labor  of  150  men. 

CoaiPARATivE  Resiliencb  of  Various  Kinds  of  Timber,  Ash 
BEING  1,  Fir  -4,  Elm  '54,  Pitch  Pine  -67,  Teak  -59,  Oak  -63,  Spruce  -64, 
YeUowPme  '64,  Cedar  '66,  Chestnut  73  Larch  '84,  Beech  -80.  By  resi- 
lience is  understood  the  quality  of  springing  back,  or  tougliness. 

Percentage  op  Increase  in  Strength  op  Different  Woods 
BY  Seasoning. — White  pine,  9  per  cent.,  Elml2"3  per  cent.,  Oak  2G'6 
per  cent.,  Ash  44*7  per  cent,  Beech  61*9  per  cent. 
TRANSVERSE   STRENGTH  OF  WOODS,    SHOWING  THEIR 
BREAKING  WEIGHT  FOR  A  THICKNESS  OF  ONE  INCH 
SQUARE  AND  ONE  FOOT  IN  LENGTH,  WITH  WEIGHT 
SUSPENDED  FROM  ONE  END. 


Breaking  Value 
weight,  for  use. 


Breaking  Value 
weight,  for  use. 


Lbs. 

Locust  295  80 

Hickory  250  55 

Oak,  live  American. .  .245  55 

"   white      «'      ..230  60 

««  African  208  50 

Teak  206  CO 

ISIaple  202 

Oak ,  English,  best- . .  .188  45 

Ash   168  65 

I'ine,  American  60  60 

Birch  160  40 

Chestnut  160  53 


Lbs. 

Oak,  Canadian  146 

"   live  American... 245 

'«   English  140 

Deal  Christiana  137 

Pine  pitch  136 

Beech  130 

Pine  white  American.  130 

Elm  125 

Pine  Norway   123 

OakDantzic   .122 

White  wood  116 

Riga  Fir  94 

Pine,  white  92 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  89 

Occasionally  we  listen  to  a  great  deal  of  rant  regarding  the  beati- 
tudes of  "the  good  old  times,"  during  the  lives  of  our  forefathers. 
These  times  proved  very  disastrous  to  the  enterprising  Dutchman, 
who,  in  1663  started  the  first  saw-mill  in  England,  which  he  was 
finally  obliged  to  abandon,  and  fly  to  save  his  life.  In  1767  another 
saw-miU,  at  Lime-house,  near  London,  was  demolished  by  a  mob  of 
sawyers,  who  considered  that  their  business  would  be  ruined  to  a 
dead  certainty  if  things  were  allowed  to  go  on. 


MAcniNisTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts.  91 

Tho  old  method  of  manufacturing  lumber  and  dimension  stuff  by 
ripping  logs  lengthways  on  the  sawi^it,  is  still  fresh  in  the  remem, 
brance  of  many.  One  man  mounted  the  log  and  pushed  the  saw 
downwards  and  pulled  it  upwards,  assisted  by  anotlier  man  in  tho 
pit  below,  with  a  veil  over  his  face  to  keep  the  sawdust  out  of  his 
eyes.  We  hail  with  gratitude  the  modern  improvements  which  en- 
able us  to  dispense  with  every  such  form  of  labor. 

Having  tried  the  up  and  down  saw  and  the  circular  saw  also,  wo 
would  again  repeat  our  conviction  that  the  last  mentioned  is  the  best 
for  manufacturing  lumber,  and  should  any  person  act  on  this  expression 
of  opinion,  let  them  in  the  first  place  be  very  careful  to  get,  if  possible, 
the  best  machine,  bring  it  to  the  mill,  and  set  it  perfectly  level  and 
true.  "When  you  get  it  in  oi)eration,  see  that  you  handle  it  carefully. 
If  you  have  been  used  to  running  the  up  and  down  saw  only,  you  will 
Eoon  find  out  that  your  former  experience  avails  almost  nothing  in 
tlie  management  of  the  rotary  machine ;  but  when  you  get  the  hang 
of  running  it,  the  compensation  in  the  way  of  convenience,  rapidity, 
and  quantity  of  work,  is  immense.  Some  prefer  to  use  the  inserted 
tootli  saws,  and  will  use  no  other.  They  seem  to  possess  many  ad- 
vantages, and  are  entirely  safe.  A  late  invention  of  spreading  tho 
%ipperpart  of  the  tooth  towards  the  point  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture, spreading  it  out  so  as  to  make  the  point  of  the  tooth  tho 
thickest  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  saw,  enables  the  sawyer  to 
dispense  in  a  great  measure  with  the  use  of  the  swage.  Those  insert- 
ed tooth  saws  which  do  not  possess  this  improvement  must  be  care- 
fully swaged  and  filed  at  least  twice  per  day,  and  sometimes  as  oltcn 
as  six  or  seven  times  per  day,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  lumber 
being  cut.  In  filing  or  swaging  the  saw,  be  careful  to  form  the  point 
of  the  teeth  absolutely  square,  and  even  across,  the  slightest  deviation 
from  perfect  truth  in  this  respect  being  apt  to  cause  the  saw  to  ?•?/»,  as 
it  is  termed,  or  vary  from  its  proper  course  while  passing  through  tho 
log.  Some  prefer  to  form  the  point  of  the  tooth  a  little  hooking,  just 
aiough  so  as  to  be  barely  perceptible,  and  in  swaging  to  use  that  part 
of  the  die  belonging  to  the  swage,  which  gives  the  tooth  of  tho  saw  a 
Elightly  curved  or  rainbow  form,  something  in  this  shape  T",  or 
scarcely  so  much  cur\'ed.  One  sawyer  of  20  years'  experience  in 
rumiing  machinery,  infonncd  us  that  he  never  did  better  or  more 
rapid  work  with  his  mill  than  when  he  kept  his  saw  exactly  right  on 
these  fiwopoMiis  just  stated.  If  you  can  run  a  No.  7  gauge  saw  on 
your  mill,  the  loss  resulting  from  sawdust  will  be  very  slight,  and  as 
large  saws  are  generally  thickest  at  the  centre,  tapering  off  towards 
the  circumference,  this  size  or  No.  6  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be  found 
sufficiently  strong  for  most  purposes.  ^Make  sure  at  all  times,  es- 
pecially during  frosty  weather,  that  the  dogs  have  a  secure  hold  of 
the  log  before  the  saw  enters  it.  It  is  only  a  few  days  ago  that  a 
case  came  to  my  knowledge  of  a  firm  near  Fredericton,  N.B.,  having 
sustained  a  severe  loss  by  a  log  (insufficiently  secured  of  course) 
canting  over  on  the  saw  as  it  was  passing  through  it.  The  effect  was 
to  break  off  the  saw  from  the  mandril,  twist  off  the  nut  at  the  end 
near  the  saw,  and  break  away  the  two  iron  pins  used  for  securing  the 
*;aw  in  the  coUar,  causing  a  stoppage  of  the  mill,  and  the  consequent 
expense  of  repair  and  delay.  AVhen  you  get  the  mill  in  operation,  see 
that  you  handle  it  carefully,  and  maintain  unceasing  watchfulness 


92 


MACIIIXISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC,  RECEIPTS. 


over  It  -wlinc  in  operation.  G'lVQ  it  plenty  of  poiocr;  if  you  c?on*^, 
you  may  as  well  Kliut  up  shop  at  once  ;  (jood  attendance,  and  with  a 
good  macliinc,  the  attendants  will  not  have  much  time  to  i)lay  them- 
selves, I  can  assure  you.  Keep  all  the  parts  well  o/7ecZ— that  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  Avith  tlio  smootli  and  Buccessful  running  of  tlic 
machine ;  and,  by  tlie  way,  I  Avould  remark  tliat  saw-mills  are  not 
the  only  things  in  tliis  world  that  run  all  the  better  for  being  oiled. 
If  that  kind,  loving,  gentle,  and  affectionate  spirit  of  wliich  oil  is  the 
symbol,  pervaded  the  hearts  and  the  minds  of  oar  race,  and  found 
universal  exxiression  iu  every  thought,  word,  and  deed  during  our 
daily  intercourse  witli  each  other,  it  would  be  a  very  diilerent 
world  from  what  it  is — better  for  ourselves,  and  better  for  our  neigh- 
bors. Let  us  all  carry  on  this  branch  of  the  oil  business  as  extensively 
as  possible,  and  wo  shall  soon  see  a  brotherhood  "  dwelling  together 
in  unity."  In  order  to  facilitate  calculations  regarding  the  velocity 
of  saws,  herewith  is  appended  a  reliable  table  to  serve  as  a  guide  in. 
ascertaining  the  proper  speed  for  running  : — 

TABLE  OF  SPEED  FOR  CIRCULAK  SAWS. 

30  inches  in  diameter,  1000  revolutions  per  minute 


38 

(( 

n 

950 

(( 

40 

(( 

900 

« 

42 

(( 

(( 

870 

(( 

(( 

44 

{< 

(( 

840 

(( 

(« 

40 

(( 

800 

(< 

(( 

48 

(C 

« 

700 

(( 

« 

50 

<c 

(( 

725 

« 

<c 

52 

(( 

(( 

700 

(( 

(( 

54 

(C 

675 

(( 

u 

50 

(( 

C( 

650 

ii 

(( 

58 

(( 

{( 

625 

a 

<{ 

GO 

<( 

(( 

GOO 

(( 

{( 

G2 

(C 

<< 

575 

(( 

« 

G4 

(( 

(( 

500 

(( 

(( 

60 

(( 

(( 

545 

u 

(( 

08 

(( 

(( 

530 

a 

(( 

70 

(( 

(( 

515 

n 

u 

72 

(( 

500 

tt 

(( 

74 

n 

C( 

485 

(( 

76 

n 

(( 

475 

(C 

;le  macliino  saws 

1400 

<( 

(C 

The  march  of  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  sliiugle  machmea 
has  been  truly  wonderful,  and  they  can  now  be  procured  from  tho 
manufacturer,  of  almost  any  capacity  and  power,  at  very  reasonable 
rates.  Shingle  machines  are  now  iu  use,  which  cut  out  over  30,000. 
shingles  per  day,  carrying  two  or  more  bolts.  Some  of  them  possess 
very  complex  machinery  and  are  positively  dangerous  to  operate  unless 
continual  vigilance  is  maintained.  One  gentleman  well  known  to 
the  writer,  was  crippled  for  life  by  having  his  hand  terribly  lacer- 
ated during  an  unguarded  momeiit  by  one  of  these  machines.  As  a 
rule  the  less  gearing  and  the  more  simplicity  there  is  about  the  me- 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEIPTS.  93 

clianism  of  a  sliiuglo  raacliine  tlio  more  satisfacti<Dn  will  be  derived 
from  it. 

In  the  mamifacturo  of  sliinglcs,  as  well  as  in  anything  else,  it  is  the 
wisest  policy  to  use  the  best  materials.  Get  good  rift,  free  from 
knots,  sand,  hark,  &c.,  and  you  will  inevitably  get  good  merchant- 
able stuff,  with  less  waste  and  more  pleasure  e^■ery  way,  both  with 
the  machinery  in  the  first  place,  and  the  satisfactory  state  of  your 
exchequer  in  the  last.  It  is  all  the  better  if  j-oii  can  lay  in  a  good 
stock  one  year  ahead,  as  it  cuts  much  easier  when  properly  seasoned, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  saving  in  weight  during  transportation.  In 
edging  shingles,  many  iirefer  the  saw  to  the  revolving  knives,  as  it 
enables  the  operator  in  many  cases  to  get  a  shingle  of  extra  quality 
by  trimming  a  poor  shingle  down,  and  selecting  the  best  part.  Thia 
can  be  done  by  a  smart  hand  witli  marvellous  rapidity,  but  still,  to 
use  a  modern  phrase,  many  persons  can't  see  it,  and  so  they  use  the 
knives,  giving  what  they  conceive  to  bo  good  reasons  for  so  doing. 

Velocities  op  AV'ood  "Workixo  Machinery. — Cimdar  Scnos  at 
periphery,  GOOO  to  7000  ft.  per  minute,  Band  Saics,  2500  feet ;  Ganr/ 
^aics,  20  inch  stroke,  120  strokes  per  minute ;  Scroll  Saios,  300 
strokes  per  minute;  Planinr/  Machine  Cutters  at  perijihery,  4000  to 
GOOO  feet.  Work  under  plaining  machine  l-20th  of  an  inch  for  each 
cut.  Mouldinrj  MachhiQ  Gutters,  3500  to  4000  feet;  Squaring-up 
Machine  Cutters,  7000  to  8000  feet;  Wood  Carving  Drills,  5000  revo- 
lutions; Machine  Augers,  1^  in.  diam.,  900  revolutions;  ditto,  |  in. 
diam.,  1200  revolutions;  Cfang  Saws,  require  for  45  superficial  feet  of 
pine  per  hour,  1  horse-power.  Circidar  Saxes  require  75  superficial 
feet  per  hour,  1  horse-power.  In  oak  or  hard  wood  |ths  of  the  above 
quantity  require  1  horse-power;  Sharpening  Angles  of  Machine  Cutters. 
Adzing  soft  wood  across  the  gram,  30°;  Planing  Machines,  oxdAnoxj 
Foftwood.  35°;  Gauqes  and  Ploughing  Machines,  40°;  Jiardioood 
Tool  Cutlers,  50°  to  55°. 

Tiling  Saws. — The  grand  secret  of  putting  any  saw  in  "the  best 
possible  order,  consists  in  filing  the  teeth  at  a  given  angle  to  cut 
rapidly,  and  of  a  uniform  length  so  that  the  points  wUl  all  touch 
a  straight  edged  rule  without  showing  a  variation  of  the  hundredth 
pai-t  of  an  inch.  Besides  this,  there  should  be  just  set  enough  in  the 
teetli  to  cut  a  kerf  as  narrow  as  it  can  be  made,  and  at  the  same  timo 
allow  the  blade  to  work  freely  without  pinching.  On  the  contrary, 
the  kerf  must  not  be  so  wide  as  to  permit  the  blade  to  rattle  when  in 
motion.  The  very  points  of  the  teeth  do  the  cutting,  If  one  tooth 
is  a  twentieth  of  an  inch  longer  than  two  or  three  on  each  side  of  it,' 
the  long  tooth  will  bo  required  to  do  so  much  more  cutting  than  it 
should,  that  the  sawing  cannot  be  done  well,  hence  the  saw  goes 
jumping  along,  working  hard  and  cutting  slowly;  if  one  tooth  is 
longer  than  those  on  either  side  of  it,  the  short  teeth  do  not  cut 
although  their  points  may  be  sharj^.  'When  putting  a  cross-cut  saw 
in  order,  it  will  pay, well  to  dress  the  points  with  an  old  file,  and  af- 
terwards sharpen  them  with  a  fine  whetstone;  much  mechan- 
ical skill  is  necessary  to  }mt  a  saw  in  prime  order;  one  careless  thrust 
with  a  file  will  shorten  the  point  of  a  tooth  so  much  that  it  will  bo 
utterly  useless,  so  far  as  cutting  is  concerned ;  the  teeth  should  bo 
set  with  much  care,  and  the  filing  done  with  the  greatest  accuracy. 
If  the  teeth  are  uneven  at  the  points,  a  large  flat  file  should  be  secured 


94  MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEIPTS. 


to  a  block  of  wood  in  such  a  manner  that  tho  very  points  only  may 
be  jointed,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  same  may  be  in  a  straiglit 
line,  or  circle,  if  it  is  a  circular  saw;  every  tooth  should  cut  a  little  aa 
the  saw  is  worked.  The  teeth  of  a  hand  saw  for  all  kinds  of  work 
should  be  filed  fleaming,  or  at  an  angle  on  the  front  edge,  while  the 
back  edges  may  be  filed  licaming  or  square  across  the  blade.  Tho 
best  way  to  file  a  circular  saw  for  cutting  wood  across  the  grain,  is  to 
dress  every  fifth  tooth  square  across,  and  apart  one  twentieth  of  an 
inch  shorter  than  the  others,  which  should  bo  filed  fleaming  at  an 
r.ngle  of  about  forty  degrees. 

As  regards  such  saws  as  are  used  for  cutting  up  large  logs  into  lum- 
ber it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  them  filed  at  such  an  angle 
as  will  ensure  the  largest  amount  of  work  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  power.  The  following  diagrams  will  help  to  illustrate  our  mean- 
ing,  rig.  1  shows  the  shape'of  teeth  which  nearly  all  experienced 


Tig.  1. 


mill-men  consider  as  that  standard  form  which  combines  the  greatest 
amount  of  strength  and  capacity  for  rapid  Avork,  with  the  minimum 
of  driving  power  while  doing  the  work. 

Figure  No.  2  represents  a  passable  form  of  teeth  which  are  capable 
of  doing  a  good  deal  of  work,  but  their  gre.at  weakness  lies  m  their 
slender  points.  Look  out  for  "breakers"  when  teeth  of  this 
description  are  passing  through  dry  spruce  or  hemlock  knots. 


FiQ.  2. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS'',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  95 


Fig.  No.  3  illustrates  the  appearance  of  one  of  those  intoleraWe 
•wood  rasps  which  are  altogether  too  common  in  saw-mills.  Only 
thinlc  Avhat  an  appalling  waste  of  valuable  power  is  required  to  drive 
a  "  jigger"  like  this  through  a  large  log! 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4,  at  ffl,  is  intended  to  show  the  method  of  ascertaining  tho 
proper-angle,  that  of  sixty  degrees,  at  which  such  saws  should  bo 
filed.  The  diagram  being  self-explanatory  requires  but  little  further 
elucidation  here.  A  quarter  circle  with  lines  radiating  from  the  centre 
towards  the  circumference  is  represented  near  the  verge  of  the  segment 
of  a  circular  saw.  The  lower  part  corresponds  with  the  level  of  tho 
horizon,  and  the  higher  part  at  90°  corresponds  with  the  zenith  or 
meridian,  where  the  sun  appears  at  noon-day.  Exactly  half-way  up 
is  45° ;  look  up  a  little  higher  and  you  will  find  60°,  indicated  by  tho 
radiating  line  which  runs  parallel  with  the  angle  of  the  tooth  of  the  saw 
and  this  is  the  guide  you  must  follow  in  filing.  The  same  rule  is  seer 
applied  to  a  straight  mill  saw  at  6. 

Manv  good  authorities  contend  that  mill  saws  snould  m  no  case  bo 
set  with  the  instrument  commonly  used  for  that  purpose,  but  that  in 
lieu  thereof  the  teeth  should  be  spread  out  at  the  points  with  tho 
swage  or  upset  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  permit  the  body  of  the  saw  to 
operate  without  bmding.  Both  instruments  require  to  be  skilfully- 
handled,  and  the  swage,  when  used  in  this  way,  has  proved  itself  equal 
to  every  emergency  Avithout  the  risk  of  breaking  the  teeth.  It  would 
be  quite  safe  to  say  that  the  saw-set  should  only  be  used  on  saAvs  of 
this  description  with  the  most  extreme  caution  and  care.  Every  man- 
ufacturer, however,  has  his  own  opinion,  and  consequent  practice  ou 
the  subject,  some  contending  that  one  way  is  right  and  the  other  di- 
rectly the  reverse. 

To  Eepair  Fractured  Circular  Saws.— The  best  way  to  do 
this  is  to  drill  a  small  round  hole  at  the  termination  of  the  crack,  which 
effectually  prevents  its  further  extension.  I  have  seen  some  circular 
saws  very  neatly  repaired  by_  riveting  thin  clamps  to  eacla  side  of  the 
iracture,  both  clamps  and  rivets  being  countersunk  so  they  will  ba 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  saw,  and  placed  in  such  a  position  across 
the  crack  as  to  impart  the  greatest  possible  strength  to  the  Aveakest  place. 

To  Mend  Broken  Cross-cut  Saws.— In  the  first  place  scarf  oft 
the  broken  edges  in  such  a  manner  that  when  lapped  over  each  other 


9G  MACHINISTS,   engineers',  AC.,  RECEIPTS 

they  will  ho  about  the  same  thickness  as  the  rest  of  the  i)lato,  and 
rivet  them  togetlier  loosely  with  iron  rivets  inserted  through  holes 
■which  muat  be  punched  lor  that  purpose  ;  the  euda  must  be  united 


■witli  gyeat  aceuracy  so  that  the  teeth,  &c.,  of  the  saw  may  range 
truly.  Now  place  the  saw  in  the  fire,  then  a  fiux  of  powdered  borax 
and  sal  ammoniac  is  flowed  all  over  it  after  having  it  raised  to  the 
proper  heat.  See  page  270  for  preparing  and  using  the  composition, 
lieturn  the  saw  to  the  fire  and  when  it  is  raised  to  the  proper  welding 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  97 

heat,  place  it  on  the  anvil  and  unite  the  joint  ag  rapidly  as  possible 
with  the  hammer  ;  he  careful  not  to  heat  so  hot  as  to  injure  the  steel. 
When  the  job  is  -well  done,  and  the  part  properly  tempered,  it  will  bo 
found  as  strong  as  the  rest  of  the  plate,  I  know  one  blacksmith  hi 
Canada  who  told  me  that  this  class  of  work  waa  the  best  paying  part 
of  his  business. 

Quantity  and  Cost  of  Supplies  for  Horses  akd  LuMBERiNa 
Crews  in  the  woods. — The  following  figures  have  been  kindly 
furnished  for  this  work  by  the  obliging  manager  of  Messrs.  Gilmour's 
mill  on  the  Gatmeau,  near  Ottawa,  Canada,  and  are  most  valuable  as 
affordmg  a  basis  for  calculating  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  sup- 
plies required  for  men  and  horses  engaged  in  this  branch  of  industry. 
These  calculations  are  the  result  of  long  experience  in  the  business, 
and  are  based  on  actual  consumption. 

Quantity  of  Oats  for  each  span  of  horses,  61  lbs.  per  day. 
Hay  "        "  40 

* '  Flour  used  by  each  man 

u  Pork 
Beef 

"  Beans        "  " 

«  Fish  "  " 

«  Onions 

'*  Potatoes     "  " 


Total  daily  consumption  per  man  4.93 
Quantity  of  Tea  used         *'  lbs.  per  month. 

The  diiily  allowance  of  oats  for  each  span  of  horses  may  appear 
large,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  labor  is  extremely  severe, 
and  moie  hay  will  be  required  if  any  part  of  the  oats  is  withheld.  On 
making  inquiry  with  reference  to  the  item  of  molasses,  so  largely 
used  by  our  lumbering  friends  in  New  BrunsAvick  and  Maine,  the 
answer  returned  was  that  owing  to  the  heavy  cost  of  the  commodity, 
it  was  entirely  omitted  from  the  list  of  supplies.  The  following 
exhibits  the  comparative  value  of  Mes^  and  Prime  Pork,  calculated 
from  actual  consumption 


Mess  Fork,  Prime  Mess. 

S2G  $18  80 

25  .  .  .   18  08 

24   17  35 

23   16  G2 

,22   15  89 

21   15  16 

20   14  43 

19   13  70 

18   12  97 


3fess  Pork.  Prime  3fcss. 

U7  $12  24 

16  11  51 

15   10  78 

14   10  05 

13   9  S3 

12   8  59 

11   7  88 

10   7  13 

9   6  40 


1  Barrel  Mess  averages  37  lbs.  grease,  6  lbs  bones,  when  cooked. 
1   "      Prime  Mess      24      "  13 

To  Mend  Broken  Saws.— Pure  silver,  19  parts  ;  pure  copper,  X 
part ;  pure  brass,  2  parts  ;  all  to  be  filed  into  powder,  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  ;  place  the  saw  level  on  the  anvil,  broken  edges  in 
contact,  and  hold  them  so  ;  now  put  a  small  line  of  the  mixture 
along  the  seam,  covermg  it  with  a  larger  bulk  of  powdejcd  char- 

7 


98       MAcniNiSTg,  engineers',  &c.,  keceipts. 

coal ;  now  with  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  jewellers*  blow-pipe  hold  the 
coal  dust  in  place,  and  blow  Bufficient  to  melt  the  solder  mixture  ; 
then  with  a  hammer  set  the  joint  smooth,  and  file  away  any  su- 
perfluous solder,  and  you  will  be  surprised  at  its  strength  ^  the 
heat  will  not  injure  the  temper  of  the  saw. 

Velocity  of  Wheels,  Pulleys,  Drums,  &c. — ^When  wheels  are 
applied  to  communicate  motion  from  one  part  of  a  machine  to  an- 
other, their  teeth  act  alternately  on  each  other  ;  consequently,  11  one 
•wheel  contains  GO  teeth,  and  another  20  teeth,  the  one  containing  20 
teeth  will  make  3  revolutions  while  the  other  makes  but  1 ;  ana  it 
drums  or  pulleys  are  taken  in  place  of  wheels,  the  effect  will  be  tho 
,Bame  ;  because  their  circumferences,  describing  equal  spaces,  ren- 
der their  revolutions  unequal ;  from  this  the  rule  is  derived,  namely  :— 

Multiply  the  velocity  of  the  driver  by  the  number  of  teeth  it  con- 
tains, and  divide  by  the  velocity  of  the  driven.  Tlie  quotient  will  bo 
the  number  of  teeth  it  ought  to  contain  ;  or,  multiply  the  velocity 
of  the  driver  by  its  diameter,  and  divide  by  tho  velocity  of  tho 
driven. 

,  Example  1.  If  a  wheel  that  contains  75  teeth  makes  16  revolutions 
per  minute,  required  the  number  of  teeth  in  another,  to  work  into  and 
make  24  revolutions  in  the  same  time.  According  to  rule,  you  mul- 
tiply 16  by  75,  and  divide  the  product,  which  is  1200,  by  24,'  and  you 
have  the  answer,  60  teeth. 

Example  2.  Suppose  a  drum,  30  inches  in  diameter,  to  make  20 
revolutions  per  mmute,  required  the  diameter  of  another  to  make  60 
Tevolutions  per  minute.  According  to  rule,  you  multiply  20  by  30-, 
and  divide  the  product,  which  is  600,  by  60,  and  you  have  the  answer, 
10  inches. 

Example  3.  A  wheel  64  inches  in  diameter,  and  making  42  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  is  to  give  motion  to  a  shaft  at  the  rate  of  77  revo- 
lutions in  the  same  time  ;  find  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  suitable  for 
that  purpose.  According  to  rule,  multiply  42  by  64,  and  divide  the 
product,  which  is  2G88,  by  77,  and  you  will  have  for  the  answer  35 
inches  nearly, 

77)2688(34 10-12 
231 

378 
308  70 

Example  4.  Suppose  a  pulley  32  inches  diameter  to  make  26  revo- 
lutions ;  find  the  diameter  of  another  to  make  12  revolutions  in  tho 
same  time. 

Accordmg  to  rule,  26  x  32  -f- 12  =  69J— 

26  and  12)  832.   This  wiU  be  seen  to  be  694 

32   

—  694-12=1 
832 

Example  6.  Find  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minnte  made  by 
a  wheel  or  pulley  20  inches  in  diameter,  when  driven  by  another  48 
inches  in  diameter,  and  making  45  revolutions  in  the  same  time.  Ac- 
cording to  rule,  48  x  45-^-20  =  108.  That  is,  48  multiplied  by  45  = 
2160,  divided  by  20,  gives  the  answer,  108  revolutions. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  99 

Construction  of  Trussed  Roofs.— -In  roofs  of  the  ordinary 
construction,  the  roof  covering  is  laid  upon  rafters  supported  by 
horizontal  purlins,  which  rest  on  upright  trusses  or  frames  of  timber, 
placed  on  the  walls  at  regular  distances  from  each  other.  Upon  thei 
framing  of  the  trusses  depends  the  stability  of  the  roof,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  rafters  and  purlins  being  subordinate  matters  of  detaill 
In  Trussed  Roofs,  exerting  no  side  thrust  on  the  walls,  each  truss 
consists  essentially  of  a  pair  of  principal  rafters  ot  principals,  and  a 
horizontal  tie  beam,  and  in  large  roofs  these  are  connected  and 
strengthened  by  king  and  queen  jjosts  and  struts.    (See  figs.  2.  and  3.) 

Fig.  1.  shows  a  very  simple  truss  in  which  the  tie  is  above  tho 
bottom  of  the  feet  of  the  principal,  which  is  often  done  in  small  roofs 
for  the  sake  of  obtaining  height.  The  tie  in  this  case  is  called  a 
collar  beam.   The  feet  ot  both  common  and  principal  rafters  rest  on 

a  wall  plate.  The  purlins  rest 
on  the  collar,  and  the  common 
rafters  but  against  a  ridge  run- 
ning along  tlie  top  of  the  roof. 
This  kind  of  truss  is  only  suited 
to  very  small  spans,  as  there  is 
a  cross  strain  on  that  part  of  the 
principal  below  the  collar,  which 
is  rendered  harmless  in  a  small 
span  by  the  extra  strength  of 
the  principal,  but  which  in  a 
large  one  would  be  very  likely  to  throw  out  the  walls. 

In  roofs  of  larger  span  the  tie  beam  is  placed  below  the  feet  of  tho 
principal,  which  are  tenoned  into  and  bolted  to  it.  To  keep  the  beam 
from  sagging,  or  bending  by  its  own  weight,  it  is  suspended  from 
the  head  of  the  principals  by  a  king  post  of  wood  or  iron.  The  lower 
part  of  the  kmg  post  affords  abutments  for  sturts  suppoiting  tho 
principal  immediately  under  the  purlins,  so  that  no  crosa  strain  is 


Fig.  2. 

exerted  on  any  of  tfie  timbers  in  the  truss,  but  they  all  act  in  tho 
direction  of  their  length,  the  principal  and  struts  being  subjected  to 
compression,  and  the  king  post  and  the  tie  beam  to  tension.  Fig.  2 
shows  a  sketch  of  a  king  truss.  The  common  rafters  but  on  a  pole 
plate,  the  tie  beams  resting  either  on  a  continuous  plate,  or  on  short 
templates  of  wood  and  stone.  ,  ^  i 

Where  the  span  is  considerable,  tho  beam  is  supported  at  additional 


100  MACHINISTS,  RNGTNEiiRS',  /bC;.,  RECEIPTS. 


points  t?y  snspension  pieces  called  queen  posts  (fiff  3),  from  the  bot- 
tom of   which  spring  additional  struts  ;  and,  hy  extending  thia 


Fig.  3. 


principle  ad  infinitum,  we  might  construct  a  roof  of  any  span  were  it 
not  that  a  practical  limit  is  imposed  by  the  nature  of  the  materials. 
Sometimes  roofs  are  constructed  without  king  posts,  the  queen  posts 
being  kept  apart  by  a  straining  piece.  This  construction  is  shown  in 


Fig,  4, 


ilg,  4,  which  shows  the  design  of  the  old  roof  (now  destroyed)  of  tho 
church  of  St.  Paul,  outside  the  walls,  at  Rome.    This  truss  is  interest- 
ing from  its  earl^  date,  having  been  erected  about  400  years  ago  : 
the  trusses  are  in  pairs,  a  king  post  •  being  keyed  iii^betweea  each , 
pair  to  support  tlio  beams  in  the  centre.  _ 

Of  late  years  iron  has  been  much  used  as  a  material  for  the  trussesj 
of  roofs,  tho  tie  beams  and  suspending  pieces  being  formed  of  light 
rods,  and  tho  principals  and  struts  of  rolled  T  or  angle  iron,  to  whichl 
st)ckets  are  riveted  to  receive  the  purlins. 

.'  Durable  Iksulatioit  for  Electric  Wires.— Tin  the  wires  and 
then  cover  with  pure  rubber. 


STRENGTH  OF  WOODS. 


101 


Tlie  following  tabulated  form  shows  the  results  of  Mi.  Hodgkin- 
Bon's  experiments  on  the  crushing  strengths  of  different  woods  per 
square  inch  of  section.  The  samples  crushed  were  short  cylinders  1 
inch  diameter,  and  2  inches  long,  flat  at  the  ends.  The  results  given 
in  the  first  column  are  those  obtained  when  the  wood  was  moderately- 
dry.  The  samples  noted  in  the  second  colunm  were  kept  seasoning 
2  months  longer  than  the  first.  The  third  column  is  appended  by  the 
author,  to  illustrate  the  resilience  or  toughness  of  certain  woods. 


Kind  of  Wood. 


Alder, 

Ash, 

Bay, 

Box, 

Beech, 

Birch, 

English  Birch, 
Cedar, 

Deal,  Christiana, 
Red  Deal, 
White  Deal, 
Hornbeam, 
Elder,  - 
Elm, 

Fir  (Memel), 
Fir  (Spruce), 
Larch, 
Mahogany, 
Lignum  Vitse, 
Oak  (Quebec), 
Oak  (English), 
Pine  (Pitch), 
Pine  (Red), 
Poplar, 
Plum  (Dry), 
Sycamore, 
Teak, 
Walnut, 
Willow, 


Crushing  strength  per 
square  inch  of  section. 


6831  to 
8683  to 
7518  to 


9363 
7518 
10300 
7733  to  7363 
10300 
6402 
5863 


3297  to 
5674  to 


5748  to  6586 
6781  to  7293 
7300 

7451  to  9973 
7451  to  10331 


6499  to  6819 


8198  to  8198 
9900 
5982 
10058 
6790 
7518 
5142 
10493 


4231  to 
6484  to 
6790  to 
5395  to 
3107  to 
8241  to 


8241  to  12101 
6063  to  7227 
2898  to  6128 


Length  in  feet  of  a  rod  1 
inch  square  that  would 
break  by  its  own  weight 


42,080 


38.940 


55.500 


39,050 
40,500 


42  160 


32,900 


35,800 
36,049 


It  was  also  found  that  in  pillars  of  the  same  dimensions,  but  of 
different  materials,  taking  the  strength  of  cast  iron  at  1,000,  that  of 
wrought  iron  was  1,745,  cast  steel  2,518,  Dantzic  Oak  108,8,  and  Red 
Deal  78.5. 

Beams  of  timber,  when  laid  with  their  concentric  layers  vertical, 
are  stronger  than  when  laid  horizontal,  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  7. 

Anti-Fouxing  Composition  for  Ships,— Melt,  mix  and  grind  to- 
gether into  an  impalpable  powder,  1  part  copper,  4  of  zinc,  and  1  ol 
tin :  mix  thoroughly  with  red  lead  or  Torbay  mineral  red,  and  ap- 
ply to  the  ship's  bottom.  (See  "Marine  Paint  for  Metals  in  Salt 
Water,"  under  Painters'  Department.) 


102 


TONNAGE  OF  SHIPS. 


MRASCrnrCMKNT  and  CALCCr.ATIOXS  OP  THE  TOXXAGE  OP  VeSSKUI 

AND  Ships  of  tuk  Unitisd  Sxatks,  undku  tue  Act  ok  Cokokkbs 
OF  May  G,  ism. 

Tlio  tannage  deck,  in  vessels  having  3  or  more  decks  to  the  hull,  shaL 
be  tlio  second  deck  from  below,  in  all  other  cases  the  upper  deck  of  the  hull 
Is  to  bo  the  tonnage-deck.  The  length  from  the  forepart  of  the  outev 
planking,  on  the  side  of  the  stem,  to  the  after  part  of  the  main  stem  post  of 
screw  steamers,  and  to  the  after  part  of  the  rudder-post  of  all  other  vessels, 
measured  on  the  top  of  the  tonnarje  deck,  shall  be  accounted  the  vessel's 
length.  The  breadth  of  the  broadest  part  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel  is  ac- 
counted the  vessel's  breadth  of  beam.  A  measure  from  the  under  side  of 
tonnage  deck  plank,  amidships,  to  the  ceiling  of  the  hold  (average  thick- 
ness), shall  be  accounted  the  depth  of  hold.  If  the  vessel  has  a  third 
deck,  then  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  tonnage  deck  plank  to  the  under 
Bide  of  the  upper  deck  plank  shall  be  accounted  as  the  height  under  the 
Bpar-deck.  All  measurements  to  be  taken  in  feet  and  fractions  of  feet ; 
and  all  fractions  of  feet  shall  be  expressed  in  decimals.  The  Register  ton- 
nage of  a  vessel  is  her  entire  internal  cubical  capacity  in  tons  of  100  cubic 
feet  each,  to  be  deterTnined  as  follows  :  Lengths.  Measure  the  length  of 
the  vessel  in  a  straight  line  along  the  upper  side  of  the  tonnage  deck  from 
the  inside  of  the  inner  plank  (average  thickness)  at  the  side  of  the  stem 
to  the  inside  of  the  plank  on  the  stern  timbers  (average  thickness),  de- 
ducting from  this  length  what  is  due  to  the  rake  of  the  bow  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  deck,  and  what  is  due  to  the  rake  of  the  stern  timber  in  one- 
third  of  the  round  of  the  beam  ;  divide  the  length  so  taken  into  the  num- 
ber of  equal  parts  required  by  the  following  table,  according  to  the  clasa 
insuch  table  to  which  the  vessel  belongs: 

Table  of  Classes. 

Class  1.  Vessels  of  which  the  tonnage  length  according  tcTthe  above 
measurement  is  50  feet  or  under,  into  6  equal  parts. 

2.  Over  50  feet  and  not  over  100,  feet  into  8  equal  partS. 

3.  Over  100  feet  and  not  over  150  feet,  into  10  equal  parts. 

4.  Over  150  feet  and  not  over  200  feet,  into  12  equal  parts. 
6.  Over  200  feet  and  not  over  250  feet,  into  14  equal  parts. 
C.   Over  250  feet,  into  16  equal  parts. 

The  extent  of  the  areas  is  found  by  measurement  and  calculation,  and 
if  there  be  a  break  or  poop  or  any  other  permanent  closed  in  space  on  the 
upper  decks,  or  on  the  spar  deck,  available  for  cargo,  or  stores,  or  for  the 
berthing  or  accomodation  of  passengers  or  crew,  the  tonnage  of  such 
space  shall  be  computed.  If  a  vessel  has  a  third  deck,  or  spar  deck,  the 
tonnage  between  it  and  the  tonnage  deck  is  also  computed. 

In  ascertaining  the  tonnage  of  open  vessels,  the  upper  edge  of  the  upper 
strake  is  to  form  the  boundary  line  of  measurement,  and  the  depth  shall 
be  taken  from  an  athwart  shipline,  extending  from  the  upper  edge  of  said 
Btrake  at  each  division  of  the  length. 

ITie  register  of  the  vessel  must  express  the  number  of  the  decks,  the 
tonnage  under  the  tonnage  deck,  that  of  the  between  decks,  above  the 
tonnage  deck ;  also  that  of  the  poop  or  other  enclosed  spaces  above  the 
deck,  each  separately.  In  every  registered  IT.  S.  ship  or  vessel  the  num- 
ber denoting  the  total  registered  tonnage  shall  be  deeply  carved  or  other- 
wise permanently  marked  on  her  main  beam,  and  shall  be  so  continued, 
and  if  at  any  time  cease  to  be  so  continued  such  vessel  shall  no  longer  bo 
recognized  as  a  registered  U.  S.  vessel. 

By  a  subsequent  Act,  approved  Feby.  28, 1865,  the  preceding  Act  was  so 
construed  that  "  no  part  of  any  ship  or  vessel  snail  be  admeasured  or  reg- 
istered for  tonnage  that  is  used  for  cabins  or  state-rooms,  and  construct- 
ed entirely  above  the  first  deck  which  is  not  a  deck  to  the  hull." 

Carpenters'  Measurement  for  a  Single-Deck  Vessel.— J?MZe. 
Multiply  the  length  of  keel,  the  breadth  of  beam  and  the  depth  of  hold 
together,  and  divide  by  95. 


TONNAGE  OF  SHIPS. 


103 


PoB  A  DOTTBLE  Deok  VESSEii, — Eule.  Multiply  as  above,  taking  hal* 
the  breadth  of  beam  for  the  depth  of  the  hold,  and  divide  by  95. 
British  Measurement. 

The  British  mode  for  measuring  vessels,  authorized  by  Act  of  Parlla' 
ment  in  1854,  has  been  substantially  copied  into  the  above  noted  Act  to 
regulate  the  admeasurement  of  tonnage  in  the  United  States,  the  main 
difference  being  a  reduced  number  of  areas  or  eectiona  by  the  Britisb 
method,  which  stands  as  follows. 

1.  Vessels  of  which  the  tonnage  length  is  50  feet  or  under  are  divided 
Into  4  equal  parts. 

2.  Over  50  and  not  over  120  feet,  into  6    "  " 

3.  "    120      "      "    180   *'      "  8    "  " 

4.  "  180  "  "  "  225  '*  "  10  "  " 
6.  "  225  ft.  into  12  «  '* 
Divide  the  length  of  the  upper  deck  between  the  after  part  of  the  stem 

and  the  forepart  of  the  stem-post  into  6  equal  parts,  and  note  the  fore- 
most, middle,  and  aftermost  points  of  division.  Measure  the  depths  at 
these  three  points  in  feet  and  tenths  of  a  foot,  also  the  depths  from  the 
under  side  of  the  upper  deck  to  the  ceiling  at  the  timber  strake  ;  or,  in 
case  of  a  break  in  the  upper  deck,  from  a  line  stretched  in  continuation 
of  the  deck.  For  the  breadth,  divide  each  depth  into  5  equal  parts,  and 
measure  the  inside  breadths  at  the  following  points,  viz. :  at  2  and  8  from 
the  upper  deck  of  the  foremost  and  aftermost  depths,  and  at  4  and  8  from 
the  upper  deck  of  the  midship  depth.  Take  the  length,  at  half  the  mid- 
ship depth,  from  the  afterpart  of  stem  to  the  forepart  of  the  stern-post. 
Then,  to  twice  the  midship  depth,  add  the  foremost  and  aftermost  depths 
for  the  sum  of  the  depths ;  and  add  together  the  foremost  upper  and 
lower  breadths,  3  times  the  upper  breadth  with  the  lower  breadth  at  the 
midship,  and  the  upper,  and  twice  the  lower  breadth  at  the  after  division 
for  sum  of  the  breadths. 

Multiply  together  the  sum  of  the  depths,  the  sum  of  the  breadths,  and 
the  length,  and  divide  the  product  by  3500,  which  will  give  the  number  of 
tons  or  register.  If  the  vessel  has  a  poop  or  half  deck,  or  a  break  in  the 
upper  deck,  measure  the  inside  mean  length,  breadth  and  height  of 
Buch  part  thereof  as  may  be  included  within  the  bulkhead ;  multiply  these 
three  measurements  together,  and  divide  the  product  by  92.4,  The  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  tons  to  be  added  to  the  result,  as  above  ascertained. 

For  Open  Vessels.— Th.G  depths  are  to  be  taken  from  the  upper  edge  of 
the  lower  strake. 

For  Steam  Vessels.— The  tonnage  due  to  the  engine  room  is  deducted 
from  the  total  tonnage  computed  by  the  above  rule. 

To  determine  this,  measure  the  inside  length  of  the  engine-room  from 
the  foremost  to  the  aftermost  bulkhead  ;  then  multiply  this  length  by  the 
midship  depth  of  the  vessel  and  the  product  by  the  inside  midship 
breadth  at  .4  cf  the  depth  from  the  deck,  and  divide  the  final  product  by 
92-4. 

Self- Acting  NAUTiCAii  Pump. — Captain  Leslie,  in  a  voyage  from 
North  America  to  Stockholm,  adopted  an  excellent  mode  of  empty- 
ing water  from  his  ship's  hold  when  the  crew  were  disabled  from 
performing  that  duty.  About  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  pump,  he 
rigged  out  a  spar,  one  end  of  which  projected  overboard,  while  the 
other  was  fastened  as  a  lever  to  the  machinery  of  the  pump.  To  the 
end  which  projected  overboard  was  suspended  a  water-butt  half  full, 
but  corked  down,  so  that  when  the  coming  wave  raised  the  water- 
butt,  the  other  end  depressed  the  piston  of  the  pump  ;  but,  at  the 
retiring  of  the  wave,  this  was  reversed  ;  for,  by  the  weight  of  the 
butt,  the  piston  came  up  again,  and  with  it  the  water.  Thus,  without 
t\ie  aid  of  the  crew,  the  ship's  hold  was  cleared  of  w  iter  in  a  few  houra. 


104 


ENGLISH  FREIGHT  TABLE. 

GOODS  mOPORTIONED  IN  STOWAGE. 

mie  following  Table  la  from  *'  Harrison^ s  Freighters'  Guide,**  lAfiiUm 
Edition,  18J8.  The  Ist  column  shows  the  Quantities,  in  Numbers  and 
Decimal  parts  ;  the  2d  column  the  character,  or  kind  of  Goodw ;  tho 
3d  column  the  Gross  Weight  of  the  Goods  in  Tons  and  Decimal  parte 
of  a  ton  :  and  the  4th  column  the  number  of  Cubic  Feet  requirea  for 
Stowing  the  same.   [850  Cubic  Feet  equal  21.2  Tons,  or  1  KeeL.'\ 


Quantities  in 
Numbers  & 
Decimals. 


*97. 

88. 
105. 
108. 
114. 
125. 
l(j. 
9.107 
7.760 
6.825 
4.444 
B.257 
7.2727 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 

14.923 


5.1515 

4.857 

1.275 

1.300 
1.200 
0.840 

0.708 

1.054 


Articles  of  Freight. 


Quarters  of  Wheat,  61.2  lbs.  per  Bushel,  equal 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

 do. 

 do. 

 do. 

 do, 

 do, 


do.  Tares,  Beans,  &  Peas  63 

do.  Bye,  57 

do.  Seed,  62 

do.  Barley,   52 

do.  Oats,  37 

Tons  Clean  Hemp  and  Flax,, 
do.  Outshot  do.  do... 
do.  Half-clean  do.  do. . . 
do.  Cedilla      do.       do. . . 

do.  Wool,  

do.  Wool,  compressed,  do, 

do.  Dried  Skins,  do. 

do.  TalloWj 

do.  Ashes,  J  do. 

do.  Hides  (;Salted),  

Loads  of  Timber  (Baltic  squared  Fir),... 

do.  do       (N.  American  do.),  J  do. 

do.  do       (Birch  do.), 

do.  Masts  (round),  do. 

Pieces,   Ft.  In.  In. 
Stand.  Hund.  Deals,      120      12  11  lU 
do  Battens,     120      12    7  2iy| 

Mille  Baltic  Staves  reduced  

Viz.  1200  pieces,  66  in.  long  by  1%  thick 

do.  Odessa  do.  do  

do.  Quebec  do.  do  

do.  Baltic  Staves  rough  

1200  pieces  72  inches  by  ZY-t  

do.  Odessa     do.  do  

1200  pieces  76  inches  by  sy^  

do.  Quebec  do.  do  

1200  pieces  66  inches  by  2%  

do.  West  India     do.  do  

1200  pieces  42  inches  by  iVi  

Casks  Pot  and  Pearl  A  shes,  .'do. 

Tons  Bones  (calcined),  in  Bulk;  do. 

do.      do.    (manure,  &c.),  do  do. 

do.      do.    (best  quality),  do  do. 


Uo. 


Tons 
Weight 


21.2 

20. 

21. 

20. 

21. 

16.5 

10. 
9.107 
7.76 
5.825 
4.444 
5.257 
7.2727 

17. 

18.5 
13.5 
22. 
17.5 

17. 
17.75 


15.25 


16. 


Cub. 

Feetj, 


?50 
do 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do, 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 
do. 


do. 


*  Wheat  is  the  standard,  8  imperial  bushels  of  Wheat  equal  1  Quaiter 
and  1  English  Quarter  equal  81/4  United  States  bushel, 
t  The  StaTes  average  Q  inches  in  breadth. 


105 


ENGLISH  FREIGHT  TABLE. 


iaantities  in 
Numbers  & 
Decimals. 


100. 

Barrels 

100, 

do. 

100. 

do. 

136. 

do. 

140. 

do. 

160. 

Sacks 

Arti«les  of  Freight. 


.do. 


do 


do, 


Pitch  do  do, 

Tar  (Stockholm),  do, 

Tar  and  Rosin  (American),  do, 

Flour  220  lbs.  each  (196  nett),  do. 

do.   280      do  , 

ON  COTTON. 

Tons  New  Orleans  and  Mobile,  all  ccm- 

pressed,  

do.  best  carrying  ships,  do  do 

do.  Charleston  and  Savannah,  not  com- )  ^ 

pressed,  ' 

■do.  PernambucoandMaranhamli^^Ves- 
sels  from  these  ports  generally  stow 
10  per  cent,  more  than  1/2  the  register  ton- 
nage, part  compressed,  say  7  tons  as  above  ^ 

do.  Alexandria,  all  compressed,  do- 

do.        do,         not  compressed,  do. 

Hogsheads  Tobacco,  do. 

do.  Sugar  16%  cwt.  average,  do. 

Tierces  CofEee,  7  cwt.      do  do. 

do.  11/2  cwt.      do  do. 

Tuns  of  Oil  of  252  gals,  each,  do, 

do.  Wine,  Brandy,  or  any  other  Spirit )  ^ 
reckoning  the  full  gauge  of  the  Casks,  J 
Tons  Oranges  and  Lemons  of  10  Chest  \  , 

or  20  Boxes  per  Ton,  j 

do.  Cork,  (Faro),  do. 

do.  Bark,  fTree),  do. 

do.  do.  (Coppice)  do. 

Tierces  Beef,  3  cwt.  each,  do. 

Barrels  Pork,  2  cwt.  each,  do. 

Bags  Bread,  1  cwt.  each,  do. 

Firkins  Butter,  70  lbs.  each,  do. 

Barrels  Red  Herrings,  do. 

do.     White  do.   do. 

Hogsheads  Copperas,  do. 

do.  Lamp  Black,  do. 

ags  do  ."...do. 

Tons  Soda  &  other  Alkalies,  in  Casks,  do. 

do.      do.   in  Bulk,  do. 

Carboy,  Oil  Vitriol,  do. 

Crates  Glass,  18  Tables,  do. 

do.      do.   15    do  do. 

Crates  Glass,  12  Tables,  do. 

Gross  of  Bottles  =  6  per  Gallon  =  19  lbs. )   ,  . 
Weight  per  dozen,  in  Bulk,  (Glass),  ( 
do.  1/2  Bottles  =  12  per  Gallon  =  11  lbs.  j  . 
weight  per  Dozen,  in  Bulk,  ) 


Tons 
Weight 


8.5 
16. 
20. 
16. 
17. 
13.75 
20.  • 

8.333 
9.166 
4.75 


9.7 

5. 
10. 
16.5 
14. 
17.25 
18.5 


20. 


4.5 
10. 
8. 

16.5 
15.5 
6. 

16.5 
11. 
21.5 
17. 

7. 

6, 
16. 
21. 

8. 

4.5 

5. 

5.5 

10. 
11.75 


106 


ENGLISH  FREIGirr  TABLE. 

Quantities  In 
Jfumbers  & 
Decimals. 

Articles  of  Frciglit. 

Tons 
Weight. 

Cub, 
Foet 

80. 

28. 

22. 

16. 
7000. 
8000. 

26. 

17. 

20. 

21. 
300. 
•  8. 

Crts.  Bottles  (Glass)  IO24  cubic  ft.  each,  equal 

do.  Earthenware,  small  size,  do. 

do,        do.  mixed  sorts  or  middling  size,. do. 
do.        do.  largest  size  do. 

Fire  Bricks,  in  Bulk,  % 

10. 
10. 

9. 

7. 
21. 
21. 
21. 
17. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

2L200 

850 
do. 
do. 
do. 
638 
do. 
425 
do. 
do. 
567 
283 
850 

f  The  Contents  of  each  "Wagon  of  Coals  is  12G  Cubic  Feet,  8  Wagons  1003 
Feet,  but  when  stowed  in  bulk  on  board  a  ship,  from  the  spreading  out 
and  pressure,  become  closer  packed,  and  are  proved,  from  practice,  to 
Btow  in  the  space  of  850  Cubic  Feet. 

Note.  —As  wheat  is  the  standard  equally  for  weight  and  measurement, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  how  it  is  so.  The  imperial  corn  bushel  is 
2218.192  cubic  inches :  this  multiplied  by  776  (the  number  of  bushels  in  97 
qrs,  of  wheat),  and  divided  by  1728  (the  cubic  inches  in  one  foot),  gives 
996  cubic  feet ;  but,  when  stowed  in  bulk  on  board  a  ship,  is  reduced  in 
measurement  nearly  15  per  cent.,  viz.,  to  850  cubic  feet ;  1st,  about  8  per 
cent,  by  the  ship  stowing  it  in  spaces  where  no  measurement  goods  can  be 
stowed,  and  the  immense  pressure  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  cargo ;  and 
2d,  about  7  per  cent,  difference  between  the  bushel  being  filled  in  the 
customary  way,  and  what  it  can  be  made  actually  to  hold ;  this,  by  sev- 
eral tilals  of  wheat,  61  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  average  nearly  5  pints,  or  5-64ths, 
making,  in  all,  about  15  per  cent,  as  above.  This  seeming  paradox,  which 
I  have  taken  some  pains  to  clear  up,  although  well  known  to  exist  in 
practice,  by  me  and  every  one  acquainted  with  the  stowage  of  goods, 
applies  to  every  sort  of  grain,  and  in  fact,  to  everything  in  bulk,  according 
to  its  weight  and  elasticity ;  and  97  qrs.  of  wheat,  is  equal  to  850  cubic  feet. 


TREENAILS.— 5333  pieces  of  9  inches  equal  1  load  of  timber  ;  4000  do. 
151  do.  do.;  3200  do.  15  do.  do.  ;  2666  do.  do.  18  do.  do. ;  2285  do.  21  do.  do,; 
2000 do.  24  do.  do. ;  1777  do.  27  do.  do.;  1600  do.  30  do.  do. ;  1451  do.  33  do 
do.  ;  1333  do.  36  do.  do.;  1142  do.  42  do.  do. 

FIR  AND  OAK  PLANK.— 1200  pieces  of  %  inch  equal  1  load  of  timber; 
eOO  do.  1  do.  do, ;  400  do.  1%  do.  do.;  300  do.  2  do.  do.  ;  240  do.  2V2  do.  do.; 
200  do.  3  do.  do. ;  150  do.  4  do.  do.  ;  120  do.  5  do.  do.  ;  100  do.  6  do.  do. 

Freight  Table.— The  foregoing  Table  gives  about  100  different  de- 
scriptions of  goods,  proportioned  in  stowage. 

KuiiE.— If  97  Quarters  of  wheat  equal  a  keel  (21.2  tons  or  850  cubic  ft.) 
then  how  many  quarters  of  Barley,  or  how  many  tons  of  Hemp,  Wool,  or 
Cotton,  or  barrels  of  Flour  can  be  stowed  in  a  vessel  whose  carrying  capa- 
city is  294  tons  ? 

Example.— 294  tons  multiplied  by  40  (the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton) 
equals  11.760  cubic  feet,  which  divided  by  850  and  the  quotient  multiplied 
by  140  (the  number  of  barrels  which  can  be  stowed  in  850  cubic  feet,  aa 
t3tated  in  the  table)  gives  193G  barrels  of  Flour,  as  the  quantity  which  such 
vessel  can  carry. 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


107 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR  FOR  MERCHA.NTS,  SEAMEN,  CON- 
TRACTOBS,  &c.,  showing  the  Solid  Contents  or  Cubic  Feet  of  Timber, 
Stones,  Boxes,  Bales,  Barrels,  Casks,  Hogsheads,  &c.,  according  to  their 
several  lengths,  breadths  and  tliicknesses.  Condensed  from  JilunVs  Ex- 
peditious Measurer. 

Example.— Required  the  cubic  contents  of  a  Box,  Stone,  Bale  or 
Package,  6  feet  long,  36  ins.  thick  or  deep,  and  46  ins.  broad  ;  turn  to  36 
inches  thick,  among  the  running  titles  over  the  tables,  and  opposite  6  ft. 
and  under  46  ins.  (indicated  by  B,  denoting  breadth),  you  will  tind  the  an- 
swer 69,  the  number  of  cubic  feet. 

If  there  should  be  a  package  exceeding  the  extent  of  the  tables  in  length, 
breadth  or  thickness,  its  solid  contents  may,  however,  easily  be  found  by 
halving  the  dimension  so  exceeding,  and  doubling  the  solid  content ;  or, 
double  any  suitable  number,  add  any  two  together,  or  subtract,  as  maybe 
required. 

Sizes  in  feet  and  inches  may  be  determined  by  applying  the  scale  for  in- 
ches under  each  table,  adding  or  deducting  as  may  be  required. 

In  measuring  casks  and  hogsheads,  it  is  customary  to  deduct  one-fifth  on 
account  of  the  bulge.  Thus  supposing  the  square  or  solid  contents  of 
a  cask  should  be  by  the  table  20  cubic  f  t.  ,tho  5th  olf  would  leave  it  but  16  ft. 

iengt?""*^™*" "  ''"'^^n^che's 'Thick,'— By  ' 


ft. 

in. 

5  B 

6  B 

7  B 

8  B 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

1 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

2 

0  4 

0  5 

0  6 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

3 

0  6 

0  8 

0  y 

0  10 

0  11 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  A 

1  T 

4 

0  8 

0  10 

1  0 

1  1 

1  3 

1  5 

1  6 

1  8 

1  10 

1  11 

2  1 

5 

0  10 

1  1 

1  3 

1  5 

1  7 

1  9 

1  11 

2  1 

2  3 

2  5 

2  7 

6 

1  1 

1  3 

1  6 

1  8 

1  11 

2  1 

2  4 

2  6 

2  9 

2  11 

3  2 

1 

0  0 

0  0 

n  n 
u  u 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  C 

0  0 

2 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

3 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

6 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

Length 

6  Inche 

s  Thick,— By 

ft- 

in. 

6B 

7B 

8B 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

1 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

2 

0  6 

0  7 

0  8 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

3 

0  9 

0  11 

1  0 

1  2 

1  3 

1  5 

1  6 

1  8 

1  9 

1  11 

2  0 

4 

1  0 

1  2 

1  4 

1  6 

1  8 

1  10 

2  0 

2  2 

2  4 

2  6 

2  8 

5 

1  3 

1  6 

1  8 

1  11 

2  1 

2  4 

2  6 

2  9 

2  11 

3  2 

3  4 

6 

1  6 

1  9 

2  0 

2  3 

2  6 

2  9 

3  0 

3  3 

3  6 

3  9 

4  0 

1 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

1  0 

2 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

1  0 

3 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

2  0 

6 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0-  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

4  0 

Lengths 

7  Inches 

Thick, 

-By 

ft- 

in. 

7B 

8B 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

1 

0  4 

0  5 

0'5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  9 

2 

0  8 

0  9 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  6 

1  7 

1  8 

3 

I 

1  0 

1  2 

1  4 

1  6 

1  7 

1  9 

1  11 

2  1 

2  2 

2  4 

2  6 

4 

1  4 

1  7 

1  9 

1  11 

2  2 

2  4 

2  6 

2  9 

2  11 

3  1 

3  4 

5 

1  8 

1  11 

2  2 

2  5 

2  8 

2  11 

3  2 

3  5 

3  8 

3  11 

4  2 

6 

2  1 

2  4 

3  8 

2  11 

3  3 

3  6 

3  10 

4  1 

4  5 

4  8 

5  0 

1 

0  0 

0  0 

0  C 

0  0 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

1  0 

2 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

3 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

6 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  ? 

A  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

108 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


Length 

J. 

8  Iiic 

Tujs  Thick,- 

/t. 

ill. 

8B 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

1 

0  5 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

2 

0  11 

1  C 

J  J 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  7 

1  8 

1  !] 

1  11 

2  0 

3 

1  4 

1  6 

1  8 

1  10 

2  0 

2  2 

2  4 

2  G 

2  8 

2  10 

3  0 

4 

1  9 

2  0 

2  3 

2  f) 

2  8 

2  11 

3  1 

3  4 

3  7 

3  9 

4  0 

5 

2  £ 

2  C 

2  9 

3  1 

3  4 

3  7 

3  11 

4  2 

4  5 

4  S 

5  0 

6 

2  € 

3  0 

3  4 

3  8 

4  0 

4  4 

4  8 

5  0 

5  4 

5  8 

6  0 

1 

0  0 

0  1 

0  1 

0  J 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

1  

0  1 

2 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

2  0 

3 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

3  0 

6 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  G 

0  6 

Length 

9  Inches  Thick.- 

-By 

fl- 

in. 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

1 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

2 

1  2 

1  £ 

1  5 

1  6 

1  8 

1  9 

1  11 

2  £ 

2  5 

3 

1  8 

1  11 

2  1 

2  3 

2  5 

2  8 

2  10 

3  0 

3  2 

3  5 

3  7 

4 

2  3 

2  6 

3  2 

2  9 

3  0 

3  3 

3  6 

3  9 

4  0 

4  3 

4  6 

4  9 

5 

2  10 

3  5 

3  9 

4  1 

4  6 

4  8 

5  C 

5  4 

6  8 

5  11 

6 

Q  K 
O  0 

3  £ 

4  2 

4  6 

4  11 

5  3 

5  8 

G  C 

6  5 

6  9 

7  2 

1 

n  1 

U  -1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

C  1 

0  1 

0  1 

1  0 

2 

n  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

3 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  S 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

6 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

OC 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

Length 

10  Inches  Thick, 

0!. 

in. 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

1 

0  8 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

2 

1  5 

1  6 

1  8 

1  10 

1  11 

2  1 

2  3 

2  4 

2  6 

2  8 

o  a 
^  y 

3 

2  1 

2  4 

2  6 

2  9 

2  11 

3  2 

3  4 

3  7 

3  9 

4  0 

4  2 

4 

2  9 

3  1 

3  4 

3  7 

3  11 

4  '2 

4  5 

4  9 

5  0 

5  3 

5  7 

5 

3  6 

3  10 

4  2 

4  6 

4  10 

5  3 

5  7 

5  11 

6  3 

a  T 
D  < 

C  11 
D  li. 

6 

4  2 

4  7 

5  0 

5  5 

5  10 

6  3 

6  8 

7  1 

I  0 

T  11 

Q  /I 
O  1 

1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

2 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

u  o 

3 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

6 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

Lercth 

1 

1  Inc 

hes 

Thick, 

-By 

ft. 

in. 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

MB 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

1 

0  10 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  5 

1  6 

1  6 

2 

1  8 

1  10 

2  0 

2  2 

2  4 

2  5 

2  7 

2  9 

2  11 

3  1 

3  3 

8 

2  6 

2  9 

3  0 

3  3 

3  5 

3  8 

3  11 

4  2 

4  4 

4  7 

4  10 

4 

I 

3  4 

3  8 

4  0 

4  3 

4  7 

4  11 

6  2 

5  G 

5  10 

6  1 

6  5 

5 

4  2 

4  7 

5  0 

5  4 

5  9 

6  1 

,  6  6 

6  11 

7  3 

7  8 

8  0 

6 

5  1 

5  6 

6  0 

6  5 

6  11 

7  4 

7  10 

8  3 

8  9 

9  2 

9  8 

1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

6 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR.  109 


Length 

i2"lnches  Thick, 

—By 

ft. 

in. 

12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

1 

1  0 

1  ] 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  6 

1  7 

1  8 

1  9 

1  I'O 

2 

2  0 

2  2 

2  4 

2  6 

2  8 

2  10 

3  0 

3  2 

3  ^ 

3  6 

3  8 

3 

3  0 

3  3 

3  6 

3  9 

4  0 

4  3 

4  6 

4  9 

5  0 

5  3 

5  6 

4 

4  C 

4  4 

4  8 

5  0 

5  4 

5  8 

6  0 

G  ^ 

6  8 

7  0 

7  4 

6 

6  C 

5  5 

5  10 

6  3 

6  8 

7  1 

7  6 

7  11 

8  4 

8  9 

9  2 

6 

6  ( 

G  6 

7  0 

7  6 

8  0 

8  6 

,  9  0 

9  6 

10  0 

10  6 

31  0 

1 

0  ] 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  1 

2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  2 

3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

d  5 

0  5 

0  4 

6 

1  0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  10 

0  11 

0  15 

Length 

13  Inclies  Thick, 

—By 

ft- 

in. 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

IG  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

1 

I  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  C 

1  8 

1  9 

1  10 

1  11 

2  0 

2  1 

2 

2  4 

2  G 

2  9 

2  11 

3  1 

3  3 

3  5 

3  7 

3  10 

4  0 

4  2 

3 

3  C 

3  30 

4  1 

4  4 

4  7 

4  11 

5  2 

5  5 

5  8 

6  0 

6  3 

4 

1  4  8 

5  1 

5  5 

5  9 

G  2 

G  6 

6  10 

7  3 

7  7 

7  11 

8  4 

5 

5  10 

G  4 

G  9 

7  3 

7  8 

8  2 

8  7 

9  0 

9  6 

9  11 

10  5 

G 

7  1 

7  7 

8  2 

8  8 

9  3 

9  9 

10  4 

10  10 

11  5 

11  11 

32  6 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

\ 

0  4 

0  A 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  10 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

1  0 

Length 

14  Inches 

Qiick,- 

-By 

ft- 

in. 

14  B 

15  B 

IG  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

24  15 

1 

1  4 

1  6 

1  7 

1  8 

1  9 

1  10 

1  11 

2  1 

2  2 

2  3 

2  4 

2 

2  9 

2  11 

3  1 

3  4 

3  6 

3  8 

3  11 

4  1 

4  3 

4  G 

5  10 

3 

4  1 

4  5 

4  8 

5  0 

5  3 

5  7 

5  10 

G  2 

6  5 

6  9 

7  0 

4 

5  5 

5  10 

G  3 

6  7 

7  0 

7  5 

7  9 

8  2 

8  7 

8  11 

9  4 

5 

G  10 

7  4 

7  9 

8  3 

8  9 

9  3 

9  9 

10  3 

10  8 

11  2 

11  8 

G 

8  2 

8  9 

9  4 

9  11 

10  6 

11  11 

11  8 

12  3 

12  10 

13  5 

14  0 

1 

0  1 

0  1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  G 

0  C 

0  G 

0  7 

0  7 

6  ; 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  11 

1  0 

1  0 

1  0 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

Lei 

igth 

15  Inches 

Tfiick, 

—By 

15  B 

iG  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

24  B 

25  B 

1 

1  7 

1  8 

1  9 

1  11 

2  0 

2  1 

2  2 

2  4 

2  5 

2  G 

2  7 

2 

1  3  2 

3  4 

3  7 

3  9 

4  0 

4  2 

4  5 

4  7 

4  10 

5  0 

5  3 

3 

4  8 

5  0 

5  4 

5  8 

5  11 

6  3 

6  7 

G  11 

7  2 

7  6 

7  10 

4 

G  3 

G  8 

7  3 

7  6 

7  11 

8  4 

8  9 

9  2 

9  7 

10  0 

10  5 

5 

7  10 

8  4 

8  10 

9  5 

9  11 

10  5 

10  11 

11  6 

12  0 

12  6 

13  0 

0 

9  6 

10  0 

10  8 

11  3 

11  11 

12  6 

13  2 

13  9 

14  5 

15  0 

15  8 

1  0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

i 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

h  9 

0  10 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  2 

1  2 

1  2 

1  3 

1  3 

110 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


Ki    JiicluiS  Thick,— By 


ft- 

in. 

1GB 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

24  B 

25  B 

2G  B 

1 

1  0 

1  11 

2  0 

2  1 

2  3 

2  4 

2  5 

2  7 

2  8 

2 

9 

2  10 

2 

3  7 

3  y 

4  3 

4  5 

4  8 

4  11 

5  1 

5  4 

5 

7 

5  10 

5  4 

5  8 

G  0 

G  4 

G  8 

7  0 

7  4 

7  8 

8  0 

8 

4 

8  8 

4 

7  1 

7  7 

8  0 

8  5 

8  11 

9  4 

9  9 

10  3 

10  8 

11 

1 

11  7 

5 

8  11 

9  5 

10  0 

10  7 

11  1 

11  8 

12  3 

12  9 

13  4 

13 

11 

14  5 

C 

10  8 

11  4 

12  0 

12  8 

13  4 

14  0 

14  8 

15  4 

16  0 

16 

8 

17  4 

1 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0 

3 



0  3 

2 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

ft  K 

0 

6 

0  6 

3 

0  5 

0  G 

0  G 

0  C 

0  7 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0 

8 

0  8 

G 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

1  1 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  3 

1  4 

1 

5 

1  6 

Leiigtli 

17  Inches 

Xhicl<~ 

— Bv 

ft- 

ill. 

17  B 

18B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  b' 

24  B 

25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

1 

2  0 

2  2 

2  3 

2  4 

2  G 

2  7 

2  9 

2  10 

2  11 

3 

1 

3  2 

2 

4  0 

4  3 

4  G 

4  9 

5  0 

5  2 

5  5 

5  8 

5  11 

6 

2 

O  O 

3 

6  0 

6  5 

6  9 

7  1 

7  5 

7  10 

8  2 

8  G 

8  10 

9 

3 

9  7 

4 

8  0 

8  6 

9  0 

9  5 

9  11 

10  5 

10  10 

11  4 

11  10 

32 

3 

12  9 

5 

10  0 

10  8 

11  3 

11  10 

12  5 

13  0 

13  7 

14  2 

14  9 

15 

4 

15  11 

6 

12  1 

12  9 

13  6 

14  2 

14  11 

15  7 

16  4 

17  0 

17  9 

18 

5 

19  2 

1 



0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0 

3 

0  4 

2 

0  4 

0  4 

0  4 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0 

6 

0  6 

3 

0  G 

0  6 

0  7 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0 

9 

0  10 

G 

1  0 

1  1 

1  1 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  4 

1  5 

1  G 

1 

6 

1  7 

Length 

18  Inches  Tliick, 

ft- 

in. 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

24  B 

25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

28  B 

1 

2  3 

2  5 

2  e 

2  8 

2  9 

2  11 

3  0 

3  2 

3  3 

3 

5 

3  6 

2 

4  6 

4  9 

5  0 

5  3 

5  6 

5  9 

6  0 

6  3 

6  6 

6 

9 

7  0 

3 

G  9 

7  2 

7  6 

7  11 

8  3 

8  8 

9  0 

9  5 

9  9 

10 

2 

10  6 

4 

9  0 

9  6 

10  0 

10  G 

11  0 

11  6 

12  0 

12  6 

13  0 

13 

G 

14  0 

5 

z 

11  3 

11  11 

12  6 

13  2 

13  9 

14  5 

15  0 

15  8 

16  3 

16  11 

17  6 

G 

13  6 

14  3 

15  0 

15  9 

16  6 

17  3 

18  0 

18  9 

19  6 

20 

3 

21  0 

1 



0  2 

0  2 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0 

3 

0  4 

2 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  6 

0  G 

0  7 

0 

7 

0  7 

3 

0  7 

0  7 

0  8 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  10 

0  li 

6 

1  2 

1  2 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  5 

1  6 

1  7 

1  8 

1 

8 

1  9 

Length 

19  Inches 

Thick, 

ft- 

in. 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22B 

23  B 

24B 

25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

1 

2  6 

2  8 

2  9 

2  11 

3  0 

3  2 

3  4 

3  5 

3  7 

3 

8 

3  10 

2 

5  0 

5  3 

5  7 

5  10 

6  1 

6  4 

6  7 

6  10 

7  2 

7 

5 

7  8 

3 

7  C 

7  11 

8  4 

8  9 

9  1 

9  6 

9  11 

10  4 

10  8 

11 

1 

11  3 

4 

10  0 

10  7 

11  1 

11  7 

12  2 

12  8 

13  2 

13  9 

14  3 

14 

9 

15  4 

5 

12  6 

13  2 

13  10 

14  6 

15  2 

15  10 

16  6 

17  2 

17  10 

18 

6 

19  2 

6 

15  1 

15  10 

16  8 

17  5 

18  3 

19  0 

19  10 

20  7 

21  6 

22 

2 

23  0 

1 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0  4 

0 

4 

0  4 

2 

0  5 

0  5 

0  6 

0  6 

0  6 

0  G 

0  7 

0  7 

0  7 

0 

7 

0  8 

3 

0  8 

0  8 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  10 

0  10 

0  10 

0  11 

0  11 

1  0 

6 

1  3 

1  4 

1  5 

1  5 

1  G 

1  7 

1  8 

2  9 

1  9 

1  10 

1  11 

LIGHINING  CALCTJLATOK.  Ill 


ft 

rigth 

in 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

20  In 
24  B 

ches 
25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

SOB 

1 

2 
B 
4 
6 
« 

- 

2  r 

5  7 
8  4 
11  1 
13  11 
16  8 

2  11 
5  10 
8  S 
11  8 
14  7 
17  6 

3  1 
6  1 
9  2 
12  3 
15  3 
18  4 

3  2 
6  5 
9  7 
12  9 
16  0 
19  2 

3  4 
6  8 
10  0 
13  4 
16  8 
20  0 

3  6 
6  11 
10  5 
13  11 
17  4 
20  10 

3  7 
7  3 
10  10 
14  5 
18  1 
21  8 

3  9 
7  6 
11  3 
15  0 
18  9 
22  6 

3  11 
7  9 
11  8 
15  7 
19  5 
23  4 

4  0 
8  1 
12  1 
16  1 
20  2 
24  2 

4  2 
8  S 
12  6 
16  8 
20  13 
25  tt 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  3 
0  6 

0  8 

1  5 

0  3 
0  6 

0  9 

1  6 

0  3 
0  6 

0  9 

1  6 

0  3 
0  6 

0  10 

1  7 

0  3 
0^7 

0  10 

1  8 

0  3 
0  7 

0  10 

1  9 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  10 

0  4 
0  8 

0  11 

1  11 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 
1  11 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  0 

0  « 

0  S 

1  1 

2  1 

ft. 

igth 
in. 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

24  B 

25  B 

clies 
26  B 

Thick 
27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

30  B 

31  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

- 

3  1 
6  2 
9  2 
12  3 
15  4 
18  5 

3  3 
6  5 
9  8 
12  10 
16  1 
19  3 

3  4 
6  9 
10  1 
13  5 
16  9 
20  2 

3  6 
7  0 
10  C 
14  0 
17  6 
21  0 

3  8 
7  4 
10  11 
14  7 
18  3 
21  11 

3  10 
7  7 
11  5 
15  2 
19  0 
22  9 

3  11 
7  11 
11  10 
15  9 
19  8 
23  8 

4  1 

8  2 
12  3 
16  4 
20  5 
24  6 

4  3 
8  6 
12  8 
16  11 
21  2 
25  5 

4  5 

8  9 
13  2 
17  6 
21  11 
26  3 

4  7 
9  0 
13  T 
18  1 

22  7 
27  2 

ll  1  1  1  1 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  3 
'0  6 

0  9 

1  6 

0  3 
0  6 

0  10 

1  7 

0  3 
0  7 

0  10 

1  8 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  9 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  10 

0  4 
0  8 

0  11 

1  11 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  0 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  1 

0  4 

0  8 

1  1 

2  1 

0  4 

0  9 

1  1 

2  2 

0  4 

0  9 

1  2 

2  3 

Lei 
ft- 

igth 
m. 

22  B 

23  B 

24  B 

2 

25  B 

2  lii( 
26  B 

jhes 
27  B 

Thick, 
28  B 

20  B 

30  B 

31  B 

32  B 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

- 

3  4 
6  9 
10  1 
13  5 
16  10 
20  2 

3  6 
7  0 
10  7 
14  1 
17  7 
21  1 

3  8 
7  4 
11  0 
14  8 
18  4 
22  0 

3  10 
7  8 
11  6 
15  3 
19  1 
22  11 

4  0 
7  11 
11  11 
15  11 
19  10 
23  10 

4  2 
8  3 
12  5 
16  6 
20  8 
24  9 

4  3 
8  7 
12  10 
17  1 
21  5 
25  8 

4  5 
8  10 
13  4 
17  9 
22  2 
26  7 

4  7 

9  2 
13  9 
18  4 
22  11 
27  6 

4  9 
9  6 
14  3 
18  11 

23  8 
28  5 

4  11 
10  0 
17  1 
19  7 

24  5 
29  4 

1  1  1  1  1 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  3 
0  7 

0  10 

1  8 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  9 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  10 

0  4 
0  8 

0  11 

1  11 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  0 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  1 

0  4 

0  9 

1  1 

2  2 

0  4 

0  9 

1  1 

2  3 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 

2  4 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 

2  4 

0  5 

0  10 

1  2 

2  5 

Leu 
Jt. 

gth 

23  B 

24  B 

25  B 

2 

26  B 

3  llK 

27  B 

.hes 
28  B 

Thick, 
29  B 

-By 
30  B 

31  B 

32  B 

33  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
6 
C 

3  8 
7  4 
11  0 
14  8 
18  4 
22  1 

3  10 
7  8 
11  6 
15  4 
19  2 
23  0 

4  0 
8  0 
12  0 
16  0 
20  0 
24  0 

4  2 
8  4 
12  6 
16  7 
20  9 
24  11 

4  4 
8  8 
12  11 
17  3 
21  7 
25  11 

4  6 
8  11 
13  15 
17  11 
22  4 
26  10 

1 

4  8 
9  3 
13  11 
18  6 
23  2 
27  10 

4  10 
9  7 
14  5 
19  2 
24  0 
28  9 

4  11 
9  11 
14  10 
19  10 
24  9 
29  9 

5  1 

10  3 
15  4 
20  5 
25  7 
30  8 

5  2 
10  7 
15  10 
21  1 
26  4 
31  8 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  4 
0  7 

0  11 

1  10 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 
1  11 

0^4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  0 

0  4 

0  8 

1  0 

2  1 

0  4 

0  9 

1  1 

2  2 

0  4 

0  9 

1  1 

2  3 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 

2  4 

0  5 

0  10 

1  2 

2  5 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  6 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  7 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

2  8 

312 


LICnTNING  CALCULATOR. 


ft- 

p4B 

25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

.'50  B 

31  B 

32  B 

33  B 

34  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

- 

4  0 
8  0 
|l2  C 
|l6  0 
120  0 
24  0 

4  2 
8  4 
12  € 
16  8 
20  10 
25  0 

4  4 
8  8 
13  C 
17  4 
21  8 
26  0 

4  6 
9  0 
13  ( 
18  0 
22  6 
27  0 

4  8 
9  4 
14  ( 

18  8 
23  4 
28  0 

4  10 
9  8 
14  G 
19  4 
24  2 
29  0 

5  0 
10  0 
15  ( 
20  0 
25  0 
30  0 

r>  2 

10  4 
15  ( 
20  8 
25  10 
31  0 

5  4 
10  8 
10  ( 

21  ^ 
26  8 
32  0 

5  G 
11  0 

22  0 
27  € 
33  0 

5  a 

11  4 
17  0 
22  h 
28  4 
34  0 

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2 
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0  4 

0  8 

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2  0 

0  4 
0  8 

2  1 

0  4 
0  9 

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0  6 
0  9 

2  3 

0  5 
0  9 

2  4 

0  C 

0  10 

1  3 

2  5 

0  5 

0  10 

1  o 
26 

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31  B 

0  5 

0  10 

1  4 
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0  5 

0  11 

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1  0 

2  9 

0  6 

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1  5 

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Le 
fi- 

igtii 

in. 

25  B 

26  B 

27  B 

28  b' 

i.^  In 
29  B 

ches 
SOB 

32B 

33  B 

34  B 

35  B 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

— 

4  4 
8  8 
13  0 
17  4 
21  8 
26  1 

4  C 
9  0 

18  1 
22  7 
27  1 

4  8 
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18  9 
23  6 
28  2 

4  10 
9  9 

It  "7 

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19  5 
24  4 
29  2 

5  0 
10  1 
15  1 
20  2 
25  2 
30  3 

5  3 
10  5 
15  8 
20  10 
26  1 
31  3 

0  5 

0  10 

1  4 

2  7 

6  5 
10  9 
16  2 
21  6 
26  11 
32  4 

5  7 
11  1 

16  8 
22  3 
27  9 
33  4 

5  9 
11  6 
17  2 
22  11 

28  8 
34  5 

5  11 
11  10 

XI  V 

23  7 
29  C 
35  5 

6  1 

12  2 
18  3 
24  4 
30  5 
36  6 

llllll 

1 

2 

6 

0  4 
0  9 

2  2 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 

2  3 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 
3  4 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  5 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  C 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

2  8 

0  G 

0  11 

1  5 

2  9 

0  6 

0  11 

1  5 

2  10 

0  6 

1  0 

1  6 

2  11 

0  6 

1  0 
1  7 
3  0 

Lci 
/<. 

igtk 
in. 

26  B 

27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

26^  In 
SOB 

SIB 

!^ 

32  B 

33  B 

34  B 

35  B 

36  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

— 

4  8 
9  5 
14  1 
18  9 

23  6 
28  2 

4  11 

9  9 
14  8 
19  C 
24  5 
29  3 

5  1 
10  1 

15  2 
20  3 
25  3 
30  4 

5  3 
10  6 
15  9 
20  11 
26  2 
31  5 

5  6 
10  10 
16  3 
21  8 
27  1 
32  6 

5  7 
11  2 
16  10 
22  5 
28  0 
33  7 

5  9 
11  7 
17  4 
23  1 
28  11 
34  8 

6  0 
11  11 
17  11 

23  10 
29  10 
35  9 

6  2 
12  3 
18  5 
24  7 
30  8 
36  10 

6  4 
12  8 
19  0 
25  3 
31  7 
37  11 

6  6 
13  0 
19  6 
26  0 
32  6 
39  0 

1 

2 

6 

0  5 

0  9 

1  2 
1  4 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  5 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

2  6 

0  5 

0  10 

1  4 

2  7 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

2  9 

0  G 

0  11 

1  5 

2  10 

0  6 

1  0 

1  5 

2  11 

0  G 

1  0 
1  6 

3  0 

0  6 

1  0 
1  6 
3  1 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

3  2 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 

3  3 

Lei 

igth 
in. 

27  B 

28  B 

29  B 

5  5 
10  11 
16  4 
21  9 
27  2 
32  8 

2 

30  B 

31  B 

hes  ' 
32  B 

riiick,- 

33  B 

34  B 

35  B 

36  B 

37  B 

6  11 
13  10 
20  10 
27  9 
34  8 
41  8 

1 
2 
3 
4 
& 
6 

5  1 
10  2 
15  2 
20  3 
25  4 
30  5 

5  3 
10  6 
15  9 
21  0 
26  3 
31  6 

5  8 
11  3 
16  11 

22  6 
28  2 
33  9 

5  10 
11  8 
17  5 
23  3 
29  1 
34  11 

6  0 
12  0 
18  0 
24  0 
30  0 
38  0 

6  2 
12  5 
18  7 
24  9 
30  11 
37  2 

6  5 
12  9 
19  2 
25  6 
31  11 
38  3 

6  7 
13  2 
19  8 

26  3 
32  10 
39  5 

6  9 
13  6 

20  3 
27  0 
33  9 
40  6 

1 

2 

3 

0  5 

0  10 

1  3 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

0  6 

0  11 

1  5- 

0  6 

1  0 
1  5 

0  6 

1  0 
1  6 

0  6 

1  0 
1  7 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 

0  7 

1  2 
1  8 

0  7 

1  S 
1  S 

6 

2  6 

2  8 

2   91  2  10 

2  11 

3  0 

3  1 

3  2 

3  3 

3  5 

3  7 

LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR.  113 


ft. 

in. 

28  B 

129  B 

30  B 

2 

31  B 

8  lin 
32  B 

.'hes 
33  B 

34  B 

35  B 

36  B 

I  37  B 

I  38  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

5  5 
10  11 
16  4 
21  9 
27  3 
32  8 

5  8 
11  3 
16  11 

22  7 
28  2 
33  10 

5  10 
11  8 
17  6 

23  4 
29  2 
35  0 

6  0 
12  1 
18  1 
24  1 
30  2 
36  2 

6  3 
12  5 
18  8 
24  11 
31  1 
37  4 

0  6 

1  0 
1  7 
3  1 

6  5 
12  10 
19  3 
25  8 
32  1 
38  6 

6  7 
13  3 
19  10 
26  5 
33  1 
39  8 

6  10 
13  7 
20  6 
27  c 
34  0 
40  10 

7  0 
14  0 
21  0 
28  C 
35  0 
42  0 

7  2 
14  5 
21  7 
28  £ 
36  0 
43  2 

7  4 
14  10 
21  11 
29  7 
36  11 
44  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  11 
3  8 

ll  1  M  i 

1 
2 
3 

Q 

0  5 

0  11 

1  4 

2  9 

0  6 

0  11 

1  5 

2  10 

0  6 

1  0 

1  6 

2  11 

0  6 

1  0 

1  e 

3  0 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

3  3 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 

3  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  8 

3  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  9 
3  6 

0  7 

1  2 
1  10 
3  7 

Lei 

{h. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
C 

igtk 
in. 

29  B 

30  B 

31  B 

2 

32  B 

33  B 

jlies 
34  B 

35  B 

36  B 

37  B 

38  B 

39  B| 

5  10 
11  8 
17  6 
23  4 
29  2 
35  1 

6  1 
12  1 
18  2 
24  2 
30  S 
36  3 

6  3 
12  6 
18  9 
25  0 
31  3 
37  6 

6  5 
12  11 
19  4 
25  9 
32  3 
38  8 

6  8 
13  4 
19  11 

26  7 
33  3 
39  11 

6  10 
13  8 
20  7 
27  5 
34  3 
41  1 

0  7 

1  2 
1  9 

3  5 

7  1 
14  1 
21  2 
28  2 
35  3 
42  4 

7  3 
14  6 
21  9 
29  0 
36  3 
43  6 

7  5 
14  11 
22  4 
29  10 
37  3 
44  9 

7  8 
15  4 
23  0 
30  7 
38  3 
45  11 

7  11 

15  9 
23  8 
31  5 
39  3 
47  2 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  6 

1  0 

1  6 

2  11 

0  6 

1  0 
1  6 

3  0 

0  6 

1  0 
1  7 
3  1 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

3  3 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 

3  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  9 

3  6 

0  7 

1  3 
1  10 

3  8 

0  7 

1  3 
1  10 

3  9 

0  8 

1  3 
1  11 

3  10 

0  8 

1  4 
1  11 

3  11 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

1  t  1  1  M  1  1  p-o 

SOB 

31  B 

32  B 

33  B 

34  B 

35  B 

36  B 

37  B 

38  B 

39  B 

40  B 

6  3 
12  6 
18  9 
25  0 
31  3 
37  6 

6  6 
12  11 
19  5 
25  10 
32  4 
38  9 

6  8 
13  4 
20  0 
26  8 
33  4 
40  0 

6  11 
13  9 
20  8 
27  6 
34  5 
41  3 

7  1 
14  2 
21  3 
28  4 
35  5 
42  6 

7  4 
14  7 
21  11 
29  2 
36  6 
43  9 

7  6 
15  0 
22  6 
30  0 
37  6 
45  0 

7  9 
15  5 
23  2 
30  10 
38  7 
46  3 

7  11 
15  10 
23  9 
31  8 
39  7 
47  6 

8  2 
16  3 
24  6 
32  6 
40  8 
48  9 

8  4 
16  8 
25  1 
33  4 
41  8 
50  0 

0  5 

1  1 

2  2 
4  9 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

3  2 

0  6 

1  1 
1  7 

3  3 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 

3  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  9 
3  5 

0  7 

1  2 
1  0 
3  7 

0  7 

1  3 
1  10 

3  8 

0  8 

1  3 
1  11 

3  9 

0  8 

1  3 
1  11 

3  10 

0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  0 

0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  1 

JLei 
ft. 

iglii 
in. 

31  B 

32  B 

33  B 

S 

34  B 

1  lu 
35  B 

36  B 

37  B 

38B 

39  B 

40  B 

41  B 

1 
2 
S 
4 
6 
6 

6  8 
13  4 
20  0 
26  8 
33  4 
40  1 

6  11 

13  9 
20  8 
27  7 
34  5 
41  4 

7  1 
14  3 
21  4 

28  5 
35  6 
42  8' 

7  4 
14  8 
22  0 
29  3 
36  7 
43  11 

0  7 

1  3 
1  10 

3  8 

7  6 
15  1 
22  7 
30  2 
37  8 
45  3 

7  9 
15  6 
23  3 
31  0 
38  9 
46  6 

8  0 
15  11 
23  11 
31  10 
39  10 
47  10 

8  2 
16  4 
24  7 
32  £ 
40  11 
49  1 

8  6 
16  10 
25  2 
33  7 
42  0 
50  5 

8  7 
17  3 
25  10 
34  5 
43  1 
51  8 

8  8 
17  8 
26  6 
35  4 
44  2 
63  0 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  7 

1  1 
1  8 
3  4 

0  7 

1  2 
1  9 

3  5 

0  7 

1  2 
1  13 

3  80 

0  8 

1  3 
1  11 

3  9 

0  8 

1  4 
1  11 
3  11 

0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  0 

0  8 

1  4 

2  1 
4  1 

0  8 

1  5 

2  1 

4  2 

0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  4 

0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  4 

LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


ft.  in. 


1 

2 
3 
6 


.32  B  33  B  34  B  35  B  :3GB  37  B 


0  7 

1  2 
1  9 
3  7 


7  4 

14  8 

22  0 

29  4 

3G  8 

44  0 


0  7 

1  3 
1  10 


7  7 
15  1 


7  9 
15  7 
22    8  23  4 


0  8 

1  3 
1  11 

3  9 


37  9  38  11 
45   4  46 


0  8 

1  4 
1  11 
3  11 


8  0 

16  C 

24  0 

32  0 


8  48 


0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  0 


8  3 
16  5 
24  8 
32  11 


40   0  41  1 
0  49  4 


0  8 

1  4 

2  1 
4  1 


-l5y 

38  B 

39  B 

40  B 

41  B 

42  B 

8  5 

8  8 

8  11 

9  1 

9  4 

16  11 

17  4 

17  9 

18  3 

18  9 

25  4 

26  0 

26  8 

27  4 

28  0 

33  9 

34  8 

35  7 

36  5 

37  4 

42  3 

43  4 

44  5 

45  7 

46  8 

50  8 

52  0 

53  4 

&4  8 

56  0 

0  8 

0  9 

0  9 

0  9 

0  9 

1  5 

1  6 

1  6 

1  6 

1  T 

2  1 

2  2 

2  3 

2  3 

2  4 

4  3 

4  4 

4  5 

4  7 

4  a 

7  7 
15  2 
22  8 
30 

37  10 
45 


33  Inches  Thick,— By 


7  10 
15  7 
23 
3  31 
39 
5  46 


16 
5  24 
2  32 
0  40 
9  48 


36  B 

37  B 

8  6 
17  0 
25  5 
33  11 
42  5 
50  11 

38  B 

39  B 

40  B 

41  B 

42  B 

43  B 

8  3 
16  6 
24  9 
33  0 
41  3 
49  6 

8  9 
17  5 
26  2 
34  10 
43  7 
52  3 

8  11 
17  11 
26  10 
35  9 
44  8 
53  8 

9  2 
18  4 
27  6 
36  8 
45  10 
55  0 

9  5 
18  10 
28  2 
37  7 
47  0 
56  5 

9  8 
19  3 
28  11 
38  6 
48  2 
57  9 

9  11 

19  £ 
29  7 
39  5 
49  3 
59  2 

0  8 

1  5 

2  1 
4  2 

0  8 

1  6 

2  1 
4  3 

0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  4 

0  9 

1  6 

2  3 
4  6 

0  9 

1  6 

2  4 
4  7 

0  9 

1  7 

2  4 
4  8 

0  10 

1  7 

2  5 
4  10 

0  10 

1  8 

2  5 
5  0 

0  8 

1  3 
1  11 


0  8 

1  4 
1  11 
3  11 


0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  0 


LeugtE 
//.  in. 


34'  Inciies  "  Thick,— By 


40  B 

4Tb 

42  B 

43  B 

44  B 

9  5 

9  8 

9  11 

10  2 

10  4 

18  11 

19  4 

19  10 

20  4 

20  10 

28  4 

29  1 

29  9 

30  6 

31  2 

37  9 

38  9 

39  8 

40  7 

41  7 

47  3 

48  5 

49  7 

50  9 

51  11 

56  8 

58  1 

59  6 

60  11 

62  4 

0  9 

0  10 

0  10 

0  10 

0  10 

1  7 

1  7 

1  8 

1  8 

1  9 

2  4 

2  5 

2  6 

2  6 

2  7 

4  9 

4  10 

5  0 

5  1 

6  2 

0 

16  1 
24  1 
32  1 
40 


16  6 
24  10 
33  1 
2  41   4  42 
2  49  7 


17  0 


25   6  26 
34   0  34  11 
6  43  8 
51   0  52 


9  0 
17  11 
11 
35  11 


6 

3  26 


18  5 
27  8 
36  10 


44  10  46  1 
10  55  3 


5  53 


0  8 

1  4 

2  0 
4  0 


0  8 

1  5 

2  1 
4  2 


0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  3 


0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  4 


0  9 

1  6 

2  3 
4  6 


0  9 

1  6 

2  4 
4  7 


Lengthi  35  Inches   Thick,— By 

/«.  in    35  B  36  B  37  B  38  B  39  B  40  B    41  B    42  B    43  B    44  B    45  B 


6 

17  0 
25 
34  0 
42  6 
51  1 


8 
17 
6  26 


0  9 

1  5 

2  2 
4  3 


18 

3  27 
36 


35  0 
43   9  45 
52   6  54 


0 
1 

2  2 
4  5 


19  0 

9  28 


0  9 

1  6 

2  4 
4  7 


19 


18  9 
27 

36  11 

46  2  47  5  48 
0  55   5  56  11 


0  9 

1  7 

2  4 
4 


5  29  2 
37  11  38  11 
7 
4 


0  10 

1  7 

2  5 
4  10 


10  0 
19  11 
29  11 
39  10 
49  10 
59  10 


0  10 

1  8 

2  6 
5  0 


10  3 
20  5 
30 
40  10 
51  1 
61  3 


0  10 

1  8 

2  7 
5  1 


10  5 
20  11 
31  4 
41  10 
52  3 
62  9 


0  10 

1  9 

2  7 
5  3 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR.  115 


ft. 

in. 

36  B 

37  B 

38  B 

39  B 

40  B 

41  B 

42  B 

43  B 

44  B 

45  B 

46  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

- 

1 

2 
3 
6 

9  0 
18  0 
27  0 
36  0 
45  0 
54  0 

9  3 
18  6 
27  9 
37  0 

46  3 
55  6 

9  6 
19  0 
28  6 
38  0 
47  6 
57  0 

9  9 
19  6 
29  3 
39  0 
48  9 
58  6 

10  0 
20  0 
30  0 
40  0 
50  0 
60  0 

10  3 
20  6 
30  9 
41  0 
51  3 
61  6 

10  6 
21  0 
31  6 
42  0 
52  6 
63  0 

10  9 
21  6 
32  3 
43  0 
53  9 
64  6 

11  0 
22  0 
33  0 
44  0 
55  0 
66  0 

11  3 

22  6 
33  9 
45  0 
56  3 
67  6 

11  6 

23  0 
34  6 
46  0 
57  6 

eo  0 

0  9 

1  6 

2  3 
4  6 

0  9 

1  7 

2  4 
4  8 

0  10 

1  7 

2  5 
4  9 

0  10 

1  8 

2  5 
4  11 

0  10 

1  8 

2  6 
5  0 

0  10 

1  9 

2  7 
5  2 

0  11 

1  9 

2  8 
5  3 

0  11 

1  10 

2  8 
5  6 

0  11 

1  10 

2  9 
5  6 

0  11 

1  11 

2  10 
5  8 

1  0 

1  11 

2  11 
5  9 

ft' 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

rigtL 
m. 

37  B 

38  B 

39  B 

40  b' 

7  Inclies 
41  B  142  B 

Wick, 
43  B 

44B 

45  B 

46  B 

47  B 

9  6 
19  0 
28  6 
38  0 
47  6 
57  1 

9  9 
19  6 
29  4 
39  1 
48  10 
58  7 

10  0 
20  1 
30  1 
40  1 
50  1 
60  2 

10  3 
20  7 
30  10 
41  1 
51  5 
61  8 

10  6 
21  1 
31  7 
42  2 
52  8 
63  3 

10  10 
21  7 
32  5 
43  2 
54  0 
64  9 

11  1 

22  1 
33  2 
44  2 
55  3 
66  4 

11  4 

22  7 
33  11 
45  3 
56  6 
67  10 

11  7 

23  2 
34  8 
46  3 
57  10 
69  5 

11  10 

23  8 
35  6 
47  3 
59  1 
70  11 

12  1 

24  2 
36  3 
48  4 
60  5 
72  6 

{Mill 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  10 

1  7 

2  5 
4  9 

0  10 

1  8 

2  5 
4  11 

0  10 

1  8 

2  6 
5  0 

0  10 

1  9 

2  7 
5  2 

0  11 

1  9 

2  8 
5  3 

0  11 

1  10 

2  8 
5  5 

0  11 

1  10 

2  9 
5  6 

0  11 

1  11 

2  10 
6  8 

1  0 

1  11 

2  11 

5  9 

1  0 

2  0 
2  11 
5  11 

1  0 

2  0 

3  0 
6  0 

Lei 
ft- 

igth 
in. 

38  B 

39  B 

40  B 

3 

41  B 

8  IlK 

42B 

jhes 
43  B 

Thick, 
44  B 

-By 
45  B 

46  B 

47  B 

48  B 

12  8 
25  5 
38  0 
50  8 
63  4 
76  0 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
G 

10  0 
20  1 
30  1 
40  1 
50  2 
60  2 

10  4 
20  7 
30  11 
41  2 
51  6 
61  9 

10  7 
21  1 
31  8 
42  3 
52  9 
63  4 

10  10 
21  8 
32  6 
43  3 
54  1 
64  11 

11  1 

22  2 
33  3 
44  4 
55  5 
66  6 

11  4 

22  8 
34  1 
45  6 
56  9 
68  1 

11  7 

23  3 
34  10 
46  5 
88  1 
69  8 

11  11 

23  9 
35  8 
47  6 
59  5 
71  3 

12  2 
24  3 
36  5 
48  7 
60  8 
72  10 

12  5 
24  10 
37  3 
49  7 
62  0 
74  5 

1 

2 
3 
6 

0  10 

1  8 

2  6 
5  0 

0  10 

1  9 

2  7 
5  2 

0  11 

1  9 

2  8 
5  3 

0  11 

1  10 

2  8 
5  5 

0  11 

1  10 

2  9 
5  7 

0  11 

1  11 

2  10 
5  8 

1  0 

1  11 

2  11 
6  10 

1  0 

2  0 

3  0 
5  11 

1  0 

2  0 

3  0 
6  1 

1  0 

2  1 

3  1 
6  2 

1  1 

2  2 

3  1 

6  3 

Length 
Jt.  in. 


39  Inches  Thick,— B y 
39  B  40  B  41  B  42  B  43  B  44  B  45  B  46  B  47  B   48  B  49  B 


11  1 

22 

8  32   6  33  5 


11  0 


10  10 

21   9  22   3  22 


43   4  44  5  45  6  46   7  47 


11 
1  10 


LO 
\21 
31 
VZ 

52  10  54  2  55  6  56  11 
63   5  65  0 


0  11 

1  10 


0  11 

1  11 
8  2     9  2     9  2  10 

5  8 


5  11  8 


2  34 


66  8  68   3  69  11 


23  4 
11 


1  0 

1  11 

2  11 
5  10 


11  11 

23  10 
36  9 


7 

71  6 


1  0 

2  0 

3  0 
6  0 


12  2 
24  5 
36  7 
47  9 
60  11 
73  2 


1  0 

2  0 

3  1 
6  1 


12  5 
24  11 
37  5 
49  10 
62  4 
74  9 


12  9 
25  6 
37  2 
50  11 
63  8 
76  6 


26  0 

39  0 

52  0 

65  0 

78  0 


1  1 

2  2 

3  3 
6  6 


13  3 
26  7 
39  10 
52  0 
66  4 
78  8 


1  1 

2  2 

3  4 
6  7 


116 


SIZE  AND  COST  OF  VESSELS,  ETC. 


Mr.  Moorsom's  FoRMtrLA  to  Approximatk  Register  Toxnaob 
tJNDKU  ANY  I'UOi'OSKi)  Dimensions.— To  Bhipbuildera  who  may  wish  to 
know,  before  the  construction  of  an  intended  design,  the  approximalo 
register  tonnage  under  any  proposed  principal  dimensions,  the  foll'>wiiig 
formula  (wliicli  has  received  llie  approbation  of  Messrs.  Martin  and  Kit- 
cliio,  the  two  chief  surveyors  at  Lloyd's,  who,  from  their  great  experienco 
ftnd  intelligence,  are  authoi  ities  on  the  subject)  will  be  found  useful,  as  it 
gives  the  tonnage,  on  an  average,  gouorally  speaking,  within  about  2% 
per  cent. 

Let  L  represent  the  inside  length  on  upper  deck  from  plank  at  bow  to 
plank  at  stern, 

"   B  represent  the  inside  main  breadth  from  ceiling  tc  ceiling. 
"   D  represent  the  inside  midship  depth  froiu  upper  deck  to  ceiling  at 
timber  strake. 

Then  the  register  tonnage  of  any  ship  will  be  equal  to  ^  ^  ^ 

multiplied  by  the  decimal  factor  opposite  the  class  in  the  following  table 
to  which  she  belongs  : 


Cost  of  En-glish  Merchantmen  per  ton.— 1.  Tonnage,  650. 
Material,  yfooii;  date,  18G5.  Wood  in  hull,  masts  and  spars,  $41; 
yellow  metal,  iron-bolts  and  labor,  $10.30  ;  joiner  work  and  labor. 
$5.15:  labor  on  Imll,  $20;  boats,  etc.— outfit,  $12.30  ;  rope  and 
Bails,  $8  ;  anchors,  chains  and  tanks,  $4.25  ;  yellow  metal  sheathing, 
$4.  Total,  $105.  2.  Iron  Merchantmmx,  of  500  Tons  :  Cost,  $88  per 
ton.  3.  Iron-Passenger  Ship,  or  Steamer,  800  Tons  :  Cost,  $125  per 
ton,  4.  Another  Iron-Steamer,  or  Ship,  of  1500  Tons  :  Cost,  $147 
per  ton.  5.  Another  Iron-Passenger  Steamer,  of  1500  Tons  :  Cost, 
$122perton,as  follows:  Material  for  hull,  $29.50;  labor,  $14.50  ;  rent, 
machinery,  tools,  etc.,  $14.50  ;  fittings  and  launching,  $14.25  ;  wood, 
work,  $12.25  ;  equipment,  $17  ;  cabins  and  fitting,  $20.  Total,  as 
above,  $122. 

In  the  case  of  steam  vessels,  the  vessel  built  of  iron  is  more  buoy- 
ant than  the  vessel  built  of  wood  by  about  16  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  wood  hull,  or  nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  cargo. 
In  the  case  of  sailing  vessels,  the  iron  hull  is  still  more  buoyant  than 
the  wood  hull  by  about  14.9-}- 8.33  per  cent,  =23.2  percent.,  or 
about  23  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  wood  hull,  or  13  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  cargo. 

To  Find  the  Meridian. — ^Take  a  piece  of  board,  or  any  simSar 
material,  and  describe  on  it  a  number  of  concentric  circles.  Place 
this  in  the  sun,  over  the  centre  of  a  plummet.  Observe  the  short, 
est  shadow  from  the  plummet ;  the  sun  will  then  be  on  the  merid. 
ian  ;  draw  a  line  to  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  that  will  be  the  true 
meridian  line.  This  will  do  to  mark  the  apparent  time,  or  to  correct 
the  compass  for  variation. 

Captain  Boyton's  New  Devices  to  Save  Life  from  thb 
Piers,  and  to  Throw  a  Line  from  a  Ship. — The  followmg  are 
Captain  Boyton's  statements,  as  extracted  from  the  New  York  Sun  : 
"  My  invention  is  simply  this  :  Here  is  a  wooden  bobbin,  to  which  60 
feet  of  the  strongest  Manilla  line  is  attached  by  one  end,  and  a 
four-pronged  steel  grappling  iron  fits  in  the  hollow  part  of  the 


.8 
.7 

.65 
.68 
.5 
.45 


Yachts, 


Vessels  above  60  tons 
Vessels,  small  


SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,   ETC.  117 

wood.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  leather  case,  and  dees  not  weigh 
ft  pound.  If  every  policemam  on  duty  had  one  of  these,  the  saving 
of  persons  from  droAvning  in  the  rivers  would  be  lessened  80  pet 
cent.  If  the  person  in  the  water  accidentally  fell  in,  the  offlcei 
could  hold  the  grappling  iron  in  his  hand,  and  throw  the  bobbin, 
which  floats,  out  to  the  struggling  person.  If  the  case  was  one  of 
attempted  suicide,  or  where  the  person  was  too  drunk  to  make  any 
effort  to  save  himself,  he  could  throw  out  the  grapple,  and  haul  him 
in.  I  ppopose  to  give  the  police  force  of  this  city  and  Philadelphia 
the  right  to  manufacture  these  for  themselves  ;  and,  I  suppose,  they 
can  make  them  for  fifty  cents  a  piece. 

"My  other  invention  is  equally  simple  :  "When  a  ship  is  driven  on 
a  lee-shore,  and  her  back  is  being  broken  by  the  sea  beating  against 
her,  the  efforts  of  the  coast-guard  to  throw  a  rope  on  board  by 
means  of  a  rocket  or  mortar  frequently  fail,  owing  either  to  the 
wind  coming  into  the  shore  blowing  the  rocket  back  or  to  one  side. 
Now,  here  is  a  box,  four  feet  by  three,  which  can  be  easily  placed 
under  the  table  in  the  cabin  of  any  vessel.  It  contains  a  long,  fine, 
strong  line  attached  to  a  rocket,  of  peculiar  construction.  The 
ship  is  driven  on  shore,  and  the  coast-guard  men  are  there,  un- 
able to  establish  communication  between  the  vessel  and  the  land. 
The  captain  brings  this  box  on  deck,  opens  it,  and  adjusts  the 
rocket  to  the  angle  of  the  box-cover,  and  fires  it  off.  The  rocket, 
by  its  own  force,  and  that  of  the  wind  blowing  in  shore,  is  carried 
to  land.  In  addition  to  the  tail  of  fire  shown  by  it  passing  through 
the  air,  the  rocket  on  falling  on  the  ground  bursts,  and  burns  a 
brilliant  red  light  for  ten  minutes.  This  is  seen  by  the  coast-guard 
men,  who  fix  the  cable  to  the  line,  and  it  is  thus  hauled  aboard, 
and  the  crew  saved."  A  common  felt-hat  may  be  made  use  of  as  a 
life-preserver.  Place  the  hat  upon  the  water  rim  downwards,  and 
with  the  arm  around  it,  pressing  it  slightly  to  the  breast,  the  com- 
pressed air  within  will  sustain  a  man  for  hours. 

Natural,  Mechanical,  and  Scientific  Facts. 
Comparative  Yield  of  Various  Vegetables.   Productions  in 
Pounds  Weight  Per  Acre. 


Hops. . 
Wheat. 
Barlev. 
Oats,'. 
Peas  . . , 
Beans  . 
Plums . 


Lbs. 
per  ac. 

442 
1  260 
1  600 
1  840 

1  920 

2  000 
2  000 


Cherries . 
Onions . . . 

Hay  

Pears  


Carrots . . 
Potatoes 


Lbs. 
per  ac. 

2  000 
2  800 

4  000 

5  000 
7  000 

6  800 

7  500 


Apples  

Turnips  

Cinque-foil  grass 
Vetches,  Green.. 

Cabbages  

Parsnips  

Mangel  Wurzel 


Lbs. 
per  ac. 

8  000 

8  420 

9  600 
9  800 

10  900 

11  200 
22  000 


One  acre  will  produce  224  lbs,  mutton,  186  lbs.  beef,  2900  lbs. 
milk,  300  lbs.  butter,  and  200  lbs.  cheese.  A  fair  crop  of  potatoes, 
from  16  bushels  of  seed,  is  840  bushels. 

Paris  Green,  for  potato  bugs,  and  other  enemies  of  the  farmer,  may 
be  made  as  follows:  Dissolve  2  lbs.  sulphate  of  copper  in  1  gal.  hot 
water,  in  a  stone  jar.  In  another  jar  put  1  lb  of  white  arsenic  and  2 
lbs.  pearlash  in  M  lbs.  hot  water,  and  stir  till  dissolved.  Mix  when 
required  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  the  former  to  5  of  the  latter,  and 
use  with  a  sprinkler.    It  is  certain  death  to  vermin. 


118  SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  KTC. 

The  averajjo  growth  of  trees  during  12  years,  as  determined  hy  a 
committee  of  tiie  Illinois  Horticultural  Society,  when  planted  in  belts 
and  groves,  is  as  follows:  White  maple,  1  ft.  diam.  and  30  ft.  high; 
Ash-lcaf  maple,  1  ft.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high ;  White  willow,  VA  ft.  diam. 
and  40  ft.  high;  Yellow  willow,  VA  ft.  diam.  and  35  ft.  high;  Lom- 
bardy  poplar,  10  ins.  diam.  and  40  ft.  high ;  Blue  and  White  Ash,  10  ina. 
diam.  and  20  ft.  high;  Chestnut,  10  ins.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high;  Black 
Walnut  and  Butternut,  10  ins.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high ;  Elm,  10  ins.  diam. 
and  20  ft.  high;  Birch  (varieties),  10 ins.  diam.  and  25  ft.  high;  Larch, 
8  ins.  diam.  and  24  ft.  high.  The  different  varieties  of  evergreens  will 
mako  an  average  growth  of  18  to  20  ins.  in  height  annually.  The  long- 
evity of  various  trees,  as  estimated  by  Mr.  Don,  Secretary  and  Li- 
brarian of  the  Liunaan  Society,  are  as  follows:  The  Dragon's  blood 
tree,  4,000  years;  Baobab  tree,  of  Senegal,  5,150  years;  Decidioua 
Cypress,  6,000;  Ash,  400;  Yew,  3,000;  Oak,  1,600;  Cedar  of  Lebanon, 
3,000 ;  Juniper,  380;  Lime,  583 ;  Olive,  2,500 ;  Apple  tree,  80  to  175 ;  Pear 
tree,  260;  Orange,  1,500;  Oriental  plane,  1,200;  Scotch  fir,  90  to  120; 
Larch,  270;  olive,  2,500; Ivy,  600;  Balm  of  Gilead,  30  to  50;  Brazil  vino 
palm,  150;  Brazil  cabbage  palm,  600  to  700;  Date  palm,  200  to  300; 
'  Cocoa  nut  palm,  330;  Oriental  i^lane,  1,200.  1  lb.  of  catechu  is  equiva- 
lent for  tanning  purposes  to  7  to  8  lbs.  of  oak  bark.  Terra  japonica  is 
mimosa  catechu. 

Relatitb  Hardness  of  Woods. — Taking  shell  bark  hickory  as 
the  highest  standard  of  our  forest  trees,  and  calling  that  100,  other 
trees  will  compare  with  it  for  hardness  as  follows : — 


SheU  bark  Hickory,  100 

Red  Oak, 

69 

Wild  Cherry, 

55 

Pignut  Hickory, 

96 

White  Beech, 

65 

Yellow  Pine, 

54 

White  Oak, 

84 

Black  Walnut, 

65 

Chestnut, 

52 

White  Ash, 

77 

Black  Birch, 

62 

Yellow  Poplar, 

51 

Dogwood, 

75 

Yellow  Oak, 
Hard  Maple, 

60 

Butternut, 

43 

Scrub  Oak, 

73 

56 

White  Birch, 

43 

White  Hazel, 

72 

White  Elm, 

58 

White  Pine, 

30 

Apple  Tree, 

70 

Red  Cedar, 

56 

Timber  intended  for  posts,  is  rendered  almost  proof  against  rot  by 
thorough  seasoning,  charring,  and  immersion  in  hot  coal  tar. 

The  slide  of  Alpnach,  extending  from  Mount  Pilatus  to  Lake 
Lucerne,  a  distance  of  8  miles,  is  composed  of  25,000  trees,  stripped  of 
their  bark,  and  laid  at  an  inclination  of  10°  to  18°.  Trees  placed  in 
the  slide  rush  from  the  mountain  into  the  lake  in  6  minutes. 

The  Alps  comprise  about  180  mountains,  from  4000  to  15,732  feet 
high,  the  latter  being  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  spot  in 
Europe.  The  summit  is  a  sharp  ridge,  like  the  roof  of  a  house,  con- 
sisting of  nearly  vertical  granite  rocks.  The  ascent  requires  2  days, 
fi  or  8  guides  are  required,  and  each  guide  is  paid  100  francs  (£4).  It 
was  ascended  by  2  natives,  Jacques  Belmat  and  Dr.  Packard,  Aug. 
8, 1786,  at  6  a.m.  They  staid  up  30  minutes,  with  the  thermometer 
at  14°  below  the  freezing  point.  The  provisions  froze  in  their  pockets ; 
their  faces  were  frostbitten,  lips  swollen,  and  their  sight  much  weak- 
ened, but  they  soon  recovered  on  their  descent.  De  Saussure  records 
in  his  ascent,  August 2, 1760,  that  the  color  of  the  sky  was  deep  blue; 
the  stars  were  visible  in  the  shade ;  the  barometer  sunk  to  16.08  inchea 
(being  27.08  in  Geneva) ;  the  thermometer  was  26A  °,  in  the  sun,  29° 
(b^ing  87°  at  Geneva).   The  thin  air  w^orks  the  blood  into  a  high  fever 


SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC.  119 

jron  feel  as  if  you  hardly  touched  the  ground,  and  you  can  scarcely 
make  yourself  heard.  A  Frenchwoman,  Mademoiselle  d'Angeville, 
ascended  in  September,  1840,  being  dragged  up  the  last  1200  feet  by 
the  guides,  and  crying  out,  "If  I  die,  carry  me  to  the  top."  When 
there,  she  made  them  lift  her  up,  that  she  might  boast  she  had  been 
higher  than  any  man  in  Europe.  The  ascent  of  these  awful  solitudes 
is  most  perilous,  owing  to  the  narrow  paths,  tremendous  ravines,  icy 
barriers,  precipices,  etc.  In  many  places  every  step  has  to  be  cut  in 
the  ice,  the  party  being  tied  to  each  other  by  ropes,  so  that  if  one  slips 
■  he  may  be  held  up  by  the  rest,  and  silence  is  enforced,  lest  the  noise 
of  talking  should  dislodge  the  avalanches  of  the  Aiguille  du  Midi. 
The  view  from  the  mountain  is  inexpressibly  grand.  On  the  Alps, 
the  limit  of  the  vine  is  an  elevation  of  1600  feet;  below  1000  feet,  figs, 
oranges,  and  olives,  are  produced.  The  limit  of  the  oak  is  3800  ft.,  of 
the  chestnut  2800  ft.,  of  the  pine  6500  feet,  of  heaths  and  furze  to  8700 
and  9700  ft. ;  and  perpetual  snow  exists  at  an  elevation  of  8200  feet. 

On  the  Andes,  in  lat.  2°,  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  14,760  ft.  In 
Mexico,  lat.  19°,  the  limit  is  13,800  ft. ;  on  the  peak  of  Teneriffe,  11,454 
ft. ;  on  Mount  Etna,  9000  ft. ;  on  Caucasus,  9900  ft. ;  on  the  Pyre- 
nees, 8400  ft. ;  in  Lapland,  3100  ft. ;  in  Iceland,  2890  ft.  The  walnut 
ceases  to  grow  at  an  elevation  of  3600  ft. ;  the  yellow  pine  at  6200 
ft. ;  the  Ash  at  4800  ft. ;  and  the  Fir  at  6700  ft.  The  loftiest  inhabited 
spot  on  the  globe  is  the  Port  House  of  Ancomarca,  on  the  Andes,  in 
Peru,  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  14th  peak  of  the 
Himalayas,  in  Asia,  25,659  feet  high,  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the 
world. 

Lauterbrunnen  is  a  deep  part  of  an  Alpine  pass,  where  the  sun 
hardly  shines  in  winter.  It  abounds  with  falls,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  is  the  Staubbach,  which  falls  over  the  Balm  precipice  in  a 
drizzling  spray  from  a  height  of  925  feet;  best  viewed  in  the  morning 
sun  or  by  moonlight.  In  general  it  is  like  a  gauze  veil,  with  rain- 
bows dancing  up  and  down  it,  and  when  clouds  hide  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  it  seems  as  if  poured  out  of  the  sky. 

In  Canada,  the  falls  of  Moutmorenci  are  250  feet  high,  the  falls  of 
Niagara  (the  Horse  Shoe  Falls)  are  158  feet  high  and  2000  feet  wide, 
the  American  Falls  are  164  feet  high  and  900  feet  wide.  The  Yose- 
mite  Valley  Falls  are  2600  feet  high,  and  the  Ribbon  Falls  of  the 
Yosemite  are  3300  feet  high.  The  water-fall  of  the  Arve,  in  Bavaria, 
is  2000  feet. 

The  Periods  op  Gestation  are  the  same  in  the  horse  and  ass, 
or  11  months  each  ;  camel,  12  months  ;  elephant,  2  years  ;  lion,  5 
months  ;  buffalo,  12  months  ;  in  the  human  female,  9  months  ;  cow, 

9  months  ;  sheep,  5  months  ;  dog,  9  weeks  ;  cat,  8  weeks  ;  sow,  16 
weeks  ;  she  wolf,  from  90  to  95  days.  The  goose  sits  30  days,  swans 
42,  hens  21,  ducks  30,  peahens  and  turkeys  28,  canaries  14,  pigeons 
14,  parrots  40, 

Ages  of  Aiomals^  &c. — ^Elephant,  100  years  and  upwards  ; 
Rhinoceros,  20 ;  Camel,  100  ;  Lion,  25  to  70 ;  Tigers,  Leopards, 
Jaguars,  and  Hyenas  (in  confinement),  about  25  years  ;  Beaver,  50 
years  ;  Deer,  20  ;  Wolf,  20  ;  Fox,  14  to  16  ;  Llamas,  15  ;  Chamois,  25  ; 
Monkeys  and  Baboons,  16  to  18  years  ;  Hare,  8  ;  Squirrel,  7  ;  Rab- 
bit, 7  ;  Swine,  25  ;  Stag,  under  50  ;  Horse,  30  ;  Ass,  30  ;  Sheep,  mider 

10  ;  Cow,  20  ;  Ox,  30  ;  Swans,  Parrots  and  Ravens,  200  ;  Eagle,  100  ; 
Geese,  80  ;  Hens  and  Pigeons,  10  to  10  ;  Ilawks,  30  to  40  ;  Crane,  24  ; 


120  SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC. 

Blackbird,  10  to  12  ;  Teacoclc,  20  ;  Tolican,  40  to  50  ;  Thrusli,  8  to  10, 
"VVrcii,  2  to  3  ;  Nishtingale,  15  ;  IJlackcai),  15  ;  Linnet,  14  to  23  ;  Gold- 
finch, 20  to  24  ;  KcdbrCciHt,  10  to  12  ;  Skylark,  10  to  30  ;  Titlark,  5  to 
6  ;  Chaffinch,  20  to  24  ;  Starlint,',  10  to  12  ;  Carp,  70  to  150  ;  Pike,  30 
to  40  ;  Salmon,  16  ;  Codfish,  14  to  17  ;  Eel,  10  ;  Crocodile,  100  ;  Tor- 
toise, 100  to  200  ;  Whale,  estimated,  1,000  ;  Qaeeu  Bees  live  4  years  ; 
Drones,  4  months  ;  Worker  Bees,  0  mouths. 

The  melody  of  singing  birds  ranks  as  follows  :  The  nightingale 
first,  then  the  iinnet,  titlark,  sky  lark,  and  wood  lark.  Tlie  jnockiug 
bird  has  the  greatest  powers  of  imitation  ;  the  robin  and  goldfinch 
are  superior  in  vigorous  notes.  Gardner's  notation  of  tlie  inasic  of 
birds  aflords  conclusive  proof  that  most  of  the  best  ideas  of  the  great 
composers  were  derived  from  these  melodious  warblers.  One  well 
known  bird  in  the  Canadian  woods  takes  great  delight  in  calling  out, 
Whip  poor  Will,  Whip  poor  Will ;  the  red-eyed  fly-catcher  seems  to 
say,  Tom  Kelly  !  Whip  !  Tom  Kelly  ! 

The  condor  of  Peru  has  spread  wings  40  feet,  feathers  20  feet, 
quills  8  inches  round. 

In  England,  a  quarter  of  wheat,  comprising  8  bushels,  yields  14 
bushels  2|  pecks,  divided  into  seven  distinct  kinds  of  flour,  as  fol- 
lows :  Fine  flour,  5  bushels  3  pecks  ;  bran,  3  bushels  ;  twenty-penny, 
3  bushels  ;  seconds,  2  pecks  ;  pollard,  2  bushels  ;  fine  middlings,  1 
peck  ;  coarse  ditto,  1  peck. 

Fourteen  pounds  of  oats  produce  8  lbs.  of  oatmeal. 

In  America,  1  bushel  of  buckwheat,  or  50  lbs.,  will  produce  25 
lbs.  of  buckwheat  meal ;  more  may  be  obtained,  but  the  quality  will 
be  impaired. 

A  20-inch  Harrison  light  vertical  burr-mill  will  grind  54  bushels 
of  corn  per  hour.  Revolutions  per  minute,  1300  ;  20  horse  power 
will  drive  two  such  run  of  stones. 

In  England,  2  bushels  of  seed  will  produce  18  of  wheat  in  fair 
crops. 

The  ancient  Greek  phalanx  comprised  8000  men,  forming  a  square 
battalion,  with  spears  crossing  each  other,  and  shields  united. 

The  Roman  legion  was  composed  of  6000  men,  comprising  10 
cohorts  of  600  men  each,  with  300  horsemen. 

The  ancient  battering  ram  was  of  massive  timber,  60  to  100  feet 
long,  fitted  with  an  iron  head.  It  was  erected  under  shelter  to  pro- 
tect the  60  or  100  men  required  to  work  it.  The  largest  was  equal  in 
force  to  a  36-lb.  shot  from  a  cannon. 

Pile  Driving  on  Sandy  Soils. — The  greatest  force  will  not 
effect  a  penetration  exceeding  15  feet. 

Vaktous  Sizes  of  Type. — It  requires  205  lines  of  Diamond  typo 
to  make  12  inches  ;  of  Pearl,  178  ;  of  Ruby,  166  ;  of  Nonpareil,  143  ; 
of  Minion,  128  ;  of  Brevier,  112i  ;  of  Bourgeois,  102^  ;  of  Long 
Frimer,  89  ;  of  Small  Pica,  83  ;  of  Pica,  71^  ;  of  English,  64. 

To  supply  a  population  estimated  at  over  40,000,000,  there  were  bx 
existence  in  the  United  States  and  Territories  during  July,  1876,  tho 
enormous  number  of  8129  newspapers  and  periodicals,  embracing 
738  daily,  70  tri-weekly,  121  semi-weekly,  6235  weekly,  33  bi-weeklj^, 
105  semi-monthly,  714  monthly,  13  bi-monthly,  and  67  quarterly  pub- 
lications. Of  these,  the  New  York  Sun  has  the  largest  circulation, 
having  circulated  46,799,769- copies  during  the  year  ending  March, 
1876;  weight  of  white  paper  consumed,  3,426,610  pounds.    Its  dailj 


SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC.  121 

circulation  is  over  138.000,  weekly  85,000.  To  supply  this  demand 
it  requires  the  combined  resuits  of  the  labor  and  brains  of  249  men, 
a  weekly  expenditure  of  about  $16,000,  and  the  services  of  seven 
ponderous  Bullock  printing  presses,  having  a  capacity  of  1400  copies 
per  minute.  Another  press,  of  double  size,  with  a  capacity  of  50,000 
copies  per  hour,  has  been  ordered.  Each  press  prints  two  completo 
copies  at  one  impression,  not  from  type,  but  from  cylindrical  stereo- 
type plates  which  revolve  with  the  press  cylinder. 

Wire  ropes  for  the  transmission  of  power  vary  in  size  from  |  to  1 
inch  diam.  for  from  3  to  300  horse  power  ;  to  promote  flexibility,  the 
rope,  made  of  iron,  steel,  or  copper  wire,  as  may  be  preferred,  is 
provided  with  a  core  of  hemp,  and  the  speed  is  1  mile  per  minute, 
more  or  less,  as  desired.  The  rope  should  run  on  a  well-balanced, 
grooved,  cast  iron  wheel,  of  from  4  to  15  feet  diam.,  according  as  the 
transmitted  power  ranges  from  3  to  300  horse  ;  the  groove  should  be 
well  cushioned  with  soft  material,  as  leather  or  rubber,  for  the  forma- 
tion of  a  durable  bed  for  the  rope.  With  good  care  the  rope  will 
last  from  3  to  5  years. 

In  paper  making,  10  cylinders  for  preparing  the  pulp,  making  200 
revolutions  per  minute,  1  paper  making  machine,  cutting  machines, 
pump  and  accessories,  consumed  50  horse  power.  The  machine  made 
13  yards  of  paper  per  minute,  and  the  produce  was  1  ton  of  paper 
per  day  of  24  hours.  In  another  instance,  28  pulping  cylinders  and  3 
paper  making  machines  produced  2  to  3  tons  of  paper  per  day  of  24 
hours,  and  consumed  113  horse-power.  A  Leffel  Turbine  Wheel,  10 
ins.  in  diameter,  strongly  built  of  fine  brass  and  steel,  with  German 
silver  buckets,  is  now  performing  the  work  of  a  120  horse  power 
engine  which  it  superseded  ;  it  has  a  head  of  228  feet. 

The  St.  Gothard  Tunnel,  under  the  Helvitic  Alps,  wiH  be,  when 
finished,  9.3  miles  long,  and  will  cost  289,000,000  francs. 

CoATHDPES  Rule  for  Length  of  Gun  Babrels.  For  the  best 
shooting,  the  length  of  the  barrel,  measured  from  the  vent  hole,  should 
be  not  less  than  43  times  the  diameter  of  its  bore,  nor  more  than  47. 

Proportions  of  Gunpowder  as  made  by  the  English  Government,  is, 
nitre,  75;  charcoal,  15;  sulphur,  10.  That  of  the  French,  nitre,  77; 
charcoal,  14,  sulphur,  9.  A  13  inch  Armstrong  gun,  with  a  charge  of 
90  lbs.,  ball  344.5  lbs.,  velocity  1760  ft.  per  second,  penetrated  11  inches 
of  solid  iron  plates  at  a  range  of  200  ft,  No  field  piece  should  be  load- 
ed with  more  powder  than  a  fifth  or  sixth  of  the  weight  of  its  ball. 
A  32  pounder  with  a  charge  of  8  lbs.  will  penetrate  15.25  ins.  of  hard 
brick,  or  12  ins.  of  hard  freestone,  or  3-5  ins.  of  granite,  at  a  ranc;e  of 
200  feet. 

Cannon  balls  go  furthest  at  an  elevation  of  30°,  and  less  as  the  balls 
are  less  ;  the  range  is  furthest  when  fired  from  west  to  east  in  tho 
direction  of  the  earth's  motion,  which  for  the  diurnal  rotation  on  its 
axis,  is  at  the  rate  of  1037  miles  per  hour,  and  in  its  orbit,  66,092  miles. 

The  air's  resistance  is  §uch,  than  a  cannon  ball  of  3  lbs.  weight, 
diameter,  2.78  ins.  moving  with  a  velocity  of  1800  ft.  per  second,  is 
resisted  by  a  force  equal  to  156  lbs. 

Estimated  Thrust  of  Screw  Propeller  with  engines  of 
1000  Horse  Power,  20,000  lbs. 

Brick-layers  ascend  ladders  with  loads  of  90  lbs.,  1  foot  per  seoDnd. 
There  are  484  bricks  in  a  cubic  yard,  and  4356  in  a  rod. 

A  pow3r  of  250  tons  is  necessary  to  start  a  vessel  weighing  3000  tons 


122  SCIENTIFIC  TACTS,  ETC.. 

over  greased  slides  on  a  marino  railway,  when  in  motion,  150  tons  only 
is  required. 

A  modern  dred!5in{?  machine,  123  ft.  long,  beam  20  ft.,  breadth  ever 
all,  11  ft,  will  raiiso  180  tons  of  mud  and  clay  per  hour,  11  feet  from 
water-line. 

In  tanning,  4  lbs.  of  oak  bark  make  1  lb.  of  leather. 

Flame  is  quenched  in  air  containing  3  jjer  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  ;  tho 
came  per  ceutage  is  fatal  to  animal  life. 

100  parts  of  oak  make  nearly  23  of  charcoal;  beech,  21;  deal,  19; 
apple, 23.7;  elm23;  ash,  25;  birch,  24;  maple, 22.8;  willow,  18;  pop- 
lar, 20  ;  red  pine,  22.10  ;  white  pine,  23.  The  charcoal  used  in  gun- 
powder is  made  from  wUlow,  alder,  and  a  few  other  woods.  The 
charred  timber  found  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  has  under- 
gone no  change  in  1800  years. 

Four  volumes  of  nitrogen,  and  one  of  oxygen  compose  atmospheric 
air  in  all  localities  on  the  globe. 

Air  extracted  from  pure  water,  under  an  air  pump,  contains  34.8 
per  cent,  of  oxygen.  Fish  breathe  this  air,  respiring  about  35  times 
per  minute.  The  oxyhydrogen  lime  light  may  be  seen  from  moun- 
tains at  the  distance  of  200  miles  round. 

Lightning  is  reflected  150  to  200  miles. 

1000  cubic  feet  of  13  candle  gas  is  equivalent  to  over  7  gals,  of  sperm 
oil;  62.9  lbs.  of  tallow  candles;  and  over 44  lbs.  of  sperm  candles. 

The  time  occupied  by  gas  in  travelling  from  a  gas  well  (in  Penn- 
sylvania) through  32  miles  of  pipe  was  22  minutes,  pressure  at  tho 
well  was  55  lbs.  per  inch,  pressure  at  discharge  49  lbs. 

The  flight  of  wild  ducks  is  estimated  at  90  miles  per  hour,  that  of 
the  swift  at  200  miles,  carrier  pigeons  38  miles,  swallows  60  miles, 
migratory  birds  have  crossed  the  Mediterranean  at  a  speed  of  120 
miles  per  hour. 

Were  it  not  for  dry  rot,  ships  would  last  on  the  average  about  30 
years,  as  it  is  their  average  duration,  when  buUt  of  ordinary  timber, 
is  7,  8  and  9  years. 

Calomel  is  composed  of  50  grs.  of  mercury  and  10^  of  chlorine 
gas. 

Carbon  is  the  base  of  organic  structures,  and  Silica  of  mineral. 

At  birth,  the  beats  of  the  pulse  are  from  165  to  104,  and  the  inspira- 
tions of  breath,  from  70  to  23.  From  15  to  20,  the  pulsations  are  from 
90  to  57,  the  inspirations,  from  24  to  16,  from  29  to  50,  the  pulsations 
are  112  to  56,  the  inspirations,  23  to  11.  In  usual  states  it  is  4  to  1. 
The  action  of  the  heart  distributes  2  ozs.  of  blood  from  70  to  80  times 
in  a  minute. 

Daniell  makes  the  heat  in  a  common  parlor  fire  1141°.  Solids  be- 
come incandescent  in  the  dark,  at  600°  or  700°,  but  not  in  daylight 
till  800°  or  1000°. 

Sea  water  is  seldom  below  40°,  springs  about  45° ;  and  pools  and 
email  rivers  are  as  the  atmosphere.  The  lowest  heat  for  fermenta- 
tion is  57.5,  the  highest  77°.  The  lowest  for  drying  herbs,  etc.,  -77° 
and  the  highest  122°. 

The  mean  heat  of  the  human  body  is  98°  and  of  the  skin  90° . 
Tea  and  coffee  are  usually  drank  at  110°. 

The  explosion  of  nitro-glycerine  is  so  sudden  that  it  acts  against 
the  air  as  against  a  solid  body,  thus  forming  a  deep  chasm  in  tiie 
earth. 


SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC. 


123 


Decimal  Notation,  &o.— The  j^rs^  figure  to  the  right  of  the  point  is 
always  tenths,  the  second  figure  from  the  point  is  always  hundredths,  the 
third  is  thousandths,  &c.,  thus  4.5,  is  4  units  and  5  tenths;  9.24  is  9  unita 
and  24hundreths  ;  or  8.610  is  8  units  and  610  thousandths.  Again,  .1  ia 
1-10,  .01  is  1-100,  and  .001  is  1-1000.  The  Arithmetical  Signs  and  their 
signification  can  be  formed  by  consulting  the  Tabular  part  of  this  work. 

Value  of  Metals. — The  following  table,  transcribed  from  the 
Iron  Age,  may  be  considered  as  showing  the  value  of  44  different 
kinds  of  metal  during  July,  1876.  The  prices  of  the  rarer  metals  have 
been  taken  from  Trommsdorff's  and  Schuehardt's  last  price  list,  and 
the  initials  indicate  the  authorities  consulted.  The  avordupois  lb.  is 
assumed  as  beiug  equal  to  453  grammes,  and  the  mark  to  24c.  gold : — 


Metal. 


Value  in 

Price  in 

Au- 

gold per  lb. 

gold  per 

thor 

Avord. 

gramme. 

ity. 

$4,792.40 

$10.80 

S 

3,261.60 

7.20 

S 

2,466.20 

5.40 

s 

2,446.20 

5.40 

s 

2,446.20 

5.40 

s 

2,228.76 

4.92 

s 

2,935.44 
1,671.57 

6.48 

s 

3.96 

s 

1,630.08 

3.60 

s 

1,576.44 

3.4S 

s 

1,522.08 
1,304.61 

3.36 

T 

2.88 

T 

1,250.28 

2.76 

s 

1,032.84 

2.28 

T 

924.12 

2.04 

S 

738.39 

1.63 

T 

652.32 

1.44 

T 

498.30 

1.10 

T 

466.59 

1.03 

T 

434  88 

96 

rri 
X 

299.72 

239.80 

52 

196.20 

43 

196.20 

43 

122.31 

27 

108.72 

24 

T 

04.34 

12 

T 

45.30 

10 

T 

22.65 

03 

T 

18.60 

16.30 

036 

S 

12.68 

028 

S 

3.80 

008 

T 

3.26 

007 

T 

3.26 

007 

T 

1.95 

0043 

S 

1.00 

36 

T 

25 

22 

Prices 

15 

taken 

10 

from 

receni 

6 

quota. 

tiom 

Vanadium,  cryst.  fused. . . 

Rubidium,  wire  

Calcium,  electrolytic  

Tantalum,  pure  

Cerium,  fused  globules. . . . 

Lithium  globules  

Lithium,  wire  

Erbium,  fused  

Didgmium,  fused  

Strontium,  electrolytic... 

Indium,  pure  

Ruthenium,  pure  

Columbium,  fused  

Rhodium  

Barium,  electrolytic  

Thallium  

Osmium  

Palladium  

Iridium  

Urarium  

Gold  

Titanium,  fused  

Tellurium,  fused  

Chromium,  fused  

Platinum,  fused  

Manganese,  fused  

Molybdenum  

Magnesium,  wire  and  tape 

Potassium,  globules  

Silver  

Aluminum,  bar  

Cobalt,  cubes  

Nickel,  cubes  

Cadmium  

Sodium  

Bismuth,  crude  

Mercury  

Antimony  

Tin  

Copper  

Arsenic  

Zinc  

Lead  

Iron  


124  SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC. 

ARSENiCAii  Soap  for  tiik  Skins  of  AVild  Animals. — Tho  skine 
must  be  well  scraped  and  divested  of  all  fat,  and  well  rubbed  with  the 
following  soap.  Lime,  1  oz. ;  camphor,  1  oz. ;  arsenic,  1  oz. ;  alum,  1  oz. 
Mix  all  thoroughly  with  1  lb.  of  yellow  soap.  This  will  prove  a  good 
preservative. 

Positive  Cctrh  for  Foot  Rot  in  Siieep. — This  is  caused  by 
exposure  to  bad  weather,  more  especially  to  wet  pasturage,  etc.  When 
lame,  pass  them  through  a  trough  coutaining  a  warm  solution  of 
arsenic,  of  nearly  the  following  strength:  4  ozs.  arsenic,  4  ozs.  oi 
Boda  ash  or  potash,  1  gal,  of  water.  Boil  till  dissolved;  keep  it 
about  three  inches  deep,  so  as  to  cover  tho  foot  as  the  sheep  walk 
through;  the  trough  should  bo  about  20  feet  long,  and  just  wide 
enough  to  admit  one  sheep  walking  after  the  other. 

A  74  gun  ship  consumes  2000  tons  or  trees,  the  produce  of  57  acres 
for  a  century. 

The  deepest  coal  mine  in  England  is,  or  was,  at  Killiugworth, 
near  Newcastle,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature,  at  400  yards  be- 
low the  surface,  is  77°,  and  at  300  yards,  70°,  while  at  the  surface  it 
is  but  48°,  being  1°  of  increase  for  every  15  yards.  This  explains 
the  origin  of  hot  springs,  for,  at  3300  yards,  the  heat  would  be  equal 
to  boilhig  water,  taking  20  yards  to  a  degree.  The  heat  of  the  Bath 
waters  is  116°,  lience  they  would  appear  to  rise  1,320  yards. 

Peron  relates,  that  at  the  depth  of  2144  feet  in  the  sea,  the  ther- 
mometer falls  to  45°,  when  it  is  8C°  at  the  surface. 

Swemberg  and  Fourier  calculate  the  temperature  of  the  celestial 
spaces  at  50  deg.  centigrade  below  freezing. 

In  Northern  Siberia,  the  ground  is  frozen  permanently  to  the 
depth  of  660  feet,  and  only  thaws  to  the  extent  of  3  or  4  feet  in  sum- 
mer.   Below  660  feet  internal  heat  begins. 

River  water  contains  about  30  grs.  of  solid  matter  in  every  cubic 
foot.  Fresh  water  springs  of  great  size  abound  under  the  sea.  Per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  springs  exist  in  California,  where  they  are 
noted  for  producing  sulphuric  acid,  ink,  and  other  remarkable  pro- 
ducts. 

St.  Winifred's  Well,  in  England,  evolves  120  tons  of  water  per 
minute,  furnishing  abundant  water  power  to  drive  11  mills  within 
little  more  than  a  mile. 

The  Nile  has  a  fall  of  6  ins.  in  1000  miles.  The  rise  of  the  river 
commences  in  June,  continuing  until  the  middle  of  August,  attaining 
an  elevation  of  from  24  to  26  ft.  and  flowing  the  valley  of  Egypt,  12 
miles  wide.  In  1829  it  rose  to  26  cubits,  by  which  30.000  persona 
were  drowned.  It  is  a  terrible  climate  to  live  in,  owing  to  the  fester- 
ing heat,  and  detestable  exhalations  from  the  mud,  etc.,  left  on  the 
retiring  of  the  Nile,  which  adds  about  4  inches  to  the  soil  in  a  cen- 
tury, and  enroaches  on  the  sea  16  feet  every  year.  Bricks  have  been 
found  at  a  depth  of  60  feet,  showing  the  vast  antiquity  of  the  coun- 
try.  In  productiveness  of  soil  it  is  excelled  by  no  ocuer  in  the  world. 

Belzoiii  considered  the  tract  between  the  first  and  second  cata- 
racts of  the  Nile,  as  the  hottest  on  the  globe,  owing  to  there  being  no 
rain.  The  natives  do  not  credit  the  phenomenon  of  water  falling 
from  above.  Hence  it  is,  that  all  monuments  are  so  nicely  preserved 
Buckingham  found  a  building  left  unfinished  about  4000  years  .ago 
and  the  chalk  marks  on  the  stones  were  still  perfect. 

Porapey's  Pillar  is  92  ft.  high,  and  27^  round  at  the  base. 


SCIENTIFIC  FACTS,  ETC  125 

The  French  removed  a  red  granite  column  95  ft.  high,  weighing 
210  tons,  from  Thebes  and  carried  it  to  Paris.  The  display  of  costly 
architectural  ruins  at  Thebes  is  one  of  the  most  astonishing  to  be 
seen  anywhere  in  the  world.  The  ruins  and  costly  buildings,  in  old 
Eastern  countries,  are  so  vast  in  their  proportions  and  so  many  in 
number,  that  it  Avould  require  volumes  to  describe  them. 

Babel,  now  called  Birs  Nimroiid,  built  at  Babylon  by  Belus,  was 
used  as  an  observatory,  and  as  a  temple  of  the  Sun.  It  was  com- 
posed of  8  square  towers,  one  over  the  other,  in  all  670  ft.  high,  and 
the  same  dimensions  on  eacli  side,  on  the  ground . 

The  Coliseum  at  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian  for  100,000  spectators, 
was  in  its  longest  diameter  615.5  feet,  and  in  the  shortest  510,  em- 
braced 52  acres,  and  was  120  feet  high. 

Eight  aqueducts  supplied  ancient  Rome  with  water,  delivering  40 
millio]is  of  cubic  feet  daily.  That  of  Claudia  was  47  miles  long,  and 
100  feet  high,,  so  as  to  furnish  the  hills.  Martia  was  41  miles,  of 
which  37  were  on  7000  arches,  70  feet  high.  These  vast  erections  would 
never  have  been  built  had  the  Romans  known  that  water  always  rises 
to  its  own  level. 

The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  425  feet  long,  and  225 
broad,  with  127  columns,  60  feet  high,  to  support  the  roof.  It  was 
220  years  in  building. 

Solomon's  Temple,  built  B.  C.  1014,  was  60  cubits,  or  107  feet  in 
length,  the  breadth,  20  cubits,  or  36  feet,  and  the  height,  30  cubits, 
or  54  feet.  The  porch  was  36  feet  long  and  18  feet  wide. 

The  largest  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  is  543  feet  high,  693  feet  on 
the  sides,  and  its  base  covers  11  acres.  The  layers  of  stones  are  208 
in  number  ;  many  stones  are  over  30  feet  long,  4  broad,  and  3  thick. 

The  Temple  of  Ypsambul,  in  Nubia,  is  enormously  massive,  and 
cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Belzoni  found  in  it  4  immense  figures  65  ft. 
high,  25  ft.  over  the  shoulders,  with  a  face  of  7  ft.  and  the  ears  over 
3  ft, 

Sesostris  erected  in  the  temple  in  Memphis,  immense  statues  of  him- 
self and  his  wife,  50  ft.  high,  and  of  his  children,  28  ft. 

In  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Baalbec,  are  stones  more  than  60  ft. 
long,  24  ft.  thick,  and  16  broad,  each  embracing  23,000  cubic  feet,  cut, 
squared,  sculptured,  and  transported  from  neighboring  quarries.  Six 
enormous  columns  are  each  72  ft.  liigh,  composed  of  3  stoiies,  7  ft.  in 
diameter.  Sesostris  is  credited  with  having  transported  from  the 
mountains  of  Arabia,  a  rock  32  feet  wide,  and  240  ft.  long. 

The  engineering  appliances  used  by  the  ancients  in  the  movement 
of  these  immense  masses  are  but  imperfectly  understood  at  the 
present  day. 

During  modem  times,  a  block  of  granite  weighing  1217  tons,  now 
used  as  the  pedestal  of  the  equestrian  statute  of  Peter  the  Great,  at 
St.  Petersburg,  was  transported  4  miles  by  land  over  a  railway  and  13 
miles  in  a  vast  caisson  by  water.  The  railway  consisted  of  two  lines 
of  timber  furnished  with  hard  metal  grooves  ;  between  these  grooves 
were  placed  spheres  of  hard  brass  about  6  ins.  diameter.  On  these 
spheres  the  frame  with  its  massive  load  was  easily  moved  by  60  men 
working  at  capstans  with  treble-purchase  block. 

In  1716,  while  yet  but  28,  the  illustrious  Swedenborg  contrived  to 
transport  (on  rolling  machines  of  his  own  invention),  over  valleys  and 
movmtains,  2  galleys,  5  large  boats,  and  1  sloop,  from  Stromstadt  to 


126 


FRENCH  MEASURES,  ETC. 


Iderf  jol  (whicli  divides  Sweden  from  Norway  on  the  South',  a  distance 
of  14  miles;  by  which  means,  Charles  XII.  was  able  to  carry  ou  his 
plans,  and,  under  cover  of  the  galleys  and  boats,  to  transport  on  pon- 
toons, his  heavy  artillery  to  the  very  walls  of  Frederickshall. 

As  an  exponeut  of  the  laws  of  friction,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  square 
Btone,  weighing  1080  lbs.  which  required  a  force  of  758  lbs.  to  drag  it 
along  the  floor  of  a  quarry,  roughly  chiselled,  required  only  a  fcrceot 
22  lbs.  to  move  it  when  mounted  on  a  platform  and  rollers  over  a  pkuk 
floor. 

Water  is  the  absolute  master,  former,  and  secondary  agent  of  the 
power  of  motion  in  every  thing  terrestrial.  It  is  the  irresistible  power 
which  elaborates  everything,  and  the  waters  contain  more  organized 
"beings  than  the  land. 

Rivers  hold  in  suspension  100th  of  their  volume  (more  or  less)  of 
mud,  so  that  if  36  cubic  miles  of  water  (the  estimated  quantity)  flow 
daily  into  the  sea,  0.3G  cubic  miles  of  soil  are  daily  displaced.  The 
Rhine  carries  to  the  sea  every  day  145.980  cubic  feet  of  mud.  The 
Po  carries  out  the  land  228  ft.  j)er  annum,  consequently  Adria,  which 
2500  years  ago,  Avas  on  the  sea,  is  now  over  20  miles  from  it. 

The  enormous  amount  of  alluvium  deposited  by  the  Mississippi  ia 
almost  incalculable,  and  renders  necessary  the  extensive  engineering 
operations,  which  are  now  (1876)  being  prosecuted  in  order  to  remove 
the  impediments  to  navigation, 

French  Measures  with  the  English  Equxvalents.  Measures 
OF  Length. — Myrimeter,  equivalent  to  10,000  meters,  or  to  6  miles,  1  fur- 
long, 28%  poles.  Kilometer,  1,000  meters,  or  to  3,280  ft.  and  10  iiia. 
Hectometer,  100  meters,  328  ft.  and  1  inch.  Decameter,  10  meters,  equal 
to  32  and  4-5ths  ft.  Meter,  the  unit  of  the  French  measure  of  length, 
equal  to  39.36  inches.  Decimeter,  1-10  of  a  meter,  equal  to  3.97  inches. 
Centimeter,  1-100  of  a  meter,  or  .39371  inch  (nearly  2-5 ths  inch).  Millimeter, 
1-lOOOth  of  a  meter,  or  .039i  inch. 

Surface  Measures.— il/yriare,  100,000  square  meters,  equal  to  246 
acres,  3  roods,  and  20  poles.  Hectare,  10,000  square  meters,  equal  to 
11.960  English  square  yards,  or  to  2.471  acres.  Are,  100  square  meters,  or 
119.6  square  yards.    Centare,  1  square  meter,  or  1550  square  inches. 

Measures  of  Volume.— /fi/o^i^er  or  Steere,  the  unit  of  measure  for  solid 
bodies,  1,000  liters,  or  1  cubic  meter,  equal  to  35.3171  cubic  ft.,  or  to  1 .308  cubio 
yards,  or  to  264.17  gallons.  Hectoliter,  100  liters,  orl-lOth  cubic  meter,  equal 
to  2  bush.,  and  3.35  pecks,  or  26-417  gals.  Decaliter,  10  liters,  or  10  cubic  deci- 
meters, equal  to  610.28  cubic  inches,  orto  9.08  qts.,  or  to  2  and  1-5  Imperial 
gals.  Liter,  1  cubic  decimeter,  a  unit  of  capacity,  equal  to  a  little  less  than 
an  English  quart,  or  precisely  .908  qt.  Deciliter,  1-lOth  liter,  or  1  cubic  deci- 
meter, G.1022  cubic  inches,  equal  to  0.176  pint,  or  .845  gill.  Centilliter, 
1-lOOth  liter,  or  10  cubic  decimeters,  equal  to  -6102  cubic  inch,  or  .338  fluid 
oz.  Milliliter,  1-lOOOth  liter,  or  1  cubic  centimeter,  equal  to  .061  cubic 
inch,  or  .27  fluid  drm. 

Measures  of  Weight.— ilfiZZier  or  Tonneau,  1,000,000  grains,  or  1 
cubic  meter  of  water  at  its  maximum  density,  equal  to  2204.6  Iba. 
.avoirdupois.  Quintal,  100,000  grains,  or  1  hectoliter  of  water,  equal  to 
220.46  lbs,  avoirdupois.  Myrigram,  or  10,000  grains,  or  10  liters  of  water, 
equal  to  22.046  lbs,  avoirdupois.  Kilogram  or  Kilo,  1000  grains,  or  1  liter  of 
water,  equal  to  2  lbs,  3  ozs,  65  drs.  (2.206  lbs.)  avoirdupois.  Hectogram, 
100  grains,  or  1  deciliter  of  water,  equal  to  3.5277  ozs.  avoirdupois. 
Gram,  the  unit  of  weight,  being  the  weight  of  1  cubic  centimeter  of 
water,  or  about  15^4  grains  troy.  Decigram,  1-10  grain,  or  1-10  of  a  cubio 
centimeter  of  water,  equal  to  1.5432  grains  troy.  Ce>itigram,  100th  gram, 
or  10  cubic  millimeters  of  water,  or  equal  to  1-543  grains  troy.  Milligram, 
1-1000  gram,  orl  cubic  millimeter  of  water,  equal  to  .0154  grains  troy. 


"WEIGHTS  OF  METALS,  ETC.* 


127 


Por  surface  measurement,  the  square  dekameter  is  used  under  the  term  ol 
Abk. 

Number  of  Cubic  Feet  rtr  A  Ton'  (Avoirdupois)  of  DrrPKRENT 
Materials.— Cast  Iron,  4-98  ;  Wrought  Iron,  4,59 ;  Bar  Iron,  4-69  ;  Steel, 
rfoft,  4-57  ;  Steel,  Hard,  4-59 ;  Copper,  Sheet,  4-62  ;  Copper,  Cast,  4-04  ;  Brass, 
4.17 ;  -Lead,  3-15  ;  Tin,  Cast,  4-91  ;  Zinc,  Cast,  49-8  ;  Granite,  13-514 ;  Marble, 
13-343;  Paving  Stone,  14-83;  Millstone,  14-42;  Grindstones,  17  ;  Comraoa 
Stone,  14-22;  Fire  Brick,  16.284  ;  Brick,  Mean,  21-961;  Anthracite  Coal, 
21-284  and  24-958  ;  Caunel  Coal,  23-609  ;  Cotton  Bale,  Mean,  154-48  ;  Pressed 
ditto,  from  89-6  to  1-14 ;  Hay,  Bale,  23-517  ;  Bale,  Mean,  154-48  ;  Hay,PresBed 
89-6;  Clay,  158-69;  Common  Soil,  16-335  ;  Mud,  21-987  ;  Loose  Sand,  23-893  ; 
Earth  with  Gravel,  16-742 ;  India  Rubber,  39. 69  ;  Plaster  of  Paris,  21-3  ;  Glass 
12-44 ;  Ice,  38-58  ;  Chalk  (British),  17-92 :  Tallow,  38  ;  Oil,  39 ;  i^resh  Water, 
35-84  ;  Salt  Water,  34-931. 

Weight  of  Various  Materials  in  Lbs.  (Avoirdupois)  per  Cubio 
ITOOT.— Pure  Gold,  1203-6 ;  Standard  Gold,  1102-9 ;  Hammered  Gold,  1210-11 ; 
Pure  Silver,  654-6 ;  Hammered  Silver,  656-9 ;  Standard  SiJver,  C58-4  ;  Cast 
Brass,  524-8;  Brass  Wire,  634  ;  Bismuth,  Cast,  613-9;  Antimony,  418-9; 
Bronze,  513-4 ,-  Cobalt,  Cast,  488-2  ;  Copper,  Cast,  549-3 ;  Copper,  Sh.iet,  557-2; 
Copper,  Wire,  554-9;  Wrought  Iron,  486-75  :  Iron  P'ates,  481-5  ;  Cast  Iron, 
450-4;  Gun  Metal,  543-75  ;  Cast  Lead,  709-5 ;  Rolled  do.,  711-75;  Red  Lead, 
558-75  ;  Tin,  455-7  ;  Platinum,  Pure,  1218-8  ;  Hammered  (lo.,  1271,  Mercury. 
60°,  Fluid,  848  ;  mercury.  Solid,  977 :  Nickel,  Cast,  487-9 ;  Steel,  Plates,  480-75; 
Steel,  Soft,  489-6;  Type  Metal,  653-1;  Zinc,  Cast,  439;  Granite,  1G5-75;  Mill- 
stone, 155-3;  Marble,  Mean,  of  nineteen  Kinds.  180;  Grindstones,  133-9; 
Firebrick,  137*5;  Tile,  114-44;  Brick,  Mean,  102;  Clay,  120;  Limestone,  Mean, 
of  seven  sorts,  184-1;  Loose  Eartn  or  Sand,  95;  Coarse  Sand,  112-5;  Ordi- 
nary Soil,  124;  Mud,  102;  Clay  and  Stones,  IGO;  Slate,  167  to  181-25;  Plaster 
of  Paris,  73-5;  Plumbago,  131-35;  Anthracite  Coal,  from  89-75  to  102-5;  Can- 
nel  Coal,  from  77-33  to  82-33;  Charcoal  from  Hard  Wood,  18-5;  ditto  from 
Soft  Wood,  18;  Port  Wine,  62-31 ;  Freshwater,  62-5;  Sea  Water,  64*3;  Dead 
Sea  Water,  77-5;  Vinegar,  67-5  ;  Alum,  107-10;  Asbestos,  Starry,  192-1;  Ice  at 
320,57-5;  Sulphur,  127-1;  Peat,  375  to  83-1;  Marl,  Mean,  109-33;  Hydraulio 
Lime,  171-60;  quartz,  166  25  ;  Rock  Crystal,  170-94;  Salt,  Conmion,  133,12  ; 
Lard,  59-20;  Whale  Oil,  57-70;  Olive  Oil,  57-19. 

Weight  of  a  Cubic  Inch  of  Various  Metals  in  Pounds.— 
Hammered  Gold,  .701  lbs:  Cast  do.  (pure),  .698;  20  Carats  Fine  do.,  .567"; 
Hammered  Silver,  .382  ;  Pure  do.,  .378 ;  Cast  Steel,  -287  ;  Cast  Iron,  .263  ; 
Sheet  Iron,  .279 ;  Rolled  Platinum,  .797;  Wire  do-,  .7(52;  Hammered  do,  .735 ; 
Sheet  Copper,  .323 ;  Sheet  Brass,  .394 ;  Lead,  .410 ;  Cast  Tin,  .264 ;  Cast 
Zinc, .245. 

Sundry  CoMMERCiAii  Weights.— A  ton  of  wool  is  2  stones  of  14  lbs. 
each,  A  pack  of  wool  is  240  lbs.  A  sack  of  wool  is  22  stone  of  14  lbs.,  or 
308  lbs.  In  Scotland,  it  is  24  of  16  lbs.  A  keel  of  8  Newcastle  chaldrons 
is  15^4  London  chaldrons.  66  or  60  lbs.  is  a  truss  of  hay,  40  lbs.  a  truss 
of  straw ;  36  trusses  a  load.  A  bushel  of  rock  salt  is  65  lbs. ;  of  crxished 
salt,  56  lbs.;  of  foreign  salt,  84  lbs.  A  tierce  of  beef,  in  Ireland,  is  3ai  lbs.; 
and  of  pork,  320  lbs.  A  fodder  of  lead  is  191/2  cwt.  in  London  and  21  cwt. 
in  the  North.  A  man's  load  is  5  bushels,  a  market  load  40,  or  5  quarters. 
A  last  is  10  quarters  of  corn,  or  2  cart  loads,  12  sacks  of  wool,  21  barrels 
of  gunpowder,  12  barrels  of  ashes,  herring,  soap,  &c.,  and  18  barrels  of 
salt.  A  hundred  of  salt  is  126  barrels. 

Sundry  Measures  of  Length — The  hair's  breadth  is  the  smallest, 
of  which  48  are  an  inch^  Four  barley-corns  laid  breadthwai/s,  are  %  of 
an  inch,  called  a  digit,  and  3  barley-corns  lengthways  are  an  inch.  An 
Inch  is  divided  into  12  lines  and  by  mechanics  into  Sths.  A  nail  used  in 
cloth  measure,  is  2V4  ins.  or  the  16th  of  a  yard.  A  palm  is  3  ins.  and  a 
flpan  9  ins.  (See  Table  of  Measures  of  length,  for  other  designations.)  An 
English  Statute  mile  is  1760  yds.  or  5280  ft.,  an  Irish  mile  2240  yds.,  a 
Scotch  mile  1984  yds.  ;  80  Scotch  miles  being  equivalent  to  91  English, 
ftnd  11  Iiish  to  14  English. 


128 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


»IEASUKE3  OF  LENGTH. 


4  In.  mako  1  Hand. 
7.  92  In.  •*  1  Link. 
18  In,  1  Cubit. 

12  in.     "    1  Foot. 

6  Ft.     "    1  Fathom. 


3    Foet  make  1  Yard. 
eVa  Yds.         1  Kod  or  Pole. 
40    Poles   "    1  Furloug, 
8     Fur.     "  IMilo. 
69  1-12  Miles  make  1  Degrec- 
60  Geographical  Miles  makes  1  Degree. 


MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 
144  Square  Inches  mako  1  Square  Foot. 

9  Square  Foet       *'     1  Square  Yard. 
3014  Square  Yards     "     1  Rod,  Perch  or  Polo, 
40  Square  Rods      "     1  Square  Rood. 
4  Square  Roods     "     1  Square  Acre,  or  43,560  aq.  ft. 
10  Square  Chains   "     1  Square  Acre. 
640  Square  Acres     "     1  Square  Mile. 

Gunter'a  Chain  equal  to  22  Yards  or  100  Links. 

MEASURES  OF  SOLIDITY. 
1728  Cubic  Inches  make  1  Cubic  Foot. 
27  Cubic  Feet      *'      1  Cubic  Yard. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

27^  Grains  make  1  Drachm  (dr.)  or    27^  Gralna. 

16  Drachms        1  Ounce  (oz.)  or  437^^  " 

16  Ounces    "     1  Pound  (lb.)  or  7000  " 

28  Pounds    '<     1  Quarter  (qr.) 

4  Quarters  "     1  Hundred- Weight  (cwt.) 

20  Cwts.       "  ITon. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 
24  Grains     make  1  Pennyweight,  or    24  Grains. 
20  Pennywts         1  Ounce,  or  480  " 

12  Ounces      '<      1  Pound,  or  5760 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 
20  Grains  make  1  Scruple.  I    8  Drachms  make  1  Ounce. 

3  Scruples   "     1  Drachm.  |  12  Ounces      "     1  Pound. 

45  Drop8=l  teaspoonful  or  a  fluid  Drachm;  2  tablespoonful8=l  oz. 

DIAMOND  WEIGHT. 
16  Parts  make  1  Grain  (8-lOths  Grain,  Troy). 
14  Grains  "1  Carat  (3  l-5th  Grains,  Troy). 

MQUID  MEASURE. 
4  Gills  make  1  Pint.  I    2    Gallons  make  1  Peck. 

2  Pints   *'    1  Quart.  31i^  Gallons    "    1  Barrel. 

4  Quarts "    1  Gallon.  |  64    Gallons    «    1  Hhd. 

DRY  MEASURE. 
8  Quarts  make  1  Peck.  I    8  Bushels  make  1  Quarter. 

4  Pecks  1  Bushel.  |  36  Bushels    *'     1  Chaldron. 

1  Bushel  equal  to  2815^4  cubic  in.  nearly. 
A  bushel  of  Wheat  is  on  an  average  60  lbs.;  Barley  or  Buckwheat, 
46  lbs. ;  Indian  Corn  or  Rye,  56  lbs.  ;  Oats,  30  lbs.  ;  Salt,  70  lbs.  14  lbs.  of 
Lead  or  Iron  make  1  Stone  ;  2114  Stone,  1  Pig.  1  Bbl.  of  Flour  contains 
196  lbs. ;  Beef  or  Pork,  200  lbs.  The  Imperial  Gallon  is  10  lbs.  avoirdu- 

{)ois  of  pure  water ;  the  Pint  1 1-4  lbs.  1  Gal.  Sperm  Oil  weighs,  IVa 
bs. ;  1  do.  of  Whale  Oil,  7  lbs.  11  ozs. ;  1  do.  of  Linseed,  7%  lbs. ;  1  do.  of 
Olive,  71/2  ibs. ;  1  do.  Spfcs.  of  Turpentine,  7  lbs.  5  ozs.  Proof  Spirits 
7  lbs.  15  ozs.  :  1  do.  of  Ale,  10.5  lbs. 


SCRirTURE  MEASURES,  ETC. 


129 


ScniPTURE  Measttbes  of  Length.— The  great  Cubit  wss  21  -888  ina, 
=1.824  ft.  and  the  less  18  ins.  A  Span  the  longer=%  a  cubit=10.944  in8.= 
.912  ft.  A  Bpau  the  less=y3  of  a  cubit=7.296  ins.  =.608  ft.  A  hand's 
"breadths i/€  of  a  cubit=3.684  ins.=.304ft.  A  finger's  breath=1.24  of  a 
Cubit=.912  ins.=.076  ft.  A  fathom=4  cubits=7.296  ft.  EzeldeVs  Reed= 
6  cubit8=10.914  ft.  The  mile=4000  cubits=7296  ft.  The  Stadium,  1-10  of 
their  mile=400  cubits=729.6  ft.  The  Parasang,  3  of  their  miles=12,000 
cubits,  or  4  English  miles  and  580  ft.  33.164  miles  was  a  day's  journey— 
Bome  say  24  miles;  and  3500  ft.  a  Sabbath  day's  journey;  some  authorities 
say  3648  ft. 

Scripture  Measures  oe  Capacitt.— The  Chomer  or  Homer  in  King 
James' translation  was  75.625  gals,  liquid,  and  32.125  pecks  dry.  Tho 
Ephah  or  Bath  was  7  gals.  4  pts.,  15  ins.  sol.  The  Seah,  %  of  Ephah,  2 
gals.  4  pts.,  3  in.  eol.  The  Hin=i'^  of  Ephah,  1  gal.,  2  pts.,  1  in.  sol.  Tho 
Omer=l-10  of  Ephah,  5  pts.,  0.5  ins.  sol.  The  Cab=l-18of  Ephah,  3  pts., 
10  ins.  sol.  The  Log=7T^l^  of  Ephah,  1/2  Pt->  10  sol.  The  metretes  of 
Syria  {John  ii.  6)=Cong.  Rom.  71/3  pts.  The  Cotyla  Eastern=l-100  of 
Ephah,  1/2  pt.  3  in.  eol.  This  Cotyla  contains  just  10  ozs.  Avordupois  of 
rain  water.   Omer,  100  ;  Ephah,  1000 ;  Chomer  or  Homer,  10,000. 

Scripture  "Weights  and  Coins.— The  following  are  the  Hebrew 
weights  and  their  equivalent^  in  Troy  weight ;  also  their  value  in  pure 
Gold  and  Silver  :r— 


Pure 
Gold. 

Pure 
Silver. 

English 
Money. 

The  Gerah=Xofa 
Shekel....^...... 

The      Bekah  =  Vo 
Shekel  

lbs.  ozs.  dwt.  gr. 

  11 

..     ..      4  131/4 
..     ..      9  21/0 

2      3      0  IOV4 

113    10      1  10-% 

§  cts. 
0  47 

4  69 

9  38 

562  84 
28,142  25 

§  cts. 

0  03 

0  30 
0  59 

35  32 

1,766  23 

£  s.  d.  f. 

0  0  iy2-{- 

0  1  2Va+ 
0  2  41 

7  15 

353,1110  06. 

The  Shekel  

The     Maneh,  or 
Mini=60  Shekels 
The   Talent  =  3000 

Roman  money  mentioned  in  tho  New  Testament  reduced  to  English 
and  American  Standard: — 

£  B.  d.  far.  $  cts. 

AMito   0   0   0   0.75       ....        0  00.343 

A  Farthing,  about   0   0   0   1.50       ....        0  00.687 

A  Penny,  or  Denarius   0   0  7    2.         ....        0  13.75 

A  Pound,  or  Mina   3   2   6   0.    13  75. 

Note — The  above  determinations  of  Scripture  Measures,  "Weights, 
&c.,  are  principally  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Ricl^Wfd,  Bishop  of  Peterborough. 

Gunter's  Chain,  Land  Measurem:^'^t,  &c.— 7-92  inches  constitute 
1  link  ;  100  links  1  chain,  4  rods  or  poles,  or  66  feet,  and  80  chains  1  mile. 
A  square  chain  is  16  square  poles,  and  10  square  chains  are  1  acre.  Four 
roods  are  an  acre,  each  containing  1210  square  yards,  or  34.785  yards,  or 
cA  yards  28  inches  each  side. 

Forty  poles  of  30.25  square  yards  each  is  a  rood,  and  a  pole  is  5^4  yards 
each  way. 

An  acre  is  4840  square  yards,  or  69  yds.  1  ft.,  ins.  each  way  ;  and  2 
acres,  or  9680  square  yds.  are 98  yds.  1  ft.,  2  ins.  each  way  ;  and  3  acres  are 
120%  yds.  each  way.  A  square  mile,  or  a  U.  S.  section  of  Land,  is  640 
acres;  being  1060  yds.  each  way  ;  half  a  mile,  or  880  yds.  each  way,  is  160 
acres  ;  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  440  yds.  each  way,  is  a  park  or  farm  of  40 
acres ;  and  a  furlong,  or  220  yds.  each  way,  is  10  acres. 

Any  length  or  breadth  in  yds.  which  multiplied  make  4840  is  an  aero ; 
any  which  makes  12-10  is  a  rood,  and  30.25  is  a.  pole. 

An  English  acre  is  a  square  of  nearly  70  yds.  each  way,  a  Scotch,  of  IV/^ 
yds.  and  an  Irish  of  SSVg  yds. 

9 


130 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS,  ETC. 


NAUTiCAii  Distances,  Loa  Lines.— A  nautical  mile,  the  COth  of  a 
degree,  is  2020.5  yards  ;  a  niarino  league,  or  20  to  a  degree,  is  G079.5 yards. 
Log-linea  are  divided  into  spaces  of  50  feet,  and  the  way  measured  by  a 
half  minute  sand-glass,  wliicli  bears  nearly  the  same  projiorlion  to  an 
hour,  wliich  50  feet  bears  to  a  mile,  the  number  of  knots  which  run  ofl 
the  reel  in  half  a  minute  showing  the  number  of  miles  the  vessel  sails  in 
an  hour.  The  lino  should  bo  about  150  fathoms  long,  having  10  fathomfl 
between  the  ship  and  lirst  knot  for  stray  line.  Estimating  a  milo  at 
6139.75  feet,  and  using  aSC  glass,  1  knot=51  ft.  1.05  ins.  and  1  fathom.  6 
ft.  1.395  ins.  Or  if  a  glass  is  used,  and  8  divisions,  the  result  will  be 
thus  ;  1  knot=47  ft.  9.024  ins.  and  1  fathoin=5ft.  11.C27  ins. 

BoWDiTCii's  Navioatoh  Computes  6120  ft,  to  a  sea  mile,  which  If 
taken  as  the  length  with  a  28'^  glass,  will  make  the  divisions  47.0  ft.  and 
5.95  ft. 

TENSII.E  Strength  op  Materials,  SnowiNO  the  Strength  on 

roilCE  KEQUIllED  '10  TEAR  ASUNDER  1  SQUARE  lN<JU. 


Lbs. 

Iron  Wire,  wrought,  103,000 

Swedish  bar  Iron,  72,000 

liussian   "     "  69,500 

Mean  of  English  Iron,  53,900 

Gun  Metal,  mean  of  Iron,  37,232 

Clyde,  No.  1,              "  10,125 

"        "2,               "  23,408 

Stirling,  mean  of        "  25,764 

American,  mean  of     "  45,970 

Low  Moor,  No.  2,  cast  "  14,076 

Crank  Shaft              "  44,750 

American  boiler,  { 48,000 

plates,  Iron,  ( 62,000 

English  plates,  mean,  51,000 

"         "       lengthwise,  63,800 

"         "       crosswise,  48,800 

German  piano  steel  Wire,  268,800 

Cast  Steel,  maximum,  142,000 

"  "  mean,  88,000 
Steel,                   100.000  to  130,000 


Chrome  Steel,  mean. 
Shear  " 
American  Tool  Co., 

Blistered  Steel,  soft, 

Eazor 

Steel  plates,  lengthvrise, 

"      "  crosswise, 
Yellow  metal, 
Cast  Copper, 
American  Copper, 
Brass  Wire, 


170.980 
124,000 
179,980 
■  133,000 
104,000 
15,000 
96,300 
93,700 
48,700 
19,000 
24,250 
60,000 


Copper  Bolts, 
"  AViro, 
Brass, 
Gold, 

Gold,  5  pts.,  copper,  1  pt., 
Silver  cast, 
Bronze, 

Tin  cast,  block, 

'«  Banca, 
Platinum  Wire, 
Zinc, 

Sheet  Lead, 
Antimony, 
Bismuth,  cast, 
Ivory, 

Manilla  Rope, 
Tarred  Hemp  Kope, 
Wire,  Rope, 
Whalebone, 
Leather  Belting, 
Gutta-percha, 
Slate, 

W(^l-burned  Brick, 
Inferior  ** 
Portland  Stone, 
Crown  Glass, 
Limestone, 
Hydraulic  Lime, 

"  Cement, 
Portland  " 
Plaster  of  Paris, 


Lbs. 

38,000 
60,000 
42,000 
20,49a 
60,000 
40,997 
17,098  to  56,788 
6,000 


2,122 
5,300 
7,000 
3,000 
1,060 
3,120^ 
16,070 
9,300 
15,000 
37,000 
7,600 
333 
3,500 
12,000 
750 

100  to  290 
857  to  1,000 
42,346 
670  to  2,800 
140 
234 

mos.  414 
72 


Remarks.— Owing  to  the  damage  inflicted  by  the  hot  tar,  tarred  ropea 
are  25  per  cent,  weaker  than  white  ropes.  Hemp  rope  is  stronger  than 
Manilla,  but  tarred  hemp  and  manilla  are  nearly  of  equal  strength. 
Manilla  ropes  are  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  weaker  than  white  ropoa. 
Twisted  hempen  cords  will  sustain  the  following  weights  per  equjiro 
inch  of  their  section  :  1/4  inch  to  1  inch  thick,  8746  lbs. ;  1  to  3  ins.  thick, 
6860  lbs. ;  3  to  5  ins.  thick,  5345  lbs.  ;  5  to  7  ins.  thick,  4,800  lbs.  Ropes  of 
4  strands  up  to  8  ins.  are  about  17  per  cent,  stronger  than  those  having 
but  3 strands.  One-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  of  iron  will  sustain 
more  than  1  inch  in  circumference  of  hemp  rope.  In  Tredgold's  and 
■Duleau's  experiments,  a  piece  of  the  best  bar  iron,  1  inch  square,  bore  a 
weight  of  77,373  lbs.,  while  a  similar  piece  of  cast  iron  would  bo  torn 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS,  ETC 


131 


asunder  by  a  weight  of  from  16,243  to  19,404  lbs., and  1  square  inch  of  iroa 
wire  would  sustain  a  mean  weight  of  126,340  lbs.  In  sixteen  experiments 
by  Mr.  Fairbairn  and  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  on  cast  iron,  the  average  strain 
thatone  square  inch  sustained  was  7%  tons,  the  weakest  bearing  6  tons,  and 
the  strongest  9%  tons.  Telford's  and  Brown's  experiments  show  that  maU 
leable  iron  will  bear,  ou  an  average,  27  tons,  the  weakest  being  24  andtho 
Btrongest  29  tons. 

Hodgkinson's  and  Fairbairn's  experiments  prove  that  cast  iron  can 
sustain  a  compression  of  from  351/2  to  60  tons  to  the  square  inch.  In  thia 
respect  malleable  iron  is  inferior  to  cast.  With  12  tons  to  the  squara 
inch  it  yields,  contracts  in  length,  and  expands  laterally,  though  it  will 
bear  27  tons,  or  more,  without  actual  fracture,  Rennie  crushed  cast  iron 
with  a  weight  of.  93,000  lbs. 

Strength  of  Shafts. — 44  lbs.,  acting  at  a  foot  radius,  will  twist  oft 
the  neck  of  a  shaft  of  lead  1  inch  diam. ,  and  the  relative  strengths  of  other 
materials,  lead  being  1,  is  as  follows  :— Tin,  1-4 ;  copper,  4-3  ;  yellow  brass, 
4-6  ;  gun  metal,  5  ;  cast  iron,  9  ;  Swedish  iron,  9-5  ;  English  iron,  10-1  ; 
blistered  steel,  16-16  ;  shear  steel,  17  ;  case  steel,  19-6.  The  strength  of  a 
shaft  increases  as  the  cube  of  its  diameter. 

A  weight  of  36,000  lbs.  attached  to  a  bar  of  iron  1  inch  square  and  1,000 
inches  in  length,  will  draw  it  out  1  inch  ;  45,000  will  stretch  it  2  inches  ; 
54,000  lbs.,  4  inches  ;  63,000,  8  inches ;  and  72,000,  16  inches,  where  it  will 
finally  break. — Prof.  Leslie. 

Strength  of  Cast  Ikon  Beams.— Rule.  Multiply  the  sectional  area 
of  the  bottom  flanges  in  square  inches  by  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  between  the  support  also  in  inches. 
Then  514  times  the  quotient  will  be  the  breaking  weight  in  pounds. 
Table  showing  the  Crushing  Strength  of  various  materials 
on  a  basis  of  1  square  inch. 


X    •  1  Crushing 
Matenals.  Weight? 

,    .  ,  Crushinnc 
Materials.  Weight. 

Lbs. 

Quincy  Granite,  15,300 
Aberdeen   "  10,360 
Arbroath    *'  7,884 
Portland  Cement,  15,000 
Mean,  8,300 
Stourbridge  Firebrick,  1,717 

Hard  Brick,                       1 2  000 

Common  "                         |  'gOo 

«      «  Masonry, 

Marble,  Lee,  Mass.,  22,702 
«'     Italian,  12,624 
"     Baltimore,  small,  18,061 

Lbs- 
Marble,  Baltimore,  small,  8,051 
Stock  Brick,  2,167 
Portland  Cement,  1  sand  1,  1,280 
"         "         1  sand  4,  1,244 
Gneiss,  19,609 
Good  Mortar,  240 
Common  "  129 
Roman  Cement,  342 
Sandstone,  Seneca,  10,762 
"        Acquia  Creek,  5,340 
"       Adelaide,  2,800 
Brick,  Sydney,  2,228 
Clay,  fine,  rolled  and  baked,  400 
Portland  Oolite,  3,850 

Nearly  all  granites  commence  to  crumble  under  a  superstructure  of 
200  feet  elevation. 


1  cask  of  lime  (240  lbs.),  will  make  from  7-8  to  8-15  cubic  ft.  of  stiff  paste. 
Bricks  should  be  thoroughly  wet  previous  to  use.  Brick  walls  should  bo 
washed  down  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  when  finished, 

A  good  Mastic  is  burnt,clay,  93  parts,  litharge,  7  parts,  all  ground  very 
fine,  and  thoroughly  dried  by  artificial  heat,  mix  with  linseed  oil  and 
apply,  after  giving  the  surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  2  or  3  coats  of  oil . 

Soot  will  nc<;  adhere  to  chimneys  coated  with  mortar  to  which  salt  hcis 
been  added  in  the  proportion  of  1  peck  of  salt  to  3  of  mortar  while  lemt 
X)ering, 


132 


FACTS  FOR  BUILDERS,  ETC 


Table  to  find  the  nuimher  of  Brick  REQoiiiEn  to  constbuot 

ANY  BUILUIXO,  KMlJRA(;lN(i  WALLS,  FIIOIM  4  JNCIIKS  TO  '20  INCUKfl 
TIIIOK,   JlIC<!KONIN(;  7   ItllfOKS  TO   lOAOll   H U HIO KFl CI AL  KOO'l". 

I'Jxamplc.—licquiViid  the  mimbor  of  brickH  in  100  suporlicial  foot  of  wall 
12  inches  thick.  Under  12  inch,  an<l  opposite  100,  you  will  find  the  answer, 
2250,  the  number  of  briclcs  re(iuired.   


Suporlicial 

K umber  of  Briclcs  to  Thiclcncss  of 

foot  of 

Wall. 

4-incli. 

8-inch. 

12-iuch.  1  10-incli.  |  20-inch.  |  24-iach. 

1 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

C 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

203 

315 

8 

CO 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9 

G8 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1125 

1350 

40 

300 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

60 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2G25 

3150 

80 

GOO 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000 

3600 

90 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3375 

4050 

100 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

500 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

27000 

700 

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800 

COOO 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900 

6750 

13500 

20250 

27000 

33750 

45000 

1000 

7500 

15000 

22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 

Facts  for  Builders.— 1000  shingles,  laid  4  ins.  to  the  weather,  will 
cover  100  sq.  ft.  of  surface,  and  5  lbs.  of  shingle  nails  will  fasten  them  on. 

One-;lfth  more  siding  and  flooring  is  needed  than  tlie  number  of  sq.  ft. 
of  surface  to  be  covered,  because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  and  matching. 

1000  laths  will  cover  70  yards  of  surface,  and  11  lbs.  of  lath  nails  will  nail 
them  on.  8  bushels  3f  good  lime,  16  bushels  of  sand,  and  I  bushel  of  hair, 
will  make  enough  good  mortar  to  plaster  100  sq.  yds. 

A  cord  of  stone,  3  bushels  of  lime,  and  a  cubic  yard  of  sand,  will  lay  100 
cubic  ft.  of  wall. 

5  courses  of  brick  will  lay  1  ft.  in  height  on  a  chimney,  16  bricks  in  a 
course  will  make  a  flue  4  ins.  wide  and  12  ins.  long,  and  8  bricks  in  a. 
course  will  make  a  flue  8  ins.  wide  and  16  ins.  long. 

Cement,  1  bush.,  and  sand,  2  bush.,  will  cover  3%  sq.  yds.  1  in.  thick,  4% 
Bq.  yds.  %  inch  thick,  and  634  sq.  yds.  1/2  inch  thick.  1  bush,  cement  ana 
1  of  sand  will  cover  214  sq.  yds.  1  in.  thick,  3  sq.  yds.  %  inch  thick,  and  4^4 
eq.  yd3.  %  inch  thick. 

8  lb3.  of  Asphalte  Flooring  composition  will  cover  1  superficial  ft.  %inch 
thick.  308  pounds  of  finely  ground  cement  will  make  from  3-7  to  3-8  cubic 
feet  of  stiff  paste.  1  cwt.  of  mastic  and  1  gal.  of  oil  will  cover  li^  yds.  at 
or  2y2  at  Y2  inch  in  thickness.  Pointing  Mortal-  consists,  by  weight,  of 
finely  ground  cement,  1  part  to  from  3  to  3%  parts  of  fine  silicious  sand, 
mix  under  cover,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time. 


EXPANSION  OF  BODIES,  ETC. 


133 


Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Bodies.— The  following  taWa 
exhibits  the  linear  dilatation  of  various  bodies  from  32°  to  212°,  ac- 
ording  to  Laplace,  Smeaton,  Roy,  etc.  ————=== 


Flint  glass .  . »  

Glass  (barometer  tubes)  

"     solid  rod  

"     cast,  prism  of  ... 

Platinum,  per  Borda  

Palladium,  per  Wollaston . 
Gold  (French  standard)  . .  . 
Silver  (French  standard). . 

Copper  8  parts,  tin  1  

Copper  

Copper  2,  zinc  1  

Brass  16,  tin  1  

Brass  wire  

Brass  cast  

Solder,  tin  1,  lead  2.  

Bismuth  

Speculum  metal .  

Iron  

Sfce-el  (yellow  temper )  

Tin,  Falmouth  

Lead  

Zinc  

Mercury,  in  volume  

Water  

Alcohol  

All  the  gases   . 


To^oo" 


TT¥T 

66T 
T24 


8T¥ 
"SOT 


100 
28T 


1_ 
1200 

to 


1 

¥l^ 


[iVt 


¥"4  6 


[80 


Tit 


¥To' 


Mercury  freezes  at  40°  below  zero,  and  melts  at  39°.  Ether  freezes 
at  47°  below  zero ;  wine  freezes  at  20° ;  sea  water  freezes  at  28°3. 
Alcohol  has  been  exposed  to  110°  and  120°  below  zero  without  freez- 
ing. Granite  decomposes  at  a  red  heat.  The  second's  pendulum,  of 
'ii9.V6d  ins.,  is  lengthened  by  30°  of  temperature  128th  of  an  inch,  or  8 
vibrati  )ns  in  24  hours. 

The  heat  conducting  powers  of  metals,  etc.,  are  as  follows:  Gold,i 
1000°;  platinum,  981°;  silver,  973;  copper,  898.2;  iron,  374.3;  zinc,' 
363;  tin,  303-9;  lead,  179.6;  marble,  23.6;  porcelain,  12.2;  fine  clay,  11.4. 

1  lb.  of  coke  melts  94  lbs.  of  ice;  1  lb.  of  coal,  90  lbs.;  1  lb.  of 
wood,  52  lbs. ;  1  lb.  of  charcoal,  95  lbs. ;  1  lb.  of  peat,  19  lbs.  The 
capacity  of  the  solar  heat  all  over  the  globe  is  the  ability  to  melt  an 
icy  covering  46  feet  in  thickness. 

(6  lbs,  wMte  lead  added  to  1  gal.  tar  varnish,  and  applied  as  paint,  will 
preveiAt  damp  coming  through  walls. 


134 


DTEnS  AND  KLEACnEnS'  RECEIPTS. 


To  Prevkxt  Decay  of  Far:\i  I.-MrLKMKXT.s. — Wlicn  not  in  nso 
have  thoni  sheltered  from  tlic  Bun,  ^viiid,  niui,  .nnd  snow.  IJy  this 
nieiins,  sleighs,  Avagons,  carts,  ])loiiglis,  thrcsliing-maehines,  liar- 
rows,  and  the  like,  Avould  last  twice  as  lon-g  as  tlicy  Avould  il  left  in 
the  open  air,  swelling  from  moisture  one  week,  and  sliriukiug  tho 
next  from  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  wind. 

OiLiNc;  OH  Ci.KANiNG  Ohi)  Cakuiagk-tops. — Eimmel  leatlier-fcops 
should  1)0  first  washed  Avitli  Castile  soap  and  warm  water,  then 
oiled  witli  neat's-foot  oil  ;  or  sweet  oil  and  a  coat  of  enamel  varnish 
put  on,  the  leather  -will  look  lilco  new.  Dashos  may  bo  cleaned  m  tho 
same  manner,  but  vaniish  color  is  not  very  beneficial  to  patent 
leather  ;  however,  when  old  and  cracked,  it  may  bo  colored  to 
improve  the  appearance. 

DYERS,  BLEACHERS,  AND  CLOTHIERS' 

DEPARTMENT. 

Tn  accommodation  to  tho  requirements  of  dyers,  many  of  tho 
followini^  I'eceipta  describo  dyes  for  largo  quantities  of  goods, 
but  to  make  them  equally  adapted  for  tlic  use  of  private  fam- 
ilies they  are  usually  gireu  in  even  quantities,  so  that  it  is  quite 
.in  easy  matter  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  materials  required  for 
dyeing,  when  once  the  weight  of  tho  goods  is  known  ;  the  quantity 
of  materials  used  being  reduced  in  proportion  to  tho  smaller  quantity 
of  goods. 

L'se  soft  water  for  all  dyeing  purposes,  if  it  can  be  procured,' 
using  4  gals,  water  to  1  lb.  of  goods;  for  larger  quantities,  a  little  less 
water  will  do.  Lot  all  the  implements  u^sed  in  dyeuig  ba  kept 
perfectly  clean.  I'reparo  the  goods  by  scouring  well  with  soap 
and  water,  washing  tho  soap  well  out  and  dipping  in 
warm  water,  previous  to  immersion  in  the  dye  or  mordant.  Goods 
f;hould  be  well  aired,  rinsed,  and  properly  hung  up  after  dyeing. 
Silks,  and  fine  goods  should  be  tenderly  handled,  otherwise  injury  to 
the  fabric  will  result. 

Saxon  Blue. — For  100  lbs.  thibct  or  comb  yam,  use  alum,  20  lbs., 
cream  of  tartar  3  lbs.,  mordant  2  lbs.  ;  extract  of  indigo  3  lbs.,  or 
oarnnne  1  lb.,  makes  a  better  color,  AVhen  all  is  dissolved  cool  tho 
Icettle  to  180°  Fahr.  ;  enter  and  handle  quickly  at  first,  then  let  it  boil 
I  hour,  or  until  even.  Long  boiling  dims  the  color.  Zephyr  Avorsted 
yarn  ought  to  be  prepared,  first  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  alum 
iuid  sulphuric  acid,  then  the  indigo  is  added  afterwards. 

GiiEEN  Fustic  Dve. — For  50  lbs.  of  goods  use  50  lbs.  of  fustic  with 
alum  11  lbs.  Soak  in  water  until  the  strength  is  extracted,  put  in  tho 
goods  until  of  a  good  yellow  color,  remove'the  chips,  and  add  extract 
of  indigo  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  until  the  color  is  satisfactory. 

TuEPLE  Blue  on  Wool. — 100  Ibs^  of  wool  arc  first  dipped  in  the 
blue  vat  to  a  light  shade,  then  boiled  in  a  solution  of  15  lbs.  of  alum, 
and  3  lbs.  of  half  refined  tartar,  for  1^  hours,  the  wool  taken  out, 
cooled,  and  let  stand  24  hours.  Then  boil  in  fresh  water  8  lbs.  of 
powdered  cochineal  fof  a  few  minutes,  cool  the  kettle  to  170°  Fahr.  ; 
handle  the  prepared  wool  in  this  for  1  hour,  when  it  is  ready  to  cool, 
riuse,  and  dry.   By  coloring  first  with  cochineal,  as  aforesaid,  and 


DYEKS  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS.  135 

finishing  in  the  bhio  vat,  the  fast  puri^le  or  dahlia,  so  much  aclmired 
in  German  broadcloths,  will  he  produced.  Tin  acids  must  not  he  used 
in  this  color. 

Blue  Dye  for  IIosiEiir.— 100  lbs.  of  -vrool  are  colored  with  4  lbs. 
Guatemala  or  3  lbs.  Bengal  indigo,  in  the  soda  or  wood  vat  ;  then 
boil  in  a  Iccttle  a  few  minutes,  5  lbs.  of  cudbear  or  8  lbs.  of  orchil 
paste  ;  add  1  lb.  of  soda,  or  better,  1  pail  of  urine,  then  cool  the  dyo 
to  about  170°  Fahr.  ;  and  enter  the  avooI.  Handle  well  for  about  20 
minutes,  then  take  it  out,  cool,  rinse,  and  dry.  It  is  all  the  same  if 
ijie  cudbear  is  put  in  before  or  after  the  indigo.  3  ozs.  of 
the'blftvJinrple  dissolved  in  alcohol,  ^  pt.,  can  be  used  instead  of 
now  by  dyers CWood  spirit  is  cheaper  than  alcohol,  and  is  much  used 
duces  a  very  prettV'hP^i'POse  of  dissolvmg  analino  colors).  It  pro- 
which  have  to  be  bleacfiftuhut  shoidd  never  bo  used  on  mixed  good? 

Logwood  AKD  IxDiGO  Br.tr  ^  ^  ,  i 

•color  the  cloth  first  by  one  or  two  cTiYjJ^or  Cloth.— 100  lbs.  of  cloth, 
J  inse  it  well,  then  boil  it  in  a  solution  of  i^iI^Q  vat  of  indigo  blue,  and 
refined  tartar,  and  5  lbs.  of  mordant,  for  2  honT%  Jjl^^im,  2  lbs.  of  half 
cool.  In  fresh  water  boil  10  lbs.  of  good  logwood  fbt^he^t  out  and 
in  a  bag  or  otherwise  ;  cool  off  to  170°  Fahr.  before  eSi'J  hot^i-' 
handle  well  over  a  reel,  let  it  boil  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  it  bTcJ, 
cool,  and  rinse.   This  is  a  very  firm  blue. 

DvE  FOR  Wool  or  Silk. — C'oZor  between  Purple  and  Blue.  For 
40  lbs.  of  goods,  take  bi-chromate  of  potash  8  ozs.,  alum  1  lb.,  dissolve 
all  and  bring  the  water  to  a  boil,  and  put  in  the  goods;  boil  1  hour  ; 
then  empty  the  dye,  and  make  a  new  dyo  Avith  logwood  8  lbs.,  or  ex- 
tract of  logwood  1  lb.  4  ozs. ,  and  boil  in  this  1  hour  longer.  Grade 
the  color  by  using  more  or  less  logwood,  as  you  wish  it  dark  or  light 
in  the  color. 

New  Bleach  for  Wool,  Silk,  or  Straw. — Mix  together  4  lbs. 
oxalic  acid,  4  lbs.  table  salt,  Avater  50  gals.  The  goods  are  laid  in  this 
intxturc  for  1  hour,  they  are  then  generally  well  bleached,  and  only 
require  to  be  thoroughly  rinsed  and  worked.  For  bleaching  straw  it 
is  best  to  soak  the  goods  in  caustic  soda,  and  afterwards  to  make  uso 
of  chloride  of  lime  or  Javelle  water.  The  excess  of  chlorine  is  after-* 
wards  removed  by  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

To  Fix  Dyes. — Neio  Process.  Mr,  Kipping,  of  Manchester,  England, 
lias  a  new  process  of  fixing  dyes.  He  dissolves  20  ozs.  of  gelatine  in 
water,  and  adds  3  ozs.  of  bichromate  of  potash.  This  is  done  in  a  darJc 
room.  The  coloring  matter  is  then  added  and  the  goods  submitted 
thereto  ;  after  which  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  light ;  the 
pigment  thus  becomes  insoluble  in  water  and  the  color  is  fast. 

Scarlet  with  Lac  Dye. — For  100  lbs.  of  flannel  or  yarn,  take  25 
lbs.  of  ground  lac  dye,  15  lbs.  of  scarlet  spirit  (made  as  iDcr  directions 
below),  5  lbs.  of  tartar,  1  lb.  of  flavine,  or  according  to  shade,  1  lb.  of  tm 
crystals,  5  lbs.  of  muriatic  acid.  Boil  all  for  15  minutes,  then  cool  the 
dye  to  170°  Fahr.  ;  enter  the  goods,  and  handle  them  quicldy  at  first. 
Let  them  boil  1  hour,  rinse  them  while  yet  hot,  before  the  gum  and 
impurities  harden.  This  color  stands  scouring  with  soap  better  than 
cochineal  scarlet.  To  this  dye,  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  used,  as  it  dissolves  the  gum. 

HuRiAXE  OF  Ti2{  OK  ScARLEX  SriRiT.— TaliO  IG  Ibs.  muriatic 


136  DYEKS  AXD  HLEACIIERS'  RECEIPTS. 


acid,  220  B.,  1  lb.  fcnllicrcd  tin,  'u-ator  2  lbs.  Tho  acid  should  bo  put 
iu  a  Btono  waro  iiot,  and  tho  tin  added,  and  allow  to  dissolve  ;  tho 
niixturo  should  bo  kept  a  few  days  before  usin^^.  The  tin  is  feathered 
or  granulated  by  melting  in  a  suitJible  vessel,  and  pouring  it  from  a 
lieight  of  about  5  feet  into  a  ])ailful  of  water.  Tliis  is  a  most  power- 
ful agent  in  certain  colors,  such  as  scarlets,  oranges,  pinks,  &c. 

ScAiir.KT  DvE  WITH  CocHiNKAL.— Fov  50  Ibs.  of  Avool,  yam,  or 
tloth,  use  cream  of  tartar  1  lb.  0  ozs.  ;  cochineal  pulverized,  12^  ozs,, 
muriate  of  tin  or  scarlet  spirit  8  lbs. ;  after  boiling  tho  dye,  enter  tho 
goods,  work  them  well  for  15  minutes,  then  boil  them  1^  hours,  sto'o'f 
agitating  tho  goods  while  boiling,  wash  in  clean  water,  and 
the  sun.  ^  ,      ,  muriate  of  tin 

ruiiPLE  Dye.— For  40  lbs.  of  goods,  use  ajptartar  2  lbs.  Boil  tho 
il  tea  cups,  pulverized  cochineal  1  lb.,  cj^ft-utes,  add  the  cochineal  and 
alum,  tm,  and  cream  of  tartar,  fq^iTiours,  remove  and  enter  them  iu 
bod  6  minutes,  immerse  thg.r^ood  3  lbs.,  logwood  7  lbs.,  alum  4 lbs., 
a  new  dye  composed^atsT  adding  a  little  extract  of  indigo,  made  as 
muriato  of  tin  8  ^  ' 

follows :  ^  iiLTjEiNG  OR  EXTRACT  OP  Indigo.— Take  oil  of  vitriol  2  lbs., 
vFtTr  into  it  finely,  pulverized  indigo  8  ozs.,  stirring  briskly  for  tho 
first  I  hour,  then  cover  it  up,  and  stir  4  or  5  times  daily  for  a  fOAv  days, 
then  add  a  little  pulverized  chalk,  stirring  it  up,  and  keep  adding  it 
as  long  as  it  foams  ;  it  will  neutralize  the  acid.  Keep  it  closely  corked. 
.  Light  Silver  Drab. — For  50  lbs.  of  goods  use  logwood  ^  lb., 
alum,  about  the  same  quantity  ;  boil  well,  enter  the  goods,  and  dip 
them  for  1  hour.  Grade  the  color  to  any  desired  shade,  by  using 
equal  parts  of  logwood  and  alum. 

f  Chrome  Black  for  AVool.— For  40  lbs.  of  goods,  use  blue  vitriol 
3  lbs, ,  boil  it  a  short  time,  then  dip  the  wool  or  fabric  |  of  an  hour, 
airing  frequently  ;  take  out  the  goods,  and  make  a  dye  Avitii  logwood 
24  lbs.  ;  boil  ^  hour,  dip  £  of  an  hour,  air  the  goods,  and  dip  |  of  an 
liour  longer,  wash  in  strong  soap  suds.   A  good  fast  color. 

Black  Dye  on  Wool,  for  Mixtures. — For  50  lbs.  of  wool  take 
bi-chromate  of  potash  1  lb.  4  ozs.,  ground  argal  15  ozs.,  boil  together 
and  put  in  the  fabric,  stirring  well,  and  let  it  remain  in  the  dye  5 
hours;  take  it  out,  rinse  slightly  in  clean  water,  then  make  a  new  dye, 
into  which  put  logwood  ITf  lbs.  Boil  1^  hours,  adding  chamber  lye  5 
pts.   Let  the  fabric  remain  in  all  night,  and  wash  out  in  clean  Avater. 

Red  Madder. — This  color  is  mostly  used  for  army  uniforms,  &c. 
To  100  lbs.  of  fabric  use  20  lbs.  of  alum,  5  lbs.  of  tartar,  and  5  lbs.  of 
muriate  of  tin.  When  these  are  dissolved,  enter  the  goods,  and  let 
them  boil  for  2  hours,  then  take  them  out,  let  cool,  and  lay  overnight. 
Into  fresh  water,  stir  75  lbs.  of  good  madder,  and  enter  the  fabric  at  120^ 
Fahr.  and  bruig  it  up  to  200°  in  the  course  of  an  hour,  handle  well  to 
secure  evenness,  then  rinse  and  dry. 

«  Dark  Snuff  Brown  on  Wool.— For  50  lbs.  of  goods,  take  cam- 
wood 10  lbs.,  boil  for  20  minutes,  then  dip  the  goods  for  f  of  an  hour, 
then  take  them  out,  and  add  to  the  dye,  fustic  25  lbs. ;  boil  12  minutej 
and  dip  the  goods  |  of  an  hour,  then  add  blue  vitriol  10  ozs.,  copperas 
2  lbs.  8  ozs.,  dip  again  40  minutes;  add  more  copperas  if  the  shade  la 
required  darker. 

Wine  Color  Dte.— For  50  lbs.  of  goods  use  camwood  10  lbs.,  T»oiI 

/ 


DYERS  AND  bleachers'  RECEIPTS. 


137 


9.0  minutes,  dip  the  goods  ^  hour,  boll  again,  nud  dip  40  minutes, 
then  darken  with  blue  vitriol  15  ozs.,  and  should  you  wish  it  darker, 
add  5  lbs.  of  copperas. 

Pink  Dye  for  Wool.— For  GO  lbs.  of  goods,  take  alum  5  lbs.  13 
ozs.,  boil  and  immerse  the  goods  50  minutes,  then  add  to  the  dyo 
cochineal  well  pulverized,  1  lb.  4  ozs.,  cream  of  tartar,  5  lbs.,  boil  and 
enter  the  goods  while  boiling,  until  the  color  is  satisfactory. 

Dark  Blue  BYE.—Suitable  for  Thibets  and  Lastings.  Boil  IOC 
lbs.  of  the  fabric  for  IJ  hours  in  a  solution  of  alum  25  lbs.,  tartar  4 
lbs.,  mordant  G  lbs.,  extract  of  indigo  G  lbs. ;  cool  them  as  usual.  Boil 
in  freshwater  from  8  to  10  lbs.  of  logwood,  in  a  bag  or  otherwise,  then 
cool  the  dye  to  170°  Fahr.  ;  reel  the  fabric  quickly  at  first,  then  let  irr 
boil  strongly  for  1  hour.   This  is  a  very  good  imitation  of  indigo  blue. 

Orakge  Dye. — For  50  lbs.  of  goods,  use  argal  3  lbs.,  muriate  of  tin 
1  qt,  boil  and  dip  1  hour;  then  ifdd  to  the  dye,  fustic  25  lbs.,  madder 
2^  qts.,  and  dip  again  40  minutes.  If  prfierred,  cochineal  1  lb.  4  ozs. 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  madder,  as  a  better  color  is  induced  by  it. 

Sky  Blub  on  Cotton. — 60  lbs.  of  goods,  blue  vitriol  5  lbs.  Boil 
a  short  time,  then  enter  the  goods,  dip  3  hours,  and  transfer  to  a  bath 
of  strong  lime  water.  A  fine  brovm  color  will  be  imparted  to  the  goods 
if  they  are  then  put  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash. 

A  Brown  Dye  on  Wool  may  be  induced  by  a  decoction  of  oak 
bark,  with  variety  of  shade  according  to  the  quantity  employed.  If 
tiie  goods  bo  first  passed  through  a  mordant  of  alum  the  color  will  be 
brightened. 

Brown  on  Cotton. — Catechu  or  terra  japonica  gives  cotton  a 
brown  color,  blue  vitriol  turns  it  on  the  bronze,  green  copperas  darkens 
it,  when  applied  as  a  mordant  and  tlie  stuff  boiled  in  the  bath  boilinf>* 
hot.  Acetate  of  alumina  as  a  mordant,  brightness  it.  The  French 
color  named  '*  Carmelita  "  is  given  with  catechu  lib.,  verdigris 4  ozs., 
and  sal-ammoniac  5  ozs. 

Broavn  on  Wool  and  Silk.— Infusion  or  decoction  of  walnut 
peels  dyes  wool  and  silk  brown  color,  which  is  brightened  by  alum. 
Horse-chestnut  peels  also  impart  a  brown  color;  a  mordant  of  muriate 
of  tin  turns  it  on  the  bronze,  and  sugar  of  lead  the  reddish  brown. 

Solitaire, — Sulphate  or  muriate  of  manganese  dissolved  in  water 
with  a  little  tartaric  acid  imparts  this  beautiful  bronze  tint.  The 
stuff  after  being  put  through  the  solution  must  bo  turned  through  a 
weak  lye  of  potash,  and  afterwards  through  another  of  chloride  of 
lime,  to  brighten  and  fix  it.  PrussiatQ  of  copper  gives  a  bronze  or 
yelloioish  broicn  color  to  silk.  The  piece  well  mordanted  with  blue 
vitriol,  may  be  passed  through  a  solution  ot  prussiate  of  potash. 

Fuller's  Purifier  for  Cloths. — Dry,  pulverize,  and  sift  the 
following  ingredients  :  Fuller's  earth  G  lbs.,  French  clialk  4  ozs.,  pipe 
clay  1  lb.  ;  make  into  a  paste  with  rectified  oil  of  turpentine  1  oz., 
alcohol  2  ozs.,  melted  oil  soap  1\  lbs.  Compound  the  mixture  into 
cakes  of  any  desired  size,  for  sale  if  required,  keeping  them  in  water, 
or  small  wooden  boxes."' 

Green  on  Cotton. — For  40  lbs.  of  goods,  use  fustic  10  lbs.,  blue 
vitriol  10  ozs.,  soft  soap  2^  qts.,  and  logwood  chips  1  lb.  4  ozs.  Soak 
the  logwood  over  night  in  a  brass  vessel,  put  it  on  the  fire  in  the 
raomir(g  adding  the  other  ingredients.  When  quite  hot  it  is  ready  for 
dyeing  ;  enter  the  goods  at  once,  artd  handle  well.    Different  shades 


138 


DTEnS  AXD  BLEAcncns'  Ki:ci:rPT3. 


may  bo  obtained  by  letting  part  of  the  goods  remain  longer  in  tlio 
dye. 

Pink  Dye  von  Cotton. — For  40  lbs.  of  goods,  use  redwood  20 
lbs.,  muriate  of  tin  2.|j  ll)s.  ;  boil  tlio  redwood  1  liour,  turn  off  into  a 
large  vessel,  add  tlic  muriate  of  tin,  and  i)ut  in  tlic  goods,  let  it  stand 
a  few  minutes  (5  or  10),  and  a  nice  pinlc  will  bo  produced.  It  is  quito 
ii  fast  color. 

rcRPLB  Dye  roll  Silk.— For  10  lbs.  of  goods,  enter  your  goods  in 
l)lue  dye  bath,  and  secure  a  light  blue  color,  dry,  ajid  dij)  in  a  -warm 
solution  containing  alum  2^  lbs.  Should  a  deeper  color  bo  required, 
add  a  little  extract  of  indig-o. 

Yellow  on  Silk. — For  10  lbs.  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  7^  ozs., 
alum  2  lbs.,  enter  the  goods  and  let  them  remain  13  hours,  romovo 
them,  drain,  and  make  a  new  dye  with  fustic  10  lbs.  Immerse  until 
the  color  suits. 

PuiiPLE  ox  Cotton. — G9t  up  a  tub  of  hot  logwood  liquor,  enter  3 
pieces,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out ;  enter  them  into  a  clean  alum 
tub,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out;  get  up  anotlier  tub  of  logwood 
liquor,  enter,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out ;  renew  your  alum  tub, 
give  them  5  ends  in  that,  and  finish. 

Black  on  Cotton.— For  40  lbs.  goods,  use  sumac  30  lbs.,  boil  | 
Lour,  let  the  goods  steep  over  night,  and  immerse  them  in  lime  water 
40  minutes,  remove,  and  allow  them  to  drip  f  hour,  now  add  copperas 
4  lbs.  to  the  sumac  liquor,  and  di]o  1  hour  more  ;  next  work  them 
through  lime  water  for  20  minutes,  next  make  a  new  d^^o  of  logwood 
20  lbs.,  boil  2^  hours,  and  enter  the  goods  3  hours,  then  add  bi-chro- 
mate  of  potash  1  lb.  to  the  new  dye,  and  dip  1  hour  more.  Work  in 
clean  cold  Avater  and  dry  out  of  the  sun. 

Red  Dye  for  Wool. — For  40  lbs.  of  goods,  make  a  tolerably  thick 
]iaste  of  lac  dye  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  day. 
Now  take  tartar  4  lbs.,  tin  liquor  2  lbs,  8  ozs.,  and  3  lbs.  of  the  above 
l)aste,  make  a  hot  bath  with  sufficient  water,  and  enter  the  goods  for 
3  hour,  afterwards  carefully  rinse  aud  dry. 

Yellow  on  Cotton.— For  40  lbs.  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  3  lbs. 
8  ozs.,  dip  the  goods  2  hours.  Make  a  new  dye  with  bi-chromato  of 
potash.  2  lbs.,  dip  until  the  color  suits,  wring  out  and  dry,  if  not  yellow 
enough  repeat  the  operation. 

Violet  Dye  on  Silk  or  Wool. — A  good  violet  dye  may  be  given 
Tjy  passing  the  goods  first  through  a  solution  of  verdigris,  then  through 
a  decoction  of  logwood,  and  lastly  alum  water.  A  fast' violet  may  bo 
given  by  dyeing  the  goods  crimson  with  cochineal,  without  alum  or 
tartar,  and  after  rinsing,  passing  them  through  the  indigo  vat. 
Linens  or  Cottons  are  first  gaUed  with  18° lo  of  gall  nuts,  next  passed 
through  a  mordant  of  alum,  iron  liquor,  and  sulphate  of  copper, 
working  them  well,  then  worked  in  a  madder  bath  made  with  an 
equal  weight  of  root,  and  lastly  brightened  with  soap  or  soda. 

Slate  Dye  on  Silk, — For  a  small  quantltj'-,  take  a  pan  of  warm 
water,  and  about  a  teacupf ul  of  logwood  liquor,  pretty  strong,  and  a 

i^iece  of  pearlash  the  size  of  a  nut ;  take  gray  colored  goods  aui 
landle  a  little  in  this  liquid,  and  it  is  finished.   If  too  much  logwood 
is  used,  the  color  will  be  too  dark.    A  Straio  color  on  silk.— Use 
smartweed,  boil  in  a  brass  vessel,  and  set  with  alum. 
Lilac  Dye  on  Silk,— For  5  lbs.  of  silk,  use  archil     lbs.,  mix  it 


DTERS  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS, 


139 


well  with  the  liqnor  ;  make  it  boil  ^  hour,  dip  the  silk  quickly,  then 
let  it  cool,  and  Avash  it  iu  river  water,  aud  a  fine  half  violet,  or  lilac, 
more  or  less  full,  will  be  obtained. 

Gkeen  Dye  on  Silk. — Take  green  ebony,  boil  it  in  water,  and 
let  it  settle  ;  take  the  clear  liquor  as  hot  as  you  can  bear  your  hands 
iu  it  and  haiMle  your  goods  in  it  until  of  a  bright  yellow  ;  then  take 
water  and  put  in  a  little  sulphate  of  indigo  ;  handle  your  goods  in  this 
till  of  the  shade  desired.  The  ebony  may  previously  be  boiled  in  a 
bag  to  prevent  it  sticking  to  the  silk. 

Bkown  on  Silk. — ^Dissolve  annatto  1  lb.,  pearlash  4  lbs.,  in  boiling 
water,  and  pass  the  silk  through  it  for  2  hours,  then  take  it  out, 
gqueeze  it  well  and  dry  ;  next  give  it  a  mordant  of  alum,  and  pass  it 
first  through  a  bath  of  Brazil-wood,  and  afterwards  through  a  bath 
of  logwood  to  which  a  little  green  copperas  has  been  added,  wring  it 
out  and  dry,  afterwards  rinse  well. 

Brown  Dye  on  Cotton  or  Linen.— Give  the  pieces  a  mixed 
mordant  of  acetate  of  alumina  and  acetate  of  iron,  and  then  dye  them 
in  a  bath  of  madder,  or  madder  and  fustic,  when  the  acetate  of 
alumina  predominates  the  dye  has  an  amaranth  tint.  A  cinnamon 
tint  is  obtained  by  first  givmg  a  mordant  of  alum,  then  a  madder 
bath,  then  a  bath  of  fustic,  to  which  a  little  green  copperas  has  been 
r.dded. 

MuLBERKY  ON  SiLK.— For  5  Ibs.  of  silk,  nse  alum  1  lb.  4  ozs.,  dip 
CO  mmutes,  wash  out,  aud  make  a  dye  with  Brazil-wood  5  ozs.,  and 
logwood  IJ  ozs.  by  boihng  together;  dip  in  this  \  hour,  then  add  more 
Brazil-wood  and  logwood,  equal  parts,  mitil  the  color  suits. 

Green  Dye  on  Wool  and  Silk. — Equal  quantities  of  yellow  oak 
and  hickory  bark,  make  a  uti'ong  yellow  bath  by  boiling,  shade  to  the 
desired  tint  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  extract  of  indigo. 

Orange  Dye. — For  40  lbs  of  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  2  lbs.,  boil 
15  minutes,  when  a  little  cool,  enter  the  goods,  and  dip  for  2  hours, 
wring  them  out,  make  a  fresh  dye  with  bi-chromate  of  potash,  4  lbs., 
madder  1  lb.,  immerse  until  of  the  desired  color.  The  shade  may  bo 
varied  by  dipping  in  lime  water. 

Blue  on  Cotton. — ^For401bs.  of  goods,  use  copperas  2  lbs.,  boil 
and  dip  20  minutes,  then  dip  in  soap  suds,  and  return  to  the  dye  3  or 
4  times  ;  then,  make  a  new  bath  with  prussiato  of  potash  \  lb.,  oil  of 
vitriol  li  pts. ;  boil  ^  hour,  rinse  out  and  dry. 

SOLFERINO  AND  MAGENTA  DyES  ON  WhITE  "WOOLLEN,  SiLK,  Olt 

Cotton  and  Woollen  Mixtures.— For  1  lb.  of  woollen  goods, 
Magenta  shade,  9G  grs.  apothecaries*  weight,  of  aniline  red,  will  bo 
required;  dissolve  in  a  little  warm  alcohol;  using  say  6  fluid  ozs.  of 
alcohol,  or  about  6  gills  alcohol  per  oz.  of  aniline.  Many  dyers  use 
wood  spirit  because  of  its  cheapness.  For  a  Solferino  shade,  use  04 
grs.  aniline  red,  dissolved  in  4  ozs.  alcohol,  to  each  1  lb.  of  goods. 
Cold  water  1  (ft.  will  dissolve  these  small  quantities  of  aniline  red, 
but  the  cleanest  and  quickest  way  will  be  found  by  using  the  alcohol, 
or  wood  spirit.  Clean  the  cloth  and  goods  by  steepiug  at  a  gentle 
heat  in  weak  soap  suds,  rinse  in  several  messes  of  clean  water  and  lay 
aside  moist.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  aniline  is  to  be  added  from  time 
to  time  to  the  warm  or  hot  dye  bath,  till  the  color  on  the  goods  is  of 
the  desired  shade.  The  goods  are  to  be  removed  from  the  dye  bath 
before  each  addition  of  the  alcoholic  solution,  and  the  bath  is  to  bo 


140 


DTKRS  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS. 


well  stirred  before  the  goods  nro  returned.  The  alcoholic  fiolution 
Kliould  bo  lii-st  dropped  into  a  little  -water,  and  avcII  mixed,  and  tlio 
juixturo  tiliould  tlicn  bo  .strained  into  tlio  dyo  batli.  If  tlio  color  it* 
jiot  darlv  enough  alter  working  from  20  to  30  minutes,  repeat  tlie  re- 
jnoval  of  tlic  goods  from  tho  batli,  and  the  addition  of  the  solution, 
and  tho  re-immersion  of  the  goods  from  15  to  30  minutes  more,  or  un- 
til suited,  then  remove  from  the  bath,  and  rinse  in  several  messes  of 
cle<'in  water,  and  dry  in  tlio  shade.  Use  about  4  gals,  water  for  d^-o- 
bath  for  1  lb.  of  goods;  less  wateu  for  larger  quantities. 

Liquid  Dyis  Coloes.— 1.  Blue,.  Dilute  Saxon  blue  or  sulphate  of 
indigo  with  water.  If  required  for  delicate  worlc,  neutralize  Avith 
chalk.  2.  Purple.  Add  a  little  alum  to  a  strained  decoction  of  log- 
wood. 3.  Green.  Dissolve  sap  green  in  Avater  and  add  a  little  alum. 
4.  Yellow.  Dissolve  aunatto  in  a  Aveak  \jq  of  subcarbonato  of  soda  or 
potiish.  5.  Golden  color.  Steep  French  berries  in  hot  Avater,  strain, 
and  add  a  little  gum  and  alum.  G.  Red.  Dissolve  carmine  in  am- 
monia, or  in  Aveak  carbonate  of  potash  water,  or  infuse  powdered 
cochineal  in  water,  strain,  and  add  a  little  gum  in  Avater.  The  pre- 
ceding colors,  thickened  with  a  little  gum,  may  be  used  as  inks  in 
writing,  or  as  colors  to  tint  maps,  foils,  artificial  flowers,  &c.,  or  to 
paint  on  velvet. 

■  To  Cleanse  Wooii. — Make  a  hot  bath  composed  of  water  4  parts, 
urine  1  part,  enter  the  wool,  teasing  and  opening  it  out  to  admit  the 
full  action  of  the  liquid  ;  after  20  minutes'  immersion,  remove  from 
the  liquid  and  alloAV  it  to  drain,  then  rinse  it  in  clean  running  water, 
and  spread  out  to  dry.  The  liquid  is  good  for  subsequent  operations, 
only  keep  up  the  proportions,  and  use  no  soap. 
1  STAEcn  Lustre. — A  portion  of  stearine,  the  size  of  an  old-fashioned 
cent,  added  to  starch  ^  half  lb.,  and  boiled  with  it  for  2  or  3  minutes 
Avill  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  Imen,  to  which  it  may  be  applied. 
See  nlso  Starch  Polish  under  the  Grocers'  Department. 

To  Dye  Hats. — The  hats  should  be  at  first  strongly  galled  by 
boiling  them  a  long  time  in  a  decoction  of  galls  with  a  little  logwood, 
that  the  dye  may  penetrate  the  better  into  their  substance  ;  after 
which  a  proper  quantity  of  vitriol  and  decoction  of  logwood,  with  a 
little  verdigris,  are  added,  and  the  hats  continued  in  this  mixture  for 
a  considerable  time.  They  are  afterwards  put  into  a  fresh  liquor  of 
logwood,  galls,  vitriol,  and  verdigris,  and,  Avhen  the  hats  are  of  great 
price,  or  of  a  hair  Avhich  with  difficulty  takes  the  dye,  the  same  pro- 
cess is  repeated  a  third  time.  For  obtaining  the  most  perfect  color, 
the  hair  or  Avool  is  dyed  blue  previously  to  its  being  formed  into 
hats. 

Chestxu^  Bkowk  ox  Straw  Bonxets. — For  25  hats,  use  groimd 
Sanders  1^^  lbs.,  ground  curcuma  2 lbs.,  powdered  gall  nuts,  or  sumac 
lb.,  rasped  logwood  -^-^  lb.  Boil  all  together  with  the  hats  in  a  large 
kettle  (so  as  not  to  croAvd),  for  2  hours,  then  withdraw  the  hats,  rinse, 
and  let  them  remain  overnight  in  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  4°  Baume,  when  ' 
they  are  Avashed.  A  darker  brown  maybe  obtained  by  increashig  the 
quantity  of  sanders.  To  give  the  hats  the  desired  lustre,  they  are 
brushed  with  a  brush  of  dog's  (couch)  grass,  when  dry. 

Violet  Dye  on  Straw  Bonnets. — Take  alum  4  lbs.,  tartaric 
acid  1  lb.,  chloride  of  tin  1  lb.    Dissolve  and  boil,  alioAV  the  liats  to 


I 


DYERS  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS.  141 


rcmrfin  iii  the  boiling  solution  2  hours,  then  add  as  much  of  a  decoction 
of  logwood  and  carmine  of  indigo  as  is  requisite  to  induce  the  desired 
shade,  and  lastly,  rinse  finally  in  water  in  which  some  alum  has  been 
dissolved. 

Silver  Grey  Dye  on  Straw. — For  25  hats,  select  your  whitest  hats 
and  soften  them  in  a  bath  of  crystallized  soda  to  which  some  clean 
lime  water  has  been  added.  See  "  Lime  loater"  below.  Boil  for  2 
hours  in  a  large  vessel,  using  for  a  bath  a  decoction  of  the  following, 
•viz. :  alum  4  lbs.,  tartaric  acid  §  lb.,  some  ammoniacal  cochineal,  and 
carmine  of  indigo ;  a  little  sulphuric  acid  Inay  be  necessary  in  order  to 
neutralize  the  alkali  of  the  cochineal,  dye.  If  the  last-mentioned 
ingredients  are  used,  let  the  hats  remain  for  an  hour  longer  in  the 
l)oiling  bath,  then  rinse  in  slightly  acidulated  Avater. 

LniE  Water  For  Dyers'  Use, — Put  stone  lime  1  lb.,  and  strong 
lime  w^ater  1^  lbs.  into  a  pail  of  water  ;  rummage  well  for  7  or  8 
minutes,  then  let  it  rest  until  the  lime  is  precipitated  and  the  water 
clear ;  add  this  quantity  to  a  tubf  ul  of  clear  water. 

Dark  Steel  Color. — Mix  black  and  white  wool  together  in  tho 
proportion  of  60  lbs.  of  black  wool  to  Ih,  lbs.  of  white.  For  large  or 
small  quantities  keep  the  same  proportion,  mixing  carefully  and 
thoroughly. 

To  Render  Amltne  Colors  Soluble  in  Water. — A  solution  of 
gelatine  in  acetic  acid  of  almost  the  consistence  of  syrups  is  first  made, 
and  the  aniline  in  fine  powder  is  gradually  added,  stirring  all  the  time 
so  as  to  make  a  homogeneous  paste.  The  mixture  is  then  to  be  heated 
over  a  water  bath  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  and  kept  at 
that  heat  for  some  time. 

Aniline  Green  on  Silk. — ^Iodine  green  or  night  green  dissolves 
easily  in  warm  water.  For  a  liquid  dye,  1  lb.  may  be  dissolved  in  1 
gal.  alcohol,  and  mixed  with  2  gals,  water,  containing  1  oz.  sulphuric 
acid. 

To  Dye  Aniline  Scarlet.— For  every  40  lbs.  of  goods,  dissolve 
5  lbs.  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc)  at  180°  Fah.,  place  the  goods 
into  this  bath  for  10  minutes,  then  add  the  color,  prepared  by  boiling 
lor  a  few  minutes,  1  lb.  aniline  scarlet  in  3  gals,  water,  stirring  the 
same  continually.  This  solution  has  to  be  filtered  before  being  add- 
ed to  the  bath.  The  goods  remain  in  the  latter  for  15  minutes,  when 
they  have  become  browned  and  must  be  boiled  for  another  half  hour 
in  the  same  bath  after  the  addition  of  sal-ammoniac.  The  more  of 
this  is  added  the  deeper  will  be  the  shade. 

;6iSMARCK  Brown  for  dyeing. — Mix  together  1  lb.  Bismarck,  5 
gals,  water,  and  |  lb.  sulphuric  acid.  This  paste  dissolves  easily  in 
hot  water  and  may  be  used  directly  for  dyeing,  A  liquid  dye  may- 
be prepared  by  making  the  bulk  of  the  above  mixture,  to  2  gals,  with 
alcohol.  To  dye  with  the  above  mixture,  sour  with  sulphuric  acid ; 
add  a  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda,  immerse  the  wool,  and  add  the 
color  by  small  portions,  keeping  the  temperature  under  212°  Fah. 
Very  mteresting  shades  may  be  developed  by  combuiing  the  color 
with  indigo  paste  or  picric  acid. 

To  Dye  Wool  with  Aniline  Green. — ^For  wool,  prepare  two 
baths,  one  containing  the  dissolved  dye  and  a  quantity  of  carbonate 
of  soda  or  borax.  La  this  the  wool  is  placed,  and  the  temperature  ig 
raised  to  212°  Fah.   A  greyish  green  is  produced,  which  must  be 


142 


DYEIIS  AND  bleachers'  KECEIPTS. 


brightened  and  fixed  in  a  second  bath  of  -n-atcr  100°  Fah.,  to  whirh 
Borao  acetic  acid  has  been  added.  Cotton  requires  preparation  by 
Buniac. 

Anilike  Bluk.— To  100  lbs.  of  fabric  dissolve  IJ  lbs.  anihne 
blue  in  3  qts.  liot  alcohol ;  strain  througli  a  filter  and  add  it  to  a 
bath  of  130"  Fah.  ;  also  10  lbs.  glauber  salts,  and  5  lbs.  acetic  acid. 
Enter  the  goods  and  handle  them  well  for  20  mimites  ;  next  heat  it 
slowly  to  200°  Fah.  ;  then  add  5  lbs.  sulphnric  acid  dilated  with  water. 
Let  the  whole  boil  20  minutes  longer ;  then  rinse  and  dry.  If  tho 
aniline  be  added  in  two  or  three  proportions  during  the  process  of 
coloring,  it  will  facilitate  the  evenness  of  the  color. 

Akiline  Red. — Enclose  the  aniline  in  a  small  muslin  bag ;  have  a 
kettle  (tin  or  brass)  filled  with  moderately  hot  water  and  rub  the  sub- 
stance out.  Then  immerse  the  goods  to  be  colored,  and  in  a  shoi-t 
time  they  arc  doie.  It  improves  tho  color  to  wring  the  goods  out  of 
strong  soap  suds  before  putting  them  hi  the  dye.  Tliis  is  a  permanent 
color  on  wool  or  silk. 

Aniline  Violet  and  PuurLE.— Acidulate  the  bath  by  sulphuric 
ncid,  or  use  sulphate  of  soda  ;  both  these  substances  render  the  shade 
bluish.  Dye  at  212°  Fah.  To  give  a  fair  middle  shade  to  10  lbs.  of 
wool,  a  quantity  of  solution  equal  to  I2  to  |  ozs.  of  the  solid  dye  will  bo 
required.  The  color  of  the  dyed  fabric  is  improved  by  washing  in  soap 
nnd  water,  and  then  passing  through  a  bath  soured  by  sulphuric  acid. 

Aniline  Black  for  DzEiNr:. — ^\Vater  20  to  30  parts,  chlorate  of 
potassa  1  part ;  sal-ammoniac  1  part ;  chloride  of  copi^er  1  part ; 
anilme  hydrochloric  acid,  of  each  1  part,  previously  mixed  together. 
It  is  essential  that  the  preparation  should  be  acid,  and  the  more  acid 
it  is  the  more  rapid  Avill  be  the  i)roductiou  of  the  blacks;  if  too  much 
£0,  it  may  injure  the  fabric. 

New  Mokdant  for  Aniline  Colors. — Immerse  tho  goods  for 
some  hours  in  a  bath  of  cold  water  in  which  chloride  or  acetate  of 
zinc  has  been  dissolved  until  the  solution  shows  2°  Baume  ;  for  tho 
wool  the  mordanting  bath  should  be  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  the  goods 
should  also  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  of  tannin,  00°  Fah.,  for  half  an 
liour.  In  dyeing,  a  hot  solution  of  tho  color  must  be  used  to  which 
should  be  added,  in  the  case  of  the  cotton,  some  chloride  of  zinc, 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  wool,  a  certain  amount  of  tannin  solution. 

To  DrE  Aniline  Yellow. — This  color  is  slightly  soluble  in 
water,  and  for  dyers'  use  may  be  used  directly  for  the  preparation  of 
the  bath  dye,  but  is  best  used  by  dissolviug'  1  lb.  of  dye  in  2  gals, 
alcohol.  Temperature  of  bath  should  be  under  200°  Fah.  The  color 
is  much  improved  and  brightened  by  a  trace  of  sulphuric  acid. 

To  DrE  with  Alkali  Blue  and  Nicholson's  Blue.— Dissolve  1 
lb.  of  the  dye  in  10  gals,  boiling  water,  add  this  by  small  portions  to 
the  dye  bath,  which  should  be  rendered  alkahne  by  borax.  The 
fabric  should  be  well  worked  about  between  each  addition  of  the 
color.  The  temperature  must  be  kept  xmder  212°  Fah.  To  develop  - 
the  color,  wash  with  water  and  pass  through  a  bath  containing  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Aniline  Brown  Dye. — Dissolve  1  lb.  of  the  brown  in  2  gals,  of 
spirit,  specific  gravity  8200,  add  a  suliicient  quantity  to  the  dye  bath, 
and  immerse  the  fabric.  Wool  possesses  a  very  strong  afiQiiity  £ot 
this  color  and  no  mordant  is  required. 


DYERS  AND  BLEACHERS*  RECEIPTS.  143 

To  Extract  Oil  Spots  feosi  Fikished  Goods. — Saturate  tne  spot 
■with  ■benzine,  then  place  two  pieces  of  very  soft  blotting  pai^er  under 
and  two  upon  it,  press  well  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  grease  will  bo 
absorbed. 

To  Preserve  Goods  and  Clothing  from  Mildew.— Alum,  2 lbs,, 
dissolved  in  CO  lbs.  water  ;  blue  vitriol,  2  lbs.,  dissolved  in  8  lbs.  of 
water  ;  to  which  is  added  gelatine  1  lb.,  dissolved  in  30  lbs.  of  water ; 
acetate  of  lead,  ^  lb.  dissolved  in  30  lbs.  of  water.  The  solutions  are 
all  hot,  and  separately  mixed,  with  the  exception  of  the  vitriol,  which 
is  added. 

To  Bleach  Peathers.— Place  the  feathers  from  3  to  4  hours  in  a 
tepid  dilute  solution  of  bi-chromato  of  potassa,  to  which,  cautiously, 
some  nitric  acid  has  been  added  (a  small  quantity  only).  To  remove 
a  greenish  hue  induced  by  this  solution,  place  them  in  a  dilute  so- 
lution of  sulphuric  acid,  in  water,  whereby  the  leathers  become 
perfectly  white  and  bleached. 

To  Clean  Straw  Bonnets. — First,  brush  them  with  soap  and 
water,  then  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 

Crimson. — For  1  lb.  of  silk,  alum,  3  oz. ;  dip  at  hand-heat,  1  hour; 
take  out  and  drain,  while  makuig  a  new  dye,  by  lolling,  10  minutes, 
cochineal,  3  oz. ;  brused  nut-galls,  2  oz, ;  and  cream  of  tartar,  ^  oz.,  ia 
one  pail  of  water;  when  a  little  cool,  begin  to  dip,  raising  the  heat  to 
a  boil,  continuing,  to  dip  1  hour  ;  wash,  and  dry. 

CiNNAJNiON  OB  Brown  ON  CoTTON  AND  SiLK, — Give  the  goods  as 
much  color,  from  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  2  oz.,  to  water,  one  gal,,  as 
it  will  take  Pip  in  dippuig  15  minutes;  then  run  it  through  lime-water; 
this  will  make  a  beautiful  sky-blue  of  much  durability;  it  has  now 
to  be  run  through  a  solution  of  jmissiate  of  potash,  1  oz.,  to  water, 
1  gal. 

Aniline  Black  on  Silk  or  Cotton. — ^Water,  20  to  30  parts,- 
chlorate  of  potassa,  Ijiart;  sal-ammoniac,  Ipart;  chloride  of  copper, 
1  part;  aniline,  1  part;  and  hydrocloric,  1  part;  previously  mixed 
together.  The  fabric  or  yarn  is  dried  in  ageing  rooms  at  a  low  tem- 
perature for  24  hours,  and  washed  afterwards. 

To  Color  Straw  Hats  or  Bonnets  a  Beautiful  Slate. — 
First,  soak  the  bonnet  in  rather  strong  warm  ends  for  15  minutes  to 
remove  sizing  or  stiffening;  then  rinse  in  warm  water,  to  get  out  the 
soap;  now  scald  cudbear,  1  oz.,»in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  hat  or 
boimet;  work  the  boimet  in  this  dye,  at  180°  of  heat,  until  you  get  a 
light-purple,  now  have  a  bucket  of  cold-water,  blued  with  the  extract 
of  indigo,  ^oz.,  and  work  or  stir  the  bomiet  in  this,  until  tlie  tint 
pleases;  dry,  then  rinse  out  with  cold  water,  and  dry  again  in  the 
shade.  If  you  get  the  purple  too  deep  in  shade  the  final  slate  will  bo 
too  dark. 

To  Clean  Ostrich  Feathers.— Cut  some  white  curd  soap  in 
email  pieces,  pour  boiling  water  on  them  and  add  a  little  pearl  ash. 
"When  the  soap  is  quite  dissolved,  and  the  mixture  cool  enough  for 
the  hand  to  bear,  plunge  the  feathers  into  it,  and  draw  them  through 
the  hand  till  the  dirt  appears  squeezed  out  of  them,  pass  them  through 
a  clean  lather  with  some  blue  in  it,  then  rinse  them  in  cold  water  with 
blue  to  give  them  a  good  color.  Beat  them,  against  the  hand  to  shake 
off  the  water,  and  dry  by  shaking  them  near  a  fire.  When  perfectly 
dry,  coil  each  fibre  separately  with  9t  blunt  knife,  or  ivory  folder. 


DYER3  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS. 


To  Ct.tian  Ferns. — For  dark  furs;  warm  n  quantity  of  new  bran  in 
n  pan,  talcinjj  care  tliat  it  docs  not  burn,  to  prevent  whicli  it  inuHt  bo 
bri.slcly  stirred.  AVhcn  well  warmed  rub  it  tliorouglily  into  tlie  fur 
witli  the  liand.  Repeat  thin  two  or  tlirec  times,  then  shake  the  fur, 
and  give  it  another  sharp  brusliing  until  free  from  dust.  For  while 
furs;  lay  them  on  a  table,  and  rub  well  Avitli  bran  made  moist  with 
•warm  water,  rub  until  quite  dry,  and  afterwards  with  dry  bran,  Tho 
wet  bran  should  be  put  on  with  flannel,  tlien  dry  with  book  nmslin. 
Light  furs,  in  addition  to  the  above,  should  be  Avell  rubbed  with  mag- 
nesia or  a  piece  of  book  muslin,  after  tho  bran  process,  against  tlio 
way  of  tho  fur. 

Washing  Fluid.— Take  1  lb.  sal  soda,  ^  lb.  good  stone  lime,  and  5 
qts.  of  water;  boilasliort  time,  let  it  settle,  and  i)our  off  tho  clear 
fluid  into  a  stone  jug,  and  cork  for  use;  soak  your  white  clothes  over 
night  in  simple  water,  wring  out  and  soap  wristbands,  collars,  and 
dirty  or  stained  places;  have  your  boiler  half  filled  with  water  just 
bogiuuiug  to  boil,  then  put  in  one  common  teacupf  ul  of  fluid,  stir  and 
put  in  your  clothes,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  then  rub  lightly  through 
one  suds  only,  and  all  is  complete. 

Chip  or  Straw  Hats  or  Bonnets  may  be  dyed  black  by  boiling 
'  them  three  or  four  hours  in  a  strong  liquor  of  logwood,  adding  a  littro 
copperas  occasionally.  Let  tlie  bonnets  remain  in  the  liquor  all  night ; 
then  take  out  to  dry' in  the  air.  If  the  black  is  not  satisfactory,  dyo 
again  after  drying.  Rub  inside  and  out  with  a  sponge  moistened  in 
fine  oil;  then  block.  Red  Dye. — Boil  ground  Brazil-wood  in  a  ley  of 
potash,  and  boil  your  straw  hats,  &c. ,  in  it.  Blue  Dye. — Take  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  potash  ley,  1  lb.  of  litmus  or  lacmus,  gTound ;  mako 
a  decoction  and  then  put  in  the  straw,  and  boil  it. 

DrES  FOR  Hats. — ^The  ordinary  bath  for  dyeing  hats,  employed  by 
the  London  manufactures,  consists,  for  twelve  dozen,  of  144:  ibs.  of 
logwood;  12  lbs.  of  green  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas;  7J  lbs.  verdi- 
gris. The  logwood  having  been  introduced  into  the  copper,  and 
digested  for  some  time,  the  copperas  and  verdigris  are  added  in  suc- 
cessive quantities,  and  in  the  above  proportions,  along  with  every 
successive  two  or  three  dozens  of  hats  suspended  upon  the  dripping 
machine.  Each  set  of  hats,  after  being  exposed  to  the  bath  with 
occasional  airings  during  forty  minutes,  is  taken  off  the  pegs,  and  laid 
out  upon  the  ground  to  be  more  completely  blackened  by  tho  peroxy- 
dizement  of  the  iron  with  the  atmospheric  oxygen.  In  three  or  four 
liours,  the  dyeing  is  completed.  "When  fully  dyed,  tho  hats  are  well 
washed  in  running  water. 

Waterproof  Stiffening  for  Hats. — Islrx  18  lbs.  of  shellac  with 
1\  lb.  of  salt  of  tartar  (carbonate  of  potash),  and  5^  gals,  water.  These 
materials  are  to  be  put  in  a  kettle,  and  made  to  boil  gradually  till 
the  lac  is  dissolved,  when  the  liquid  will  become  as  clear  as  water, 
without  any  scum  upon  tiie  top,  and  if  left  to  cool,  will  have  a  thin 
crust  upon  the  surface,  of  whitish  cast,  mixed  witli  the  light  impuri- 
ties of  the  gum.  When  this  skin  is  taken  off,  the  hat  body  is  to  bo' 
dipped  into  the  mixture  in  a  cold  state,  so  as  to  absorb  as  much  as 
possible  of  it;  or  it  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  The  hat 
Dody,being thus stiffened,ma3'^ stand tillit becomes  dry,  ornearlyso;  and 
after  it  has  been  brushed,  it  must  be  immersed  in  very  dilute  sulphuric 
or  acetic  acid,  in  order  to  neutralize  the  potash,  and  cause  the  shellac 


DTER3  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS,  145 

to  set.  If  the  hats  are'iiot  to  bo  napped  immediately,  they  may  bo 
thrown  into  a  cistern  of  pure  water,  and  taken  out  as  wanted. 

Method  op  Bleaching  Stkaw. — Dip  the  straw  in  a  solution  of 
oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  saturated  with  potash.  (Oxygenated 
muriate  of  lime  is  much  cheaper).  The  straw  is  thus  rendered  very 
white,  and  its  flexibility  is  increased. 

Bleaching  Straw  Goods. — Straw  is  bleached  by  simply  exposing 
it  in  a  closed  chamber  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  an  old  iiour 
barrel  is  the  apparatus  most  used  for  the  purpose  by  milliners,  a  flat 
stone  being  laid  on  the  ground,  the  gulphur  ignited  thereon,  imd  tlio 
barrel  containing  the  goods  to  be  bleached  turned  over  it.  The  goods 
should  be  previously  washed  in  pure  water. 

Vaenish  for  faded  Rubber  Goods. — Black  Japan  varnish  dilu- 
ted with  a  little  linseed  oil. 

To  Bleach  Linen. — Mix  common  bleachlng-powder,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  lb.  to  a  gallon  of  water;  stir  it  occasionally  for  three  days, 
let  it  settle,  and  pour  it  off  clear.  Then  make  a  ley  or  lib.  of  soda  to 
1  gallon  of  boiling  soft  water,  in  which  soak  the  linen  for  13  hours, 
and  boil  it  half  an  hour;  next  soak  it  in  the  bleaching  liquor,  made  as 
above;  and  lastly,  wash  it  in  the  usual  maimer.  Discolored  linen  or 
muslm  may  be  restored  by  i)uttmg  a  portion  of  bleaching  liquor  into 
the  tub  wherein  the  articles  are  soalmig. 

Dye  for  Feathers. — Dlach :  Immerse  for  2  or  3  days  in  a  bath, 
at  first  hot,  of  logwood,  8  parts,  and  copperas  or  acetate  of  iron, 
1  part.  Blue :  with  the  indigo  vat.  Broion :  by  using  any  of  tho 
brown  dyes  for  silk  or  woollen.  Crimson :  a  mordant  of  alum,  fol- 
lowed by  a  hot  bath  of  Brazil  wood,  afterwards  by  a  weak  dye  of 
cudbear.  Pink  or  Rose:  with  saf -flower  or  lemon  juice.  P'kmi: 
"vvith  the  red  dye,  followed  by  an  alkaline  bath.  Red :  a  mordant  of 
alum,  followed  by  a  bath  of  Brazil-wood.  Yelloio :  a  mordant  of 
alum,  followed  by  a  bath  of  turmeric  or  weld.  Green  Bye.  Take  of 
verdigris  and  verditer,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  gum  water,  1  pt.  ;  mix  them 
well  and  dip  the  feathers,  they  having  been  first  soaked  in  hot  water, 
into  the  said  mixture.  For  Purple,  use  lake  and  indigo.  For  Car- 
nation, vermilion  and  smalt.  Thin  gum  or  starch  water  should  bo 
used  in  dying  feathers. 

Colors  fob  Artificial  Flowers.— The  French  employ  velvet, 
fine  cambric  and  Md  for  the  petals,  and  taffeta  for  the  leaves.  Very 
irecently  thin  plates  of  dZeac/iecZ  whalebone  have  been  used  for  soma 
portions  of  the  artificial  flowers.  Colors  and  Stains.  Blue. — Indigo 
dissolved  in  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the  acid  partly  neutralized  with  salt  of 
tartar  or  whiting.  Green.— A.  solution  of  distilled  verdigris.  Lilac. — 
Liquid  archil.  Red. — Carmine  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  salt  of  tar- 
tar, or  in  spirits  of  hartshorn.  Violet. — Liquid  archil  mixed  with  a 
little  salt  of  tartar.  Yellow. — Tincture  of  turmeric.  The  colors  aro 
generally  applied  with  the  fingers. 

Black  Varnish  fob  Chip  and  Straw  Hats. — Best  alcohol, 
4  oz.  ;  pulverized  black  sealing-wax,  1  oz.  ;  put  them  into  a  i^hial, 
and  put  the  p>hial  into  a  warm  \A.a,ce,  stirring  or  shaking  occasionally 
until  the  wax  is  dissolved.  Apply  it  when  Avarm  before  the  fire  or 
in  the  sun.   This  makes  a  beautiful  gloss. 

Easy  Method  of  preventing  Moths  in  Furs  or  Woollens. 
—Sprinkle  tho  furs  or  wooUen  stuffs,  as  well  as  tho  drawers  or  boxes 

^    '  ~   10  -   


14G 


DYERS  AND  BLEACITEKS'  RECEIPTS. 


in  wliicli  they  aro  kept,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  the  unplcnsant 
scent  of  whicli  will  Hpeedily  evaporate  on  exposure  of  the  stuffs  to 
tlie  air.  Some  persons  place  sheets  of  paper  moistened  with  spirits 
of  turpentine,  over,  under,  or  between  pieces  of  cloth,  &c.,  and  lind 
it  a  very  effectual  method.  Many  woollen  drapers  put  bits  of  cam- 
phor, tlie  size  of  a  nutmeg,  in  papers,  on  different  parts  of  the  shelves 
m  their  shops,  and  as  they  brush  their  cloths  every  two,  tiiree  or  four 
months,  this  keeps  them  free  from  moths  :  and  tl'iis  should  be  done 
hi  boxes  where  the  furs,  &c.,  aro  put.  A  talloAV  candle  is  frequently 
put  within  each  muff  when  laid  by.    Snuff  or  pepper  is  very  good. 

Clothing  Renovator.— Soft  water,  1  gal.  ;  malce  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  logwood  by  boiling  the  extract  with  the  water.  Strain,  when 
cool,  add  2  oz.  gum  arable  hi  i)Owder  ;  bottle,  cork  Avell,  and  set  aside 
for  use  ;  clean  the  coat  well  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  apply  tho 
above  liquid  with  a  sponge  evenly.  Dilute  to  suit  the  color,  and 
hang  in  the  shade  to  dry  ;  afterwards  brush  the  nap  smooth,  and  it 
will  look  like  new. 

WATERrROOF  FOR  ToROUS  Cloth.— Dissoivo  2^  lbs.  alum  in 
4  gals,  water  ;  dissolve  also  in  a  separate  vessel  the  same  weight  of 
acetate  of  lead  in  the  same  quantity  of  water,  AVhen  both  are  well 
dissolved,  mix  the  solutions  together  ;  and,  when  the  sulphate  of  lead 
resulting  from  this  mixture  has  been  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  ui  the  form  of  a  powder,  pour  off  the  solution,  and  plunge 
into  it  the  fabric  to  be  rendered  waterproof.  Wash  and  rub  it  well 
during  a  few  minutes,  and  hang  it  m  the  air  to  dry. 

To  Remove  Grease. — Aqua  ammonia,  2  oz.  ;  soft  water,  1  quart  ; 
saltpetre,  1  teaspoonful ;  shaving  soap  in  shavings,  1  oz.  ;  mix 
altogether  ;  dissolve  the  soap  well,  and  any  grease  or  dirt  that  caimot 
be  removed  with  this  preparation,  nothing  else  need  be  tried  for  it. 

Waterproofing  for  Clothing. — Boiled  oil,  15  lbs.  ;  bees-wax, 

1  lb.  ;  ground  litharge,  13  lbs.  ;  mix  and  apply  with  a  brush  to  tho 
article,  previously  stretched  against  a  wall  or  a  table,  previously  well 
washing  and  drying  each  article  before  applying  the  composition. 

To  Renew  Old  Silks. — Unravel  and  piit  tliem  in  a  tub,  cover 
thcOT  with  cold  water,  let  them  remain  one  liour  ;  dip  them  up  and 
dovm,  but  do  not  wrmg  ;  hang  up  to  dram,  and  iron  while  very 
damp,  and  they  will  look  beautiful. 

Dyes  for  Furs. — For  black,  use  the  hair  dye  described  in  these 
receipts.  Broicn,  use  tincture  of  logwood.  Jled,  ground  Brazil- 
wood, ^  lb.  ;  water,  1^  quarts  ;  cochineal,  ^  oz. ;  boil  the  Brazil-wood 
in  the  water  one  hour  ;  strain  and  add  the  cochineal  ;  boil  fifteen 
minutes.  Scarlet  color,  boil  ^  oz.  saffron  hi  ^  pint  of  water,  and  pass 
over  the  work  before  applyuig  tho  red.  Blue,  logwood,  7  oz.  ;  blue 
vitriol,  1  oz.  ;  water,  22  oz.  ;  boil.  Purple,  logwood,  11  oz.  ;  alum, 
G  oz.  ;  water,  29  oz.    Green,  strong  vinegar,  1^  pints  ;  best  verdigris, 

2  oz.  ;  groimd  fine  ;  sap  green,  J  oz. ,;  mix  allltogether  and  boil. 
Potter's  Invisible  VVaterproofing. — Imbue  the  cloth  on  tho 

wrong  side  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  alum,  and  soap  dissolved  in 
■water,  forming  an  emulsion  of  a  milky  thickness  ;  apply  with  a 
l)rush,  rubbing  in  well.  AVhen  dry,  it  is  brushed  on  the  wrong  sido 
against  the  grain,  and  then  gone  over  with  a  brush  dipped  in  water  * 
afterwards  brushed  downi  smooth. 
To  KAisE  A  Nap  on-  Cloth.— Clean  tho  article  well ;  soak  it  in 


MEDICAL  DErARTMENT. 


147 


cold  water  for  half  an  hour  ;  ptit  it  on  a  board,  and  rub  the  thread- 
bare parts  Avith  a  half--\torn  hatter's  card  filled  Avith  flocks,  or  with  a 
teazle  or  a  prickly  thistle  until  a  nap  is  raised  ;  then  lay  the  nap  the 
right  way  with  a  hatter's  brush,  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

Black  Reviver  fou  Cloth. — Bruised  galls,  1  lb.  ;  logwood, 
2  lbs.  ;  green  vitriol,  -J  lb.  ;  water,  5  quarts  ;  boil  two  hours  ;  strain, 
and  it  is  ready  for  use". 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  &o. 

Rules  for  Action,  very  Short  but  vert  Safe.— In  health 
and  disease  endeavor  always  to  live  on  the  sunny  side.  Sir  James 
Wylie,  late  physician  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  remarked  during 
long  observation  in  the  hospitals  of  that  country,  that  the  cases  of  death 
occurring  ui  rooms  averted  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  were  four  times 
more  numerous  than  the  fatal  cases  in  the  rooms  exposed  to  the  di- 
i-ect  action  of  the  solar  rays.  When  poison  is  swallowed,  a  good  off- 
liand  remedy  is  to  mix  salt  and  mustard,  1  heaped  teaspoonful  of 
each,  in  a  glass  of  water  and  drinlc  immediately.  It  is  quick  in  its 
operation.  Then  give  the  whites  of  2  eggs  in  a  cup  of  coffee,  or  the 
eggs  alone  if  coffee  camiot  be  had.  For  acid  poisons  give  acids.  In 
cases  of  opium  poisoning,  give  strong  coffee  and  keep  moving. 
For  light  burns  or  scalds,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water  or  in  flour,  if  the 
skin  is  destroyed,  cover  with  varnish.  If  yon  fall  into  the  water,  float 
on  the  back,  with  the  nose  and  month  projecting.  For  apoplexy, 
raise  the  head  and  body  ;  for  faintmg,  lay  the  person  flat.  Suck  pois- 
oned wounds,  nnless  your  month  is  sore.  Enlarge  the  Avomid,  or  better 
cut  out  the  part  without  delay,  cauterize  it  with  caustic,  the  end  of  a 
cigar  or  a  hot  coal.  If  an  artery  is  cut,  compress  above  the  wound ;  if 
a  vein  is  cut,  compress  below.  If  choked,  get  upon  all-fours  and 
cough.  Before  i)assing  through  smoke  take  a  full  breath,  stoop  low, 
then  go  ahead  ;  but  if  you  fear  carbonic  acid  gas,  walk  erect  and  be 
careful.  Smother  a  fire  with  blankets  or  carpets ;  water  tends  to  spread 
burning  oil  and  increase  the  danger.  Remove  dust  from  the  eyes 
"by  dashing  water  into  them,  and  avoid  rubbing.  Remove  cinders,  &c., 
■with  a  soft,  smooth  wooden  point.  Preserve  health  and  avoid  catchmg 
cold,  bv  regular  diet,  healthy  food  and  cleanliness.  Sir  Astley  Cooper 
said:  "The  methods  by  which  I  have  preserved  my  own  health,  are 
temperance,  early  rising,  and  sponging  the  body  every  morning  with 
cold  water,  immediately  after  getting  out  of  bed  ;  a  practice  which  I 
have  adopted  for  30  years  without  ever  catching  cold."  Water  di- 
luted with  2  per  cent.  o"f  carbolic  acid  will  disinfect  any  room  or  build- 
ing, if  liberally  nsed  as  a  sprinkle.  Diphtheria  can  be  cured  by  a  gar- 
gle of  lemon  juice,  swallowing  a  little  so  as  to  reach  all  the  affected 
parts.  To  avert  cold  from  the  feet,  wear  two  pairs  of  stockings  made 
from  different  fabrics,  one  pair  of  cotton  or  silk,  the  other  of  wool,  and 
the  natural  heat  of  the  feet  will  be  preserved  if  the  feet  are  kept  clean. 
In  arranging  sleeping  rooms  the  soundest  and  most  refreshmg  slum- 
"ber  will  be  enjoyed  when  the  head  is  towards  the  north.    Late  hours 


H. 


148  MEDICAL  DErARTMENT,  ETC. 

and  iinxious  pnrsnitg  exhauHt  vitality,  producing  disease  and  prem- 
ature death,  tliercfore  tlio  lioiirs  of  labour  and  study  should  bo  sliort. 
Take  al^undant  exercise  and  recreation.  Bo  moderate  in  eating  and 
drinking,  using  simple  and  i^lain  diet  avoiding  strong  drink,  tobacco, 
snul'f,  opium  and  every  excess.  Keep  tlio  body  Avarm,  tlie  temper 
calm,  serene  and  placid  ;  slaui  idleness  ;  if  your  liands  cannot  l)0  \iso- 
fuUy  employed,  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  your  minds.  For  puro 
hcaltli  giving  fresh  air,  go  to  tho  country.  Dr.  Stockton  Hough  as- 
serts that  if  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Avoiid  wcro  living  in  cities  of  tho 
magnitude  of  London,  tho  human  raco  Avould  become  extinct  in  a 
century  or  two.  Tiio  mean  average  of  liuman  life  in  the  United  States 
is  3S)j:  years,  while  in  New  Yorlc  and  I'liiladelphia  it  is  only  23  years  ; 
about  50  per  cent,  of  tho  deaths  in  those  cities  being  of  cliiidren  un- 
der five  years  of  age.  A  great  percentage  of  this  excessive  mortality 
is  caused  by  bad  air  and  bad  food. 

To  ASCERTAIN  THE  Statb  OF  THH  Luxc.s. — Draw  iu  as  much 
breath  as  you  conveniently  can,  then  count  as  long  as  possible  in  a 
slowand  audible  voice  without  drawing  in  more  breath.  The  number 
'(  of  seconds  must  be  carefally  noted,  in  a  consumptive  the  time  doe.n 
not  exceed  10,  and  is  frequently  less  than  (5  seconds  ;  in  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia  it  ranges  from  9  to  4  seconds.  AVhen  the  lungs  are  sound 
the  time  will  range  as  high  as  from  20  to  35  seconds.  To  expand, 
tho  lungs,  go  into  the  air,  vStand  erect,  throw  back  the  head  and 
choulders,  and  draw  in  the  air  through  the  nostrils  as  mucli  as  possible. 

After  iiaving  then  filled  the  lungs,  raise  your  arms,  still  extended, 
and  suck  in  the  air.  When  you  have  thus  forced  the  arms  backward, 
with  tlie  chest  open,  change  the  process  by  which  you  draw  iu  your 
breath,  till  the  lungs  are  emptied.  Go  through  the  process  several 
times  a  day,  and  it  will  enlarge  the  chest,  give  the  lungs  better  play, 
and  serve  very  much  to  ward  off  consumption. 

Kemedy  for  NEURAi^GtA. — Ilypophospliito  of  soda  taken  in  1 
dram  doses  3  times  per  day  in  beef  tea  is  a  good  remedy  for  this 
painful  affection.  So  is  tlio  application  of  bruised  horse-radish,  or 
the  application  of  oil  of  peppermint  applied  lightly  with  a  camel  hair 
pencil. 

Remedy  for  Headache. — A  Parisian  physician  has  published  a 
new  remedy  for  headaches.  Ho  uses  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  in 
proportion  of  one  to  one-half,  as  a  cold  mixture,  and  this  he  applies 
by  means  of  a  little  purse  of  sillc  gauze,  with  a  rim  of  gutta  percha,  to 
limited  spots  on  the  head,  when  rheumatic  headaches  aro  felt.  It 
gives  instantaneous  relief.  The  application  is  from  ^  minute  to  1^ 
minutes,  and  the  skin  is  rendered  white  and  hard  by  the  applications. 

To  Cure  a  Cold. — Before  retiring  soak  the  feet  in  mustard  water 
as  hot  as  can  be  endured,  the  feet  siiould  at  first  be  plunged  in  a  pail 
lialf  full  of  Inkewarm  water,  adding  by  degrees  very  hot  water  until 
t!ie  desired  heat  is  attained,  protectmg  the  body  and  knees  with 
blankets  so  to  direct  the  vapor  from  the  water  as  to  induce  a  good 
sweat.  Next,  to  2  table  spoonfuls  of  boiling  water,  add  1  table  spoonful 
of  wliite  sugar  and  14  drops  of  strong  spirits  of  camphor.  Drink  tho 
whole  and  cuddle  in  bed  under  plenty  of  bedclothes  and  sleep  it  off. 

ResYedy  for  CoNSUiMPTiON. — Tlio  following  is  said  to  be  an  effectual 
remedy,  and  will  in  time  completely  cure  the  disorder.  Live  temper- 
ately, avoid  spirituous  liquors,  wear  flannel  next  the  skin,  and  tako, 


0 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  149 

every  morning,  half  a  pint  of  nevr  milk,  mixed  with  a  wine  glassful 
of  the  expressed  j  nice  of  green  horehound.  One  who  has  tried  it  says, 
*'  Four  weeks'  use  of  the  horehound  and  milk  relieved  the  pains  of  my 
breast,  gave  me  ability  to  breathe  deep,  long  and  free,  strengthened 
and  harmonized  my  voice  and  restored  ine  to  a  better  state  of  health 
than  I  had  enjoyed  for  years." 

Trichina  is  the  term  applied  to  a  minute,  slender,  and  transparent 
worm,  scarcely  l-20th  of  an  inch  in  length,  which  has  recently  been 
discovered  to  exist  naturally  in  the  muscles  of  swme,  and  is  frequently 
transferred  to  the  human  stomach  when  pork  is  used  as  food.  Enough 
of  these  filthy  parasites  have  been  detected  in  half  a  pound  of  pork 
to  engender  30,000,000  more,  the  females  being  very  prolific,  each  giv- 
ing birth  to  from  GO  to  100  young,  and  dying  soon  after.  'The  young 
thread-like  worm  at  first  ranges  freely  through  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines, remaining  for  a  short  time  within  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
intestines,  causing  irritation,  diarrhoea,  and  sometimes  death,  if 
present  in  sufiicient  numbers.  As  they  become  stronger,  they  begin 
to  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  intestines  in  order  to  effect  a  lodgment  in 
-the  voluntary  muscles,  causing  intense  muscular  pain  and  severe  en- 
during cramps,  and  sometimes  tetanic  symptons.  After  4  weeks  migra- 
tion they  encyst  themselves  permanently  on  the  muscular  fibre,  and 
■begin  to  secrete  a  delicate  sac  which  gradually  becomes  calcareous. 
In  this  torpid  state  they  remain  during  the  person's  lifetime. 

Remedy  for  Diphtheria. — ^The  treatment  consists  m  thoroughly 
swabbing  the  back  of  the  mouth  and  throat  with  a  wash  made  thus  : 
Table  salt,  2  drams ;  black  pepper,  golden  seal,  nitrate  of  potash, 
alum,  1  dram  each  ;  mix  and  pulverize  ;  put  into  a  teacup  half  full  of 
water ;  stir  well,  and  then  fiU.  up  with  good  vinegar.  Use  every  half 
liour,  one,  two,  and  four  hours,  as  recovery  progresses.  The  patient 
3nay  swallow  a  little  each  time.  Apply  1  oz.  each  of  spirits  turpentine, 
sweet  oil,  and  aqua-ammonia,  mixed,  every  hour  to  the  whole  of  the 
throat,  and  to  the  breast  bono  every  four  hours,  keeping  flannel  to 
the  part. 

IlOLLO way's  Ointment  and  PiT.iiS. — Butter,  22  oz.  ;  beeswax,  3 
oz.  ;  yellow  rosin,  3  oz.  ;  melt ;  add  vinegar  of  cantharides,  1  oz.  ; 
evaporate  ;  and  add  Canada  balsam,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  mace,  ^  dram ; 
balsam  of  Peru,  15  drops.  Pills :  Aloes,  4  parts  ;  myrrh,  jalap,  and 
ginger,  of  each  2  jmrts  ;  mucilage  to  mix. 

Abernethy's  PILI.S.— Each  pill  contains  2  grains  of  blue  pill  and 
S  grains  compound  extract  of  colocynth. 

Worm  Lozenges. — Powdered  lump  sugar,  10  oz.  ;  starcn  6  oz.  ; 
jnix  with  mucilage ;  and  to  every  ounce  add  12  grains  calomel : 
divide  in  20  grain  lozenges.   Dose,  two  to  six. 

Soothing  Syrup. — Alcohol,  oil  of  peppermint,  castor  oil,  of  each, 
1  oz.  ;  mix  ;  add  oil  of  anise,  -J  dram  ;  magnesia,  GO  grains  ;  pulve- 
rized ginger,  40  grains  ;  water,  2  oz.  ;  white  sugar  to  form  a  syrup. 

Soothing  Syrup.— Take  1  lb.  of  honey  ;  add  2  tablespoonfuls  of 
paregoric,  and  the  same  of  oil  of  anise  seed  ;  add  enough  water  to 
make  a  thick  syrup,  and  bottle.  For  children  teething,  dose,  tea- 
spoonful  occasionally. 

Infant's  Syrup. — The  syrup  is  made  thus  :  1  lb.  best  box  raisins  ; 
^  ounce  of  anise  seed  ;  two  sticks  licorice  ;  split  the  raisins,  ]iound  the 
anise  seed,  and  cut  the  licorice  fine  ;  add  to  it  3  quarts  of  rain  water, 


150  Mi:i)ICAL  Di:rART3IENT,  ETC. 

and  boil  rlown  to  2  c|narta.  Feed  three  or  four  times  a  day,  as  mnch 
as  the  child  will  willingly  drink.  The  raisins  strengthen,  the  anise 
expels  the  wind,  and  the  licorice  is  a  physic. 

BiiANDKKTii's  Tills.— Take  2  lbs.  of  aloes,  1  lb.  of  gamboge,  4  oz. 
of  extract  of  colocynth,  ^  lb.  of  Castile  soap,  3  fluid  drams  of  oil  of 
l)0.ppcrmint,  and  1  fluid  dram  of  cinnamon.  Mix,  and  form  into 
pills. 

Davis'  Pain  Killer  Ijipiiovkd. — PoAvdered  gnaiac  20  lbs.  ;  cam- 
phor, 2  lbs.  ;  powdered  cayenne  pepper,  G  lbs.  :  caustic  liquor  of 
ammonia,  1  lb.  ;  powdered  opium,  ^  lb.  ;  digest  these  ingredients  iu 
32  gals,  alcohol  for  two  weelcB,  and  filter. 

CoaiPOUKD  Syrup  of  IlYrorHOSPniTES  and  Iron.— Dissolve  25(5 
grs.  each  of  hjT^ophosphites  of  soda,  lime  and  potassa,  and  126  grs. 
hyiiophosphite  of  iron,  iu  12  oz.  water,  by  a  water  bath.  Filter  and 
add  sufficient  water  to  make  np  for  the  evaporation.  Add  18  ozs. 
sugar  by  gentle  heat,  to  make  21  fluid  ozs.  syrup.  Each  fluid  oz.  con- 
tains 12  grs.  each  of  the  hypophosphites  of  soda,  lime  and  potassa,  and 
six  grs.  liypophosphite  of  iron. 

Cure  for  Drunkenkess.— Warranted  a  certain  Remedy.  Confine 
'  the  patient  to  his  room,  furnish  him  with  his  favorite  liquor  of  dis- 
cretion, diluted  with  §  of  water,  as  much  wine,  beer,  coffee  and  tea  as 
l;e  desires,  but  containing  J  of  spirit ;  all  the  food — the  bread,  meat 
and  vegetables  steeped  in  spirit  and  water.  On  the  fifth  day  of  this 
treatment  he  has  an  extreme  disgust  for  spirit,  being  continually 
drunk.  Keep  np  this  treatment  till  he  no  longer  desires  to  eat  or 
drink,  and  the  cure  is  certain, 

Fahnestock's  Vermifuge.— Castor  oil,  oil  of  worm  seed,  each  1 
oz.  ;  oil  anise,  -|  oz.  ;  tincture  myrrh,  J  dram ;  oil  turpentine,  10 
minims.  Mix. 

Swaiim's  Vermifuge. — ^Wormseed,  2  oz.  ;  valerian,  rhubarb,  pink- 
root,  white  agaric,  of  each  1^  oz.  ;  boil  in  sufficient  water  to  yield  3 

auarts  of  decoction  ;  and  add  to  it  10  drops  of  oil  of  tansy  and  45 
rops  of  oil  of  cloves,  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  rectified  spirits.  Dose, 

1  tablespoonful  at  night. 

Ayer's  Cherry  Pectoral. — Take  4  grains  of  acetate  of  morphia ; 

2  fluid  drams  of  tincture  of  bloodroot ;  3  fluid  drams  each  of  anti- 
monial  wine  and  wine  of  ipecacuanlia,  and  3  fluid  oz.  of  syrup  of 
wild  cherry.  INIix. 

Spasms. — Acetate  of  morphia,  1  gr.  spirit  of  sal  volatile,  1  oz.  sul- 
I)huric  ether,  1  oz.  camphor  julep,  4  ozs.  Mix.  Dose,  1  teaspoonful 
in  a  glass  of  cold  water,  or  Avine,  as  required.  Keep  closely  corked, 
and  shake,  well  before  using. 

Rad way's  Ready  Ri^lief.— According  to  Peckolt,  is  an  ethereal 
tincture  of  capsicum,  with  alcohol  and  camphor. 

Radway^'s  Rekovating  Resolvent. — A  vinous  tincture  of  ginger 
and  cardamon,  sweetened  with  sugar. 

Ayer's  Sarsaparilla.— Take  3  fluid  ozs.  each  of  alcohol,  fluid 
extracts  of  sarsparilla  and  of  stillingia  ;  2  fluid  ozs.  each,  extract  of 
yellow-dock  and  of  podophyllin,  1  oz.  sugar,  90  grs.  iodide  of 
potassium,  and  10  grs.  iodide  of  iron. 

Brown's  Bronchial  Troches. — Take  1  lb.  of  pulverized  extract 
of  licorice  ;  1^  lb.  of  pulverized  sugar  ;  4  oz.  of  pulverized  cubebs  ; 
4  oz,  pulverized  gum  arable ;  1  oz.  of  pulverized  extract  conium.  Mix. 


MEDICAL  DErARTilEXT,  ETC.  15] 

Russia  Sai^vi:.— Take  equal  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  sweet  oil ; 
melt  slowly,  carefully  stiniug  ;  wbeu  cooling,  stir  in  a  small  quantity 
of  glycerine.    Good  for  all  kinds  of  wounds,  &c. 

Dentists'  Coiuposition  for  Filling  Decayed  Teeth.— Gold,  1 
part ;  mercury,  8  parts  ;  incorporated  by  heating  together ;  when 
mixed  pour  them  into  cold  water.  Or,  tinfoil  and  quicksilver  ;  melt 
together  in  a  convenient  vessel,  take  a  small  quantity,  knead  it  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  and  apply  quick.  Or,  mix  a  little  finely-powdered 
glass  with  some  mineral  succedaneum  ;  api)ly  as  usual.  Or,  take 
some  mineral  succedaneum,  and  add  some  steel  dust.  Or,  mineral 
succedaneum  mixed  with  levigated  porcelain  or  china.  Or,  gypsum, 
1  part ;  levigated  porcelain,  1  part ;  levigated  iron  filuigs,  1  part ; 
make  into  a  paste  with  equal  parts  of  quick-drying  copal  and  mastic 
varnish.  Or,  quicksilver,  40  grains  ;  steel  filings,  2G  grains.  Or,  sil- 
ver, 72  parts  ;  tin,  20  parts  ;  zinc,  6  parts.  Better  than  any,  pure 
gold,  1  part ;  silver,  3  parts  ;  tin,  2  parts  ;  melt  the  first  two,  add  the 
tin,  reduce  all  to  a  fine  powder,  use  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pure 
mercury. 

Gutta-percha,  softened  by  heat,  is  recommended.  Dr.  Rollfs  ad- 
vises melting  a  piece  of  caoutchouc  at  the  end  of  a  wire,  and  intro- 
ducing it  while  warm. 

Amalgams  for  the  teeth  are  made  with  gold  or  silver,  and  quick- 
silver, the  excess  of  the  latter  being  squeezed  out,  and  the  stiff  amal- 
gam used  warm.  Inferior  kinds  are  made  with  quicksilver  and  tin, 
or  zinc.  A  popular  nostrum  of  this  kind  consists  of  40  grains  of 
quicksilver  and  20  of  fine  zinc  filings,  mixed  at  the  time  of  using. 
The  following  is  said  to  be  the  most  lasting  and  least  objectionable 
amalgam  :  Melt  2  parts  of  tin  with  1  of  cadmium,  run  it  into  an  in- 
got, and  reduce  it  to  filings.  Form  these  into  a  fluid  amalgam  with 
mercury,  and  squeeze  out  the  excess  of  mercury  through  leather. 
Work  up  the  solid  residue  ia  the  hand,  and  press  it  into  the  tooth. 
Another  cement  consists  of  about  73  parts  of  silver,  21  of  tin,  and  (! 
of  zinc,  amalgamated  Avith  quicksilver.  Beyond  all  doubt,  gold  foil 
is  the  best  filling  in  use. 

PouDKE  ]\Ietallique. — Tho  article  sold  under  this  name  in  Paris 
appears  to  be  an  amalgam  of  silver,  mercury,  and  ammonium,  with 
an  excess  of  mercury,  which  is  pressed  out  before  using  it. 

To  Extract  Teeth  with  little  or  ko  Pain. — Tincture  of  aco- 
nite, chloroform,  and  alcohol,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  mix;  moisten  two  pled- 
gets of  cotton  with  the  liquid,  and  apply  to  the  gums  on  each  side  of 
the  tooth  to  be  extracted,  holding  them  in  their  place  with  j)lier3  or 
other  mstruments  for  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  rubbing  the  gum  free- 
ly inside  and  out. 

Tooth  Wash — To  Remove  Blackness. — Pure  muriatic  acid,  1  oz. ; 
water,  1  oz.  ;  honey,  2  oz.  ;  mix.  Take  a  tooth-brush,  and  wet  it 
freely  with  this  preparation,  and  briskly  rub  the  black  teeth,  and  in 
a  moment's  time  they  will  be  perfectly  white  ;  then  immediately 
wash  out  the  mouth  with  water,  that  the  acid  may  not  act  upon  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth. 

Dentists'  Nerve  Paste. — Arsenic,  1  part;  rose  pinlr,  2  parts.  To 
destroy  the  nerve,  apply  this  prejDaration  on  a  pledget  of  cotton,  pre- 
A  iously  moistened  ^vitli  creosote,  to  the  cavity  of  the  tooth,  let  it  re- 
main 4  hours,  then  wash  out  thoroughly  \dth.  water.  Anoiher.-^ 


152  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 

Arsenona  acid,  30  grs. ;  ncctato  of  morphia,  20  grs. ;  creosote,  q.  s.  for 
paste.  Mix. 

Alloys  for  Dentist's  IMoulds  and  Diks. — 1.  Tin,  very  hard. — Tin, 
10  parts;  antimony,  1  part;  zinc,  1  part;  2.  Tin,  softer  than  the  last. 
Tin,  8  parts;  zinc,  1  i)art;  antimony,  1  part;  'A.  C'crpper  Alloy,  very 
hard. — Tin,  12  parts;  antimony,  2  parts;  C()i)pcr,  Ipart;  4.  Cadmium 
Alloy,  about  the  hardness  of  zinc. — Tin,  10  parts;  antimony,  Ipai-t; 
cadmium,  1  part. 

Dentists'  Emery  Wheels. — ^Emery, 4  lbs.;  Kliellac,  J  lb.  ;  melt 
llie  shellac  over  a  slow  fire  ;  stir  in  the  emery,  and  pour  into  a  mould 
of  plaster  of  Paris.    AVhen  cold  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Base  for  Artificial  Teeth.— Proportions.— India-rubber,  1 
lb.  ;  sulphur,  \  lb.  ;  vermillion,  1  lb.  4  oz. 

Nitrous  Oxide,  or  Laugiiino  Gas. — Take  two  or  three  ounces  of 
nitrate  of  ammonia  in  crystals  and  put  it  into  a  retort,  taking  caro 
that  the  heat  does  not  exceed  500°  ;  Avhen  the  crystals  begin  to  melt, 
the  gas  will  be  produced  in  considerable  quantities.  The  gas  may 
ftlso  be  procured,  though  not  so  pure,  by  pouring  nitric  acid,  diluted 
with  five  or  six  times  its  weight  of  water,  on  copper  filings  or  small 
'<  pieces  of  tin.  The  gas  is  given  out  till  the  acid  begins  to  turn  brown  ; 
the  process  must  then  be  stopped 

To  Inhale  the  Laughing  Gas. — Procure  an  oiled  or  ramished 
silk  bag,  or  a  Wadder,  furnished  with  a  stop-cock,  into  the  mouth,  and 
at  the  same  time  hold  the  nostrils,  and  the  sensation  produced  will  be 
of  a  highly  pleasing  nature  ;  a  great  propensity  to  laughter,  a  rapid 
flow  of  vivid  ideas,  and  an  unusual  fitness  for  muscular  exertion,  are 
the  ordinary  feelings  which  it  produces.  The  sensations,  produced  by 
breathing  this  gas,  are  not  the  same  m  all  persons,  but  they  are  of  an 
agreeable  nature,  and  not  followed  by  any  depression  of  spirits  liko 
those  occasioned  by  fermented  liquors. 

Magnetic  Pain  killer,  for  Toothacith  ant>  Acute  Pain. — Lau- 
tlnum  1  dr.  gum  camphor  4  drs.  oil  of  cloves  \  dr.  oil  of  lavender  1  dr. 
add  then  to  1  oz.  alcohol,  6  drs.  sulphuric  "ether,  and  5  fluid  drs. 
chloroform.  Apply  with  lint,  or  for  toothache  rub  on  the  gums,  and 
upon  the  face  against  the  teeth. 

Cure  for  Lock  Jaw,  said  to  be  tositwe.- Let  any  one  who  has 
an  attack  of  lock  jaw  take  a  small  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
warm  it,  and  ]X)ur  it  on  the  wound — ^no  matter  where  the  wound  is,  or 
what  its  nature  is — and  relief  will  foUow  in  less  than  one  minute. 
Turpentine  is  also  a  sovereign  remedy  for  croup.  Saturate  a  jDiece  of 
flannel  with  it,  and  place  the  flannel  on  tho  throat  and  cliest — and  in 
very  severe  cases  three  to  five  drops  on  a  lump  of  sugar  may  bo 
taken  internally. 

New  Method  op  E^iBAiiMiNO. — ]Mix  together  5  pounds  dry  sul- 
phate of  alumine,  1  quart  of  warm  water,  and  100  grains  of  arsenious 
acid.  Inject  3  or  4  quarts  of  this  mixture  into  all  tho  vessels  of  tho 
human  body.  This  applies  as  well  to  all  animals,  birds,  fishes,  &e. 
This  process  supersedes  the  old  and  revolting  mode,  and  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  great  anatomical  schools  of  Paris. 

Nitrate  of  Silver. — Pure  silver,  Ij  oz.  ;  nitric  acid,  1  oz.  diluted 
with  water,  2  oz.  ;  heat  by  a  sand-bath  until  ebullition  ceases,  and 
the  water  is  expelled  then  pour  into  mould;j.  This  Bubstance  must 
be  kept  from  tho  light. 


MEDICAL  DF^"^^'^^^^^^^' 

r  -m'TrA-rjT.'a  o-  -^♦iroo  Compound.— Mix  borax  fib.  with  salts  tar 

^^^^^^Ptflssolve  1  oz.  of  the  mixture  in  1  pt.  water. 
•^^Ni^i^jlcORD's  Hair  Dye. — No  1.  PyrogJillic  acid  1  oz.  ;  water  1  qt- 
jlno  2.  Nitrate  of  silver  1  oz.  ;  water  4  ozs.  ;  ammonia  1  oz.  Keep 
your  materials  free  from  grease,  cool,  and  in  the  dark.    Apply  each 
No.  alternately  to  the  hair,  first  cleaning  the  hair  well. 

Bay  Rum. — French  proof  spirit  1  gal.  ext.  Bay  G  ozs.  Mix  and  color 
"with  caramel,  needs  no  filtering. 

Hair  Invigorator.— Bay  rum,  2  pints  ;  alcoliol,  1  pint ;  castor 
oil,  i  oz.  ;  carb.  ammonia,  ^  oz.  ;  tincture  of  cantharides,  1  oz.  Mix 
them  well.  This  compound  will  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair, 
and  prevent  it  from  falling  out. 

Razor-Strop  Paste. — Wet  the  strop  with  a  little  sweet  oil,  and 
apply  a  little  flour  of  emery  evenly  over  the  surface. 

Oil  of  Roses.— Olive  oil,  1  lb.  ;  otto  of  roses,  50  drops  ;  oil  of 
rosemary,  25  drops;  mix.  Another,  roses  (hardly  opened)  12  oz.; 
olive  oil,  10  oz.,  beat  them  together  in  a  mortar ;  let  them  remain 
lor  a  few  days,  then  express  the  oil. 

Balm  of  Beauty.— Pure  soft  water,  1  qt.  ;  pulverized  Castilo 
soap,  4  oz.  ;  emulsion  of  bitter  almonds,  G  oz.  ;  rose  and  orange 
flower  water,  of  each,  8  oz. ;  tincture  of  benzoin,  2  drs.  ;  borax,  1 
dr. ;  add  5  grs.  bichloride  of  mercury  to  every  8  oz.  of  the  mix- 
ture.  To  use,  apply  on  a  cotton  or  linen  cloth  to  the  face,  &c. 

Oriental  Cold  Cream. — Oil  of  almonds,  4  oz, ;  white  wax  and 
spermaceti,  of  each,  2  drs.  ;  melt,  and  add  rose  water,  4  oz.  ;  orange 
flower  water,  1  oz.  ;  used  to  soften  the  skin,  apply  as  the  last. 

Shaving  Creaji.— White  wax,  spermaceti,  almond  and  oil,  of 
each  I  oz.  :  melt,  and  while  warm,  beat  in  2  squares  of  Windsor 
Eoap  previously  reduced  to  a  paste  with  rose  water, 

Circassian  Cream. — Take  2  ounces  of  perfectly  fresh  suet,  either 
mutton  or  venison  ;  3  ounces  of  olive  oil ;  1  oz.  gum  benzoine  in 
powder,  and  ^  oz.  of  alkanet  root.  Put  the  whole  into  a  jam  jar, 
which,  if  without  a  lid,  must  be  tied  over  with  a  bladder,  and  place 
the  jar  in  a  sauco  x^an  containing  boiling  water,  at  the  side  of  the 
fire.  Digest  for  a  whole  day,  then  strain  away  all  that  is  fluid 
through  fine  muslin,  and  stir  till  nearly  cold.  Add,  say  1  dram  of 
essence  of  almonds,  roses,  bergamot  or  any  other  perfume  desired. 

Freckle  Cure. — Take  2  oz,  lemon  juice,  or  half  a  dram  of 
powdered  borax,  and  one  dram  of  sugar  ;  mix  together,  and  let 
them  stand  in  a  glass  bottle  for  a  few  'days,  then  rub  on  the  face 
occasionally, 

Yankee  Shaving  Soap.— Take  3  lbs,  white  bar  soap;  1  lb.  Castilo 
soap;  1  quart  rain  water;  ^  pt.  beef's  gall;  1  gill  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine. Cut  the  soap  into  thin  slices,  and  boil  five  minutes  after  the 
soap  is  dissolved,  stir  while  boiling  ;  scent  Avith  oil  of  rose  or 
almonds.    If  wished  to  color  it,  use  ^  oz  vermilion. 

Bloom  of  Youth. — Boil  1  ounce  of  Brazil  wood  in  3  pints  of 
water  for  15  minutes  ;  strain.  Add  f  oz.  isinglass,  ^  oz.  cochi- 
neal, 1  oz.  alum,  ^  oz.  borax.    Dissolve  by  heat,  and  strain. 

Cologne  Water. — Oils  of  rosemary  and  lemon,  of  each  J  oz. ; 
oils  of  bergamot  and  lavender,  each  ^  oz. ;  oil  cinnamon,  8  drops  ; 
oils  of  cloves  and  rose,  each  15  drops  ;  best  deodorized  alcohol,  2  qts. ; 
shake  two  or  three  times  per  day  for  a  week. 


154 


MEDICAL 


■T^VR'nII:xT,  j;tc. 


Wo  propose  to  k'ivo  tlio  formula  for  tho  xv^-,  . 
find  shall  commence  with  what  is  said  to  bo       '"S  preparations, 

Hogle's  IIvi'KUion  Fj.uid.— To  8  oz.  of  90  or  95  per  cen..  ,^ 
colored  red  with  ulJcauet,  add  1  oz.  of  castor  oil ;  perfume'"^]}?!* 
geranium  Jind  verbena. 

•  Lyon's  Katiiaikon. — To  8  oz,  of  80  per  cent,  alcohol,  colored 
yellow  by  a  few  drops  extract  of  anuatto,  add  2  oz.  castor  oil,  and 
perfume  with  a  little  bergamot. 

Piialon's  Hair  Restorative.— To  8  oz.  of  90  per  cent,  alcoliol, 
colored  by  a  few  drops  tincture  of  alkanot  root,  add  1  oz.  of  cas- 
tor oil,  and  perfume  with  a  compound  of  bergamot,  neroli,  verbena, 
and  orange. 

Mrs.  Allen's. — To  IG  oz.  of  rose  water,  diluted  with  an  equal 
part  of  salt  water,  add  ^  oz.  of  sulphur  and  ^  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead  ; 
let  the  compound  stand"  five  days  before  using. 

Eatchelor's  Hair-Dye. — No.  1.  To  1  oz.  of  pyro-gaUic  acid,  dis- 
solved in  1  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  of  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  nitrate 
of  silver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  of  concentrated  ammonia,  add  4  oz.  of 
soft  water.  Apply  each  No.  alternately,  with  separate  brushes,  to  tho 
iiair. 

Christ adoro'sITair-D YE. — No.  1.  To  1  oz.  of  pyro-gallicacid,  dis- 
solved in  1  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crys- 
tallized nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  concentrated'  aqn.a- 
aramonia  and  1  oz.  soft  water,  add  oz.  gum  arable  and  3  oz.  soft 
water.    Keep  covered  from  the  light. 

Phalon's  Instaxtakeous  Hair-Dye. — No.  1.  To  1.  oz.  pyro- 
gallic  acid,  and  ^  oz.  of  tannia,  dissolved  in  2  oz.  of  alcohol,  add  i  qt. 
of  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crystallized  nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved 
in  1  oz.  concentrated  aqua-ammonia,  add  1  oz.  gum  arable,  and  11 
oz.  soft  water.    Keep  in  tho  dark. 

Harrison's. — No.  1.  To  1  oz.  pyro-gallic  acid,  1  oz.  of  tannia  dis- 
solved in  2  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crj-s- 
tallized  nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  of  concentrated  aqua- 
simmonia,  add  5  oz.  soft  water  and  ^  oz.  gum  arable.   No.  3.  1  oz. 


last  ingredient  is  intended  to  produce  a  deep  black  color  if  tho 
others  should  fail.    Keep  away  from  the  light. 

Phalon's  (One  Preparation. )— To  1  oz.  crystallized  nitrate  of 
silver,  dissolved  in  2  oz.  of  aqua-ammonia,  add  5  oz.  soft  water. 
jThis  is  not  an  instantaneous  dye  ;  but  after  exposure  to  the  light 
Jind  air,  a  dark  color  is  x>roduced  upon  the  surface  to  which  it 
is  applied.  Ptcmember  to  remove  all  grease,  &c.,  from  the  hair  before 
applying  these  dyes. 

Professor  Wood's. — To  8  oz.  vinegar,  diluted  with  an  equal 
X)art  of  soft  water,  add  2  drs.  sulphur,  and  2  drs.  sugar  of  lead. 

Altine  Hair-IBalm. — To  IG  oz.  of  soft  water  add  8  oz.  of  alcohol 
and  J  oz.  spirits  turpentine,  ^  oz.  sulphur,  and  ^  oz.  sugar  of  lead. 

Glycerine  Preparation. — New  rum,  1  qt.  ;  concentrated  spirits 
of  ammonia,  15  drops  ;  glycerine  oil,  1  oz.  ;  lac  sulphur,  5^  drs.  ; 
sugar  of  lead,  6^  drs. ;  put  the  liquor  into  a  bottle,  add  the  am"monia, 
then  the  other  components.  Shake  the  compound  occasionally  for 
four  or  five  days. 

Crystalline  CuE^m,— Oil  of  almonds,  8  oz, ;  ppennaceti,  1  oz.  ; 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  155 

melt  together.  When  a  little  cooled,  add  ^  oz.  or  less  of  essence  of 
bergamot  or  other  perfume  ;  put  into  wide-mouthed  bottles,  and  let 
it  stand  till  cold.  Camphorated  crystalline  cream  may  be  made  by 
using  camphorated  oil  {L.  CampJioroi)  instead  of  oil  of  almonds. 

Macassar  Oii-.. — Olive  oil,  1  qt.  ;  alcohol,  2^  oz.  ;  rose  oil,  1^  oz.  ; 
then  tie  1  oz.  of  chipped  alkanet  root  hi  a  mushu  bag,  and  put  it  in 
the  oil,  Imt  it  alone  for  some  days  till  it  turns  the  color  of  a  pretty 
red,  then  remove  to  other  oils.    Do  not  press  it. 

Ox  Marrow. — Melt  4  oz.  ox  tallow  ;  white  wax,  1  oz.  ;  fresh  lard, 
G  oz.  ;  when  cold,  add  1^  oz.  oil  of  bergamot. 

Bears'  Oil. — Use  good  sweet  lard  oil,  1  qt. ;  oil  bergamot,  1^  oz. 

Extract  of  Patchouli. — Mix  1^  oz.  ottar  of  Patchouli,  and  ^  oz. 
otto  of  rose,  with  1  gal.  rectified  spirits. 

Sea  Foam  for  Barbers. — Alcohol,  4  oz.  ;  castor  oil,  1  oz.  ;  am- 
monia, ^  oz.  ;  water,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  castor  oil  and  ammonia  hi 
the  alcohol,  then  add  the  alcohol  mixture  to  the  water. 

PyiiOGALLic  ILuR  Dve. — Pyrogallic  acid,  ^  oz. ;  dissolve  it  hi  hot 
distilled  water  oz. ;  when  the  solution  cools  add  gradually  rectified 
gpirit,  ^  fluid  oz. 

Fixe  SnA:MP0O  Liquid. — Dissolve  |  oz.  carb.  of  ammonia  and  1  oz, 
of  borax  in  1  qt.  water,  then  add  2  oz.  glycerine,  3  qts.  of  New  Eng- 
land rum,  and  1  qt.  of  bay  rum;  moisten  the  hair  with  this  liquor, 
fchampoo  with  the  hands  until  a  slight  lather  is  formed,  then  wash 
off  with  clean  water. 

B^\JiBER's  SnAsrpoo  Mixture.— Soft  water,  Ipt;  sal  soda,  1  oz.; 
cream  tartar,  ^  oz.   Apply  thoroughly  to  the  hair. 

Cheap  Bay  Kum. — Saturate  a  ^  lb.  block  of  carb.  of  magnesia 
with. oil  of  Bay  ;  pulverize  the  magnesia,  place  it  in  a  filter,  and  pour 
water  through  it  until  the  desired  quantity  is  obtained,  then  add 
alcohol.  The  quantity  of  water  and  alcohol  employed  depends  on 
the  desired  strength  and  quantity  of  the  Bay  rum.  Another — Oil  of 
Bay,  10  fluid  drs.;  oil  of  pimento,  1  fluid  dr.  ;  acetic  ether,  2  fluid 
d)-s. ;  alcohol  3  gals. ;  water,  2^  gals.  l^ILx,  and  after  2  weeks'  repose, 
filter. 

Liquid  for  Forcing  the  Be.vrd.— Cologne,  2  oz.  ;  liquid  hartshom, 
1  dr.  ;  tinct.  cantharides,  2  drs.  ;  oil  rosemary,  12  drops  ;  lavender, 
12  drops.  Apply  to  the  face  daily  and  await  results.  Said  to  bo 
xcliable. 

Court  Plaster. — Brush  silk  over  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  in 
spirits  or  warm  water,  dry  and  repeat  several  times.  For  "the  last 
application  apply  several  coats  of  balsam  of  Peru.  Used  to  close 
cuts  or  wounds,  by  warming  it  and  applying.  It  does  not  wash 
off  until  the  skin  partially  heals. 

Balm  of  a  Thousaxd  Flowers. — Deodorized  alcohol,  Ipt.  ;  nice 
white  bar  soap,  4  oz.  ;  sliavo  tlie  soap  when  Y>wt  hi,  stand  in  a  Avarm 
place  till  dissolved  ;  then  add  oil  of  citronella,  1  dr.,  and  oils  of 
neroli  and  rosemary,  of  each  ^  dr. 

New  York  Barbers'  StarILvtr  Oil.— Caster  oil G^pts.;  alcohol, 
I2  pts.  ;  citroneUa  and  lavender  oil,  each  ^  oz. 

FRANGIPAN^^:. — Spirits,  1  gal.  ;  oil  bergamot,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  lemon, 
1  oz.  ;  macerate  for  4  days,  frequently  shaking  ;  then  add  water,  1 
gal. ;  orange-flower  water,  1  pint,  essence  of  vanilla,  2  oz.  1Mb:. 

Jockey  Cluc— Spii-its  of  wmc,  5  gal. ;  orange-flower  water,  1 


356  MEDICAL  DErARTMi:NT,  ETC. 

gal.  ;  balsnni  of  Pcm,  4  oz.  ;  cksciicc  of  ber^amot,  8  oz.  ;  eesenco 
of  music,  8  oz.  ;  essence  of  cloves,  4  oz.  ;  essence  of  ncroli,  2  oz. 

Ladiks'  Owx. — Spirits  of  Avinc,  1  gal.;  otto  of  roses,  20  drops; 
essence  of  tliyuie,  ^  oz.  ;  essence  of  iieroli,  ^  oz.  ;  essence  of  vauilki, 
^  oz. ;  essence  of  bersamot,  ^  oz.  ;  oran.^e-flower  water,  G  oz. 

Kiss  me  Quick. — Spirit,  1  gal.  ;  essence  of  thyme,  |  oz.  ;  csscnoo 
of  orange-dowers,  2  oz. ;  essence  iieroli,  ^  oz.  ;  otto  of  roses,  30  drops; 
essence  of  jasmine,  1  oz.;  essence  of  ])alm  mint  ^  oz.;  petils  of  roses. 
4  oz. ;  oil  lemon,  20  drops;  calorus  aromaticus,  ^oz. ;  essence  neroli,  $ 
oz.   Mix  and  strain. 

Uppeh  Ten. — Spirits  of  wine,  4  qts.  ;  essence  of  ccdrat,  2  drs.  ; 
essence  of  violets,  ^  oz. ;  essence  of  ncroli,  h  oz.  ;  otto  of  roses,  20 
drops  ;  orange-flower  essence,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  rosemary,  oO  drox^s  ;  oils 
bcrgamot  and  neroli,  each  oz. 

India  ChoIjAgogue. — Quinine,  20  grs. ;  Peruvian  bark,  pulverized, 

1  oz.  ;  sulphuric  acid,  15  drops,  or  1  scruple  of  tartaric  acid  is  best ; 
brandy,  1  gill ;  water  to  make  one  pint ;  dose,  5  teaspoonf  uls  every 

2  hours,  in  the  absence  of  fever  ;  an  excellent  remedy. 
FEBrai'-TTGE  Wine. — Quinine,  25  grs.  ;  water,  1  pint ;  sulphuric 

add,  15  drops  ;  epsom  salts,  2  oz. ;  color  with  tincture  of  red  sanders. 
Dose,  a  wino  glass  3  times  per  day.  This  is  a  world-renowned  med- 
icine. 

Barrell's  Indian"  LiNnrMENT. — Alcohol,  1  qt. ;  tincture  of  cap- 
flcum,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  origanum,  sassafras,  pennyroyal,  and  hemlock,  of 
each  I  oz.  Mix. 

God  Liver  OHi,  as  usually  prepared,  is  nothing  more  orless  than  cod 
oil  clarified,  by  which  process  it  is  in  fact  deprived  in  a  great  measure 
of  its  virture.  Cod  oU  can  be  purchasedlrom  any  wholesale  oil  deal- 
er for  one  thirtieth  part  of  the  price  of  cod  liver  oil  as  usually  sold, 
and  it  is  easy  to  clarify  it.  Dealers  might  turn  this  information  to 
good  accoimt.  To  make  it  more  palatable  and  digestible,  put  1  oz.  of 
fine  table  salt  to  each  quart  bottle. 

Cod  Liver  Oil. — The  first  livers  are  placed  in  a  jacketed  pan 
heated  by  steam,  and  when  the  oil  is  separated  from  the  scraps  it  is 
passed  through  felt  bags  imtil  it  is  perfectly  clear.  To  remove  a  por- 
tion of  the  steariue,  it  is  subjected  to  refrigerating  mixtures  in  the 
summer,  and  the  incongealable  portion  is  drawn  off  and  placed  iu 
bottles. 

Paregoric. — ^Best  opium,  \  dr. ;  dissolve  in  about  2  tablespoonfuls 
■of  boiling  water ;  then  add  benzoic  acid  h,  dr. ;  oU  of  anise,  \  a  fluid  dr. ; 
clarified  honey,  1  oz. ;  camphor  gum,  1  scruple;  alcohol,  76  per  cent., 
11  fluid  oz.  ;  distilled  water,  4  fluid  oz.  ;  macerate  (keep  warm)  for 
two  weeks.  Dose  for  children,  5  to  20  drops;  adults  ;  1  to  2  tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Cough  Syrup. — ^?ut  1  qt.  horehound  tea,  1  qt.  of  water,  and  boil 
it  down  to  1  pt.  ;  add  2  or  3  sticks  licorice  ;  2  oz.  syrup  of  sciuills,  and 
a  tablespoonf  ul  essence  of  lemon.  Take  a  tablespoonf  ul  3  times  a  day 
or  as  the  cough  requires. 

Cough  Syrup. — Syrup  of  squills,  2  oz.  ;  tartarized  antimony,  8 
grs.  ;  sulphate  of  morphine,  5  grs. ;  pulverized  arable,  ^  oz.  ;  honey, 
1  oz. ;  water,  1  oz. ;  mix.  Dose  for  an  adult,  1  small  teaspoonf  ul;  re- 
peat in  half  an  hour  if  it  does  not  relieve  :  child  in  proportion. 

Vegetable  3ubstitu3:e  for  CALOiiEL.— Jalap,  1  oz.  senna,  2  oz.j 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


157 


peppermint,  1  oz.  (a  little  cinnamon  if  desired),  all  pulverized  and  sif- 
ted through  gauze.  Dose,  1  teaspoonf  ul  i)ut  in  a  cup  with  2  or  I! 
spoonfuls  of  hot  water,  and  a  good  lump  of  white  sugar  ;  when  cool, 
drink  all ;  to  be  taken  fasting  in  the  morning  ;  drink  freely  ;  if  it  does 
not  operate  in  3  hours,  repeat  ^  the  quantity  ;  use  instead  of  calomel. 

Dykamic  Power  of  various  kinds  of  Food.— One  lb.,  of  oat- 
meal will  furnish  as  much  power  as  2  lbs.  of  bread  and  more  than 
o  lbs  of  lean  veal.  One  lb.,  butter  gives  a  worlcing  force  equal  to 
that  of  9  lbs.  of  potatoes,  12  lbs.  of  milk  and  more  than  5  lbs.  of 
lean  beef.  One  lb.  of  lump  sugar  is  equal  in  force  to  2  lbs.,  of  ham, 
or  8  lbs.  of  cabbage.  The  habitual  use  of  spirituous  liquors  is  inimical 
to  health,  and  inevitably  tends  to  shorten  life.  A  mechanic  or  laboring 
man  of  average  size,  requires,  according  to  Moleschott,  23  ozs.,  of  dry 
solid  matter,  daily,  one  fifth  nitrogenous.  Food,  as  usually  prepared, 
contains  50  per  cent,  of  water,  which  Avould  increase  the  quantity  to  4() 
ozs. ,  or  3  lbs.  14  ozs. ,  with  at  least  an  equal  weight  of  water  in  addition 
daily.  The  same  authority  indicates  as  healthy  proportions,  of  albumi- 
nous matter  4.587  ozs.,  fatty  matter  2.964,  carbo-hydrate  14.250,  salts 
1.058,  total  22.859  ozs.,  for  daily  use.  This  quantity  of  food  will 
vary  greatly  in  the  requirements  of  individuals  eugaged  in  sedentary 
employments,  or  of  persons  with  weak  constitutions  or  impaired 
digestion,  as  also  whether  employed  in  the  open  air  or  within  doors 
much  also,  depending  on  the  temperature.  Preference  should  bo 
given  to  the  food  which  most  readily  yields  the  materials  required  by 
nature  in  the  formation  of  the  human  frame.  Beef  contains  about 4 
lbs.  of  such  minerals  in  every  100  lbs.  Dried  extract  of  beef  con- 
tains 21  lbs.  in  each  lOQ  lbs.  Bread  made  from  unbolted  wheat 
flour  is  also  very  rich  in  such  elements,  much  more  so  than  superfine 
flour  ;  hence  the  common  use  of  Graham  bread  for  dj^spepsia  and 
other  ailments.  The  analysis  of  Liebig,  Johnston,  and  others  give  iu 
100  parts,  the  following  proportions  of  nutritious  elements,  viz., 
Indian  corn,  12.30  barley  14.00,  wheat  14,06,  oats  19.91,  A  fish  diet 
is  Avell  adapted  to  sustain  intellectual,  or  brain  labor.  What  ia 
required  may  be  best  known  from  the  fact  that  a  human  body 
weighing  154  lbs.,  contains,  on  a  rough  estimate,  of  v/ater  14  gals, 
(consisting  of  oxygen  111  lbs.,  of  hydrogen  14  lbs.),  carbon  21  lbs., 
nitrogen  3  lbs.  8  ozs.,  calcicum  2  lbs.,  sodium 2J  ozs.,  phopT)horus  l^ 
lbs.,  ix)tassium  ^  oz.  sulphur  2  ozs.  219  grs.,  fluorine  2  ozs.,  chlorine 
2  ozs.  47  grs.,  iron  100  grs.,  magnesium  12  grs.,  silicon  2  grs.  After 
death,  the  human  body  is  by  gradual  decay,  slowly  resolved  into 
these  its  component  parts,  which  elements  are  again  used  in  the 
complex  and  wonderful  laboratory  of  nature,  to  vivify  the  countless 
forms  of  vegetable  life.  These  in  their  turn  fulfil  their  appohited 
law  by  yielding  up  their  substance  for  tlie  formation  of  other  bodies. 
What  a  suggestive  comment  on  mortal  ambition  to  witness  tlie 
jaresent  inhabitants  of  Egypt  engaged  in  what  they  consider  the 
lucrative  commerce  of  qiiarrying  out  the  bones  of  the  ancient  inhab- 
itants from  the  catacom  ds  where  they  have  been  entombed  for  thou- 
sands of  years  and  transporting  them  by  the  ship-load  to  E:ngland,  in 
order  to  fertilize  the  crops  which  are  destined  to  assist  in  forming 
the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  British  nation! 

Cure  for  Snake  BrrES. — The  Inspector  of  Police  in  the  Bengal 
Government  reports  tlrat  of  939  cases  in  which  ammonia  was  freely 


158  MEDICAL  DEPARTMEXT,  ETC. 

administered  207  victims  h.ivo  recovered,  and  in  tlio  cured  instances 
the  remedy  was  not  administered  till  about  3.^  hours  after  the  attaclc, 
on  the  average  of  the  fatal  cases  the  eorresi)ouding  duration  of  time 
was  4^  hours. 

Remedy  For  Smalt^  Pox.— Sulphate  of  zinc,  1  gr.,  foxsjlovo 
[digitalis,]  1  gr.,  sugar  ^  tcaspoonf  ul,  mix  with  2  teaspoonf  uls  of  water, 
add  4  oz.  of  water,  Doso  1  spoonful  every  hour,  child  in  proportion. 
From  experience  it  is  Ivuo-wii  that  notliing  Avill  break  up  tliis  frightful 
disease  sooner  tJian  continued  and  persevering  bathmg,  with  the  water 
at  a  comfortable  temperature. 

Reliable  Small  Fox  Remedy. — Tested. — A  child  9  years  old  was 
effectually  cured  of  small  pox  by  administering  15  grs.  sodic  sulphico 
dissolved  in  milk,  sweetened,  every  3  hours.  The  entire  body  was 
oiled  with  crude  petroleum  applied  by  hand.  Next  morning  the  eru  j)- 
tion  was  killed  and  dry;  and  the  disease  broken  up.  To  prevent  pit- 
ting with  small  pox,  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  distinguished,  apply  a:i 
ointment  made  of  lard  and  charcoal  to  the  face,  iieck,  hands,  &c., 
nnd  continue  until  all  signs  of  supperative  fever  has  ceased.  One 
case  is  worthy  of  notice,  being  that  of  a  gentleman  who  suffered 
terribly  for  many  days  with  this  dreadful  disease.  Everything  was 
done  for  him  that  medical  skill  could  suggest,  without  giving  tho 
slightest  relief.  Finally,  as  a  last  resort,  he  was  removed  from  tho 
bed  and  placed  in  a  warm  bath*  the  transition  was  so  sootliing  and 
delightful  that  he  exclaimed,  "Oh,  my  God,  I  thank  Thee  for  this 
great  relief! "  In  a  short  time  he  fell  sound  asleep  in  the  bath,  and 
continued  in  this  position  for  many  hours,  tho  water  being  renewed 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  up  tho  temperature.  The  cure  proved  to 
be  immediate  and  permanent.  Nothing  is  so  conducive  to  health  of 
body,  and  the  eradication  of  disease  therefrom,  as  the  intelligent  uso 
of  pure  water.  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  being  complimented  on  ono 
occasion  for  his  great  skill,  remarked,  that  he  had  "made  mistakes 
enough  to  fill  a  graveyard,"  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  make  a  mis- 
take with  water,  as  no  diseased  person  can  fail  to  derive  benefit  from 
its  use. 

Portable  Bath. — Make  a  small  circular  boiler  of  copper  or  tin,  and 
fit  the  same  into  an  upright  tin  stand,  in  which,  directly  imder  tho 
boiler,  you  must  leave  an  aperture  to  contain  a  small  spirit  lamp.  Tho 
boiler  lid  must  fit  tightly  and  be  provided  with  three  small  tubes 
pointing  upwards.  The  boiler  being  filled  with  water  and  the  lamp 
lighted,  as  soon  as  the  steam  gets  up,  it  rushes  through  these  tubes, 
and  the  patient,  seated  on  a  cane  chair,  with  his  or  her  feet  in  a  pan 
of  warm  water,  with  a  suitable  cloak  tightly  fastened  around  tho 
neck,  is  speedily  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  steam.  Ten  minutes  is  tho 
time  recommended  for  the  durafeon  of  the  first  few  baths.  It  may  bo 
afterwards  increased,  but  not  beyond  half  an  hour.  On  getting  out 
of  the  cloak,  plunge  into  a  cold  bath  for  a  few  minutes,  then  rub  tho 
skin  till  it  is  quite  dry  and  glowing  with  a  coarse  towel  and  a  pair  of 
good  hair-gloves.  Persons  in  health  or  disease  will  experience  a- 
wonderful  recuperative  power  in  the  frequent  use  of  this  bath,  and  all 
wiU  find  it  incomparably  superior  to  the  use  of  drugs  in  any  form 
•whatever.  In  this  connection  a  new  and  very  ingenious  invention 
called  Spongio  Piline,  is  deserving  of  favorable  mention.  It  con- 
£iist3  of  wool  and  small  particles  of  sponge  felted  together,  and  attached 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC  159 

to  a  skin  of  India-rubber,  tlio  -u-holo  being  about  half  an  inch  in  tliiclc- 
I1CS9,  and  of  inestimable  value  as  a  means  of  applying  cold  or  tejiid 
water,  &c.,  to  such  exterior  parts  of  the  human  frame  as  may  bo 
nearest  to  the  seat  of  pain  or  disease.  The  water  is  sponged  over  tlic 
felted  surface,  the  surplus,  if  any,  wiped  off;  it  is  then  placed  on  tlio 
gkin,  and  covered  over  with  several  folds  of  bandages,  which  assist  in 
retaining  the  heat  and  moisture,  thus  attracting  hcaltliy  blood  to  the 
part,  from  which  nature  selects  such  food  as  is  most  conducive  to  ex- 
l)el  disease  and  build  up  healthy  tissue. 

Fly  Papek. — Coat  paper  with  turpentine  varnish,  and  oil  it  to  keep 
the  varnish  from  drying. 

Sweating  Drops. — Ipecac,  sallron,  bonesct,  and  camphor  gnm, 
of  each,  3  oz. ;  opium,  1  oz. ;  alcohol,  2  qts.  Let  stand  2  weel<s  ami 
filter.  A  teaspoonful  in  a  cup  of  hot  sage  or  catnip  tea  ever^^  hour 
until  free  perspiration  is  induced;  good  in  colds,  fevers,  inllamma- 
tions,  &c.   Bathe  the  feet  in  hot  water  at  the  same  time. 

SvKUP  roil  CoNSUsrpTivES.— Of  tamaracbark,  take  from  the  tree, 
without  rossmg,  1  peck;  spikenard  root,  ^  lb.;  dandelion  root,  |lb. ; 
hops,  2  oz.  Boil  these  sufficient  to  get  the  strength  in  2  or  3  gals, 
water;  strain,  and  boil  down  to  1  gal. ;  when  blood  warm,  add  3  lbs. 
best  honey,  and  3  pints  best  brandy;  bottle  and  keep  in  a  cool  plnco. 
Dose,  drinlc  freely  of  it  3  times  x)cr  day  before  meals,  at  least  a  gill  or 
more;  cure  very  certain. 

Common  Castor  Oil.— Pale  vegetable  oil,  1  gal. ;  castor  oil,  3  gals. ; 
mix. 

PuLMO>nc  "Wapeiis. — ^T>ump  sugar,  licorice,  and  starch,  of  each  2 
parts;  gum,  10  x)arts;  squills  and  ipecacuanha,  of  each  5  parts;  lactu- 
carium,  2  parts.    Mix,  and  divide  into  8  grain  lozenges. 

Sir  James  Clarke's  Diarrhcea  and  Cholera  Mixture. — 
Tiuct.  of  opium,  tinct.  of  camphor,  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  of  each  3 
drams;  oil  of  peppermint,  30  drops;  mix:.  Dose,  1  teaspoonful  for 
cholera. 

Vegetable  or  Co:MrosiTioiT  Po^yDER. — ^Fine  bay  berry  bark,  1  lb  ; 
ginger  8  oz.,  common  cayenne,  3  oz.,  mix.  Dose,  1  teaspoonful  in  a 
cup  of  boiling  water,  sweeten  and  add  milk. 

Tinctures  are  made  with  1  oz.  of  gum,  root,  or  bark,  &c.,  dried, 
to  each  pint  of  iproof  spirits  ;  let  it  stand  ono  week,  and  filter. 

Essences  are  made  with  1  oz.  of  any  given  oil,  added  to  1  pint 
alcohol.  Peppermints  are  colored  witli  tinct.  turmeric;  ciunamoa 
with  tinct.  of  redsanders;  wintergreen  with  tinct.  kino. 

Substitute  for  Arrowroot. — Finest  potato  starch,  75  lbs.  ; 
lump  sugar.  4  lbs. ;  finely-ground  rice,  21  lbs.  Mix,  and  sift  through 
lawn  ;  yields  100  lbs.  excellent  arrowroot. 

Certain  Cure  fob  Croup. — Goose  oil  and  urine  equal  parts. 
Dose,  1  teaspoonful.   A  certain  cure  if  taken  in  time. 

Corns  and  Warts.— Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  potash  paste 
recommended  for  PoUJ^vil,  and  apply  to  the  corn  or  wart. 

Druggist's  Colors.— reZ^oio,  take  iron  filings,  hydrochloric  acid 
to  dissolve,  dilute  with  cold  water.  Bed,  solution  of  sal  ammoniac, 
cochineal,  to  color.  Blue,  indigo,  1  part,  oil  ot  \itriol,  2  parts,  dis- 
solve, then  dilute  with  water.  Green,  verdigris,  1  part,  acetic  acid, 
3  parts,  dilute  with  water,  Puij>le,  cochineal,  25  grs,,  sugar  of  lead 
1  oz.,  dissolve. 


ICJO  Mr.DlCAL  DEPARTMENT,  EIC. 

S^FELLINO  Salts. — Siib-carboimte  of  ammonia,  8  parts  ;  put  it  itt 
coarso  ixnvder  hi  a  bottle,  and  pour  on  it  oil  of  lavendar,  1  part. 

TuNiuiiDCK  Wklus  AVatku.— Cliloiide  of  sodium,  5  gialuH  ; 
tiiict.  steel,  20  drops  ;  distilled  water,  1^  pints. 

MiKiciiAL  "NVA'JUoit. — l'4)so)n  salts,  1  oz.  ;  croam  tartar,  ^  oz.  ;  tnr- 
taric  acid,  ^  oz.  ;  loaf  sUf^ar,  1  lb.  ;  oil  of  birch,  20  drops";  put  1  fit. 
cold  -water  on  2  tablespoouliils  yeast  (winter  green  oil  ■will  do),  let  it 
worlv  2  hours  and  then  bottle. 

Congress  AVateii  voii  Fountains.— Common  salt,  72  o7,s.  : 
liydratc  of  soda,  20  grs.  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  20  grs.  ;  caUdneil 
ina<?riesia,  1  oz.    Add  to  10  gal.  of  water,  and  then  charge  with  gas. 

KissiNGEN  Water  for  Fountains. — Bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  dr. ; 
carbonate  of  lime,  2  drs.,  and  2  scr. ;  precipitate  carbonate  of  lime, 
2  scr.  ;  common  salt,  8  ozs,  ;  muriate  of  ammonia,  4  grs  ;  sulphate 
of  soda,  2  drs.  and  2  scr. ;  sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  ozs. ;  pliosphato 
of  soda,  13  grs.;  phosphate  of  lime  2  drs,  and  2  scr.  Mix.  Add 
water  f  of  a  gal.  Let  it  stand  for  G  hours,  filter,  add  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  3  drs.  and  1  scr.,  and  charge  with  10  gals,  of  water. 

Vjciiy  Water  for  Fountains. — Sulphate  of  potass,  2  drs.; 
sulphate  of  soda,  25  gi'S.  ;  common  salt,  G  drs.  ;  bicarbonate  of  am- 
jnonia,  10  grs.  Mix.  Add  water,  1  gal.  Let  it  stand  1  day,  filter 
and  then  charge  with  10  gal.  of  water. 

Genuine  Seidlitz  Powders. —Rocliello  salts,  2  drs.;  bicarb. 
Roda,  2  scr. ;  put  these  into  a  blue  paper,  and  35  grains  tartaric  acid 
into  a  white  paper.  To  use,  put  each  into  different  tumblers,  fill  4 
with  water,  adding  a  little  loaf  sugar  to  the  acid,  then  j)our  together 
and  drink  quick. 

Bottled  Seidlitz  Water.— Fill  soda-w^iter  bottle.^  witli  clear 
water  ;  add  to  each  as  below  ;  cork  and  Avire  immediately  :  Rochello 
salts,  3  drops  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  35  grs  ;  sulphuric  acid,  11  drops. 

Excellent  Tooth  Powder. — Suds  of  castile  soap  and  spirits  of 
camphor,  of  each  an  equal  quantity  ;  thicken  with  equal  quantities 
of  pulverized  chalk  and  charcoal  to  a  thick  paste.  Apply  with  the 
finger  or  brush. 

liAT  Exterminator.— Warm  water,  1  qt.  ;  lard,  2  lbs  ;  phospho- 
rus, 1  oz.  ;  mix,  and  thicken  with  Hour  ;  to  be  spread  on  bread  and 
covered  with  sugar. 

Bug  Poison.— Alcohol,  ^  pint;  turpentine,  ^  pint ;  crude  sal  am- 
moniac, 1  oz.  ;  mix  all  together,  and  let  it  digest  in  a  warm  place  for 
a  few  days,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Medicated  Cough  Candy. — To  5  lbs.  candy  just  ready  to  pour 
on  tl'.e  slab,  add  the  following  mixture,  and  form  it  into  sticks  to 
correspond  with  the  price  asked  for  them  :  Tinct.  squills,  2  oz. ;  cam- 
phorated tinct.  of  opium  and  tinct.  of  tolu,  of  each  ^  oz. ;  wine  of 
ipecac,  ^  oz. ;  oils  of  gaultheria,  4  drops  ;  sassafras,  3  drops  ;  and 
of  anise  seed  oil,  2  drops,  and  use  this  freely  in  common  coughs. 

Ague  1'ill. — Quinine,  20  grs. ;  Dover's  powders,  10  grs.  ;  sub- 
carbonate  of  iron,  10  grs.  ;  mix  with  mucilage  of  gum  arable  and 
form  into  20  ])ills.  Dose,  2  each  hour,  commencing  5  hours  before 
the  cliLU.  should  set  in.  Then  take  1  night  and  morning  imtil  all  are 
taken. 

Age  at  which  Menstruation  Commences.— Dr.  Walter  Rigdcn 
gives  the  sul^iouied  statistics  obtained  from  females  who  were  con- 


MEDICAL  DEPAIiTMENT,  ETC.  1  Gl 

fined  nt  University  jCoUcge  nospitfil.  In  2,G9G  cases  menstruation 
occured  for  the  first  time  : 

At  the  age  of  At  the  age  of 


9  in  3  cases. 

10  "   14  " 

11  "  GO  " 
13  "  170  " 

13  "  353  " 

14  "  5G0  " 

15  "  540  " 
IG  "  455  " 
17  "  272  " 


18  in  150  cases. 

19  "  76  " 

20  "  29  " 

21  "  7  " 

22  "  8  " 

23  '*  2  ** 

24  "  0  " 

25  "  0  " 
2G  "  2  " 


It  tlius  appears  that  it  is  most  common  at  14  ycarg  of  ago,  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  of  the  health  on  the  occurrence  of  theso 
important  periods. 

Atkinson's  Infant's  rnESERVATrrE, — Carbonate  of  magncsij,, 
6  drs. ;  sugar,  2  oz.  ;  oil  of  anise  seed,  20  drops  ;  sal-volatile,  2^  drs. ; 
laudunum,  1  dr.  ;  Byruj)  of  saffron,  1  oz.  Make  up  1  pint  with 
caraway  water. 

Pills  to  tro^mote  Menstrual  Secretion.— Take  pills  of  aloca 
and  myrrh,  4  drs.  ;  compoiuid  iron  pills,  280  grs.  ;  mix  and  form 
into  100  pills.   Dose,  2  twice  a  day. 

Tor  Obstructed  Menstruation. — ^IMake  a  strong  tea  of  smarfc 
weed,  covering  it  to  retain  tlie  strength,  or  use  tlie  extract  of  smart 
weed  instead,  taking  1  teaspoonful  of  the  latter  once  every  3  hours, 
(or  about  10  teaspoonfuls  of  the  tea)  in  warm  water,  sweetened, 
making  free  use  of  hot  batlis  for  the  feet  and  the  lower  parts  of  tho 
body.   It  will  give  gi-eat  relief. 

Injection  for  Obstructed  Menstruation. — Mix  1  to  2  fluid 
drs.  liquor  of  ammonia  with  1  pmt  milk.    Use  thrice  daily. 

For  Obstructed  Menstruation. — Sulphate  of  iron,  GO  grs.; 
potassa  (sub.  carb.)  GO  grs.  ;  myrrh,  2  drs.  ;  make  them  into  3^  gr. 
pills  ;  2  to  be  taken  three  times  a  day,  in  the  absence  of  fever,  "^'or 
Fainful  Menstruation,  take  pulv.  rhei.,  2  drs.  ;  pulv,  jalap,  2  drs.; 
syrup  of  poppies  to  mix.  Divide  into  200  pills,  and  take  night  and 
moruing.  To  check  Immoderate  Flov) — ^Tinct.  of  ergot,  1  oz. ,  liquor  of 
ammonia,  3  drs. ;  mix.    Dose,  teaspoonful  in  water  3  times  a  day. 

Stimulant.— In  Low  Fevers,  ant)  after  Uterine  Hemor- 
rhages. — Best  brandy  and  cinnamon  water,  of  each,  4  fluid  oz.  ;  tho 
yollcs  of  2  eggs,  well  beaten  ;  loaf  sugar  |oz.  ;  oil  of  cinnamon,  2 
drops  ;  mix.  Dose,  from  ^  to  1  (fluid)  oz.,  as  often  as  required. 
This  makes  both  meat  and  drink.  Of  course,  any  other  fl,avoriiig  oib 
can  be  used,  if  ijref erred,  in  place  of  the  ciimamon. 

For  Female  Complaints. — One  of  the  best  laxative  pills  for 
female  complaints  is  macrotin  and  rhubarb,  each  10  grs. ;  extract  of 
hyoscyamus  10  grs. ;  Castile  soap,  40  grs. ;  scrape  the  soap,  and  mix 
well  together,  forming  into  common  sized  pills  with  gum  solution. 
Dose,l  pill  at  bed  time,  or  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  bowels  in  a 
laxative  state. 

For  Disease  of  the  Kidneys. — Boil  1  oz.  of  pareira  brava  in  3 
pints  of  water  down  H  1  pint.    Dose,  a  wincglassf  ul  3  times  per  day. 
11 


MI.DICAL  DErARTMENT,  ETC. 

To  CTTRK  TOMTTiNO  IN  Prkonancy. — Mix  1  fir,  cail/Onate  of 
magnesia;  J  oz.  tinct.  of  Colombo;  oz.  pcppcimint  water.  Dose. 
1  tablespoouf  ul  15  times  a  day. 

llAiiLAND's  Venereal  Cure.— Mix  together  po-wdered  cnbel)f<, 
1^  oz.  ;  balsam  capaiba,  oz.  ;  powdered  gum  arabic,  ^  oz.  ;  cinna- 
mon water,  3  ozs.  A  tablespoonlul  of  the  mixture  to  be  taken  at 
intervals  8  times  a  day. 

Incontinence  of  Urine  of  Old  Peorle.— The  continued  nso 
of  1  to  G  drops  tinct.  of  iodine  has  proved  a  successful  remedy.  For 
oilier  2-)ersons,  put  4  drops  tincture  of  aconite  root  in  a  tumbler  of 
l^ater,  and  use  a  teaspoonf  ul  every  half  hour  mitil  relieved, 

CoivrpouND  Extract  Buchu, — Buchu,  in  coarse  powder,  12  ozp,  ; 
rvlcohol,  3  pts.  ;  water,  G  pts.  are  sufficient.  Treat  the  leaves  by 
maceration  and  displacement,  first  Avith  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  and 
then  with  the  remainder  mixed  with  the  water,  evaporate  the  result- 
ing liquid  with  a  gentle  heat*  to  three  pints,  and  add  2^  lbs,  sugar, 
continue  the  heat  till  it  is  dissolved,  and  after  removing  from  the  fire, 
add  oil  of  cubebs^  oil  of  juniper;  of  each  1  fluid  dr.;  spii'ita  of 
nitric  ether,  12  fluid  ozs.,  previously  mixed,  stir  together. 
'  Anodyne  for  Painful  JIenstruation. — ^Extract  of  stramo- 
nium and  sulphate  of  qumino,  each  IC  grs, ;  macrotin,  8  grs. ;  mor- 
crotm,  8  grs.  ;  morphine,  1  gr.  ;  make  into  8  pills.  Dose,  1  pill  re- 
peating once  or  twice  only,  40  to  50  minutes  apart,  if  the  pain  does 
not  subside  before  this  time.  Pain  must  subside  under  the  use  of 
this  pill,  and  costiveness  is  not  increased. 

Powder  for  Excessive  Flooding. — Gums  kino  and  catechu, 
each  1  gr. ;  sugar  of  lead  and  alum,  each  ^  dr. ;  pulveiizo  all  and 
thoroughly  mix,  t^ien  divide  into  7  to  10  gram  powders.  Dose,  one 
every  2  or  3  hours  until  checked,  then  less  often  merely  to  control  the 
flow. 

Injection  for  Leucorrhcea.— When  the  glairy  mucus  discharge 
is  present,  prepare  a  tea  of  hemlock  inner  bark  and  witch  hazel  (often 
called  spotted  alder)  leaves  and  bark,  have  a  female  syringe  largo 
enough  to  fill  the  vagina,  and  inject  the  tea,  twice  daUy  ;  and  occa- 
sionally in  bad  cases,  say  twice  a  week,  inject  a  syringe  of  the  fol- 
lowing composition  :  For  Chronic  Female  Complaints.  White  vitriol 
and  sugar  of  lead,  each,  ^  oz.  ;  common  salt,  pulverized  alum,  and 
loaf  sugar,  each,  ^dr.  ;  soft  water,  Ipt.   Inject  as  above. 

For  Prolapsus  Uteri,  or  Falling  of  the  "Womb.— lITot  only 
the  cheapest  but  the  best  support  will  bo  found  to  be  a  piece  of  fine 
firm  sponge,  cut  to  a  proper  size,  to  admit  when  damp  of  being 
pressed  up  the  vagina  to  hold  the  womb  in  its  place.  The  spongo 
should  have  a  stout  piece  of  small  cord  sewed  2  or  3  times  througli 
its  centre,  up  and  down,  and  left  sufficiently  long  to  allow  its  being 
taken  hold  of  to  remove  the  sponge,  once  a  day,  or  every  other  day 
at  the  farthest,  for  the  purpose  of  waslung,  cleaning,  and  usmg  tho 
necessary  injections  ;  and  this  must  be  done  while  tlie  patient 
lying  down,  to  prevent  the  womb  from  again  falling  or  prolapsing. 
After  having  injected  some  of  the  above  tea,  wet  the  sponge  in  tho 
same,  and  introduce  it  sufficiently  high  to  hold  the  womb  in  its  place. 
If  pain  is  felt  about  the  head,  back,  or  loins  for  a  few  days  before  tho 
menses  appear,  prepare  and  use  the  following  :  Emmenagogue  Tinc- 
ture.  Alcohol,  1  pt.  ;  red  oxide  of  iron,  1  oz.  ;  oils  of  juniper  and 


MEDICAL  DErAETilENT,  ETC.  .  1 63 

savin,  each  ^  oz.  ;  oil  of  tanscy,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  ergot,  3  drs. ; 
tincture  Spunish  fliee,  4  oz.  :  mix  all,  and  slialve  when  taken.  Dose, 
1  teaspoon  3  times  daily,  to  be  taken  in  mucilage  of  slippery  elm  or 
gum  arable,  and  drink  freely  of  the  mucilage  also  through  the  day, 
or  use  the  following  : 

Ejevienagogue  PiLii. — Precipitated  carbonate  of  iron  and  gum 
myrrh,  of  each  2  drs.  ;  aloes  and  tincture  of  Spanish  flies,  of  each. 
1  dr. ;  and  oil  of  savin,  1  dr. ;  all  to  be  pulverized,  and  made  into 
100  pills  by  using  thick  gum  solution.  Dose,  1  i^ill,  from  1  to  3  times 
daily,  but  not  to  move  the  bowels  too  much.  ^ 

UTERms  Hemorrhage.— Unfailing  cure.  Sugar  of  lead,  10  grsi ; 
ergot,  10  grs.  ;  opium,  3  grs. ;  ipecac,  1  gr. ;  all  pulverized,  and 
Avell  mLscd.    Dose,  10  to  12  grs.  ;  given  in  a  little  honey  or  syrup. 

In  very  bad  cases  after  chilbbirth,  it  might  be  repeated  m  30 
minutes,  or  the  dose  increased  to  15  or  18  grs.  ;  but  in  cases  of  rather 
profuse  wasting,  repeat  it  once  at  tho  end  of  3  hours,  or  as  the 
urgency  of  the  case  may  require. 

In  every  case  of  female  debility  make  a  liberal  use  of  iron,  as  tho 
want  of  iron  in  the  sj'stem  is  often  tho  cause  of  the  trouble.  ^Mix 
fme  iron  filings  with  as  much  ground  ginger.  Dose,  half  of  a  tea- 
spoon 3  times  daily  in  a  little  honey  or  molasses,  increasing  or  lessen- 
ing the  dose  to  produce  a  blackness  of  the  stools.  Continue  tliiij 
course  imtU.  well. 

Imperial  Drops  fou  Gravel  A^^>  Kidxey  Complaints.— Oil 
of  origanum,  1  oz.,  oil  of  hemlock,  ^  oz.,  oil  of  sassafras,  i  oz.,  oil  of 
anise,  ^  oz.,  alcohol,  1  pint:  mix.  Dose,  from  J  to  1  teaspoonful  3 
times  a  day,  in  sweetened  water,  will  soon  give  relief  when  con- 
stant wealaiess  is  felt  across  the  small  of  tho  back,  as  well  as  gravelly 
affections  causing  pain  about  the  kidneys. 

Positive  Curb  fob  Gonorrhcea. — Liquor  of  potass,  ^  oz.,  bitter 
apple,  -I  oz.,  spirits  of  sweet  nitre,  ^  oz.,  balsam  of  copaiba,  ^  oz.,  best 
gum  t  oz.  To  use,  mix  with  pepi')ermint  water;  take  ^  teaspoonful  3 
times  per  day:  cure  certain  in  9  days. 

Celebrated  Pile  Ointmekt.— Take  carbonate  of  lead,  |oz.,  sul- 
phate of  morphia,  15  grs. ;  stramonium  ointment,  1  oz. ;  olive  oil,  20 
d'xops.    Mix  and  apply  3  times  per  day,  or  as  the  pain  may  require. 

Another — Powdered  nut  gall,  2  drs.,  camphor,  1  dr.,  melted  wax, 
10  oz.,  tincture  of  opium,  2  drs.,  mix. 

StajMJIerixo. — Impediments  in  the  speech  may  be  cured,  where 
there  is  no  malformation  of  the  organs  of  articulation,  by  preseverance, 
for  three  or  four  months,  in  the  simple  remedy  of  reading  aloud,  with 
the  teeth  closed,  for  at  least  2  hours  each  day. 

Cold  ijk  the  Head. — Dr.  Pollion,  of  France,  says  that  cold  in  tho 
head  can  be  cured  by  inhaling  hartshorn.  The  inhalation  by  tho 
nose  should  be  seven  or  eight  times  in  five  minutes. 

Camphor  Ice. — Spermaceti,  1^  oz.,  gum  camphor,  |  oz.,  oil  sweet 
nlmonds,  4  teaspoonf  lils ;  set  on  the  stove  in  an  earthen  dish  till  dis- 
solved; heat  just  enough  to  dissolve  it.  "While  warm  pour  into  small 
moulds,  if  desired  to  sell ;  then  paper,  and  put  into  tinfoil;  used  for 
chaps  on  hands  or  lips. 

SniPLE  Remedies  for  Scarlet  Fever. — Open  the  bowels  regu- 
larly every  day  with  some  mild  aperient  medicine,  such  as  castor  oil, 
senna,  etc.  ;  and  keep  the  patient  at  rest,  and  comfortably  warm  ; 


MLDICAL  DETARTMENT,  KTC. 


Fponjjo  tlio  Piirface  with  tepid  water,  two  or  three  times  .1  day  ;  while 
it  is  liotter  tiuin  natural,  admit  fresh  air  ;  live  on  a  bland  diet,  such 
asacu])fnlof  arrowroot,  several  times  a  day  ;  toast- water  for  com- 
mon drink.  Gar<:;Ie  made  of  strong  sage  tea,  honey  and  alum,  or  bor- 
ax, may  be  used  from  tlie  commencement,  if  the  throat  is  affected. 

is'icKVE  AND  Bone  Linimknt. — Beef's  gall.  1  qt. ;  alcohol,  1  i)t.; 
volatile  liniment,  1  lb. ;  sirits  of  turpentijie,  1  lb. ;  oil  organum, 
4  oz. ;  aqua  ammonia,  4  oz. ;  tincture  of  cayenne,  ^  i)t.  ;  oil  of 
amber,  3  oz. ;  tincture  Spanish  flies,  G  oz. ;  mix  well. 

Ckphaiac  Snuff. — Take  asarbacca  leaves,  marjoram,  light  Scotch, 
snuff,  equal  parts  ;  grind  and  sift,  use  like  common  snuff. 

Downer's  Salve. — Beeswax,  4  oz.  •  opium,  i  oz. ;  sugar  of  lead, 
1  oz.  ;  melt  the  beeswax,  and  rub  the  lead  up  in  the  wax,  then  the 
opium,  then  1  gill  of  sweet  oil,  incorporate  all  thoroughly  together, 
j^pread  lightly  on  cloth;  good  for  burns,  piles,  &c. 

Anotheu  Salve.— Burgimdy  pitch,  beeswax,  wliite  pine  pitch, 
and  resin,  1  oz.  each,  mutton  tallow,  8  oz.  ;  goose  oil,  1  gill ;  tar,  1 
gill ;  melt  and  mix  thoroughly.   A  first-rate  salve. 
Whooping  Cough  Syrup.-— Best  rum,  1  pt.  ;  anise  oil,  2  ozg.  ; 


lul,  3  or  4  times  per  day  ;  children  1  teaspoon,  with  sugar  and  water. 

Liquid  Opodeldoc. — ^\Varm  brandy,  1  qt. ;  add  to  it  gum  camphoi\ 
1  oz.  ;  sal  ammoniac,  ^  oz.  ;  oils  of  origanum  and  rosemary,  each  ^ 
oz.  ;  oil  wormwood,  ^  oz.  ;  when  the  oils  are  dissolved,  add  0  oz.  soft 
sonp. 

Green-  Mountain  SAL%Ti;. — For  rheumatism,  bums,  pains  in  tho 
back  or  side,  &o.,  take  2  lbs.  resm,  burgundy  pitch,  ^  lb. ;  beeswax  ^ 
lb.  ;  mutton  tallow,  ^  lb.  ;  melt  slowly  ;  when  not  too  warm,  add  oil 
hemlock,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  fir,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum,  1  oz.  oil  of  red 
cedar,  1  02.  ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  wormwood,  1  oz.  ;  ver- 
digris, ^  oz.  The  verdigris  must  be  finely  pulverized  and  mixed  with 
the  oils";  then  add  as  above,  and  work  in  cold  water  like  wax  till  cold 
enough  to  roll ;  rolls  5  inches  long,  1  inch  diameter,  sell  for  25  cents. 

English  Remedy  for  Cancer.— Take  chloride  of  zinc,  blood- 
root  pulverized,  and  flour,  equal  quantities  of  each,  worked  into  a 
paste  and  applied.  First  spread  a  common  sticking-plaster  much 
larger  than  the  cancer,  cutting  a  circular  piece  from  the  centre  of  it  a 
little  larger  than  the  cancer,  applying  it,  which  exposes  a  narrow  rim 
of  healthy  skin  ;  then  apply  the  cancer  plaster,  and  keep  it  on  24 
hours.  On  removing  it,  the  cancer  will  be  found  to  be  burned  into, 
Jind  appears  the  color  of  an  old  slioe-sole,  and  the  rim  outside  will 
r.]ipear  white  and  parboiled,  as  if  burned  by  steam.  Dress  with 
slippery  elm  poultice  until  sui^x^uration  takes  place,  then  heal  with 
any  common  salve. 

Chronic  Gout — ^To  Cure. — Take  hot  vinegar,  and  put  into  it  all 
the  t'lble  salt  which  it  will  dissolve,  and  bathe  the  parts  affected  with, 
a  soft  piece  of  flannel.  Rub  in  with  the  hand  and  dry  the  foot,  &c., 
by  the  fire.  Repeat  this  operation  four  times  ui  24  hours,  15  minutes 
each  time,  for  four  days  ;  then  twice  a  day  for  the  same  period  ;  then 
once,  and  follow  tliis  rule  whenever  the  symptoms  shoAV  themselves  at 
any  future  time. 

Gout  Tincture. — ^Veratmm  -siride  (swamp  hellebore),  ^  oz. ; 
opium,  4  oz,  ;  wine,  ^  pt.  ;  let  them  stand  for  several  days.   Dose,  15 


l;oHey,  1  pt.  ;  lemon  juice,  4 


Dose  for  adults,  1  tablespoon- 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


165 


to  30  drops,  according  to  the  robustness  of  the  patient,  at  intervals  of 
2  to  4  liours. 

PARAiiYTic  LiNTMENT. — Sulphuric  ethcr,  G  oz.  ;  alcohol,  2  oz. ; 
laudanum,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  lavender,  1  oz.  ;  mix,  and  cork  tightly.  In  a 
locent  case  of  paralysis  let  the  whole  extent  of  the  numb  surface  bo 
thoroughly  bathed  and  rubbed  "with  this  preparation,  for  several 
minutes,  using  the  hand,  at  least  three  times  daily  ;  at  the  same  timo 
take  internall}',  20  drops  of  the  same,  in  a  little  sweetened  water. 

Chaecoal  a  cure  fok  Sick  Headache. — It  is  stated  that  2  tca- 
Fpoous  of  finely  powdered  charcoal,  dranlc  in  ^  a  tumbler  of  water 
%Till,  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes,  give  relief  to  the  sick  headache, 
when  caused,  as  in  most  cases  it  is,  by  superabundance  of  acid  on 
the  stomach.  AVe  have  frequently  tried  this  remedy,  and  its  eilicacy 
in  every  instance  has  been  signally  satisfactory. 

Cathartic  Syrup.— Best  senna  leaf,  1  oz.  ;  butternut,  the  inner 
"bark  of  the  root,  dried  and  bruised,  2  oz.  ;  peppermint  leaf,  4  oz.  ; 
leimel  seed,  ^  oz.  ;  alcohol,  ^  pt.  ;  water,  1^  pts.  ;  sugar,  2  lbs.";  put 
all  into  the  spirit  and  water,  except  the  sugar,  and  let  it  stand  two 
weeks,  then  strain,  pressing  out  from  the  dregs,  adding  tlie  sugar  and 
simmering  a  few  minutes  onl}'',  to  form  the  syrup.  If  it  should  cause 
griping  in  any  case,  increase  the  fennel  seed  and  peppermhit  leaf. 
Dose,  1  tablespoon,  once  a  day,  or  less  often  if  the  bowels  become  too 
loose,  up  to  the  next  period  when  the  headache  might  have  been 
expected,  and  it  will  not  bo  forthcoming. 

CniLBLAixs. — To  Cure.— Mutton  tallow  and  lard,  of  each  ^  lb. ; 
melt  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  add  hydratcd  oxyde  of  iron,  2  oz. ;  stirring 
continually  with  an  iron  spoon,  until  the  mass  is  of  a  uniform  black 
color  ;  then  let  it  cool,  and  add  Venice  turiientine,  2  oz.  ;  Armenian 
bole,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  bcrgamot,  1  dr. ;  rub  up  the  bole  with  a  little  olive 
oil  before  putting  it  in. 

Feloks. — If  rece^tt,  to  Cure  i^'Six  Hours. — ^Venice  turpentine, 
1  oz.  ;  and  put  iuto  it  half  a  teaspoon  of  water,  and  stir  with  a  rough 
stick  until  the  mass  looks  like  candied  Jioney  ;  then  spread  a  good 
coat  on  a  cloth,  and  wrap  around  the  fijiger.  If  the  case  is  only 
recent,  it  will  remove  the  pain  in  six  hours. 

Felon  Salve. — A  salve  made  by  burning  one  tablespoon  of  copper- 
as, then  pulverizing  it  and  mixing  it  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  is  said 
to  relieve  the  pain,  and  euro  the  felon  in  24  hours  ;  then  lical  with 
cream  two  parts,  and  soft  soap  one  part.  Apply  the  healing  salvo 
daily  after  soaking  the  part  in  warm  water. 

Felon  Ointment. — Take  sweet  oil,  ^pt,  and  stew  a  3-cent  plug 
of  tobacco  in  it  until  the  tobacco  is  crisped  ;  then  squeeze  it  out,  and 
add  red  lead,  1  oz.,  and  boil  until  black  ;  when  a  little  cool,  add  pul- 
verized camphor  gum,  1  oz. 

Warts  and  Corns.— To  Cure  in  Ten  Minutes.— Take  a  small 
piece  of  potash,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  open  air  until  it  slacks,  then 
thicken  it  to  a  paste  with  pulverized  gum  arable,  which  prevents  it 
from  spreading  where  it  is  not  wanted. 

Inflaieviatory  lirtEUMATisM.— Sulphur  and  saltpetre,  of  each  1 
oz.  ;  gum  guaiac,  ^  oz.  ;  colchicuni  root,  or  seed,  andiuitmegs,  of  each 

1  oz  ;  all  to  be  pulverized  and  mixed  with  simple  syrup,  or  molasses, 

2  oz.  Dose,  one  teaspoon  every  2  hours  until  it  moves  the  bowela 
rather  freely  ;  then  o  or  4  times  daily  imtii  cured. 


ICG 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


TiiK  CoNSETivATioN  OF  Healtit.— Tliis  important  ol>ject,  fso  neces- 
sary to  the  enjoyment  of  lil'c,  can  only  be  secured  by  conforming  to 
.in  orderly  state  of  existence.  Every  man  is  in  duty  bound  to  'dis- 
cliarge  with  fidelity  the  debt  which  he  owes  to  that  frame,  so  "  fear- 
fully and  Avonderfully  made,"  and  so  well  adapted  by  the  Divine 
contriver  to  fulfil  the  uses  of  life,  by  living  with  regularity  and  mod- 
eration, abstaining  from  every  excess  calculated  to  induce  disease  or 
inflict  injury  cither  on  body  or  mind.   Excessive  intellectual  labor  is 

i'ust  as  fatal  in  its  degree  as  violent  physical  exertion.  We  have  a 
xmentablc  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  remark  in  the  sudden  termination 
of  a  most  useful  life,  that  of  the  late  Dr.  Hall,  Editor  of  Hall's  Journal 
of  Health.  As  is  well  known,  the  fatal  stroke  was  induced  by  an 
overworked  brain,  it  being  his  habit  to  apply  himself  ardently  to  study, 
writing,  &c.,  from  5  in  the  morning  to  10  in  the  evening,  an  impru- 
dence all  the  more  reprehensible  as  it  was  one  which  he  was  continu- 
ally denouncing  in  others. 

Business  men  are  particularly  liable  to  affections  of  the  heart  result- 
ing from  trade  anxieties,  &c.,  and  ia  the  male,  the  number  of  deaths 
frpm  enlargement  of  the  heart  are  as  seven  compared  with  five  in  the 
female.  This  phase  of  mortality  is  caused  not  only  by  intranquillity 
and  worry  of  mind  occasioned  by  lack  of  success*  in  the  grand 
etruggles  of  life,  but  is  too  frequently  brought  on  by  conjugal  infe- 
licities and  disturbances,  which  seldom  fail  to  accelerate  a  crisis  which 
terminates  in  death.  Many  a  well  meaning  man  lays  ijlans  which  ho 
fondly  anticipates  will  result  in  securing  to  him  and  to  those  depend- 
ent on  him,  an  honestly  obtained  competence,  and  confident  of  pros- 
perity, does  his  best  endeavors,  and  often  risks  a  great  deal,  to  ensure 
success,  little  dreaming  of  the  poetic  apothegm,  that  "  the  best  laid 
schemes  o'  mice  and  men,  gang  aft  aglee."  The  result  too  often  is,  as 
many  know  to  their  sorrow,  entire  failure,  and  subsequent  reproaches, 
opprobrium,  asperities,  ascriptions  of  incapacity,  &c.,  are  showered  on 
his  head,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  life,  with  more  frequency  and 
greater  regularity  than  the  dispensation  of  his  daily  bread,  by  the  very 
one  who  should  be  all  gentleness,  alllove,  and  her  husband's  chief  com- 
forter and  consoler  under  misfortune.  This  is  the  most  fatal  kind  of 
mental  trouble.  Inasmuch  as  it  involves  a  grinding  grief  of  mind,  which 
dissipates  happiness,  induces  gloom,  and  tejids  to  destroy  life ;  whatever 
affects  the  love,  which  is  the  real  man,  or  spirit,  reacts  upon,  and 
affects  in  an  equal  degree  the  body  which  contains  that  spirit.  That 
this  is  so,  results  from  the  correspondence  existing  between  the  soul 
and  body,  as  may  be  palpably  manifest  to  every  one  capable  of  inte- 
rior reflection,  and  this  to  such  a  degree  that  to  obtain  convincing  proof 
it  is  not  necessary  to  extend  his  observations  beyond  his  own  experi- 
ence. 

Grief  caused  by  financial  loss  and  the  reaction  which  sets  in  on  re- 
tiring from  business,  after  spending  an  active  life  in  amassing  a  for- 
tune, are  also  pregnant  with  evil  results  to  health.  No  man  has  a 
right  to  retire  from  the  duty  of  making  himself  useful  to  society,  even 
if  he  has  a  fortune,  and  can  afford  to  do  so.  If  he  does,  this  evil, 
like  every  other,  is  sure  to  work  out  its  own  retribution  with  a  full 
harvest  of  unexpected  misery. 

Many  of  the  influences  which  are  patent  for  evil,  and  evil  only,  are 
relf  inflicted,  such  as  the  habitual  indulgence  in  alcoholic  drinks,  wine, 
beer,  &e.,  the  use  of  tobacco,  opium,  and  other  narcotics.  Eighty-seven 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  167 

per  cent,  of  all  kiduey  diseases  are  induced  by  alcohol.  Its  continued 
use  curtails  vitality,  destroys  the  membranes,  generates  disease  in  tho 
brain,  heart,  spinal  cord,  lungs,  liver,  muscles  and  blood  vessels  ;  it 
wrecks  the  system,  impedes  the  circulation,  paralyzes  manhood,  and 
T^)recipitates  premature  decay.  Tobacco,  also,  in  every  form,  exercises 
a  most  baneful  effect  on  the  health  and  anind. 

A  distinguished  French  savant,  the  Abbe  Moigno,  increased  his 
daily  allowance  of  snuff  until  in  1861  it  was  over  20  grammes,  and  he 
observed  a  rapid  decay  of  the  faculty  of  memory.  He  had  learned 
some  1500  root  words  in  each  of  several  languages,  but  found  them 
gi-adually  dropping  out  of  his  mind,  so  as  to  necessitate  frequent  re- 
ference to  dictionaries.  At  last  he  summoned  resolution  to  abandon 
its  -ise,  and  after  C  years  of  abstinence  writes  as  follows : 

'•It  was  for  us  the  commencement  of  a  veritable  resurrection  of 
health,  mind,  and  memory;  our  ideas  have  [become  more  lucid,  our 
imagination  more  vivid,  our  work  easier,  our  pen  quicker,  and  we 
have  seen  gradually  return  that  army  of  words.  Our  memory,  in  a 
word,  has  recovered  all  its  riches,  all  its  sensibility.  That  tobacco, 
especially  in  the  form  of  snuff,  is  a  powerful  enemy  of  memory, 
wliich  it  has  destroyed  little  by  little,  and  sometimes  very  ju-omptly, 
cannot  be'doubted."  With  these  known  ])eruicious  effects  resulting 
from  the  use  of  alcholic  drinks  and  tobacco,  abstinence  from  both 
becomes  an  imperious  necessity. 

Other  most  important  auxiliaries  to  the  maintenance  of  health/  aro 
pure  air,  perfect  ventilation  in  dwellings,  and  absolute  cleanliness  of 
person  (See  Bathinrj).  Keill  estimates  the  surface  of  the  lungs  at 
150  cubic  feet,  or  ten  times  that  of  the  external  body.  During  ordi- 
nary respiration,  16  or  17  cubic  inches  of  atmospheric  air  pass  into 
the'lungs  20  times  in  a  minute,  or  a  cubic  foot  every  5.25  minutes  ; 
274  cubic  feet  in  24  hours,  or  a  cube  of  6^  feet  each  way.  The  lungs 
generate  10.7  cubic  feet  of  deadly  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  remove 
from  the  atmosphere  the  same  amount  of  oxygen,  every  24  hours. 
The  cause  of  nearly  all  the  headaches  in  crowded  factories,  schools 
and  work  shops,  as  well  as  all  the  sleeping  and  snoring  in  churches, 
is  due  more  to  vitiated  air  than  to  any  other  cause.  To  the  same 
cause  is  owing  the  fearful  mortality  so  prevalent  in  badly  ventilated 
city  tenements,  boarding  houses,  cellars,  &c.,  as  well  as  in  houses  built 
on' low  levels,  and  boggy  land  near  stagnant  pools,  inoperative  sev/ers, 
imprisoned  springs,  &c.  Bad  air,  imperfect  ventilation,  uncleanness 
and  ill  health  must  ever  go  hand  in  hand.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
v/liile  the  death  rate  in  the  filthy  eastern  districts  of  London  is  nearly 
CO  per  1000  of  the  population,  in  Wliite  Chapel  it  is  41,  in  Limehouse  it 
rises  to  48,  in  part  of  the  Aldgate  district  of  the  White  Chapel  union, 
it  ranges  between  58  and  59,  or  more  than  double  what  may  be  called 
the  fair  alloitrance  of  25  per  cent.  Yet  it  api)ears  from  the  recent 
statistics  of  the  same  city,  that  in  the  Peabody  Model  Buildings  the 
mortality  has  fallen  to  17  per  1000,  very  near  the  minimum  of  the  most 
salubrious  parts  of  England.  Decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter 
yields  various  noxious  gases,  also  ex^jired  breath,  all  enter  the  lungs, 
poison  the  blood  and  permeate  the  system  ;  therefore  all  impurities 
should  be  kept  away  from  our  abodes,  and  every  precaution  taken  to 
secure  pure  air.   Temperature  of  rooms  should  be  about  60°  Fahr. 

A.S  the  solar  rays  exercise  a  benignant  influence  on  health  and 
purify  the  air  in  dwellings,  therefore  admit  the  blessed  sunlight 
without  stint,  for  good  health  cannot  exist  without  it. 


1C8  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 

As  disinfectants,  the  following  may  be  used  with  goo^  effect 
1.  Quicklime,  to  absorb  moisture  and  putrid  lluids.  Use  fresh  lime, 
Fcattering  it  about,  finely  powdered,  and  whitewash  with  lime.  2. 
•Charcoal  powder,  to  absord  putrid  gases.  The  coal  should  be  dry,  and 
Jrcsh,  mixed  with  lime.  3.  Cliloride  of  lime,  to  gi^e  off  chloride  to 
absorb  putrid  effluvia  and  to  stoj)  putrefacti(m.  4.  Sulphate  of  iron 
(copperas)  1  lb.  dissolved  in  1  qt.  water  and  poured  down  a  water  closet 
will  destroy  the  foulest  smells.  A  quantity  in  an  open  pan  will  purify 
the  air  in  rooms.  5.  Fluid  carbolic  acid  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  1  part 
to  100  or  150  parts  of  water  is  also  very  good. 

Among  diseases  liable  to  be  spread  by  the  distribution  of  organic, 
poisons,  may  be  mentioned  scarlet  fever,  tyi)hus  fever,  typhoid  fever, 
yellow  fever,  measles,  small-pox,  diphtheria,  infectious  ophthalmia, 
hydrophobia,  erysipelas,  cholera  and  glanders.  The  poisonous  par- 
ticles which  effect  contagion,  are  in  every  instance  of  organic  origin, 
nnd  are  evolved  from  matter  composing  living  bodies.  They  float  in 
the  atmosphere,  are  inhaled  by  the  breath,  and  are  absorbed  by  the 
walls  of  dwellings,  hospitals,  etc.,  and  are  liable  at  any  time  to  enter 
on  a  career  of  baneful  activity.  The  walls  of  hospitals  should  be 
glass  lined,  the  better  to  prevent  contamination,  and  means  should 
be  used  to  destroy  the  contagious  matter  by  means  of  chemical 
agents,  such  as  powerful  heat,  nitrous  acid  gas,  bromine,  chlorine, 
iodine,  sulphurous  acid,  etc.  Solar  light  is  another  powerful  disin- 
fectant, and  as  a  means  of  health  has  been  ranked  by  Lavoiser  as 
superior  to  pure  air. 

Dust  is  highly  inimical  to  health,  and  it  is  everywhere  present  in 
the  air  we  breathe.  Its  presence  is  made  manifest  in  a  maimer  per- 
fectly startling,  by  admitting  a  beam  of  sun-light  through  an  orifice 
into  a  dark  room.  It  has  a  most  pernicious  effect  on  the  healtli  iu 
cities,  and  indeed  everywhere,  but  the  air  may  be  filtered  from  the 
noxious  particles  previous  to  entering  the  lungs,  by  the  use  of  a  cot- 
ton-wool respirator.  This  contrivance  possesses  the  further  merit  of 
being  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  admission  to  the  lungs  of  those 
germs  or  poisonous  particles  whereby  contagious  disease  is  propa- 
gated. 

Good  health  is  impossible  without  pure  water.  The  amount  of  or- 
ganic and  mineral  impurities  held  in  solution  or  suspension  by  water, 
is  perfectly  astonishing,  and  wherever  suspicion  of  such  impurities 
exists  the  water  should  be  filtered.  Good  reliable  filters  may  be  pur- 
chased ready  for  immediate  use,  but  wherever  they  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, an  excellent  substitute  may  be  made  from  an  oak  tub  made 
to  hold  from  half  to  a  barrel  of  Avater,  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
family.  Let  it  stand  on  end,  with  a  faucet  near  the  bottom,  or  pre- 
ferably, a  hole  through  the  bottom,  near  the  front  side,  witli  a  tube 
inserted  to  prevent  the  water  from  rotting  the  outside  of  the  tub; 
then  put  clean  pebbles  3  or  4  inches  in  thickness  over  tlie  bottom  of 
the  tub.  Spread  a  piece  of  clean  white  flannel  over  the  pebbles  ; 
now  have  charcoal,  pulverized  to  the  size  of  small  peas  (that  made 
from  hard  maple  is  best),  and  put  in  half  a  bushel  or  so  at  a  time  ; 
pound  it  down  quite  firmly,  then  put  in  more  and  pound  again  until 
the  tub  is  filled  to  within  8  inches  of  the  top,  and  again  put  in  2 
inches  more  of  pebbles,  then  put  a  piece  of  clean  white  flannel  over 
the  whole  top  as  a  strainer.   The  flannel  may  be  washed  occasion- 


MEDICAL  DEPAIIT3IENT,  ETC. 


169 


ally,  toTemove  the  impurities  collected  from  the  water,  and  it  might 
be  well  to  replenish  the  tub  with  fresh  charcoal  ouce  a  year  at  least. 
The  result  will  be  wholesome  water. 

Reckless  exposure  to  cold,  especially  by  aged  and  sensitive  per- 
sons, should  be  carefully  guarded  against.  From  returns  published 
by  the  Registrar  General  in  England,  it  was  found  that  during  the 
winter  months  the  body  wastes,  the  loss  of  weight  varying  in  an  in- 
creasing ratio  ;  that  during  summer  the  body  gains,  the  gain  varying 
in  an  increasing  ratio,  and  that  the  changes  from  gain  to  loss,  and 
from  loss  to  gain,  are  sudden,  and  take  place,  the  first  at  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  and  the  second  at  the  beginning  of  April.  Deaths 
from  pneumonia  and  bronchitis  attain  their  maximum  in  the  months 
of  January,  February,  and  March ;  in  the  succeeding  3  months  they 
decline,  and  in  the  next  quarter  reach  their  minimum,  re-commenc- 
ing to  increase  in  October,  November,  and  December.  Air  saturated 
with  moisture  tends  to  develop  rheumatic  disease,  and  organic  dis- 
eases of  the  heart  which  spring  from  rheumatism. 

During  cold  raw  weather,  aged  persons  should  keep  close  to  the 
house  in  apartments  warmed  by  a  cheerful,  open,  blazing  fire,  which 
is  much  preferable  to  the  oppressive  heat  from  a  hot  air  register, 
steam  pipes,  or  close  stoves.  If  called  out  by  business  during  a  cold 
morning,  do  not  go  out  too  early,  nor  until  after  a  good  warm  break- 
fast, and  be  sure  to  return  before  the  chill  of  the  evenmg.  Add  to 
the  clothing  early  in  the  fall,  diminish  it  very  gradually  in  the 
spring,  eat  with  great  moderation  and  regularity  of  nourisi)ing  diet, 
and  take  a  daily  nap  on  a  lounge,  or  in  an  armchair  for  15  or  20 
minutes  after  dinner,  or  during  the  forenoon.  If  rest  is  broken  dur- 
ing tliB  night,  make  it  up  with  prolonged  rest  during  the  morning, 
for  as  a  rule,  those  aged  persons  will  live  the  longest  who  take  the 
most  rest  and  Avork  the  least,  except  in  a  very  calm,  i)lacid,  and  un- 
excited  way.  During  old  age  guard  against  haste,  hurry,  and  excite- 
ment of  body  and  mind,  for  nothing  can  be  more  dangerous  to  life. 

Authors,  clergymen  and  all  others  engaged  in  intense  mental 
study,  should,  whenever  they  become  exhausted  by  severe  brain 
labor,  at  once  cease  from  further  effort,  and  recuperate  their  ex- 
pended energies  by  taking  as  much  sleep  as  nature  requires.  Nothing 
soothes,  strengthens  and  invigorates  the  brain  like  refreshing  sleep. 

Clothing  should  not  be  worn  in  quantity  to  induce  oppression  or 
unnecessary  smothering,  but  only  enough  to  repel  every  feeling  re- 
sembling chilliness.  Keep  a  clean  skin  at  all  times,  and  as  a  safe  pre- 
caution wear  flannel  next  to  it,  as  it  possesses  a  powerful  influence  in 
modifying  dangerous  extremes  of  temperature.  Dr.  Pettenkofer 
states  that  equal  surfaces  of  various  materials  are  permeated  by  the 
air  as  follows,  flannel  being  taken  as  100:  Linen  of  medium  fineness, 
58;  silk,  40;  buckskin,  ^8;  chamois  leather,  51 ;  tanned  leather,  1. 

The  dress  should  fit  loosely,  should  be  warm  and  light  througiiout, 
and  frequently  changed  to  remove  the  impurities  exhaled  through  the 
skin.  Clothing  contaminated  with,  excretory  matter  is  highly  inimi- 
cal to  health  if  worn  too  long.  In  cases  of  infectious  disease,  the  suf- 
ferer should  be  isolated,  and  the  infected  clothing  and  bedding  either 
destroyed  or  purified. 

Sleeping  apartments  should  be  elevated,  roomy, well  ventilated, 
and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  60°.  They  should  be  free  from  direct 
draughts  on  the  sleeper.    The  mattress,  should  be  hard,  but  may  be 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  KTC. 


easy  and  sprhij^y  if  so  desired.  Feathers  should  not  be  used,  the 
emanations  from  thorn  arc  most  niihealtliy,  and  tliey  generate  an  ex- 
cess of  licat  vvliich  is  very  enfeebling  and  unwholesome.  The  sweet- 
est repose  is  obtained  with  the  head  towards  the  north, — with  tlie  bed 
insulated  by  moans  of  glass  interposed  between  tlie  feet  and  the 
floor,  to  bar  the  passage  of  the  electric  currents,  which  are  liable  to 
leave  the  body  depleted  of  strength  unless  tliey  are  retained.  Guard 
against  sleeping  in  new  dwellings  before  the  plaster  and  paint  liavo 
become  fully  dry.  Thousands  of  deaths,  seeiningly  very  mysterious 
and  pi'incipally  of  aged  persons,  have  taken  place  from  neglect  of  thia 
precaution.  The  natural  allow\ance  for  sleep  is  eight  hours  out  of  the 
twenty- four,  and  the  most  favorable  time  is  from  10  o'clock  until  6. 
Intellectual  labor  is  more  exhaustive  than  physical,  consequently  per- 
sons thus  emi)loyed  require  more  rest  than  working  men.  TlrC  most 
favorable  position  for  sleep  is  on  the  right  side;  the  worst  is  to  lie  on 
the  back,  as  it  generates  a  perilous  heat  over  the  region  of  the  kid- 
neys and  spinal  cord.  Solitary  repose  is  the  most  beneficial  every 
way;  when  two  parties  sleep  together,  each  one  inhales  a  deleterious 
,  effluvia  thrown  off  by  his  neighbor,  and  the  weakest  is  always  the 
greatest  sufferer,  more  especially  is  this  the  case  with  children  who 
sleep  with  aged  persons.  Add  to  this,  electric  changes  are  continual- 
ly taking  place,  which  frequently  cause  unrest,  disquiet,  and  exhaus- 
tion, Avhen  two  sleep  together.  Refreshing  sleep  gives  rest  to  the 
brain  and  the  nervous  system.  The  retina  is  inert,  the  tympanum  is 
placid,  the  nerves  of  taste,  smell,  and  feeling,  are  dormant,  and  all 
the  powers  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  are  quiescent.  Children 
require  more  sleep  than  adults,  and  they  should  get  all  they  will  take 
of  it,  with  a  benediction  and  kind  words  to  begin  with.  It  is  atro- 
cious to  think  of  the  hard  language,  maledictions,  and  downright  liea 
addressed  to  tender  hearted  children  by  many  parents  on  putting  them 
to  bed.  Tliey  certainly  are  not  aware  of  the  grievous  injury  thc}^  in- 
flict by  such  irrational  conduct.  Sleep  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  all 
animal  existence,  and  when  yve  think  of  its  inestimable  benefits,  and 
w^onderf  ul  surroundings,  we  can  only  stand  mute,  and  with  emotions 
inexpressible,  refer  their  origin  to  that  Infinite  Love  which  "  neith- 
er slumbers  nor  sleeps." 

In  dressing  children,  use  care  to  keep  them  warm,  keeping  flannel 
to  their  skhi  during  the  entire  year,  especially  covering  the  extremi- 
ties well.  There  is  a  peculiar  fashion  most  deadly  in  its  effects,  which 
lets  children  runabout  with  bare  legs,  arms,  and  necks,  with  the  low- 
er iwt  of  the  dress  expanded  away  from  the  person,  thus  admitting 
the  chilling  cold  to  do  its  worst.  Such  exposure  would  prove  certain 
death  to  its  parents  in  less  than  a  month.  Keep  the  extremities  warm 
by  keeping  them  well  clothed,  and  thus  keep  up  a  free  circulation,  for 
cold  feet  and  hands  prevent  healtli,  and  are  the  certain  precursors  of 
disease  and  death.  Add  to  this  plenty  of  good  food,  ripe  fruit,  and 
out-door  exercise  ad  libitum,  and  you  willliave  rosy,  blooming  chil- 
dren, as  the  result.  In  the  matter  of  out-door  exercise,  it  might  not 
be  amiss  to  use  a  little  wholesome  oversight  and  restraint,  let  them 
have  their  full  swing  in  the  enjoyment  of  exercise  calculated  to  de- 
velop the  frame,  such  as  running,  jumping,  playing  ball,  driving 
hoops,  &c.,  but  when  it  comes  to  every  day  sport  in  the  line  of  firing 

1)istols,  exploding  fire  crackers,  cracking  whips,  and  an  everlasting 
)attei'iuj  of  toy  drums,  fjc,  then  I  say,  stop  it  at  once,  unless 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


171 


you  wish  to  raise  a  dangerous  boy  and  a  dangerous  man,  for  that  ig 
just  the  way  to  do  it. 

Children,  or  others  who  may  be  afflicted  with  impediments  of 
epeecli,  may  be  cured,  if  the  remedy  is  not  organic,  by  reading  aloud 
for  au  hour  or  two  every  day,  taking  care  to  inhale  air,  and  well  fill 
the  lungs,  before  reading  each  paragraph,  as  the  cause  of  stammering 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  is  the  endeavor  to  speak  when  the  lungs  arc 
empty.  Dr.  Hunt,  of  Regent  street,  London,  a  celebrated  and  suc- 
cessful stammerers'  doctor,  charged  fifty  guineas  for  effecting  cures 
by  the  method  just  noted. 

It  is  only  in  civilized  life  that  we  find  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  health  and  longevity.  The  poets  have  expended  much  rapturous 
sentiment  and  romance  about  "the  noble  red  man  "in  his  native 
forest,  but  a  personal  investigation  of  the  object  of  their  effusions  is 
very  apt  to  cause  a  sudden  revulsion  of  feeling.  A  filthy  person, 
greasy  blankets,  rank  skins,  and  other  unsavory  surroundings,  are 
apt  to  make  short  work  of  high-strung  ideas  in  the  shape  of  poetry, 
romance,  or  sentiment.  Of  a  verity,  "cleanliness  is  next  to  godli- 
ness," and  it  is  indeed  a  most  auspicious  token  that  the  old  mediiBval 
ideas  regarding  the  necessary  connection  betv.^een  filth,  poverty,  and 

fdety,  are  notions  belonging  to  the  past.  Human  life  has  been  abso- 
utely  lengthened  by  the  addition  of  several  years  to  a  generation, 
compared  with  what  it  was  a  hundred  yeans  ago,  all  oAving  to  the 
observance  of  sanitary  laws,  and  it  will  continue  to  lengthen,  just  in 
the  proportion  that  these  laws  are  respected. 

Dr.  Jarvis  iutnnates  that  in  ancient  Rome,  in  the  period  of  200  to 
500  years  after  the  Christian  era,  the  average  duration  of  life  in  the 
most  favored  class  was  30  years,  while  in  the  present  century  the 
average  longevity  of  persons  of  the  same  class  is  50  years.  In  the 
16th  century,  the  average  longevity  in  Geneva  was  21.21  years;  be- 
tween 1814  and  1833  it  was  40.68,  and  as  large  a  proportion  now  live  to 
70  as  lived  to  43  300  years  ago.  In  1000,  only  228  medical  men  live 
from  63  to  72,  and  328  theologians.  lu  the  last  50  years  the  mean 
term  of  life  seems  to  have  increased  from  33  to  41.  In  professions,  of 
those  who  attain  the  age  of  66,  there  are  found  to  be  43  Theologians, 
40  Agriculturists,  35  Men  in  office,  32  Military,  32  Clerks,  29  Advor 
cates,  28  Artists,  27  Professors,  and  24  Medical  practitioners. 

When  man,  by  an  orderly  life,  passes  through  the  various  stages 
of  a  healthy  existence,  from  childhood  to  j^outh,  from  youth  to  man- 
hood, and  from  manhood  to  old  age ;  during  the  decline  of  life  he  grad- 
ually approaches  the  verge  of  natural  decay,  and  death  takes  place 
from  the  gradual  effluxion  of  vitality.  Few  lives,  comparatively 
Bpeaking,  terniinate  in  this  way,  but  when  this  consummation  is 
attained,  and  death,  purely  natural,  takes  place,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  much  in  the  light  of  a  blessing  as  is  natural  birth,  for  it  is  an  orderly 
working  out  of  almost  wise  and  beneficent  law,  and  the  nearer  advance 
we  make  to  this  natural  limit  of  existence  the  better.  Death  is  usually 
regarded  as  a  curse,  and  as  something  very  dreadful ;  there  is  a  death 
wluch  is  indeed  terrible  beyond  all  powers  of  human  conception,  but 
natural  death  is  not  so,  and  is  in  no  sense  a  calamity,  but  a  Avise  pro- 
vision of  Infinite  Mercy  for  man's  highest  good. 

Harassing  thoughts,  meiital  anxiety,  late  hours,  and  worriment, 
are  fruitful  causes  of  disease  in  healthy  persons,  and  of  death  in  cases 
of  illness.   Use  every  possible  means  to  get  rid  of  such  feelings,  and 


172  MKDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 

do  not  fcruplo  to  malco  xiso  of  swch  diversions  or  fimnscmGntm  as  "mil 
effectually  divert  an  invalid's  thoughts  from  hv.hvj;  too  much  en- 
grossed with  self.  When  nature  calls  for  rest  and  recreation,  do  not 
neglect  the  warning.  Guard  against  extreme  fatigue  of  either  body 
or  mind, especially  a  complication  of  both  together.  Keep  the  pas- 
sions under  thorough  control;  in  doing  this  the  good  old  Quaker's 
rule  will  be  found  of  great  assistance,  viz.,  Never  to  allow  himself  to 
f5peak  in  a  loud  tone  of  voice.  Nothing  preserves  health  better  than 
a  placid  temper.  Exercise  and  physical  training  should  not  be  neg- 
lected ;  persons  engaged  in  sedentary  employments  should  resort  to 
exercise,  or  rest  on  finding  their  thoughts  become  confused,  and  labor- 
ers should  not  carry  their  efforts  to  the  verge  of  exhaustion ;  tlio 
lieart's  action  is  greatly  injured  thereby,  and  the  bad  effects  will 
become  ])ermanent. 

Of  all  peoples,  the  Jews  are  notably  the  longest  lived  race ;  the 
reason  is  because  they  live  orderly  lives,  they  take  care  of  themselves, 
so  to  speak,  use  proper  food,  and  abstain  from  pork,  which,  from  its 
liability  to  promote  diseased  conditions  of  the  blood,  and  thence  of  the 
■vyhole  system,  is  decidedly  injurious  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  use  of 
immoderate  quantities  of  meat  has  an  unhealthy  influence  on  the 
body,  and  induces  ferocity  of  the  mind,  as  in  Indians  and  others  who 
subsist  on  it.  Plutarch  was  astonished  to  think  what  appetite  first 
induced  man  to  taste  of  a  dead  carcase,  and  Pope  said  that  the  horrid 
and  shocking  sight  of  one  of  our  modern  kitchens  gives  one  the  imago 
of  a  giant's  den  in  romance,  bestrewed  with  scattered  heads  and  man- 
gled limbs.  Vegetable  food  is  not  liable  to  distend  the  vessels,  load 
the  system,  or  becloud  the  mind,  but  the  heat,  fulness,  and  weight 
of  animal  food  is  unfavorable  to  its  efforts.  Cornaro,  the  dietetic, 
allowanced  himself  to  12  ozs.  of  dry  food  and  14  ozs.  of  liquids  per 
day,  from  the  age  of  40  to  100.    See  Dynamic  Poioer  of  Food. 

In  eating,  select  good  nourishing  diet,  so  as  to  insure  variety  with- 
out excess,  eat  witli  regularity,  without  long  intervals  of  abstinence, 
and  eat  leisurely.  In  drinking,  avoid  taking  large  draughts  of  cold 
water,  drink  with  extreme  moderation  during  meals,  and  avoid  drink- 
ing water  which  has  stood  long  in  rooms  or  in  lead  pipes.  Impure 
water  is  liable  to  produce  malarial  affections.  Tea  and  coffee,  if  used 
strong,  and  in  large  quantities,  are  certain  to  jyroduce  nervous  irrita- 
bility and  brain  excitement,  but  if  used  in  moderation  and  of  mild 
strength,  they  are  most  refreshing  and  pleasant.  Nervous  persons 
will  find  coffee  more  soothing  than  tea,  while  persons  of  a  different 
temperament  will  be  better  suited  with  the  latter.  Beyond  all  doubt, 
and  for  almost  every  purpose,  in  health  and  disease,  pure  water  is  the 
healthiest  beverage,  and  it  certainly  is  the  natural  drink  of  man. 
According  to  Hoffman,  "If  there  be  any  universal  medicine  it  is 
water;  for,  by  its  assistance,  all  distempers  are  alleviated  or  cured, 
and  the  body  preserved  sound  and  fre6  from  corruption,  that  enemy 
to  life."  As  Dr.  Gall  said  of  another  subject,  so  the  writer  would  say. 
here,  that  "  This  is  Tkuth,  though  at  enmity  with  the  philosophy  of 
ages." 

On  Bathikg.— Nothing  is  of  more  transcendant  importance  to 
the  maintenance  of  health  than  cleanliness,  and  this  can  only  be 
obtained  by  the  free  use  of  water,  in  washing,  sponging,  and  bathing. 
The  modes  of  bathing  are  various,  and,  when  rightly  used,  are  mont 
powerful  for  good.    The  rule  is,  the  more  robutt  the  conetiti^tion  of 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


173 


tlie  patient,  and  higher  his  exterior  temperature,  the  colder  should 
be  the  water.  In  bathing  it  is  always  well  to  avoid  taking  a  full  bath 
within  two  hours  after  a  meal,  or  when  exhausted  by  fatigue,  or  when 
cooling  after  perspiration,  or  when  feeling  chilly.  Do  not  drink  cold 
water"  before  bathing,  nor  eat  soon  after  it.  Females,  during  the 
menstrual  period,  should  never  take  cold  baths.  Never  take  a  cold 
bath  while  the  feet  are  cold.  Never  chill  the  body  by  standing  or  sit- 
ting on  the  banks  during  out-door  bathing  ;  enter  the  water  while  the 
body  is  Avarm,  and  avoid  remaining  too  long  in  the  water,  leaving  it 
on  the  first  feeling  of  chilliness.  Exercise  before  and  after  bathing  is 
highly  beneficial!  Feeble  and  nervous  persons  should  guard  against 
powerful  chilling  shocks  from  cold  water.  The  young  and  vigorous 
may  bathe  early  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  gtomach.  Persons  sub- 
jected to  giddiness,  faintness,  palpitation,  or  other  affections  of  tho 
heart,  should  use  a  cold  bath  with  extreme  caution. 

The  Cold  Bath,  usually  taken  in  the  sea  or  in  a  river,  tempera- 
ture from  350  to  65°  Falir.,  has  a  most  powerful,  exhilarating  and 
tonic  effect  on  the  frame,  and  imparts  a  vigorous  glow  and  stimulus 
to  the  system^  It  should  not  be  continued  longer  than  two  or  tlireo 
minutes. 

The  Temperate  Bath,  ranging  fromG5°  to  80°  Fahr.,  is  much 
preferable  to  the  last  for  the  use  of  invalids.  Duration  of  bath  should 
not  be  extended  over  three  minutes,  and  the  whole  body  should  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  dry  with  a  coarse  towel,  to  induce  a  glow. 

The  Full  Warm  Bath,  taken  in  the  ordinary  long  bath  tubs, 
as  arranged  by  plumbers  in  dwellings,  hotels,  &c.,  are  in  the  highest 
degree  promotive  of  health  and  comfort.  Fitted  with  hot  and  cold 
water  connections,  any  desired  temperature  may  be  obtained,  but  for 
the  best  effect  it  should  range  from  90°  to  98°  ;  better  under  that 
than  over  it.  The  benefits  will  be  increased  by  the  use  of  carbonate 
of  soda,  4  ozs.  to  30  gals,  water.  This  rids  the  system  of  much  effete 
matter,  promotes  the  cure  of  disease,  and  thoroughly  cleanses  the 
emuuctories.    After  bathing,  rub  thoroughly  dry. 

The  Hot  Bath,  ranging  from  98°  to  112°,  thoroughly  stimulates 
the  nervous  system,  but  immersion  cannot  be  prolonged  over  two  or 
three  minutes  without  permanent  injury.  Water  scalds  at  150°,  but 
air  heated  to  200°  is  not  painful.  It  is  not  safe  to  tamper  much  with 
£5uch  high  temperatures,  although  Berger  remained  seven  minutes  in 
an  oven,  heated  to  230°.  Blagden  exceeded  this,  remaining  eight 
minutes  in  a  temperature  of  from  240°  to  260°.  Delaroche  could  not  re- 
main more  than  10  minutes  in  a  vapor  bath  at  100°.  Berger  was  obliged 
to  get  out  of  a  vapor  bath  at  a,  temperature  of  122°  in  twelve  and  a 
half  minutes.  The  sensation  in  hot  vapor  resembles  that  of  contact 
with  boiling  water.  Fish  actually  live  in  hot  baths  up  to  150°.  Trees 
also  grow  in  a  bath  at  170°  ;  flowers  near  a  volcano,  at  210°  ;  and 
water-plants  are  found  in  boiling  snrings.  The  king's  bath  at  Bath 
is  116°,  the  hot  bath  is  117°,  at  Vichy  120°,  at  Aix  la  Chapelle  140°. 
In  the  hot  springs  at  Leuk,  in  Switzerland,  the  temperature  of  twenty 
springs  varies  from  95°  to  125°  ;  the  baths  are  given  at  98°,  and,  to 
make  it  as  agreeable  as  possible,  the  patients  bathe  together,  both 
men  and  women,  dressed  for  the  occasion.  In  the  Hermbad,  you 
may  see  the  curious  spectacle  of  people  seated  up  to  their  necks  in 
the  bath,  with  coffee,  books,  cards,  newspapers,  work,  &c.,  before 
them  on  little  floating  tables,  or  gossiping  together  or  with  their 


174  MKDICAL  DEPART3IENT,  ETC. 

friends,  who  look  on  from  the  wooden  Rallory  wliich  runs  around 
the  Willi.  The  waters  arc  both  drank  and  bathed  in,  being  considered 
excellent  for  weak  nerves,  palsy,  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  many 
chronic  complaints.    Elevation,  4(>75  feet  above  the  sea. 

rooK  INIan's  Vapor  Bath.  Ileat  two  or  three  bricks  and  place 
them  under  the  patient's  chair,  sprinkle  some  water  over  the  bricks, 
and  cover  tlie  patient  to  keep  in  the  steam,  or,  a  large  lump  of  quick 
lime  placed  in  a  ])an  or  old  iron  pot  and  sprinkled  with  water,  or 
wrapped  up  in  a  wet,  coarse  towel.  Neither  of  these  methods,  however, 
are  at  all  comparable  to  the  efficiency  of  a  properly  administered  va- 
por bath,  either  i:)ure  or  medicated,  in  which  the  temperature  of  the 
steam,  &e.,  can  be  regulated  as  follows:  Temperature  of  tepid  vapor 
bath,  to  be  breathed,  1)0°  to  100°,  warm  ditto  100°  to  110°,  hot  ditto 
llQo  to  130°;  not  to  be  breathed,  tepid  bath,  90°  to  106°,  warm  106° 
to  120°,  hot  120°  to  130°.  These  baths  have  performed  wonders  in 
cases  of  chronic  rheumatism,  stiffness  of  joints,  indurations,  diarrhoea, 
suppressions,  &c. 

The  Sponge  Bath  is  a  means  of  health  of  such  transcendant  im- 
portance, that  in  the  absence  of  other  bathing  facilities,  it  should  never 
be  neglected  for  a  single  day.  It  is  a  powerful  conserver  of  health, 
and  ailords  positive  relief  in  almost  every  phase  of  disease.  The 
water  may  be  used  of  any  desired  temperature.  Apply  with  a  towel 
or  sponge,  and  when  through  polish  off  with  a  regular  hard  finish 
with  a  coarse  towel,  or  still  better,  two  of  them,  well  laid  on,  the  last 
one  dry,  to  induce  a  glow  on  the  blhx  by  friction. 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

The  Sitting  or  Sitz  Bath,  Fig.  1,  should  be  arranged  to  admit 
of  the  complete  Immersion  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  abdo- 
minal regions,  the  thighs,  &c,,  with  ample  room  for  laving  the  y/ater 
and  kneading  the  parts.  The  cold  tonic  bath  given  in  this  way  is  ex- 
cellent for  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  bladder,  urino-genital  organs, 
piles,  constipation,  &c.  In  case's  of  colic,  spasm,  griping  pains, 
gravel,  suppressed  or  painful  menstruation,  inflammation,  &c.,  it 
should  be  given  warm  in  order  to  prove  effective.  Cover  the  patient, 
if  need  be,  to  i^revent  catching  cold;  The  cuts  are  borrowed  from  an 
excellent  little  work  by  Dr.  Trail,  entitled,  "The  Bath  :  its  History 
and  Uses  in  Health  aiid  Disease;"  published  by  S.  R,  Wells,  New- 
York. 


MBDICAL  DEPAHTMENT,  ETC.  175 

TniE  Head  Bath,  Fig.  2,  is  taken  by  placing  the  patient  on  his 
back,  on  a  mattress,  with  his  head  in  a  shallow  basin  (made  with  a 
depression  in  the  rim  to  accommodate  the  neck)  with  about  3  inches 
of  water,  warm  or  cold,  as  may  be  desired.  A  most  excellent  cooluig 
application  for  affections  of  the  head,  brain,  &c. 


Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 

The  Douche  Bath,  Fig.  3,  consists  of  a  jet  of  water  used  as  a 
stimulant  in  lethargic  states  of  the  system;  also  as  a  remedy  for  swel- 
lings, sprains,  stiff  joints,  rheumatic  affections,  &c.,  applied  directly 
to  the  parts,  as  shown  above.  A  jet  from  a  hose  may  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  the  douche  bath  in  certain  cases. 

The  Shallow  Bath,  Fig.  4,  may  be  used  with  immense  advan- 
tage both  by  invalids  and  x^ersons  in  health ;  the  water  may  be  used 
at  any  desired  temperature,  not  more  than  G  inches  deep,  contained  in 
a  spacious  tub.  The  water  should  be  thoroughly  applied  over  the 
breast, abdomen,  sides,  thighs,  and  extremities;  the  head  should  be 
wet,  and  water,  cold,  or  otherwise,  as  desired,  poured  over  the  neck 
and  shoulders  by  an  assistant.  This  bath  is  excellent  for  brain  affec- 
tions, headache,  &c.  The  bath  may  be  used  for  from  5  to  15  minutes; 
rub  thoroughly  to  dry  and  induce  a  healthy  glow  on  the  skin. 

The  Wet  Sheet  Pack,  Fig.  5.  This  is  a  most  powerful  remedial 
agent  for  invalids.  Immerse  a  cotton  or  linen  sheet  in  a  pail  of  cold 
water,  remove  the  bed  clothes  from  the  mattress,  and  on  the  mattress 
spread  a  coverlet ;  then  two  or  three  blankets,  next,  wring  out  the 
wet  sheet  in  the  bucket  of  water,  and  spread  it  over  the  blanketa.  The 
patient  will  now  warm  his  feet,  divest  himself  of  clothing,  and  place 
himself  at  full  length  on  the  cold  wet  sheet,  with  his  hands  placed  over 
his  breast.  The  sheet,  blankets  and  coverlets  are  now  tucked  in  close- 
ly all  around  his  body  by  an  attendant,  the  head  is  elevated  on  pil- 
lows, and  covered  with  a  wet  cloth.  The  first  sensation  is  that  of  a 
chill,  which  gives  place  almost  immediately  to  a  comfortable  glow, 
gradually  increasing  to  a  sweat.  The  patient  should  remain  in  the 
pack  from  25  minutes  to  an  hour  or  more.    Some  have  been  known 


170 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


to  fall  nslccp  in  it.  To  recoivo  tlio  fullest  benefit,  it  shmild  ho  follo-^cd 
at  once  by  a  j)lnn<:;e  batli  (See  Fig.  (5),  or  thorough  ablution  in  cold 
Avatcr  previous  to  dressing.  'I'hen  rub  with  friction  by  means  of  a 
coarse  towel.  In  cases  of  severe  disease,  the  beneiit  of  this  trent- 
nient  is  manifest  from  the  very  offensive  odor  imparted  by  tlie  per- 


spirations to  the  sheet.  Mercury,  also,  "which  had  lodged  in  the  sys- 
tem for  years,  having  been  taken  under  the  guise  of  calomel,  has 
been  "withdrawn  through  the  pores  by  the  "wet  sheet,  and  detected  in 
its  -woven  fabric.  The  "wet  sheet  pack  is  of  great  value  in  fevers,  colds 
chronic  diseases,  and  general  derangement  of  the  system. 

Spirit_  Vapor  Bath.  The  patient  divested  of  all  clothing  except 
a  night  shirt,  is  seated  on  a  "wooden  bottomed  chair,  and  "well  covered 
before  and  behind  "with  blankets  or  coverlets  reaching  from  his 
shoulders  to  the  floor.  A  saucer  containing  a  few  spoonfuls  of  alcho- 
hol,  "whiskey  or  any  spirit  that  "will  burn,  is  now  placed  on  the  floor 
imder  the  chair  and  ignited.  The  vapor  ascends,  and,  confined  by  the 
blankets,  it  "will  soon  induce  a  copious  perspiration  from  every  pore  of 
the  body  subject  to  its  action.  The  spirit  may  be  replenished  v/hen  it 
burns  out,  but  not  while  burning  or  while  under  the  patient,  owing 
to  the  possilile  resulting  danger.  The  operation  is  highly  beneficial  to 
the  system,  and  may  last  from  10  to  15  minutes,  or  until  a  free  per- 
spiration is  induced.  Be  careful  that  no  damage  results  to  the  patient 
or  his  clothing  from  the  burning  spirit. 

For  Spokgio  Piline,  see  Portable  Bath. 

Sulphur  and  Medicated  Baths. — The  former  is  compounded  by 
mixiiig  sulphuret  of  potassium  4  ozs.  and  sulphuric  acid  1  oz.  in  30 
gals,  of  water.  The  latter  are  decoctions  of  vegetable  or  other  mate- 
rials in  water,  in  which  the  patient  is  immersed ;  or,  it  can  be  applied 
with  a  sponge  if  so  desired,  and  may  be  tepid,  warm,  or  hot,  as  pre- 
ferred. 

The  Air  Bath,  taken  by  exposing  the  naked  body  to  the  air  in  a 
cool  room,  is  very  salutary  and  beneficial.  When  not  carried  too  far, 
it  is  very  soothing  in  its  effects,  and,  in  wakeful  states,  is  promotive 
of  Bleep.  The  good  effects  are  greatly  enhanced  by  friction  with  a 
towel  during  exposure.   The  same  remarks  are  eminently  true  when 


MEDICAL  DErARTMENT.  177 

understood  of  snn-hathing,  or  exposure  of  the  nude  body  to  the  sun, 
•which,  in  certain  diseased  conditions,  has  a  most  vivifying  and  in- 
vigorating effect. 

Galvanic,  Electric,  and  Magnetic  Baths.— The  first  is  taken 
by  placing  the  patient  in  a  wooden  bath  tub  (or  in  a  painted  metallic 
tub),  filled  with,  water  impregnated  with  any  desired  drug.  The  nega- 
tive pole  of  the  battery  is  suspended  in  the  water,  and  a  wire  con- 
nected with  the  positive  pole,  with  a  sponge  attached,  communicates 
with  the  body.  The  electric  current  from  the  positive  pole  enters  the 
body  and  escapes  through  the  pores.  The  effect  is  beneficial  in  the 
highest  degree.  An  electro-positive  bath  is  given  while  the  patieut  is 
seated  on  a  chair,  insulated  by  placing  glass  under  the  feet.  While 
the  glass  plate  of  the  electric  machine  is  being  revolved,  the  patient 
holds  the  prime  conductoi',  and  his  body  becomes  charged  Avith  posi- 
tive electricity'.    The  effect  is  very  stimulating  to  deficient  vitality. 

The  Acid  Bath  is  highly  beneficial  in  liver  and  other  complaints, 
and  may  be  compounded  with  water  acidified  with  vinegar,  or  with 
water,  30  gals.,  muriatic  acid,  14  ozs.  Use  the  latter  in  a  wooden  tub 
or  non-metallic  vessel,  as  the  acid  is  inimical  to  m^etals. 

The  Shower  Bath,  with  cold  water,  never  fails  to  produce  a 
shock  which  nervous  and  weak  patients  find  it  very  hard  to  with- 
stand; but,  to  persons  of  strong  constitution,  it  cannot  fail  to  provo 
beneficial,  for  the  shock  is  usually  succeeded  by  a  most  agreeable  re- 
action. This  bath  may,  however,  be  rendered  agreeable,' even  to  tha 
feeble,  by  tlie  use  of  tepid  or  warm  water,  applied  in  the  form  of  a 
delicate  spray,  x^assed  through  minute  perforations  in  a  tin  vessel 
]:>laced  overhead,  and  fitted  with  a  proper  apparatus  for  regulating  the 
descent. 

The  Foot  Bath  is  calculated  to  produce  the  most  decided  benefit 
in  correcting  cold  feet,  induced  by  liver  complaint,  etc.;  also,  to  relieve 
heat  in  the  head,  caused  by  fullness  of  blood  on  the  brain,  with  cold 
extremities.  In  such  cases,  use  warm  or  hot  water,  with  the  addition 
of  mustard  or  cayenne  pepper.  In  cases  of  swelled  limbs,  ulcers, 
rheumatic  pains,  etc.,  great  relief  vvill  be  obtained  by  extending  the 
treatment  to  the  legs,  knees,  limbs,  etc.,  thoroughly  washing  and  lav- 
ing the  parts. 

The  Mud  Bath,  equivocal  as  it  may  appear,  is  nevertheless  one 
of  the  most  powerful  remedial  agents.  On  the  principle  that  charcoal 
purifies  foul  water,  absorbing  its  impurities,  so  mud  acts  on  the  body, 
opening  the  pores,  withdrawing  effete  matter,  cooling  the  skin,  and 
curing  disease.  If  any  diseased  person  doubts  this,  let  him  put  it  to 
the  test. 

The  Iodine  Bath,  for  adults,  is  compounded  of  iodine,  1  dr. ; 
iodide  of  potassium,  2  drs. ;  water,  20  gals.  For  children's  use,  it 
should  be  weaker.  It  is  not  adapted  for  indiscriminate  use,  but  for 
diseases  affecting  the  glands,  tubercular  troubles,  scrofula,  etc.  The 
iodine  vapor  bath  may  be  used  as  described  under  spirit  vapor  bath. 

The  Turkish  Bath,  by  means  of  dry  heated  air,  is  one  which 
may  be,  and  often  is,  productive  of  much  benefit  in  diseased  con- 
ditions of  the  body,  but  is  most  inimical  to  health  when  used  with 
regularity  as  a  social  enjoyment  or  luxury.  Wherever  it  has  become 
a  national  custom,  this  bath  has  always  proved  the  principal  agency 
in  sealing  the  doom  of  that  nation,  as  witness  the  collapsed  Rome  of 
the  past,  and  the  reeling  Turkey  of  the  present.  In  reference  to  this, 
13 


178 


MEDICAL  DErARTMENT. 


one  of  tho  most  prominent  medical  practitioners  of  the  day,  Dr. 
Richardson,  of  London,  writes  to  tlic  JJritifih  Medical  Revieio,  as  fol- 
lows: "  I  predict  it  will  be  tlic  same  here,  under  tho  same  principles. 
I  predict  that  Avhenever  Englishmen  give  up  the  active  occupations  I 
have  named  (he  had  been  urging  healthy  man  to  spend  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  bath  in  digging,  walking,  rowing,  rifle  drill,  cricketin;us 
etc.),  and,  in  slippered  pantaloons,  luxuriate  daily  in  a  bath,  to  rid 
themselves  of  the  ])rodncts  of  excretion,  then  tliis  country  will  have 
passed  its  zenith.  Then  there  will  be  no  great  hero  to  bid  evei  y  man 
do  his  duty,  no  man  to  do  the  duty,  and  uo  England  for  which  tho 
duty  should  be  done." 

Tiie  foregoing,  presenting  a  choice  of  between  20  and  30  different 
methods  of  bathing,  is  of  great  utility  to  all,  but  especially  so  in  the 
prevention  and  cure  of  the  complex  and  delicate  affections  to  which 
females  are  liable,  and  which  call  for  such  careful  treatment  from 
medical  practitioners.  There  is  room  for  deep  regret  that  this  class 
of  diseases  has  opened  a  wide  field  for  the  operations  of  numerous 
rapacious  and  incompetent  men,  who  are  a  disgrace  to  the  profession, 
and  whose  ravenous  proclivities  and  infamous  ])ractices  blind  them  to 
everything  but  the  acquisition  of  plunder.  The  medical  profession,  as 
a  class,  have  always  been  held  in  high  estimation ;  so  much  so,  that, 
during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  they  Avere  exempted  from 
the  payment  of  taxes;  and  that  there  should  be  so  many  cormorants 
in  their  ranks,  is  regretted  by  none  more  sincerely  than  by  the  respect- 
able members  of  the  profession.  The  real  impostor  is  generally 
known  by  his  resonant  puffs,  in  the  shape  of  advertisements,  in 
which,  while  uttering  the  most  savage  maledictions  against  quacks 
:;nd  quackery,  lie  almost  lays  personal  claim  to  tlie  powers  of  omnipo- 
tence in  the  cure  of  disease.  These  incorrigible  rascals  generally 
parade  a  dazzling  list  of  fictitious  certificates  of  cures  performed  by 
them  where  every  other  doctor  had  failed;  but  they  will  not  hesitate 
to  act  the  thief  as  nearly  as  the  law  allows,  and  strix)  their  victim  of 
his  or  her  last  dollar,  exacted  for  services  fifty  times  worse  than  use- 
less. 

Grateful,  indeed,  should  he  be  who  escapes  with  nothing  worse 
than  the  loss  of  his  money.  The  advertising  quack  is  generally  a 
dead  shot,  sometliiuof  of  the  Dr.  Hornbook  genus,  as  immortalized  by 
J3urns,  very  profuse  in  his  promises  to  cure  disease  and  conceal  in- 
firmities, but  like  his  illustrious  prototype,  very  uncanny,  and  alto- 
gether too  ready  to  send  his  patients  "  aff  to  their  lang  hame,  to  hide 
them  there." 

In  England,  i^revious  to  the  advent  of  the  modern  newspaper,  the 
quack  used  to  transform  himself  into  a  living  advertisement,  by  itin- 
erating through  the  provincial  towns  in  a  blazing  uniform,  dressed 
like  a  mountebank,  with  cocked  hat  and  wig.  Accompanied  by  an 
assistant,  he  would  mount  a  platfoi'm,  gather  an  immense  crowd,  and 
proceed  to  deliver  an  extravagant  eulogium  on  his  profound  skill,  pro- 
digious wealth,  and  the  wonderful  virtues  of  his  pills,  panaceas  and 
elixirs,  as  he  offered  them  for  sale.  The  assistant,  who  seemed  to  an- 
swer to  the  character  of  a  modern  clown  in  a  circus,  would  aid  with 
the  sales,  and  keep  up  the  farce  by  making  witty  remarks  on  the  doc- 
tor's wild  averments.  For  example,  after  listening  to  the  doctor's 
statements  regarding  his  boundless  wealth,  and  great  condescension 
in  cousentino-  to  travel  for  the  purpose  of  healing  the  sick,  as  he  was 


MEDICAL  DEPAKTMEKT. 


179 


not  obliged  to  do  so  for  want,  the  clown  "would  announce  to  the  au- 
dience that  "  The  doctor  tells  the  truth,  we  doant  need  to  travel  fof 
Want,  for  we  have  enoof  of  that  at  hoam."  The  result  is  a  loud 
laugh,  the  crowd  is  in  good  humor,  the  pills,  elixirs,  etc.,  are  sold, 
and  the  buyers  are  sold  at  the  same  time. 

Practical  Dietetic  Economies. — The  following  table,  com- 
piled from  various  authorities,  is  eminently  and  practically  useful, 
presenting  as  it  does  at  a  glance  the  available  percentage  of  nutritive 
elements  contained  in  the  leading  staples  used  as  human  food. 


Eaw  Cucumbers . . 

.  2 

Boiled  Turnips... 

.  4^ 

.  10 

Whipped  Eggs  . . . 

.  33 

.  14 

.  16 

.  20 

Boiled  Codfish  . . . 

21 

Broiled  Venison ...  22 

Potatoes  22}^ 

Fried  Veal  24 

Boast  Pork  24 

Boast  Poultry  26 

Eaw  Beef   26 

"   Grapes  27 

"  Plums  29 

Broiled  Mutton.. . .  30 
Oatmeal  Porridge,  75 
Bye  Bread  79 


Boiled  Beans   87 

Boiled  Rice   88 

Barley  Bread   8i 

Wheat  Bread  9  ) 

Baked  Corn  Bread  . .  91 

Boiled  Barley  92 

Butter   92 

Boiled  Peas  93 

Kaw  Oils  95 


For  further  details  on  this  subject  sec  tables  on  pp.  623  and  765. 
The  figures  present  a  diversity,  but  the  general  results  are  fixed  and 
invariable,  presenting  to  the  economist  the  relative  amount  of  nutri- 
ment supplied  by  each  kind  of  food.  From  the  evidence  presented 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  most  wholesome  and  nutritious  articles,  aa 
oatmeal,  flour,  peas,  beans,  rice,  crushed  wheat,  corn  bread,  etc.,  are 
vastly  superior  to  beef  in  supplying  effective  ability  to  labor,  besides 
being,  in  the  leading  markets  of  the  world,  obtainable  at  about  one- 
third  the  price  of  the  latter.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  nutriment  sup- 
plied by  beef  is  26  per  cent.,  while  the  cereals  yield  from  75  to  95  per 
cent. ;  while  there  is  no  room  for  dispute  as  to  the  comparative 
healthiness  of  the  different  kinds  of  diet.  The  bounding  circulation, 
good  digestion,  and  mental  activity  enjoyed  by  day,  together  with 
the  sound  sleep  accorded  by  night,  to  the  man  who  prefers  plain  to 
luxurious  living,  and  vegetable  to  animal  food,  are  certainly  well 
worth  striving  for.  If  a  fair  percentage  of  wholesome  ripe  fruit  be 
used  with  the  above  noted  diet,  its  value  and  the  enjoyment  of  using 
it  will  be  greatly  enhanced.  After  all  that  can  be  said,  pro  and  con, 
touchin;^  a  vegetable  diet,  certain  are  we  that  the  average  man  who 
limits  himself  to  a  well-selected  regimen  of  vegetable  food  will,  ac- 
cidents aside,  go  through  life  with  a  clear  mind  in  a  healthy  body, 
will  sleep  sounder,  and  come  nearer  the  alloted  age  of  three-score 
and  ten,  have  a  better  digestion,  and  have  fewer  headaches,  than  the 
man  Avho  indulges  in  roast  beef  with  the  usual  variations  ad  libitum. 

Effects  of  the  Solar  Light  on  Lunatics.— Dr.  Ponza,  di- 
rector of  the  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Alessandria,  Piedmont,  having'con- 
ceived  the  idea  that  the  solar  rays  might  have  some  curative  power 
in  diseases  of  the  brain,  the  experiment  was  tried  in  rooms  lighted 
by  stained  glass,  the  walls  being  painted  the  same  color  as  the  win- 
dows. The  patients  passed  the  night  in  rooms  oriented  to  the  east 
and  south,  and  painted  and  glazed  as  above.  One  of  them,  affected 
with  morbid  taciturnity,  became  gay  and  affable  after  3  hours'  stay  in 
a  red  chamber;  another,  a  maniac  who  refused  all  food,  asked  for 
some  breakfast  after  having  stayed  Si  hours  in  the  same  red  cham- 


130 


MKDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


ber.  In  a  bluG  Olio,  a  highly  excited  madman  with  a  straight  waisi- 
coat  on,  was  licpt  all  day,  an  hour  after  he  appeared  much  calmer. 
The  action  of  blue  light  is  very  intense  ou  the  optic  nerve,  and  seems 
to  cause  a  sort  of  oppression.  A  pntient  was  made  to  pass  the  night 
in  a  violet  chamber  ;  on  the  following  day  he  begged  Dr.  Ponza  to 
send  him  home,  because  he  felt  himself  cured,  and  indeed  he  has 
been  well  ever  since.  Dr.  Ponza's  conclusions  from  his  experiments, 
are  these:  "  The  violet  rays,  are,  of  all  others,  those  that  possess 
the  most  intense  electro-chemical  power.  The  red  light  is  also  very 
rich  in  calorific  rays:  blue  light,  on  the  contrary,  is  quite  devoid  of 
them,  as  well  as  of  chemical  and  electric  ones.  Its  beneficent  influ- 
ence is  hard  to  explain  ;  as  it  is  the  absolute  negation  of  all  excite- 
ment, it  succeeds  admirably  in  calming  the  furious  excitement  of 
maniacs." 

Weak  Back.— Take  a  "beef's  gall,  pour  into  it  1  pint  alcohol,  and 
bathe  frequently.    It  acts  like  a  charm. 

Sprained  Ankle. — Wash  the  ankle  frequently  with  cold  salt 
and  water,  which  is  far  better  than  warm  vinegar  or  decoctions  of 
herbs.  Keep  your  foot  as  cold  as  possible  to  prevent  inflammation, 
and  sit  with  it  elevated  on  a  cushion. 

Spitting  of  blood. — Two  spoonfuls  of  sage  juice  in  a  littlo 
honey,  will  speedily  stop  either  spitting  or  vomiting  blood,  or,  take 
20  grains  in  water  every  two  hours. 

Apoplexy. — Occurs  only  in  the  corpulent  or  among  high  livers. 
To  treat — raise  the  head  in  a  nearly  upright  position  ;  unloose  all 
tight  clothes,  strings,  etc.,  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  head,  and 
warm  water  and  warm  cloths  to  the  feet.  Have  the  apartment  cool 
and  well  ventilated.  Give  nothing  by  the  mouth  until  the  breathing 
is  relieved,  and  then  only  draughts  of  cold  water. 

Bbight's  Disease.  —  Dr.  Arthur  Scott  Donkin,  extols  a  skim 
milk  diet  in  this  disease.  "The  first  appreciable  action,"  he  says, 
"  of  skim,  milk  taken  to  the  extent  of  6  or  7  pts.  daily,  is  that  of  a 
most  energetic  diuretic,  a  profuse  flow  of  urine  being  rapidly  pro- 
duced. The  eiiect  of  this  in  Bright's  disease,  is  to  flush  the  urinifer- 
ous  tubules,  and  to  dislodge  and  wash  out  the  concrete  casts  of  dis- 
eased epithelial  cells  by  which  they  are  blocked  np  and  distended. 
The  emptying  of  the  tubules  relieves  their  pressure  on  the  surround- 
ing secondary  capillaries,  the  blood  begins  to  flow  more  freely  through 
them,  the  distension  of  the  primary  malpighian  capillaries,  is  re- 
lieved ;  less  and  less  albumen  escapes  through  their  walls,  until  the 
renal  circulation  is  gradually  restored,  Avhen  it  finally  disappears 
from  the  urine.  While  this  beneficial  change  is  progressing,  healthy 
epithelium  is  developed  in  the  tubules,  and  "the  urinary  excrement  is 
withdrawn  from  the  blood.  In  short,  a  healthy  nutrition  becomes 
re-established  in  the  kidneys  through  the  agency  of  milk,  which, 
above  all  other  substances,  seems  to  exercise  a  controlling  influence 
over  this  process. 

Remedy  for  Gout  and  Rheumatism. — Gum  guaiacum,  1  oz. ; 
rhubarb  in  powder,  2  drs. ;  flour  of  sulphur,  2  ozs. ;  cream  of  tartar, 
1  oz.,  ginger  powder  1  oz.;  make  into  an  electuajry^with  molasses. 
Dose  :  2  teaspoonfuls,  night  and  morning.  Rheumatic  Plaster,  resin  ^ 
lb.,  sulphur  I  lb,,  melt  them  by  a  slow  fire  ;  then  add  cayenne  pepper 
1  oz.,  camphor  gum  ^  oz.  Stir  well  till  mixed,  and  temper  with  neats- 
f  oot  oil.  To  guard  against  rheumatism,  adhere  to  a  regular  diet, 
breath  pure  air,  and  avoid  exposure. 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


181 


INDUSTRY  PROMOTES  BODILY  HEALTH  AND  MENTAL  ACTIVITY. 

Every  true  man  will  most  willingly  concur  in  the  royal  assevera- 
tion of  old  king  Solomon,  that  the  price  of  a  wise,  virtuous,  and 
good  woman,  "is  far  above  rubies."  Poets  of  every  age  and  race;' 
have  sung  her  praises,  and  many  a  man  has  had  abundant  reason  to 


182 


MEDICAL  DEPATITMENT. 


thank  his  Maker  for  an  inestimable  blcssin;?  in  the  companionship  of 
a  virtuous,  loving,  devoted  and  alfe(;tionato  wife.  What  earthly 
prize  can  for  a  moment  be  compared  with  this.  In  her  person  we  see 
tlie  perfection  of  loveliness — modesty,  grace,  and  beauty  ;  in  iier 
voice  we  hear  the  sweetest  music  ;  in  her  mind  we  see  "a  fragrant 
blending  of  the  most  attractive  attributes,  and  the  nearest  created 
a])in'oximation  to  that  Love  which  is  Infinite.  Slierlock  avers  that 
"  The  perception  of  woman  is  as  quick  as  lightning.  Her  penetra- 
tion is  intuition:  almost  instinct.  By  a  glance  she  will  draw  a  deep 
and  just  conclusion.  Ask  her  how' she  formed  it,  and  she  cannot 
answer  the  question.  While  she  trusts  lier  instinct  she  is  scarcely 
ever  deceived,  but  she  is  generally  lost  when  she  commences  to  rea- 
eon." 

Every  one  knows  that  this  is  true,  but  very  few  know  the  reason 
why  it  is  so.  This  we  find  unfolded  in  the  following  quotation  from 
the  illumined  Swedenborg  :  "  The  man  is  born  to  be  intellectual, 
thus  to  think  from  the  understanding,  but  the  woman  is  born  to  bo 
voluntary,  thus  to  think  from  the  will ;  which  also  is  evident  from  the 
inclination  or  connate  disposition  of  each,  as  also  from  their  form 
From  the  disposition,  in  that  the  man  acts  from  reason,  but  the 
woman  from  affection.  From  the  form,  in  that  the  man  has  a 
rougher  and  less  beautiful  face,  a  heavier  speech,  and  a  harder  body, 
but  the  woman  has  a  smoother  and  more  beautiful  face,  a  more  ten- 
der speech,  and  a  softer  body.  Similar  is  the  distinction  between 
the  understanding  and  the  Avill,  or  between  thought  and  affection." 
Again,  "The  male  is  born  into  the  affection  of  knowing,  of  under- 
standing, and  of  being  wise,  and  the  female  is  born  into  the  love  of 
conjoining  herself  with  that  affection  in  the  male."  The  special  at- 
tributes of  the  will  principle  are  ijerception,  affection,  and  every  re- 
sultant feminine  grace,  or  in  one  word — Love. 

The  question  which  eclipses  all  others  in  importance  is,  How  shall 
this  most  precious  quality  be  trained  and  cultivated  ?  Or,  into  what 
channels  should  its  course  be  guided  and  directed  ?  On  this  subject, 
hear  Swedenborg  once  more  :  "Love  truly  conjugal,  considered  in 
its  origin,  and  its  correspondence,  is  heavenly,  spiritual,  pure,  and 
clean,  above  every  love  which  is  with  the  angels  of  heaven  and  the 
men  of  the  church."  Again,  "I  know  that  few  will  acknowledge, 
that  all  joys  and  delights,  from  first  to  last,  are  gathered  into  conju- 
gal love,  because  that  love  truly  conjugal,  is  at  this  day  so  rare,  that 
"what  it  is  is  not  known,  and  scarcely  that  it  is."  We  may  learn 
from  this,  that  love  is  of  heavenly  origin,  and  was  given  that  it  might 
be  used  for  heavenly  ends  and  purposes.  It  follows  from  this  there- 
fore, that  in  order  to  attain  to  a  full  and  healthy  mental  and  physical 
development,  it  is  imperiously  necessary  that  immorality  and  un- 
chastity  in  every  form,  should  be  discountenanced  and  shunned,  for 
it  is  only  in  total  abstinence  from  impurity  and  illicit  pleasures,  that 
we  can  find  immunity  from  ruin,  degradation,  and  death.  This  is 
true  in  the  case  of  man,  and  it  is  still  more  so  in  the  case  of  woman, 
for  in  almost  every  case  after  the  first  false  step,  she  is  led  on  to 
swift  destruction  by  the  ascendancy  of  her  affections,  without  being 
arrested  in  her  career  by  the  wholesome  restraint  of  the  reflective  or 
reasoning  faculties  which  operate  so  powerfully  in  man.  Every 
means  should  be  employed  that  will  operate  to  prevent  such  a  baleful 
consummation.   All  obscene,  immoral,  and  impure  books,  everything 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


183 


iu  the  shape  of  literature  which  tends  to  inflame  the  passions,  pro- 
mote licentiousness,  and  corrode  purity  of  mind,  should  be  at  once 
deposited  in  the  only  place  where  they  will  prove  inocuous — in  the 
fire.  Labor  to  elevate  and  train  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  the  love 
and  practice  of  what  is  good  and  true ;  rule  the  propensities,  and 
hold  them  in  abeyance,  remembering  that  no  victory  is  at  all  com- 
parable with  that  obtained  over  self. 

Perhaps  the  intensest  longin*  of  which  a  good  woman's  heart  is 
susceptible,  is  after  union  and  intimate  conjunction  with  a  worthy 
husband.  It  may  be  no  news  to  inform  such  women  that  nothing 
attracts  the  opposite  sex  to  them  compared  with  a  tender  and  win- 
ning manner,  blended  with  feminine  sweetness  of  temper.  The 
sweet  temper  is  a  crowning  charm,  together  with  the  female  grace 
which  seems  to  solicitand  invite,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  it  modestly 
repels.  Men  never  respect  boldness  or  audacity  in  women.  What 
they  most  desire  to  see  in  them  is  something  in  which  they  are  de- 
cidedly deficient  themselves.  Prof.  Tyndall,  the  scientist,  a  man  of 
great  scientific  attainments,  is  now  fifty-six  years  of  age,  and  but 
lately  married.  On  being  interrogated  by  a  friend  previous  to  his 
marriage,  as  to  what  attractions  he  saw  in  his  intended  which  drew 
forth  his  preference  for  her  more  than  for  others,  the  characteristie 
reply  was:  "Less  dynamic  force."  It  has  been  so  in  all  ages,  and 
will  SD  continue. 

In  every  possible  way  try  to  act  in  a  natural  and  becoming  man- 
ner, without  affectation.  Dress  according  to  your  means  and  sta- 
tion, if  you  will,  but  always  in  a  modest,  imassuming  stj'le,  and  dis- 
card at  once  and  forever  all  those  wretched  shams  and  miserable 
appliances  in  the  shape  of  padding,  painting,  perfuming,  curling, 
tight  lacing,  etc.,  which  arc  calculated  to  ruin" the  health  and  deceive 
the  observer.  Cultivate  kindness,  cheerfulness,  an  even  quiet 
temper,  and  repress  asperities  of  every  kind. 

If  the  mother  be  endowed  with  physical  vigor,  a  pure  moral  char- 
acter, and  is,iu  her  domestic  relations,  a  becoming  model  of  all  that 
is  orderly,  clean,  prompt,  dignified,  kind  and  loving,  she  is  certain  in 
the  very  nature  of  things,  to  transmit  these  beneficient  qualities  to 
her  offspring,  and  through  them  a  blessing  to  society.  Let  all  parents 
know  that,  by  a  law  from  which  there  is  no  appeal,  those  very  quali- 
ties and  endowments  of  mind  which  they  cultivate  in  themselves,  be 
they  good  or  evil,  they  by  that  very  act  implant  in  their  posterity. 

The  most  powerful  means  for  the  repression  of  evil  and  the  elimi- 
nation of  good,  is  constancy  in  some  useful  employment  of  body  or 
mind.  Useful  industry  promotes  bodily  health,  enhances  every 
female  grace,  sweetens  the  temper,  and  beautifies  the  countenance. 
It  is  the  great  safety-valve  which,  by  Divine  appointment,  is  designed 
to  absorb  and  utilize  the  surplus  energy  dispensed  to  every  healthy 
human  being  during  the  prime  of  life,  and  which,  if  spent  in  idle- 
ness, frivolity,  dissipation,  or  senseless  gossiping,  is  certain  to  pro- 
duce the  most  malignant  evils. 

Ladies  should  never  neglect  pure  air,  and  abundant  out-door  ex- 
ercise, cither  in  walldng,  carriage,  or  horseback  riding.  Confinement 
in  close  rooms,  with  stove  or  furnace  heat,  is  most  unfavorable  to 
robust  health.  It  is  all  important,  in  consideration  of  the  perform- 
ance of  those  high  and  holy  functions  entrusted  to  woman,  that  the 
beautiful,  delicate,  and  exquisitely  constructed  body  by  which  those 
functions  are  accomplished,  should  be  kept  attuned  to  the  most  per- 


184 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


feet  stato  of  hCcalth.  Tlio  mind  slionld  1)0  kept  free  from  moral  coa- 
fciiniuation  of  every  kind,  and  trained  to  habits  of  pure  thought, 
sobriety  and  stability.  Nothing  can  be  of  greater  importance  to 
humanity  than  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  physical  and  mental 
equilibrium  of  woman.  The  weal  or  woe  of  the  human  race  seem  to 
turn  on  this  primary  essential  as  on  a  pivot.  AVhat  our  children  are, 
is  in  a  great  jneasure  v/liat  tlieir  mother's  have  made  them,  for  intho 
turn  on  this  primary  essential  as  on  a  pivot.  V/liatonr  children  are 
is  in  a  great  measure  what  their  mothers  have  made  them,  for  iu  tho 
very  nature  of  things,  children  are  in  the  motlier's  hand,  like  plas- 
tic wax  under  the  seal,  and  the  impression  is  generally  in  harmony 
cither  with  what  she  has  taught  them  or  neglected  to  teach. 

Equally  important  is  the  duty  incumbent  on  every  female  to  vigi- 
lantly guard  against  forming  matrimonial  engagements  with  men  of 
defective  health  or  vitiated  morals.  Tho  neglect  of  this  wise  precau- 
tion has  caused  an  extent  of  misery  and  wretchedness  beyond  all 
human  conception.  On  this  subject,  one  of  the  ablest  living  medical 
men.  Dr.  B.  W,  Richardson,  of  London,  England,  remarks  as  fol- 
lows: "The  first  step  tov/ards  the  reduction  of  diseases  is,  beginning 
at  the  beginning,  to  provide  for  the  health  of  tho  unborn.  If  ihe 
intermarriage  of  disease  were  considered  in  the  same  light  as  the 
intermarriage  of  poverty,  the  hereditary  transmission  of  disease 
Tv^ould  be  at  an  end  in  three,  or  at  most,  four  generations."  He  re- 
marks in  another  place,  "  Greater  care  than  is  at  present  manifested, 
ought  to  be  taken  witii  women  who  are  about  to  become  mothers." 

As  many  estimable  ladies  are  pardonably  anxious  about  their 
chances  for  marriage,  the  following  curious  statement,  by  Dr.  Gran- 
ville, is  drawn  up  from  the  registered  cases  of  876  married  women  in 
France.  It  is  the  first  table  ever  constructed  to  exhibit  to  ladies  their 
chances  of  marriages  at  various  ages.  Of  the  870  tabulated,  there 
were  married  : — 

Years  of  age.        Years  of  age.        Years  of  age.       Years  of  age. 
3  at  13  118  at  20  28  at  27  5  at  34 

11  at  14  81)  at  21  22  at  28  3  at  35 

16  at  15  85  at  23  17  at  29  0  at  .36 

43  at  16  59  at  23  0  at  30  2  at  37 

45  at  17  53  at  24  7  at  31  0  at  38 

77  at  18  30  at  25  5  <at  32  1  at  30 

115  at  19  "  24  at  26  7  at  33  0  at  40 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  women,  and  men,  too,  in  England, 
Canada,  and  the  Northerji  States,  are  no  nearer  maturity  at  20,  than 
the  French  at  18.  This  is  owing  to  the  Avarm  climate,  which  in 
France  accelerates  maturity  with  greater  rapidity  than  in  more 
northern  climes.  From  salutary  experience,  it  would  be  safe  to  say 
that  the  best  results  would  follow,  did  our  girls  not  marry  until  after 
20,  and  our  men  till  after  22,  or  ev^n  24. 

Women  married  at  25,  live  four  years  longer  than  unmarried 
ones;  72  married  women  live  to  45,  for  52  unmarried.  Among  mar- 
ried men,  41  attain  45,  for  18  unmarried.  At  60,  there  are  48  married  men 
for  11  unmarried.    At  80,  the  numbers  are  9  married  for  3  uimiarried. 

CEREBRO-SpiNAii  MENINGITIS,  OR  SPOTTED  Feyer,  is  fre- 
quently caused  by  bad  diet,  malaria,  cold,  repression  of  the  secre- 
tions, changeable  weather,  etc.  It  is  a  most  malignant  trouble,  con- 
sisting of  inflammation  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  There  is 
fever,  pain  in  the  her.d,  rigidity  of  the  muscles,  intense  thirst,  ter- 
rible pain,  and  an  abundance  of  purple  spotj.    The  head  is  forced 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


185 


backward  with  fearful  agony,  the  intense  suffering  Induces  prostra- 
tions, stupidity'-,  deafness, — in  some  cases  blindness,  and  if  the  dis- 
ease is  not  restrained  by  sltilf  ul  treatment,  insensibility  and  deatli. 
in  treating  this  disease,  keep  the  bowels  open,  and  the  body  warm: 
immersion  in  a  hot  bath,  made  strong  with  salt  and  mustard,  is  good 
to  bring  the  blood  to  the  surface.  Another  way  is  to  wrap  the  body 
in  a  woollen  blanket  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  place  outside  of  the 
blanket  bottles  filled  with  hot  water,  and  cover  over  close,  as  de- 
scribed under  the  wet  sheet  pack  ;  this  will  induce  a  copious  perspir- 
ation and  afford  relief.  Warm  ginger  tea  is  useful  to  generate  inter- 
nal heat,  and  tincture  of  pepper  for  outward  application,  Avith  fric- 
tion on  the  skin.  If  the  pulse  is  high,  give  two  to  three  drops  ex- 
tract of  Veratrum  viride  (American  Hellebore),  every  hour,  diluted 
by  adding  1  teaspoonful  of  water  to  eaoh  drop  of  the  extract.  Guard 
against  constipation,  retention  of  urine,  convulsions,  etc.,  and  if  the 
head  is  severely  pained,  relieve  by  dry  cupping  over  the  neck  and  spine. 

Croup  Syrup. — Crushed  blood  root,  2  teaspoonful s  ;  vinegar,  2 
gills  ;  white  sugar,  8  tablespoonf  uls ;  boil  all  together  and  strain. 
Dose,  from  |to  1  teaspoonful  every  hour  or  half  hour,  (warm)  accord- 
ing to  the  severity  of  the  case.  Sponge  the  body  with  strong  salera- 
tus  water,  and  if  inflammation  exists,  give,  for  a  child  of  1  year,  a 
teaspoonful  (every  hour)  of  a  mixture  of  5  drops  of  veratrum  in  20 
teaspoonfuls  of  water. 

Sulphuric  Ether.— Rectified  spirit,  3  lbs. ;  sulphuric  acid,  2  lbs. 
carbonate  of  potassa  (previously  ignited),  1  oz. ;  pour  2  lbs.  of  the 
spirit  into  a  glass  retort,  add  the  acid,  place  the  vessel  on  a  sand 
bath,  so  that  the  liquor  may  boil  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  ether  as 
it  forms,  pass  over  into  a  well  cooled  receiver;  continue  the  distilla- 
tion until  a  heavier  fluid  begins  to  pass  over,  then  lower  the  heat, 
add  the  remainder  of  the  spirit,  and  distil  as  before ;  .  pour  off  the 
fiupernatent  portion,  add  the  carbonate  of  potassa  for  one  hour; 
finally,  distil  the  ether  from  a  large  retort,  and  keep  it  in  a  Avell- 
fctoppered  bottle. 

Chloroform. — Take  chloride  of  lime(in  j)owder),  4  lbs.;  water, 
12  lbs. ;  mix  in  a  capacious  retort  or  still,  add,  of  rectified  spirit,  12 
fluid  ozs.,  and  cautiously  distil,  as  long  as  a  dense  liquid,  which  sinks 
in  tlie  water  it  passes  over  with,  is  produced  ;  separate  this  from  the 
water,  agitate  it  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and,  lastly,  rectify  from 
carbonate  of  baryta.  The  only  safe  way  known  of  purifying  chloro- 
form, consists  in  agitation  with  jmre  water  and  redistillation. 

Prof.  Nussbaum  has  succeeded  in  prolonging  the  ansesthesia  in- 
duced by  chloroform,  by  the  sub-cutaneous  injection  of  a  solution 
containing  1  gr.  of  acetate  of  morphia.  In  one  case  the  patient  slept 
12  hours  and  underwent  a  painful  operation,  without  any  sensation 
whatever.  The  injection  performed  without  the  previous  inhalation 
of  chloroform,  produced  no  such  effect. 

Carbonic  Oxide  Gas,,  is  inflammable,  but  arrests  animal  life. 
Carbonic  Acid  Gas  may  be'  liquefied  as  follows  : — Get  a  strong  iron 
bottle,  strong  enough  to  resist  a  pressure  of  40  atmospheres,  or  600 
lbs.  to  the  square  inch  ;  put  into  it  about  4  ozs.  of  sodic  bicarbonate, 
and  a  small  pot  containing  about  the  same  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
Insert  the  latter  carefully,  so  as  not  to  spill  any  :  close  the  bottle  with 
an  air  tight  cap,  surround  by  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  and  upset  the 
inner  pot.  The  gas  becomes  condensed  and  liquified  in  tlie^  bottle, 
and  on  opening  the  bottle,  by  means  of  a  stop-cock  in  the  lid,  will 
rush  out,  and  part  will  fall  clown  in  a  frozen  stiito  like  snow,   A  jet 


183 


MEDICAL  DErART.MENT. 


of  tho  liquid  carbonic  acifl,  tlircoted  on  the  bulb  of  a  spirit  thermom- 
eter, made  it  fall  to  11)4°  below  zero.  A  jet  passed  into  a  pliial  is  ex- 
panded 400  times,  and  the  cold  solidifies  it  as  a  white  powder.  Then, 
if  the  finder  is  i)laced  on  the  powder,  tho  expansion  repels  the  finger, 
the  cold  being  231°  below  zero  !  It  is  too  dangerously  cold  for  medi- 
cal applications,  but  a  mixture  of  salt  and  finely  br9kcn  ice,  have 
been  used  to  promote  immunity  from  pain  during  amputation,  and  in 
cases  of  severe  headache.  Anaisthesia  may  also  be  produced  by 
projecting  a  spray  of  sulphuric  ether  and  rhigoline,  which  produces  a 
temporary  freezing,  during  which  time  an  operation  may  be  per- 
formed without  pain  to  the  patient,  after  which  the  parts  thaw,  and 
sensibility  returns. 

KULES  TO  BE  FOIiLOWED  BY  THE  By-STANDERS  IN"  CASE  OF  IN- 
JURY BY  MACHINERY  &c.,  WHERE  Surgical,  Assistance  cannot 
BE  OBTAiNED,~In  cascs  of  scvcre  shock,  inducing  paleness,  chillinesa, 
and  prostration,  place  the  sufferer  on  a  bed  with  the  head  but  slight- 
ly raised,  keep  up  warmth  by  wrapping  him  in  blankets  and  coverlets, 
assisted  by  bottles  containing  hot  water,  or  by  warm  bricks,  wrap- 
ped in  cloths,  and  applied  to  the  armpits,  sides,  feet,  &c. ,  stimulato 
with  table  spoonful  doses  of  whiskey  or  brandy  every  15  or  20  minutes, 
until  partial  recovery,  and  nourish  by  giving  strong  soup  occasionally. 
If  the  patient  is  not  bleeding,  do  not  bind  the  limb  tight,  but  cover 
the  bruised  part  lightly  with  rags. 

If  bleeding  results,  do  not  try  to  stop  it  by  binding  uj)  the  wound, 
but  find  the  artery  by  its  beating,  and  place  a  firm  and  smooth  wad 
made  of  cloth  or  rags  rolled  up,  or  any  round  smooth  article  of  proper 
size,  wrapped  up  and  place  over  the  artery  as  shown  m  the  figures, 
tie  a.  handkerchief  around  the  limb  and  tighten  up ;  put  a  stick  through 
undsM'  the  handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  B,  giving  it  just  enough  of 
twist  to  stop  the  bleeding,  then  enter  one  end  of  the  stick  under  the 
handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  C,  to  secure  the  bind.  When  the  leg 
is  bleeding  below  the  knee,  apply  the  pad  over  the  artery  at  the  back 
of  the  thigh,  as  shown  at  C,  on  Fig.  A,  and  secure  in  front  as  above 
described.   


The  artery  in  the  thigh  runs  along  the  inner  side  of  the  muscle  in 
front  near  the  bone.  A  little  above  the  knee,  it  passes  to  the  back  of 
the  bone.  In  injuries  at  or  above  the  knee,  apply  the  compress  high 
up  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  at  the  point  where  two  thumbs  meet 
at  C  ,on  Fig.  D,  with  the  knot  on  the  outer  side  of  the  thigh. 

The  artery  in  the  arm  runs  down  the  inner  side  of  the  large  muscle 
in  front,  quite  close  to  the  bone;  low  down  it  gets  further  forward 
towards  the  bend  of  the  elbow.  It  is  most  easily  found  and  com- 
pressed a  little  above  the  middle  at  C,  as  shown  on' Fig.  E. 

Examine  the  limb  from  time  to  time,  and  relax  the  compression  if 
it  becomes  very  cold  or  purple,  but  tighten  the  handkerchief  again  in 
case  of  bleeding. 

To  transport  an  injured  person,  make  a  soft  bed  for  the  injured 
part,  of  straw,  folded  coverlets,  &c. ,  laid  on  a  board,  with  side-pieces 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


187 


of  board  nailed  on,  -when  this  can  bo  done.  If  possible  let  the  patient 
be  laid  on  a  door,  shutter,  settee,  or  other  firm  support  comfortably 
covered,  and  carry  him  steadily.  Send  for  a  physician  in  all  cases. 
For  Burks  and  Scalds,  consult  the  Engineers'  Department  under  that 
item. 

For  Bruises,  use  tepid  applications  at  first.  After  inflammation  sub- 
sides, use  stimulating  applications,  as  vinegar  and  water,  or  camphor- 
ated liniment. 

For  Sprains,  elevate  the  limb ;  keep  the  joint  easy ;  apply  tepid 
lotions  or  fomentations.  When  inflammation  subsides,  apply  stimulat- 
ing liniments,  and  shower  the  part  alternately  with  cold  and  tepid 
■water. 

FoK  Numbness  from  Cold. — Restore  warmth  gradually,  in  pro- 
l)ortion  as  circulation  in  the  parts  or  body  increases. 

For  a  Frozen  Limb. — ^Rub  v/ith  snow,  and  place  in  cold  -water 
for  a  short  time.  When  sensation  returns,  place  again  in  cold  water; 
;idd  heat  verij  gradually,  by  adding  warm  water.  If  apparently  dead 
or  insensible,  strip  entirely  of  clothes,  and  cover  body,  Avith  exception 
of  mouth  and  nostrils,  with  snoio  c  ice-cold  ivater.  When  the  body 
is  thawed,  dry  it,  place  it  in  a  cold  bed ;  rub  with  warm  hands  under 
the  cover;  continue  this  for  hours.  If  life  appears,  give  small  injec- 
tions of  camphor  and  water;  put  a  drop  of  spts.  camphor  on  the 
tongue;  then  rub  body  -with  spirits  and  water,  finally  with  spirits; 
then  give  tea,  coffee,  or  brandy  and  water. 

In  Apparent  Death  from  Breathing  Noxious  Vapors.— Ex- 
pose the  person  to  the  air;  sprinkle  cold  water  on  face  and  head;  rub 
strong  vinegar  about  nostrils ;  give  drink  of  vinegar  and  water.  If 
suffocated  by  breathing  charcoal  fumes,  treat  in  the  same  manner,  and 
excite  breathing  as  directed  in  cases  of  drowning. 

Dr.  M.  Hall's  Directions  for  Restoring  the  Apparently 
Drowned. — 1.  Send  for  a  physician  in  all  cases.  2.  Treat  the  patient 
instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air,  freely  exposing  the  face, 
neck,  and  chest  to  the  breeze,  except  in  cold  weather.  3.  In  order 
to  CLEAR  THE  THROAT,  place  the  patient  gently  on  the  face  with  one 
wrist  under  the  forehead,  that  all  fluid,  and  the  tongue  itself  may  fall 
forward,  and  leave  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe  free.  4.  To  ex- 
cite RESPIRATION,  tum  the  patient  slightly  on  his  side,  and  apply 
some  irritating  or  stimulating  agent  to  the  nostrils,  as  veratrine, 
DILUTE  AMMONIA,  &c,,  OY  snuff,  or  apply  a  feather  to  the  throat.  5. 
Make  the  face  warm  by  brisk  friction;  then  dash  cold  Avater  upon  it. 
C.  If  not  successful,  lose  no  time,  but,  to  imitate  respiration, 
place  the  patient  on  his  side,  and  a  little  beyond;  then  again  on 
the  face,  and  so  on  alternately.  Repeat  these  movements  deliberately 
and  perse veringly  15  times  only  in  a  minute.  (When  the  patient 
lies  on  the  breast,  this  cavity  is  compressed  by  the  weight  of  the 
bodj^,  and  expiration  takes  place.  When  he  is  turned  on  the  side  this 
pressure  is  removed,  and  inspiration  occurs).  7.  When  the  prone 
position  is  resumed,  make  a  uniform  and  efficient  pressure  along 
the  spine,  removing  the  pressure  immediately,  before  rotation  on  the 
side.  (The  pressure  augments  the  expiration ;  the  rotation  commences 
?)ispiration).  Continue  these  measures.  8.  Rub  the  limbs  upward 
YAiTH  FIRM  PRESSURE,  and  with  energy.  (The  object  being  to  aid  the 
retur  1  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart).  9.  Substitute  for  the  patient's 
wet  clothmj,  if  possible,  such  other  covering  as  can  bo  instantly  pro- 


188 


MEDICAL  DErAllTMENT. 


cured,  ciich  by-Btander  piipplyin;?  a  co.at  or  vest,  &c.  MGantiinft,  and 
fi-oiutiine  to  time,  to  kxcitk  imspikation,  let  the  surfjice  oltne  body 
be  SLArrEi)  briskly  with  the  hand.  10.  Kub  the  body  briskly  till  it 
is  warm  and  dry,  then  dash  cold  water  ux)on  it,  and  repeat  the 
rubbing. 

Avoid  tlie  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  as  it  involves  a  dan- 
GEKOUS  LOSS  OF  timk;  also,  the  use  of  ukllowh,  or  any  forcing  in- 
strument, and  ALL  KOUCII  THEATMEJn'T. 

llULics  FOB  Accidents  on  Water. — When  upset  in  a  boat  or 
thrown  into  the  water  and  unable  to  swim,  draw  the  breath  in  well; 
keep  the  mouth  tight  shut;  do  not  struggle  and  throw  the  arms  up, 
but  yield  quietly  to  the  water;  hold  the  head  well  up,  and  stretch  out 
the  hands  only  &e/oz<;  the  water;  to  throw  the  hands  or  feet  vp  will 
pitch  the  body  hdow  the  water,  hands  or  feet  up  will  j^itch  the  body 
head  doivn,  and  cause  the  whole  person  to  go  immediately  under 
water.    Keep  the  head  above,  and  every  thing  else  under  water. 

Everyone  should  learn  to  swim ;  no  animal,  aquatic  fowl,  or  reptilo 
requires  to  be  taught  this,  for  they  do  it  naturally.  Few  persons 
exist  who  have  not  some  time  or  other,  seen  a  bullfrog  perform  his 
masterly  movements  in  the  w^ater,  and  it  would  detract  from  no  one's 
dignity  to  take  a  few  lessons  from  him.  In  learning,  the  beginner 
might  sustain  himself  by  a  plank,  a  block,  of  Avood,  an  attachment 
composed  of  cork,  an  inflated  bladder,  a  flying  kite,  or  a  stout  cord 
r.ttached  to  a  long  rod  lield  by  an  assistant  on  the  land.  Learn  to 
swim  cost  ivhat  it  will. 

An  officer  of  the  New  Tork  police  force  wears  three  medals,  and 
receives  $50  per  month,  from  the  Life  Saving  Benevolent  Association. 
He  has  saved  12  lives  from  death  by  drowning,  but  he  says  that  when 
a  boy  he  received  a  thrashing  every  night  from  bis  father  for  going  in 
swimming. 

Oxygen  Gas. — 1.  Use  red  oxide  of  mercury;  heat  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  or  ignited  charcoal  in  a  green  glass  retort,  or  in  a  short  tube  of 
Bohemian  glass,  closed  with  a  perforated  cork  furnished  Avith  a  piece 
of  bent  glass  tube  of  small  bore  to  convey  the  liberated  gas  to  tho 
vessel  arranged  to  receive  it.  Pure.  1  oz.  yields  about  100  cubic 
inches.  2.  Treat  chlorate  of  potassa  as  above.  Pure.  Product  100 
cubic  inches  of  gas  from  100  grains.  3.  Bichromate  of  potassa,  3 
parts;  oil  of  vitriol,  4  parts;  heat  gently  as  before  ;  yields  pure  oxy- 
gen very  freely  and  rapidly.  4.  Binoxide  of  manganese  and  oil  of 
vitriol,  equal  parts :  treat  as  the  last.  Product,  256  cubic  inches  from 
1  oz.  binoxide.  5.  On  the  larr/e  scale  ;  expose  nitre  to  a  dull  red  heat 
in  an  iron  retort  or  gun  barrel,  Product,  1200  cubic  inches  of  gas 
(from  1  lb.  nitre),  contaminated  more  or  less  with  nitrogen.  6.  Treat 
f/ood  commercial  binoxide  of  manganese,  as  the  last.  Product,  1500 
"to  1600  cubic  inches,  or  from  5  to  6  gals,  from  1  lb.  of  binoxide.  7. 
Chlorate  of  potassa  1^  lbs. ;  binoxide  of  manganese,  |  lb. ;  treat  as 
the  last.  Gas  procured  from  manganese  or  nitre,  may  be  purified  by 
passing  it  through  lime  w^ater.  When  required  for  nice  experiments, 
the  first  gas  should  be  allowed  to  pass  away,  or  else  be  gathered 
separately,  as  it  is  apt  to  be  impure.  Oxygen  gas  is  the  supporter  of 
vitality  and  fire,  and  is  often  used  as  a  remedial  agent  in  asphyxia, 
arising  from  the  inhalation  of  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  oxide.  It 
was  first  discriminated  as  a  distinct  gas,  by  Priestly,  in  1774. 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  189 

German  Riieuimatic  Fluid. — Oils  of  hemlock  and  cedar,  of  each 
^  oz.,  oils  of  origanum  and  sassafras,  each  1  oz,  ;  aqua  ammonia,  1 
oz.  ;  capsicum  pulverized,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  of  turpeutme  and  gum 
•camphor,  each  J  oz.  ;  put  all  into  a  quart  bottle,  and  fill  with  95  per 
cent,  alcohol.  Dose,  for  colic,  for  man,  half  a  teaspoonful ;  for  a 
horse,  ^  to  1  oz.,  in  a  little  warm  w^ater,  every  15  minutes,  till  relieved, 

LiKiMENT  FOR  Old  Sores. — Alcohol,  1  qt.  ;  aqua  ammonia,  ioz.  ; 
oil  of  origanum,  2  oz.  ;  camphor  gum,  2  oz.  ;  opium,  2  oz.  ;  gum 
myrrh,  2  oz.  ;  common  salt,  two  tablespoons.  Mix,  and  shake  occa- 
fiionally  for  a  week. 

Liniment.— Good  Samaritan. — Take  98  per  cent,  alcohol,  2  qts.  ; 
and  add  to  it  the  following  articles  :  Oils  of  sassafras,  hemlock, 
spirits  of  turpentine,  tincture  of  cayenne,  catechu,  guaiac  (guac),  and 
laudanum,  of  each,  1  oz.  ;  tincture  of  myrrh,  4  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum^ 
2  oz.  ;  oil  of  vrintergreen,  ^  oz.  ;  gum  camphor,  2  oz.  ;  and  chloro- 
form, 1^  oz.  This  is  one  of  the  best  applications  for  internal  pauis 
linown  T  it  is  superior  to  any  other  enumerated  in  this  work. 

Inhalation  of  Tar  for  Consumptiqn. — Mix  together  16  ozs.  of 
liquid  tar  and  one  fluid  oz.  liquor  of  potassa,  boil  them  for  a  fcAV 
minutes  in  the  open  air,  then  let  it  simmer  in  an  iron  vessel  over  a 
spirit  or  other  lamp  in  the  chamber  of  the  patient.  This  may  at  first 
excite  a  disposition  to  cough,  but  in  a  short  time  it  allays  it,  and  rc- 
anoves  any  tendency  to  it. 

Cancer  cure. — Drmk  a  tea  made  from  the  tops  of  red  clover  ; 
about  1  qt.  per  day  should  be  taken  internally,  and"the  tea  should  bo 
used  as  a  wash  twice  per  day, ;  very  strongly  recommended. 

Taylor's  Remedy  for  Deafness.— Digest  2  ozs.  bruised  garlic  in 
1  lb.  oil  of  almonds  for  a  week,  and  strain.  A  drop  poured  into  the  ear 
is  effective  in  temporary  deafness. 

Cure  for  Earache. — Take  equal  parts  of  chloroform  and  lauda- 
num, dip  a  piece  of  cotton  into  the  mixture  and  introduce  into  the  car, 
and  cover  up  and  get  to  sleep  as  soon  as  possible. 

Ottawa  Root  Beer. — Take  1  oz.  each  of  sassafras,  allspice,  yellow- 
dock,  and  winter  green  ;  ^-  oz.  each  wild  cherry  baric  and  coriander  ; 
^  oz.  hops  and  3  qts.  molasses.  Pour  suflicieut  boiUng  water  on  the 
ingredients  and  let  them  stand  24  hours,  filter  the  liquor  and  add  ^pt. 
yeast,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  in  24  hours. 

To  Extract  Essential  Oil  frobi  AVood,  Barks,  Roots,  Herbs, 
&c. — Take  balm,  mint,  sage,  or  any  other  herb,  &c.,  put  it  into  a  bot- 
tle, and  pour  upon  it  a  spoonful  of  ether  ;  keep  in  a  cool  place  a  few 
hours,  and  then  fill  the  bottle  with  cold  water  ;  the  essential  oil  will 
Bwim  upon  the  surface  and  may  be  easily  separated. 

Fumigating  Paper.— Dip  light  paper  in  a  solution  of  alum ;  strength 
of  alum  1  oz,,  water  1  pt.  Dry  thoroughly,  and  on  one  side  spread  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  gum  benzoin,  galbanum,  or  Peruvian  balsam ; 
melt  the  gums  ui  an  earthenware  dish  and  spread  with  a  hot  spatula  ; 
slips  of  the  paper  are  held-over  a  light,  when  the  odorous  matter  will 
l)e  evaporated,  the  alum  preventing  the  paper  from  igniting. 

Transparent  Cement  for  Glass. — Dissolve  1  pait  India-rubber 
in  chloroform,  and  add  IG  parts  by  measure  of  gumjnastic  in  powder. 
Digest  for  2  days,  shaking  the  bottle  frequently ;  apply  with  a  fine 
camel's  hair  brush, 

Llouxu  Wash, — ^Proof  spirits,  1  qt, ;  borax  and  honey,  of  each  loz.; 


190  MEDICAL  DErAKTMEXT,  ETC. 

gum  inyrrli,  loz.  ;  red  s.indcrs  wood,  1  oz.  Rub  tlio  honey  and  borax 
well  together  in  a  mortar,  then  gradually  add  the  spirit,  the  myrrh  and 
eandcrs  wood,  and  macerate  14  days. 

WASir  FOlt  KKMOVING  TaUTICLKS  OF  ZiNO  OR  IRON  FROM  THE 

Eye.— Muriatic  acid,  20  drops  ;  mucilage,  Idr.  ;  mix  with  2  fluid  ozs. 
rose  water.  Iron  or  steel  particles  may  bo  extracted  by  holding  near 
them  a  powerful  magnet. 

To  liKMOVB  Tumors. — Dr.  Simpson  of  Edinburgh  introduces  a 
hollow  acupuncture  needle,  or  very  fine  trocar  {a  surgical  instrument 
in  the  form  of  a  fuio  lioUow  needle)  into  their  tissue,  and  injects  a 
lew  drops  of  some  irritant  liquid,  such  as  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
£inc,  percholordo  of  iron,  or  creosote.  The  effect  is  to  destroy  tho 
vitality  of  the  tumors  so  treated,  and  admit  of  separating  them. 

COiMPOU^'D  SvRUP  OF  lIvi'OPHOSPiiiTEs.— Take  of  hypophosphita 
of  lime,  1\  oz.  ;  hypophosphite  of  soda  ^  oz  ;  hypophosphite  of  pot- 
iissa,  ^  oz.";  cano  sugar,  1  lb.  troy  ;  liot  wjvter,  20  fluid  ozs.  ;  orange 
v.-ater,  1  fluid  oz.  Mbc  a  solution  of  the  mLxed  salts  in  the  hot  water, 
filter  through  paper,  dissolve  the  sugar  iii  the  solution  by  heat,  and 
strain,  and  add  tlie  orange  flower  water.  Dose,  a  teasi)oonful,  con- 
taining nearly  five  grains  of  the  mixed  salts. 

Cook's  ELEcmo-MAGXETic  Liniment. — Best  alcohol,  1  gal.  ;  oil 
of  amber,  8  oz.  ;  gum  camphor,  8  oz.  ;  Castile  soap,  shaved  line,  2 
oz.  ;  beef's  gall,  4  oz.  ;  ammonia,  3  F.'s  strong,  12  oz.;  mix,  and 
shake  occasionally  for  13  hours,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  This  wiU  bo 
found  a  strong  and  valuable  liniment. 

London  Liniment. — ^Take  chloroform,  olive  oil,  and  aqua  ammo- 
nia, of  each  1  oz.  ;  acetate  of  morphia,  10  grs.  5iLx  and  use  as  other 
liniments.   Very  valuable. 

Ointments. — For  Old  Sores. — Red  precipitate,  J  oz.  ;  sugar  of 
lead,  ^ oz.  ;  burnt akim,  loz.  ;  white  vitriol,  ^  oz.,  or  a  little  less  ; 
all  to  "be  very  finely  pulverized  ;  have  mutton  tallow  made  warm,  ^ 
lb.  ;  stir  all  in,  and  stir  tmtil  cool. 

Judkin's  Ointment. — Linseed  oil,  1  pt.  ;  sweet  oil,  1  oz.  ;  and  boil 
them  in  a  kettle  on  coal.<?  lor  nearly  4  hours,  as  warm  as  you  can  ; 
then  have  pulverized  and  mixed  borax,  ^  oz.  ;  red  lead,  4  oz.  ;  and 
Eugar  of  lead,  1^  oz.  ;  remove  the  kettle  from  the  fire,  and  thicken 
in  the  powder  ;  continue  the  stirring  until  cooled  to  blood  heat,  then 
etir  in  1  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  and  now  take  out  a  little,  let- 
ting it  get  cold,  and  if  not  then  sufficiently  thick  to  spread  upon  thia 
soft  linen  as  a  salve,  you  will  boil  again  until  this  point  is  reached. 
It  is  good  for  all  kinds  of  woimds,  bruises,  sores,  bums,  white  swell- 
ings, rheumatisms,  ulcers,  sore  breasts  ;  and  eveai  where  there  are 
wounds  on  the  inside,  it  has  been  used  with  advantage,  by  applying 
a  ]ilaster  over  the  part. 

Magnetic  Ointment.— Said  to  ee  Trask's.— Hard  raisins  cut 
in  pieces,  and  fine-cut  tobacco,  equal  Aveights  ;  simmer  well  together, 
then  strain,  and  press  out  all  from  the  dregs. 

Mead's  Saet-Rueum  Ointment. — Aquafortis,  1  oz.  ;  quicksilver, 
I  oz.  ;  good  hard  soap,  dissolved  so  as  to  mix  readily,  1  oz.  ;  prepared 
chalk,  1  oz.  ;  mixed  with  1  lb.  of  lard  ;  mix  the  above  by  putting  tho 
ftqaafortis  and  quicksilver  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  Avhen  done 
em^rvescing,  mix  with  the  other  ingrediente,  putting  the  chalk  in  last ; 
add  a  Little  spirits  of  turpentine,  say  ^  tablespoon. 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  191 

Green  Ointment. — Honey  and  beeswax,  eacli  ^  lb.  ;  spirits  of 
turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  wintergreen  oil  and  laudanixni,  each  2  oz.  ;  ver- 
digris, finely  pulverized,  |  oz.  ;  lard,  1^  lb.  ;  mix  by  a  stove  fire,  in 
a  copper  kettle,  heating  slowly. 

Itch  Ointment.— Unsal ted  butter,  1  lb.  ;  burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.  , 
spirits  of  turpentine,  2  oz.  ;  red  precipitate,  pulverized,  1^  oz,  ;  melt 
the  pitch  and  add  the  butter,  stirrm^  well  together  ;  then  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  when  a  little  cool  add  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
lastly  the  precipitate,  and  stir  until  cold. 

Jaundice. — ^1n  its  AV'okst  Fokms. — ^Rediodideof  mercury,  7  gra,; 
Jodide  of  potassium,  9grs.  ;  aqua  dis.  (distilled  water),  1  oz.  ;  mix. 
Commence  by  giving  G  drops  3  or  4  times  a  day,  increasing  1  drop  a 
day  until  12  or  15  drops  are  given  at  a  dose.  Give  in  a  httle  water, 
immediately  after  meals.  If  it  causes  a  griping  sensation  in  the  bowels, 
and  fulness  in  the  head,  when  you  get  u]}  to  12  or  15  drops,  go  bacJs 
to  G  drops,  and  up  again  as  before. 

Remedy  fob  Kheujiatism  and  Stiff  Joints.— Strong  camplior 
spirits,  1  pt. ;  neat's-foot,  coon,  bear's,  or  skimk's  oil,  1  pt. ;  spirits  of 
turpentine,  Jpt  Shake  the  bottle  when  used,  and  apply  3  times 
■daily,  by  pouring  on  a  little  at  a  time,  and  rubbing  in  all  you  can  for 
20  or  30  minutes. 

Asthma  Remedies. — ^Elecampane,  angelica,  comfrey,  and  spilcc- 
nard  roots  with  hoarhound  toj)s,  of  each  1  oz. ;  bruise  and  steep  in 
honey,  1  pt.  Dose,  a  tablespoon,  taken  hot  every  few  miiuites,  until 
lelief  is  obtained,  tlien  several  times  daily  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

Another. — Oil  of  tar,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  vcratriun  viride,  2  drs.  ; 
simple  syrup,  2  drs.  ;  mix.  Dose,  for  adults,  15  drops  3  or  4  times 
daily.  Iodide  of  potassium  has  cured  a  bad  case  of  asthma,  by  taking 
5  gr.  doses  3  times  daily.  Take  |  oz.  and  put  it  in  a  phial,  and  add  32 
teaspoons  of  water;  then  1  teaspoon  of  it  will  contain  the  5  grs., 
which  put  into  ^  gill  more  water,  and  drink  before  meals. 

Composition*'  Powder. — Thgjmtson's. — Bayberry  bark,  2  lbs.  ; 
hemlock  bark,  1  lb.  ;  ginger  root,  1  lb.  ;  cayenne  pepper,  2  oz.  ;  cloves, 
2  oz.  ;  all  finely  pulverized  and  well  mixed.  Dose,  %  a  teaspoon  of  it, 
and  a  spoon  of  sugar  ;  put  them  into  a  tea-cup,  and  pour  it  half  full  of 
boiling  water  ;  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes,  and  fill  the  cup  with  milk, 
and  drink  freely.  If  no  milk  is  to  bo  obtained,  fill  up  the  cup  with 
hot  water. 

French  Rejiedt  for  Chronic  Rheitsiatism.— Dr.  Bonnet,  of 
Graulbet,  France,  states,  in  a  letter  totho  "  Abeille  Medicale,"  that  ho 
lias  been  long  in  the  habit  of  prescribing  *'  the  essential  oil  of  turpen- 
tine by  friction  for  rheumatism  ;  and  that  ho  has  used  it  himself  with 
perfect  success,  having  almost  instantaneously  got  rid  of  rheumatic 
pains  in  both  knees  and  in  the  left  shoulder." 

Diuretics— P11.LS,  Drops,  Decoction,  Szg  .—Solidified  copaiba,  2 
parts  ;  alcoholic  extract  of  cubebs,  1  part ;  formed  into  pills  with  a 
little  oil  of  juniper.  Dose,  1  or  2  pills  3  or  4  times  daily.  This  pill 
lias  been  found  very  valuable  in  affections  of  the  kidneys,  bladder, 
and  urethra,  as  inflammation  from  gravel,  gonorrhoea,  gleet,  whites, 
leucorrhoea,  common  inflammations,  &c.  For  giving  them  a  sugar 
coat,  see  that  heading,  if  desired. 

Diuretic  Drops.— Oil  of  cubebs,  ^  oz.  ;  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  ^ 
oz. ;  balsam  of  copaiba,  1  oz.  ;  Harlem  oil,  1  bottle  ;  oil  of  lavender, 


192  MEDICAL  DEPAKTilEXT,  ETC. 

20  drops;  spirits  of  turpentine,  20  drops  :  mi".  Dose,  10 to  25  drops, 
as  tlio  stomach  ■will  bear,  three  times  daily.  It  may  bo  used  iu  any  of 
the  above  diseases  -witli  great  satisfaction. 

DiuiiETio  TiNCTUKE. — Green  or  growing  spearmint  mashed,  put 
into  a  bottle,  and  covered  Avith  gin,  is  an  excellent  diuretic. 

DiuKETic  FOR  Children.— Spirits  of  nitre— a  few  drops  in  a  littlo 
spearmint  tea — is  all  suflicicnt.  For  very  young  children,  pumpldu- 
seed,  or  water-melon-seed  tea  is  perhaps  the  best. 

Dropsy.— Syrup  and  Pills.- Queen-of-the-raeadow  root,  dwarf- 
cider  flowers,  berries,  or  inner  bark,  juniper  berries,  horsc-radisli 
root,  pod  milkweed,  or  silkweed,  often  called,  root  of  each,  4  oz,  ; 
prickly-ash  bark  of  berries,  mandrake  root,  bittersweet  bark,  of  the 
root  of  each,  2  oz.  ;  white-mustard-seed,  1  oz.  ;  Holland  gin,  1  pt. 
Pour  boiling  water  on  all  except  the  gin,  and  keep  hot  for  12  hours  ; 
then  boil  and  pour  off  twice,  and  boil  down  to  3  qts.,  and  strain,  add- 
ing 3  lbs.  of  sugar,  and  lastly  the  gin.  Dose,  take  all  the  stomach 
will  bear,  say  a  wine  glass  a  day,  or  more. 

Dropsy  Pills.— Jalap,  50  grs.;  gamboge,  30  grs.  ;  podophyllin, 
20  grs.  ;  elatarium,  12  grs.  ;  aloes,  30  grs.  ;  cayenne,  35  grs.  ;  Castilo 
soap,  shaved  and  pulverized,  20  grs.  ;  croton  oil,  90  drops  ;  powder  all 
finely,  and  mix  thoroughly  ;  then  form  into  pill  mass,  by  using  a  thick 
mucilage  made  of  equal  i^arts  of  gum  arable  andgumtragacaiith,  and 
divide  In  three-grain  pills.  Dose,  1  pill  every  2  days  for  the  first 
week  ;  then  every  3  or  4  days,  until  tho  water  is  evacuated  by  the 
combined  aid  of  the  ]vAl  with  tlio  alum  syrup.  This  is  a  powerful 
medicine,  and  will  well  accomplish  its  work. 

Liver  Pill. — Leptaudrin,  40  grs.  ;  j<odophylIm  and  cayenne,  30 
grs.  each  ;  sanguinarin,  iridin,  and  ipecac,  15  grs.  each  ;  see  that  all 
ure  pulverized  and  well  mixed  ;  then  form  into  pill  mass  by  using 
dr.  of  the  soft  extract  of  mandralcc  and  a  few  drops  of  anise  oil ;  then 
roll  out  into  three-grain  pills.  Dose,  2  pills  fciken  at  bed-time  will 
generally  operate  by  morning  ;  but  some  persons  require  3.. 

Irritating  Plaster. — Extensively  Used  is  y  Eclectics. — Tar,  1 
lb.  ;  burgimdy  pitch,  A  oz.  ;  white-pino  turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  resiii,  2  oz. 
P>oil  the  tar,  resin,  and  gum  together  a  short  time,  remove  from  tho 
five,  and  stir  in  finely  pulverized  mandrake  root,  blood  root,  i)oko 
root,  and  Indian  turnip,  of  each,  1  oz. 

l*iLLS. — To  Sugar  Coat. — ^PiUs  to  be  sugar  coated  must  be  very 
dry,  otherwise  tlicy  will  shrink  away  from  the  coating,  and  leave  it  a 
shell  easily  crushed  off.  When  they  are  dry,  you  will  take  starch, 
gum  arable,  and  white  sugar,  equal  parts,  rubbing  them  very  fine  ia 
a  marble  mortar,  and  if  damp,  they  must  be  dried  before  rubbing 
together  ;  then  put  the  powder  into  a  suitable  pan,  or  box,  for  shak- 
ing ;  now  put  a  few  pills  into  a  small  tin  box  having  a  cover,  and 
]-)0ur  on  to  them  just  a  little  simple  syrup,  shaking  well  to  moisten 
the  surface  only  ;  then  throw  into  tho  box  of  powder,  and  keep  in 
motion  until  completely  coated,  dry,  and  smooth.  .  If  you  are  not 
very  careful,  you  will  get  too  much  syrup  upon  the  pills  ;  if  you  do, 
])ut  iu  more,  and  be  quick  about  it  to  prevent  moistening  the  pill  too 
much,  getting  them  into  the  powder  as  soon  as  possible. 

Positive  Cure  for  Hydrophobia. — The  dried  root  of  elecampane, 
pulverize  it,  and  measure  out  9  heaping  tablespoon fuls,  and  mix  it 
with  2  or  3  teaspoonfulii  of  pulverized  gum  arable  ;  then  divide  into 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  193 

9  equal  portions.  Wlien  a  person  is  bitten  by  .a  rabid  animal,  taire 
one  of  these  portions  and  steep  it  in  1  pt.  of  new  milk,  until  nearly- 
half  the  quantity  of  milk  is  evaporated  ;  then  strain,  and  drink  it  in 
the  mommg,  fasting  for  4  or  5  hours  after.  The  same  dose  is  to  be 
repeated  3  mornings  in  succession,  then  skip  3,  and  so  on,  until  the  9 
doses  are  taken. 

The  patient  must  avoid  getting  -wet,  or  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
abstain  from  high-seasoned  diet,  or  hard  exercise,  and,  if  costive,  take 
a  dose  of  salts.  The  above  quantity  is  for  an  adult ;  children  Avill 
take  less  accordmg  to  age. 

Eye  pEEPAKATio^rs. — ^Eye  "Watek. — Table  salt  and  white  vitriol, 
of  each  1  tablespoon  ;  heat  them  upon  copper  plates  or  in  earthcu- 
Tvare  until  dry ;  the  lieating  drives  off  the  acrid  Avater,  called  the 
"water  of  crystallization,  raakmg  them  much  milder  in  their  action  ; 
now  add  to  them  soft  water  -l^  pt.  ;  putting  in  white  sugar,  1  table- 
spoon ;  blue  vitriol,  a  piece  the  size  of  a  common  pea.  If  it  should 
l^rove  too  strong  in  auj^  case,  add  a  little  more  soft  water  to  a  phial 
of  it.   Apply  it  to  the  eyes  3  or  4  times  daily. 

India  Pbescriptioh"  fok  Soke  Eyes.— Sulphate  of  zinc,  3  grs.  ; 
tincture  of  opium  (laudanum),  1  dr.  ;  rose  water,  2  oz.  ;  luLv.  Tut  a 
drop  or  two  in  the  eye,  2  or  3  times  dailj\ 

Another. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  acetate  of  lead,  and  rock  salt,  of 
each  ^  oz.  ;  loaf  sugar,  1  oz.  ;  soft  water,  12  oz.  ;  mix  Avitliout  heat, 
and  use  as  other  eye  waters.  If  sore  eyes  shed  much  water,  put  a 
little  of  the  oxide  of  zinc  into  a  phial  of  water,  and  use  it  rather  free- 
ly. This  will  soon  effect  a  cure.  Copperas  and  water  has  cured  soro 
eyes  of  long  standing  ;  and  used  quite  strong,  it  makes  an  excellent 
application  in  erysipelas.    Allum  and  the  white  of  an  egg  is  good. 

Indian  Eye  Water.— Soft  water,  1  pt.  ;  gum  arabic,  1  oz.  ;  white 
vitriol,  1  oz.  ;  fine  salt,  ^  teaspoon  ;  put  all  into  a  bottle,  and  shako 
until  dissolved.   Put  into  the  eye  just  as  you  retire  to  bed. 

Black  Oil. — Best  alcohol,  tincture  of  arnica,  British  oil,  and  oil 
of  tar,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  and  slowhj  add  sulphuric  acid,  ^  oz.  Tlioso 
black  oils  are  getting  into  extensive  use  as  a  liniment,  and  are  indeed 
valuable,  especially  in  cases  attended  with  much  inflammation. 

Vermifuge  Lozenges.— Santonin,  GO  grs.  ;  pulverized  sugar,  5 
oz.  ;  mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth,  sufficient  to  make  into  a  thic!: 
paste,  worked  carefully  together,  that  the  santonin  shall  be  evenly 
mixed  throughout  the  whole  mass  ;  then  if  not  in  too  great  a  hurry, 
cover  up  the  mortar  in  which  you  have  rubbed  them,  and  let  stand 
from  12  to  24  hours  to  temper ;  at  which  time  they  will  roll  oat 
better  than  if  done  immediately ;  divide  into  120  lozenges.  Dose, 
for  a  child  1  year  old,  1  lozenge,  night  and  morning  ;  of  2  ycar.s,  2 
lozenges  ;  of  4  years,  3  ;  of  8  years,  4  ;  of  10  years  or  more,  5  to  7 
lozenges  ;  in  all  cases  to  be  taken  twico  daily,  and  continuing  until 
the  worms  start  on  a  voyage  of  discovery. 

Harlem  Oil  or  Welsh  MEDicAMENTuar. — Sublimed  or  flowers  of 
sulphur  and  oil  of  amber,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  linseed  oil,  1  lb.  ;  spirits  of 
turpentine  sufficient  to  reduce  all  to  the  consistence  of  thin  molasses. 
Boil  the  sulphur  in  the  linseed  oil  until  it  is  dissolved,  then  add  tho 
oil  of  amber  and  turpentine.  Dose,  from  15  to  25  drops,  morning 
and  evening.  Amongst  the  Welsh  and  Germans  it  is  extensively 
used  for  Btrengthening  tho  stomach,  kidneys,  liver,  and  lungs  ;  for 
13 


Idi  MEDICAL  DKrARTMENT,  ETC 

asthmn,  eliortncss  of  breath,  congli,  inw.ai-rl  or  out-ward  Korcs,  drop- 
By,  -worms,  Rravcl,  fevers,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  giddiness,  head- 
ache, &c.,  by  taking  it  internally  ;  and  for  nlcers,  malignant  sores, 
cankers,  &c.,  anointing  externally,  and  wetting  linen  "with  it,  and 
applying  to  bnrns. 

EcjYPTiAN  CuKK  FOR  Cholera.— Lest  Jamaica  ginger  root,  bruis- 
ed, 1  oz.  ;  cayenne,  2  teaspoons  ;  boil  all  in  1  qt.  of  water  to  ^pt.,  and 
add  loaf  sugar  to  form  a  thick  Byrup.  Dose,  1  tablespoon  every  15 
minutes,  untU  vomiting  and  purging  ceasea  ;  Ihem  follow  up  with  a 
blackberry  tea. 

Indian  rnKSCKrrTiox  For.CuoLKRA.—Firstdissolvcgum  camphor, 
^•oz.,  inl^oz.  of  alcohol;  second,  give  a  teaspoon  of  spirits  of 
liartsliorn  m  a  wine  glass  of  water,  and  follow  it  every  5  minutes 
■tvith  15  drops  of  the  camphor  in  a  teaspoon  of  water,  for  3  doses  ; 
then  Avait  15  minutes,  and  commence  again  as  before  ;  and  continuo 
the  camphor  for  30  minutes,  unless  there  is  rcturmng  heat.  Should 
this  be  the  c^ise,  give  one  more  dose,  and  the  cure  is  effected ;  let 
them  perspire  freely  (which  the  medicine  is  designed  to  cause),  a^ 
upon  this  the  life  depends,  but  add  no  additional  clothing. 

Isthmus  Chot.eka  TI^XTUKE. — Tincture  of  rhubarb,  cayenne, 
opium,  and  spirits  of  camphor,  with  essence  of  peppermint,  equal 
parts  of  each,  and  each  as  strong  as  can  bo  made.  Dose,  from  5  to  30 
drops,  or  even  to  CO,  and  repeat,  until  relief  is  obtained,  every  5  to  30 
minutes. 

King  of  Oils,  for  Keitealgia  and  Eheu3iatis3I. — Burning  fluid, 
1  pt.  ;  oils  of  cedar,  hemlock,  sassafras,  and  origanum,  of  each  2  oz. ; 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  pulverized,  1  oz.  ;  mix.  Dikections. — Apply 
freely  to  the  nerve  and  gums  around  the  tooth  ;  and  to  the  face,  in 
neuralgic  pams,  by  wetting  brown  paper  and  laying  on  the  parts,  not 
too  long,  for  fear  of  blistering, — to  the  nerves  of  teeth  by  lint. 

Neuhalgia. — ^Internal  Remedy. — Sal-ammoniac,  ^  dr.,  dissolve 
in  water  1  oz.  Dose,  one  tablespoon  every  3  minutes,  for  20  minutes, 
at  the  end  of  which  time,  if  not  before,  the  pain  will  have  disappeared^ 

Artificiat.  Skin. — ^For  Burns,  Bruises,  Abrasions,  &c. — Proof 
against  Water. — ^Take  gun  cotton  and  Venice  turpentine,  equal 
parts  of  each,  and  dissolve  them  in  ?.0  times  as  much  sulphuric  ether, 
dissolving  the  cotton  first,  then  adding  the  turpentine  ;  keep  it  corked 
tightly.  Water  does  not  affect  it,  hence  its  value  for  cracked  nipples, 
chapped  hands,  surface  bruises,  &c.,  fcc. 

Indian  Balsam. — Clear,  pale  resin,  3  lbs.,  and  melt  it,  adding 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  qt.  ;  balsam  of  tolu,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  of  fir,  4  oz. ; 
oil  of  hemlock,  origanum,  with  Venice  turpentine,  of  each,  1  oz.  ; 
rtrained  honey,  4  oz.  ;  mix  w^eU,  aud  bottle.  Dose,  C  to  12  drops  ; 
for  a  child  of  six,  3  to  5  drops,  on  a  little  sugar.  The  dose  can  bo 
varied  according  to  the  ability  of  the  stomach  to  bear  it,  and  tho 
necessity  of  tho  case.  It  is  a  valuable  preparation  for  coughs,  inter- 
nal pains,  or  strains,  and  works  benignly  upon  the  kidneys. 

Wens — To  Cure. — Dissolve  copperas  in  water  to  make  it  very 
strong  ;  now  take  a  pin,  needle,  or  slaarp  knife,  and  prick  or  cut  the 
wen  in  about  a  dozen  places,  just  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  bleed  ;  then 
wet  it  well  with  the  copperas  water,  once  daily. 

Bronchocele. — Enlarged  Necii. — To  Cure. — ^Iodide  of  ]X)tas- 
Bium  (often  called  bydiiodate  of  potash),  2  drs.  ;  iodine,  1  dr.  ;  Avatex 


MEDICAL  DErAKTMENT,  ETC  195 

2^  cz.  ;  m\x  and  sliako  n,  fow  luIiuTtos,  and  pour  a  little  into  a  phial 
for  internal  use.  Dose,  5  to  10  drops  before  each  meal,  to  be  taken  hi 
a  little  Avater.  Exterxal  Aitlicatiox. — ^^Vitli  a  feather,  wet  the 
enlarged  neclc,  from  the  other  bottle,  night  and  morning,  until  well. 
It  will  cause  the  scarf  skin  to  peel  off  several  times  before  the  cure 
is  perfect,  leaving  it  tender;  but  do  not  omit  tlio  application  more  than 
one  day  at  most,  and  you  may  rest  assured  of  a  cure,  if  a  cure  can  bo 
performed  by  any  means  whatever. 

Daley's  CARivnN-ATivE. — Magnesia,  2  drs.  ;  oil  peppermint,  3  drops; 
oil  nutmeg,  7  drops  ;  oil  anise,  9  drops  ;  tinct,  of  castor,  1^  drs. ;  tiuct. 
of  assafoctida,  45  drops  ;  tmct.  of  opium,  18  drops  ;  essence  pennyroj^al, 
50  drops  ;  tinct.  of  cardamons,  95  drops  ;  peppenniut  water,  7  oz.  ;  mix. 

Positive  Cuke  for  Diarrhcea. — Talve  2  wine  glasses  of  vinegar", 
and  one  tablespoonful  of  salt.  Mix  the  whole  thorouglily  to  dissolve 
the  salt ;  add  7  to  10  drops  of  laudanum,  according,  to  the  age  or 
strength  of  the  patient,  and  give  tlie  wliolo  at  one" dose, 

CuiiE  FOR  Ague. — Cat  three  lemons  into  tliin  slices  and  pound 
them  with  a  mallet,  then  take  enough  coffee  to  make  a  quart,  boil  it 
down  to  a  pint  and  pour  it  while  quite  hot  over  the  lemons.  Let  it 
stand  till  cold,  then  strain  through  a  cloth,  and  take  the  whole  at  ono 
dose,  immediately  after  the  chill  is  over,  and  before  the  fever  comes  on. 

To  Improve  the  Voice.— Beeswax,  2  drs. ;  copaiba  balsam,  3  drs.  ; 
powder  of  liquorice  root,  4  drs.  ;  melt  tlie  copaiba  balsam  with  tlio 
wax  ill  a  new  earthen  pipkin  ;  when  melted,  I'emove  them  from  the 
fire,  and  mix  in  the  powder  ;  make  the  pills  of  3  grs.  each.  Two  of 
these  pills  to  be  taken  occasionally,  3  or  4:times  a  day.  Very  best  laio wn. 

Cure  for  Tare  Worm. — Take  at  one  dose,  ether  |  oz.  2  hour:i 
after  this  take  castor  oil,  1  oz.  The  worm  is  discharged  entire  or  al- 
most so,  and  always  with  the  bead  intact. 

Necessary  Rules  for  Sleep.— There  is  no  fact  more  clearly 
established  in  the  physiology  of  man  than  this,  that  the  brain  expends 
its  energies  and  itself  during  the  hours  of  wakefulness  and  that  these 
are  recuperated  during  sleep.  If  the  recuperation  does  not  equal  the 
expenditure,  the  brain  withers  ;  this  is  insanitj^  Thus  it  is  in  early- 
English  history,  persons  who  were  condenmed  to  death  by  being  pre- 
vented from  s'lecpmg  always  died  raving  maniacs,  and  those  who  aro 
starved  to  death  become  insane  ;  the  brain  is  not  nourished  and  they 
can  not  sleep.  The  practical  inferences  are  three ;  1st.  Those  who 
think  most,  who  do  the  most  brain  work,  require  the  most  sleep.  2d. 
The  time  "saved"  from  necessary  sleep  is  infallibly  destructive  to 
mind,  body  and  estate,  Sd.  Give  yourself,  your  children,  your  sej.'vants, 
give  all  that  are  under  you,  the  fullest  amount  of  sleep  tney  will  take, 
by  compelling  them  to  go  to  bed  at  some  regular  early  hour,  and  to 
rise  in  the  morning  at  the  moment  they  aicake ;  and,  within  a  fort- 
night, Nature,  with  almost  the  regularity  of  the  rising  sun,  will  un- 
loose the  bonds  of  sleep  the  moment  enough  repose  has  been  secured 
for  the  wants  of  the  system.   This  is  the  only  safe  and  efficient  rule. 

SiGKS  of  Disease  in  Children. — In  the  case  of  a  baby  not  yet 
able  to  talk,  it  must  cry  when  it  is  ill.  Tlie  colio  makes  a  baby  cry 
loud,  long,  and  passionately,  and  shed  tears — stopjpiug  for  a  moment 
and  beguining  again. 

If  the  chest  is  affected,  it  giveg  one  sharp  cry,  breaking  oft  imme- 
diately, as  if  crying  hurt  it. 


19G  MEDICAL  DErARTMENT,  ETC. 

If  tho  Load  h  affected,  it  cricn,  in  sharp,  piercing  shricJcs,  rrith  loio 
moans  and  wails  between.  Or  there  may  bo  quiet  dozing,  aud  Btart- 
in"s  between. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  i-)erceiTC,  whero  a  cliild  is  attacked  by  disease 
that  there  is  some  change  taking  place  ;  for  either  its  skin  will  be  dry 
and  hot,  its  appetite  gone  ;  it  is  stupidly  sleepy,  or  fretful  and  crying  ; 
it  is  thirsty,  or  pale  and  languid,  or  in  some  \vay  betrays  that  some- 
thing is  wrong.  When  a  child  vomits,  or  has  a  diarrhoea,  or  is  cos- 
tive {»,nd  feverish,  it  in  owing  to  some  derangement,  and  needs  atten- 
tion. But  these  various  symptoms  may  continue  for  a  day  or  two 
before  the  nature  of  tho  disease  can  be  determined.  A  warm  bath, 
warm  drinks,  etc.,  can  do  no  harm,  and  may  help  to  determine  tho 
case.  On  coming  out  of  the  bath,  and  being  well  rubbed  with  the 
band,  tho  skin  ^'^ill  show  symptoms  of  rash,  if  it  is  a  skin  diseaso 
which  has  commenced.  By  the  appearance  of  the  rash,  the  naturo 
of  the  disease  can  be  learned.  Measles  are  in  patches,  dark  red,  and 
come  out  first  about  the  face.  If  scarlet  fever  is  impending,  the  skia 
will  look  a  deep  pink  all  over  the  body,  though  mostly  so  about  tho 
neck  and  face.  Chicken-pox  shows  fever,  but  not  so  much  running 
at  the  nose,  and  appearance  of  cold,  as  in  measles,  nor  is  there  as 
much  of  a  cough.  Besides,  the  spots  aro  smaller,  and  do  not  run 
much  together,  and  are  more  diffused  over  the  whole  surface  of  tho 
£kin,  and  enlarge  into  little  blisters  in  a  day  or  two. 

Let  the  room  where  the  chUdis  sick  be  shady,  quiet,  and  cool.  Bo 
careful  not  to  speak  so  suddenly  as  to  startle  the  half-sleeping  patient 
and  handle  it  with  the  greatest  tenderness  when  it  is  necessary  to 
move  it.  If  it  is  the  lungs  that  suffer,  have  the  little  patient  some- 
"what  elevated  upon  the  pillows  for  easier  breathing,  and  do  everthing 
to  sooth  and  malie  it  comfortable,  so  as  not  to  have  it  cry,  and  to  thus 
distress  its  inflamed  lungs.  If  the  child  is  very  weak,  do  not  move  it 
too  suddenly,  as  it  may  be  startled  into  convulsions.  In  administering 
a  bath,  the  greatest  pains  must  be  taken  not  to  frighten  the  child. 
It  should  be  put  in  so  gradually,  and  so  amused  by  something  placed 
in  the  water  on  purpose  as  to  forget  its  fear  ;  keep  up  a  good  supplj 
of  fresh  air,  at  a  temperature  of  about  60°  Fah.  If  a  hired  nurse 
must  be  had,  select  if  possible  a  woman  of  intelligence,  gentle  and 
loving  disposition,  kind  and  amiable  manners,  and  of  a  most  pacific 
unruffled,  and  even  temper.  If  a  being  can  be  got  possessed  of  these 
angelic  qualities,  and  we  believe  there  are  many  such,  you  will  be 
quite  safe  in  intrusting  to  her  care  the  management  of  your  sick  child 
or  yourself  either,  in  case  of  sickness.  She  should  not  be  under 
twenty-five  or  over  fifty-five,  as  between  these  two  ages  she  will,  if 
liealthy,  be  in  her  full  strength  and  capacity. 

WnoopiKG  Cough. — To  empty  the  child's  stomach  by  a  lobelia 
emetic,  is  the  first  step.  After  this  make  a  syrup  of  sugar,  ginger- 
root,  a  little  water,  and  enough  lobelia  tincture  to  produce  a  slight 
nausea.  This,  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  will  loosen  the  cough  < 
very  much.    See  "  Whooping  Cough  Syrup." 

DiAREHOEA. — Nothing  is  better  for  looseness  of  the  bowels  than 
tea  made  of  ground  bayberry.  Sweeten  it  well,  and  give  a  half- 
teacupf  ul  once  in  two  hours,  until  the  child  is  better.  Bathing  must 
not  be  neglected.   For  Croup  Remedy  see  "  Cure  for  Lockjaw." 

Coiiic. — ^This  can  be  cured  with  warm  injections  of  simple  Boa]> 


MEDICAL  DErARTMENT,  ETC'  197 

Buds,  or  warm  water  •with  a  warming  tincture  iu  it.  A  little  warm 
tea  may  be  given  at  the  same  time,  and  the  howels  rubbed.  Every 
family  shoiSd  have  a  small  and  large  syringe.  Nothing  is  oftener 
needed,  particularly  in  the  care  of  children. 

Feveb. — ^Where  a  child  has  a  simple  fever  from  teething  or  any  i 
other  cause  not  connected  with  acute  disease,  give  ateaspoonful  of  | 
syrup  of  rhubarb,  a  warm  injection,  and  sponge-baths.  These  will 
generally  be  all  that  is  needed. 

Rickets  and  Sckofula. — If  children  have  cither  of  these,  or  both 
these  diseases,  a  good,  nutritive  diet  is  a  great  essential  Then  the 
alkaline-bath,  a  little  lime-water,  say  a  tcaspoonful  three  times  a  day,' 
and  out-door  exercise,  are  the  chief  remedies. 

Fits — Spasms — When  these  are  brought  on  by  indigestion,  place  the 
child  in  a  warm  bath  immediately,  give  warm  water,  or  a  lobelia 
emetic,  rub  the  skin  briskly,  etc. ,  to  get  up  an  action.  In  brain  disease 
tlie  warm  water  is  equally  useful.  In  fact,  unless  the  fit  is  constitu- 
tional, the  warm  bath  will  relieve  the  patient  by  drawing  the  blood  to 
the  surface. 

Enlargement  of  the  Brain. — This  chiefly  effects  children,  and' 
consists  in  an  unnatural  growth  of  the  brain.  The  skull  may  grow 
Avith  it,  and  there  be  no  symtoms  of  disease,  though  children  with  thi.s 
large  brain  are  apt  to  die  of  some  brain  disease.  The  symptoms  of 
enlargement  of  the  brain  are,  dullness  of  intellect,  indifference  to  ex- 
ternal objects,  irritable  temper,  inordinate  appetite,  giddiness,  and 
habitual  headache.  Sometimes  there  are  convulsions,  epileptic  fits, 
and  idiocy.  There  is  also  a  pecular  projection  of  the  parietal  bones 
in  this  disease. 

Treatment. — As  much  as  possible,  repress  all  exercise  of  the  mind. 
Do  not  suffer  the  child  to  go  to  school ;  but  put  it  to  the  most  active 
and  muscular  exercise  in  the  open  air.  The  moment  there  is  any  heat 
in  the  top  of  the  head,  apply  cold  water,  ice,  or  cold  evaporatiiig  lo- 
tions. The  diet  should  be  very  simple,  bread  and  milk  onlj'-,  if,  as  the 
child  grows  up,  the  signs  of  the  disease  increase. 

Water  in  the  Head. — Another  disease  of  children,  and  especially 
of  scrofulous  children.  It  is  inflammatory,  and  should  be  early  no- 
ticed. 

Symptoms. — Capricious  appetite,  a  foul  tongue,  offensive  breath  en- 
larged, and  some  times  tender  belly,  torpid  bowels,  stools  light-colored 
from  having  no  bile,  or  dark  from  vitiated  bile,  fetid,  sour-smeUing, 
slimy  and  lumpy.  The  child  grows  pale  and  thin  ;  and  is  heavy,  lan- 
guid, dejected  ;  it  is  fretf lil,  irritable,  imeasy,  and  apt  to  be  tottermg 
iu  its  gait. 

The  disease  may  begin,  after  these  symptoms,  by  pains  in  the  head, 
becoming  more  severe  and  frequent,  sharp  and  shooting,  causing  the 
child  to  waken  and  shriek  out.  As  the  drowsy  state  advances,  tho 
shrieking  gives  place  to  moaning.  There  is  great  stiffness  in  the  back 
of  the  neck,  pain  in  the  limbs,  tenderness  in  the  scalp,  vomiting,  sigh- 
ing, intolerance  of  light,  knitting  of  the  brows,  and  increased  disturb- 
ance of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  This  may  last  from  ten  to  four- 
teen days,  the  patient  growing  more  weak  and  peevish.  Another 
form  of  attack  is  marked  by  acitte  pain  in  the  head,  high  fever,  con- 
vulsions, flushed  face,  brilliant  eyes,  intolerance  of  light  and  sound, 
pain,  tenderness  in  tho  belly,  stupor,  great  irritability  of  stomachy 


198 


MKDICAL   DKrAKT.MKNT,  ETC. 


causing  rotcliin!:^  nnd  vomitini?  on  every  attempt  to  sit  up.  TIio  third 
mode  of  attack  is  very  iusidioiis — tlio  early  Hymi)toin3  being  so  mild 
as  hardly  to  be  noticed.  In  this  case,  tlio  convulsions  or  palsy  como 
suddenly,  without  }iotice,  bringing  swift  and  luiexpected  destruc- 
tion. In  the  first  stage  of  the  disease  there  is  incrca.sed  sensibility  ; 
in  the  second  decreased  sensibility;  in  the  third,  palsy,  convulsions, 
pquinting  of  the  eyes,  rolling  of  the  head,  stupor,  and  a  rapid,  thread- 
like pulse. 

Treatment. — In  the  first  stage,  purging  is  very  imi)ortant,  and 
must  be  continued  for  three  or  four  days.  Aw  excellent  purgative 
is  this  :  pulverized  scaminony,  six  grains  ;  crotou  oil,  four  drops  ; 
pulverized  loaf  sugar,  sixteen  tcaspooufuls.  Hub  well  together  in  a 
mortar.  Give  one  teaspoonful  every  hour  or  two,  till  it  operates. 
Apply  cold  water  or  ice  to  the  head.  In  the  second  stage  put  blisters 
upon  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  one  on  the  bowels,  if  very  tender. 
In  the  third  stage  use  the  warm  bath,  also  alteratives  and  diuretics. 
I'or  an  alterative,  use  iodide  ox  potassium,  one  dram  ;  v/ater,  half  an 
ounce  ;  mix.  Thirty  drops  to  a  child  scvci,,  years  old  every  boui*. 
For  a  diuretic,  use  tincture  of  digitalis,  one  ounce  ;  syrup  of  squills, 
one  ounce  ;  mix.  Ton  drops  for  a  child  seven  years  old  every  four 
liours.  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  dark  room,  aei'ay  from  all 
noise  and  excitement,  and  should  lie  upon  a  hair  mattress,  with  h:3 
Lead  somewhat  elevated.  The  diet  in  the  first  stage  should  be  noth- 
ing more  than  gruel ;  after  that,  more  nourishing,  but  easy  of  diges- 
tion, such  as  bccf-tea,  plain  cliicken-broth,  animal- jellies,  etc.  At 
the  same  time  the  patient  should  be  supported  by  the  cautious  use  of 
wine-whey,  valerian,  or  ten  drops  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia 
every  four  hours. 

Mumps. — This  disease,  most  common  among  cnildren,  begins  witn 
eoreness  and  stiffness  in  the  eido  of  the  neck.  Soon  a  swelling  of  the 
paratoid  gland  takes  i^lace,  which  is  i^ainf  ul  and  continues  to  increase 
for  four  or  five  days,  sometimes  making  it  difficult  to  swallow,- or 
open  the  mouth.  The  swelling  sometimes  comes  on  one  side  at  a 
time,  but  commonly  upon  both.  There  is  often  heat  and  sometimes 
fever,  with  a  dry  skm,  quick  pulse,  furred  tongue,  constipated  bowels, 
and  scanty  and  high-colored  urine.    The  disease  is  contagious. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  face  and  neck  warm,  and  avoid  taking  cold. 
Drink  warm  herb  teas,  and  if  the  symptoms  are  severe,  4  to^6  grs. 
of  Dover's  powder;  or  if  there  is  costiveness,  a  slight  physic,  and 
observe  a  very  simple  diet.  If  the  disease  is  aggravated  by  taking 
cold,  and  is  very  severe,  or  is  translated  to  other  glands,  physic  must 
be  used  freely,  leeches  applied  to  the  swelling,  or  cooling  poultices. 
Sweating  must  be  resorted  to  in  this  case. 

ScAELET  Fever  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  siiin,  both  exter- 
nal and  internal,  and  connected  with  an  infectious  fever. 

Svmvtoms. — The  fever  shows  itself  between  two  and  ten  days  after 
exposure.  Un  the  second  day  of  the  fever  the  eruption  comes  out  in 
minute  pimples,  which  are  cither  clustered  together,  or  spread  over 
the  surface  in  a  general  bright  scarlet  color.  The  disease  begins  with 
languor,  pains  in  the  head,  back,  and  limbs,  drowsiness,  nausea  and 
chills,  followed  by  lieat  and  thirst. .  When  the  redness  appears  the 
pulse  is  quick,  and  the  patient  is  restless,  anxious  and  often  delirious. 
The  eyes  arc  red,  the  face  swollen,  and  the  tongue  covered  in  the 


MEDICAL  DErAKTMENT,  ETC.  199 

middle  -with  wliite  mucus,  through  which  nrc  seen  elevated  points  of 
extreme  redness.  The  tonsils  are  swollen,  and  the  tliroat  is  red. 
By  the  evening  of  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  redness  has  reached  its 
lieight,  and  tiic  skin  becomes  moist,  when  the  scarf-skin  begins  to 
come  off  in  scales. 

In  this  fever  the  flesh  jMiffs  up  so  as  to  distend  the  fingers,  and 
disfigure  the  face.  As  it  })rogresses  the  coating  suddenly  comes  of£ 
tlie  tongue,  leavin,^  it  and  the  whole  mouth  raw  and  tender.  TIio 
throat  is  very  much  swollen  and  inflamed,  and  ulcers  form  on  tho 
tonsils.  The  eustachian  tube  which  extends  up  to  the  ear,  the  glands 
under  the  ear  and  jaw,  sometimes  inflame  and  break  ;  and  the  ab- 
scesses formed  in  the  car  frequently  occasion  deafness,  more  or  less 
difficult  to  cure.  The  sj^mptoms  of  "this  disease  may  be  known  from 
that  of  measles  by  the  absence  of  cough  ;  by  tho  finer  rash  ;  by  its 
Kcarlet  color  ;  by  the  rash  appearing  on  the  second  instead  of  tho 
lourth  day  ;  and  by  the  ulceration  of  the  throat. 

Treatment. — In  ordinary  cases  tho  treatment  required  is  very  simplc. 
The  room  Avhere  the  patient  lies  should  bo  kept  cool,  and  the  bed- 
covering  light.  The  whole  body  should  be  sponged  with  cool  water  aa 
often  as  it  becomes  hot  and  dry,  and  cooling  drinks  should  be  admm- 
istered.  A  few  drops  of  belladonna,  night  and  morning,  is  all  that  i3 
needed. 

If  there  is  much  fever  and  soreness  of  throat,  give  tho  following 
tincture  of  hellebore  often  enough  to  keep  down  the  pulse  : — 

Tincture  of  American  hellebore,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  black  cohosh,  2 
oz.  ;  mix.    Take  1  teaspoonf  ul  3  to  G  times  a  day. 

It  would  also  be  useful  to  commence  treatment  with  an  emetic  • 
and  to  soak  tho  feet  and  hands  in  hot  water  contaming  a  littlo 
mustard  or  cayenne  pepper  ;  continuing  this  bath  20  minutes,  twico 
a  day,  for  2  or  3  days.  Tho  cold  stage  being  passed,  and  tho  fever 
having  set  in,  warm  water  may  bo  used  without  tho  mustard  or 
pepper.  If  the  head  is  affected,  put  drafts  upon  the  feet ;  and  if  tho 
bowels  be  costive,  give  a  mild  physic.  Solid  food  should  not  bo 
nllowed ;  but  when  the  fever  sets  in,  cooling  drinks,  such  as  lemonade, 
tamarind-water,  rice-water,  flaxseed  tea,  then  gruel,  or  cold  water 
may  be  given  in  reasonable  quantities.  To  stimulate  the  skin, 
muriatic  acid,  45  drops  in  a  tumbler  filled  with  water  and  sweetened, 
and  given  in  doses  of  a  teaspoonf  ul,  is  a  good  remedy. 

Where  the  disease  is  very  violent,  and  the  patient  inclines  to  sink 
immediately  ;  whero  t;^-phoid  symptoms  appear  and  there  is  great 
prostration  ;  the  eruption  strikes  in  ;  the  sldn  changes  to  a  mahogany 
color  ;  the  tongue  is  a  deep  red,  or  has  on  it  a  dark  brown  fur,  and 
the  ulcers  in  the  throat  become  putrid,  the  treatment  must  be  differ- 
ent from  the  above.  In  this  case  it  must  be  tonic.  Quinia  must  bo 
given  freely  ;  and  wine  whey,  mi»xed  with  toast-water,  will  be  useful. 
Quinia  is  made  as  follows  : — Sulphate  of  quinine,  1  scruple  ;  alcohol, 
4  ozs.  ;  sulphuric  acid,""5  drops  ;  Madeira  wine,  1  quart  ;  mix.  Two 
wine-glassfuls  a  day.  Tincture  of  cayenne,  in  sweetened  water,  may 
be  given  in  small  doses.  Gargles  are  also  necessary.  A  good  one  is 
made  of  pulverized  cayenne,  1  dram  ;  salt,  one  dram  ;  boiling  water, 
1  gill.  IMix,  and  let  them  staud  15  minutes.  Then  add  1  gill  vinegar. 
Let  it  stand  an  hour  and  strain.  Put  a  teaspoonful  in  t^io  child's 
mouth  once  in  n.n  hour,    A  warm  bath  should  bo  used  daily  as  soor; 


200  MEDICAL  DEPAr.TMENT,  ETC. 

RR  tho  skin  bcpins  to  peel  off,  to  prevent  dropsy.  If  rlropsy  f^ctn  In. 
the  batli  once  in  delays  in  sunicient,  and  sweating?  should  be  promoted 
ty  giving  Die  tincture  of  Virginia  snake-root  and  similar  articles  ;  a 
fxencrous  diet  should  be  allowed  at  tho  same  time,  to  bring  u^)  tho 
'duld's  strength 

INlEASLEs  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  tho  skin,  internal  and  extcr- 
combined  with  an  infectious  fever. 

Symptoms.— ChiWfi  succeeded  by  great  heat,  languor,  and  drowsi- 
ness, pains  in  the  head,  back,  and  limbs,  quick  pulse,  soreness  of 
Ihroat,  thirst,  nausea  and  vomiting,  a  dry  cough,  and  higli-colored 
Urine.  These  symptoms  increase  in  violeiice  for  four  days.  The  eyes 
nre  inflamed  and  weak,  and  the  nose  pours  forth  a  watery  secretion, 
with  frequent  sneezing.  There  is  considerable  inflammation  in  tho 
larynx,  windpipe,  and  bronchial  tubes,  with  soreness  of  the  breast  and 
hoarseness.  About  the  fourth  day  the  skin  i  ?  covered  with  a  breaking 
out  which  produces  heat  and  itching,  and  is  red  in  spots,  upon  the 
face  first,  gradually  spreading  over  the  whole  body.  It  goes  off  in 
the  same  way,  from  tho  face  first  and  then  from  the  body,  and  tho 
hoarseness  and  other  symptoms  decline  with  it;  at  last  the  outsido 
gkin  peels  off  in  scales. 

Treatment. — ^In  a  mild  form,  nothing  is  required  but  a  light  diet, 
slightly  acid  drinlvs,  and  flax  seed  or  slippery  elm  tea.  Warm  herb 
teas,  and  frequent  sponge  baths  Avith  tepid  water,  serve  to  allay  tho 
fever;  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  patient  take  cold.  If  tho 
fever  is  very  high,  and  prevents  the  rash  coming  out,  a  slight  dose  of 
salts,  or  a  nauseating  dose  of  ipecac,  lobelia,  or  hive-syrup  should  bo 
given,  and  followed  by  teasponful  doses  of  compound  tincture  of 
Virginia  snake-root  until  the  fever  is  allayed.  If  the  patient  from  any 
derangement  takes  on  a  low  typhoid  type  of  fever,  and  the  rash  docs 
not  come  out  until  the  seventh  day,  and  is  then  of  a  dark  and  livid 
color,  tonics  and  stimulants  must  be  given,  and  expectoration  promo- 
ted by  some  suitable  remedy.  There  is  always  danger  of  tho  lungs 
bein^  left  in  an  inflamed  state  after  the  measles,  unless  the  greatest 
care  is  taken  not  to  suffer  tho  patient  to  take  cold.  Should  there  bo 
much  pain,  and  a  severe  cough,  this  must  be  treated  as  a  separate 
disease,  with  other  remedies. 

Typhoid  Fevee. — Symptoms. — ^Is  generally  preceded  by  several  days 
of  languor,  low  spirits,  and  indisposition  to  exertion.  There  is  also, 
usually,  some  pain  in  the  back  and  head,  loss  of  appetite,  and 
drowsiness,  though  not  rest.  The  disease  shows  itself  by  a  chill. 
During  the  first  week  there  is  increased  heat  of  the  surface,  frequent 
pulse,  furred  tongue,  restlessness,  sleeplessness,  headache,  and  pain  in 
the  back;  sometimes  diarrhoea  and  swelling  of  the  belly,  and  some- 
times nausea  and  vomiting. 

The  second  week  is  often  distinguished  by  small,  rose-colored  spots 
on  the  belly,  and  a  crop  of  little  watery  pimples  on  the  neck  and  chest. 
Laving  the  appearance  of  minute  drops  of  sweat;  the  tongue  is  dry  - 
and  black,  or  red  and  sore;  the  teeth  are  foul;  there  may  be  delirium 
and  dnlhiess  of  hearing;  and  the  symptoms  every  way  are  more 
serious  than  during  the  first  week.  Occasionally,  the  bowels  are  at 
this  period  perforated  or  ate  through  by  ulceration,  and  the  patient 
suddenly  sinks.  If  the  disease  proceeds  unfavorably  into  the  third 
week,  there  is  low,  muttering  delirium;  great  exhaustion;  sliding 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  201 


dovm  of  the  pcatient  towcarcl  the  foot  of  the  bed;  twitching  of  the 
muscles,  bleeding  from  the  bowels;  and  red  or  purple  spots  upon  tho 
skin.  If,  on  the' other  hand,  the  patient  improves,  the  comitenance 
brightens  up,  the  pulse  moderates,  the  tongue  cleans,  and  the  dis- 
charges look  healthy. 

Treatment. — Give  the  patient  good  air,  and  frequent  spongings  with 
water,  cold  or  tepid,  as  most  agreeable.  Keep  tho  bowels  in  order 
and  be  more  afraid  of  diarrhoea  than  costivencss.  Diarrhoea  should 
be  restramed  by  a  little  brandy,  or  by  repeated  doses  of  Dover's 
powder.  For  costiveness,  give  mild  injections,  made  slightly  loosen- 
ing by  castor  oil,  or  common  molasses.   To  keep  down  the  fever,  and 

J produce  perspiration,  give  tincture  of  veratrum  viride,  10  drops  every 
lour.  If  the  bowels  are  swelled,  relieve  them  by  hot  fomentations  of 
liops  and  vinegar.  If  the  pain  in  the  head  is  very  severe  and  constant, 
let  the  hair  be  cut  short,  and  the  head  bathed  frequently  with  colil 
■water.  Give  light  nourishment,  and  if  the  debility  is  great,  broth  and 
wine  will  he  needed.  Cleanse  the  mouth  with  very  weak  tea — old 
hyson.  If  the  fever  runs  a  low  course,  and  the  patient  is  very  weak, 
quuiine  may  be  given  from  the  beginning.  Constant  care  and  good 
nursing  are  very  important. 

Typhus  fever  is  distinguished  from  typhoid  by  there  being  no  marked 
disease  of  the  bowels  in  typhus. 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS. 

Cheap  Vinegar. — Mix  25  gals,  of  wann  rain  water,  with  4  gals, 
molasses  and  1  gal.  yeast,  and'let  it  ferment;  you  will  soon  have  tho 
best  of  vinegar;  keep  adding  these  articles  in  tliese  proportions  as  tho 
stock  is  sold. 

For  Grocers'  Sales — Take  three  barrels  ;  let  one  of  them  bo 
your  vinegar  barrel ;  fill  this  last  up  before  it  is  quite  empty,  with 
molasses,  2  gals.  ;  soft  -water,  11  gals  ;  yeast,  1  qt.  ;  keeping  these  pro- 
portions in  filling  up  the  whole  three  barrels;  sell  the  vinegar  out  of 
your  old  vinegar  barrel  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  -which  will  be  in  a  short 
time  ;  when  nearly  empty,  fill  it  np  with  the  fluid  as  before,  and  pass 
on  to  sell  out  of  the  next  barrel;  by  the  time  it  is  disposed  of  go  on  to 
the  last ;  then  go  back  to  the  first,  filling  up  your  barrels  m  every 
case  when  nearly  empty,  and  you  will  alwnys  keep  a  stock  of  good 
vinegar  on  hand  unless  your  sales  are  very  large  ;  in  which  case,  fol- 
low the  next  process.  Have  the  bung-holes  open  in  the  barrels  to 
admit  air.   The  free  admission  of  warm  air  hastens  the  process. 

Vinegar  in  Three  Days. — Get  a  quantity  of  maple,  beech,  or 
basswood  chips  or  shavings,  and  soak  these  in  good  vinegar,  for  two  or 
three  days.  With  these  chips  you  will  fill  a  barrel,  which  has  been 
pierced  with  a  large  number  of  inch  noles  all  around  tlie  sides  for  tho 
free  admission  of  air  among  the  chips  (the  more  holes  in  the  barrel 
the  better,  for  the  more  air  the  sooner  the  vinegar  will  be  made)  cut 
another  barrel  in  two  halvog,  place  one  half  below  the  barrel  with  the 


202     GnocKus  AND  coNFECTioxF.Ks'  nixr.irTS. 


f  liips  .111(1  the  other  half  above  it,  Tlio  top  tub  inust  have  its  bottom 
l)ici'ccd  witli  a  iuiml)cr  of  gimlet  liolcs,  in  -which  arc  placed  several 
threads  of  twine,  to  conduct  tlio  vinegar  evenly  over  the  chips.  Tho 
licpiid  drahis  down  slowly  through  the  chii)3  and  out  of  a  faucet  near 
the  bottom  of  tho  barrel  into  the  lower  tub.  It  should  run  through 
every  lour  hours,  and  then  be  bal(!d  or  pumped  back,  l^irections  to 
make  vincgjir  from  sugar  :  Use  H  lb,  to  each  gal.  of  water  ;  of  tho 
dregs  of  molasses  barrels,  use  2  lb." to  each  gal.  of  -water  ;  small  beer, 
lager  beer,  ale,  &c.,  which  have  become  sour,  make  good  vinegar  by 
being  reduced  with  water ;  small  beer  needs  but  little  water,  lager  beer 
as  much  water  as  beer  ;  to  2  gals,  cider,  add  ^  gal.  of  water  ;  you  can 
also  make  excellent  vinegar  out  of  the  artificial  cider  mentioned  below. 
Use,  in  every  case,  soft  water  to  make  vinegar,  and  use  2  qts,  yeast 
to  every  barrel.  It  makes  much  quicker  if  tho  fluid  is  slightly 
lukewarm.    Leach  eitlier  of  these  preparations  through  tho  shavings. 

This  process  should  be  attended  to  during  warm  weather,  or  in 
a  room  where  a  pretty  high  temperature  is  kept  up,  as  it  will  uot 
vork  otherwise. 

Excellent  Vinegae,  Cheap, — Acetic  acid,  5  lbs.  ;  molasses,  2 
gal,  ;  yeast,  2  qts,  ;  put  them  into  a  forty-gal.  cask,  and  fill  it  up  Avitli 
xaia  water  ;  stir  it  up,  and  let  it  stand  one  to  three  weeks,  letting  it 
have  all  the  air  possible,  and  you  will  have  good  vinegar.  If  wanted 
stronger,  add  more  molasses.  Should  you  at  any  time  have  Avcak 
vinegar  on  hand,  put  molasses  into  it  to  set  it  working.  This  vrill 
coon  correct  it.    INIake  in  a  Avarm  place. 

White  AVixe  Vinegah. — Mash  up  20  lbs.  raisins,  and  add  10  gals, 
water  ;  let  it  stiind  in  a  warm  place  lor  one  month,  and  you  will  have 
pure  white  Avino  -\  inegar.  Tho  raisins  may  bo  used  a  second  time  tho 
i;amo  way. 

To  Pkeserve  Eggs. — To  each  patent  pailful  of  water,  add  2  pts. 
of  fresh  slacked  lime,  and  1  pt.  of  common  salt ;  mix  well.  Till  your 
barrel  half  full  with  -this  fluid,  put  your  eggs  down  in  it  any  time  af- 
ter June,  and  they  wiU  keep  two  years  if  desired. 

Liquid  Mucilage. — Fine  clear  glue  1  lb.  ;  gum  arabic,  10  oz.  ; 
water,  1  qt.  ;  melt  by  heat  in  a  glue  kettlo  or  water  batli  ;  when  en- 
tirely melted,  add  slowly  10  ozs.  strong  nitric  acid,  set  off  to  cool. 
Then  bottle,  adduig  in  a  couple  of  cloves  to  each  bottle. 

Candied  Lemon  Peel. — Take  lemon  peels  and  boil  them  in  syrup  ; 
then  take  them  out,  and  dry. 

Baking  Powder. — Tartaric  acid,  5  lbs.  ;  puro  sesquicarbonato  of 
soda,  8  lbs,  ;  potato  farina,  or  other  flour  or  starch,  IG  lbs.  Dry 
separately  by  gentle  heat.  Mix  this  perfectly  in  a  dry  room,  pass 
the  mixture  through  a  sieve  and  put  up  at  once  into  damp  proof 
hard  pressed  packages.  To  use,  1  or  2  teaspoonf  uls  are  mixed  Avith 
dry  flour,  Avliich  is  then  mixed  with  cold  Avater,  and  baked  imme- 
diately. Another. — Tartaric  acid,  1  lb.; . pure  bicarbonate  of  soda  f 
lbs.  ;  jwtato  farina,  |  lb.    Treat  tho  same  as  the  last. 

To  Make  an  Ice  Chest. — Take  2  drygoods  boxes,  one  of  which  is 
enough  smaller  than  the  other  to  leave  a  space  of  about  3  inches  all 
around  when  it  is  placed  inside.  Fill  the  space  between  the  two  Avith 
sawdust  packed  closely,  and  cover  with  a  heavy  lid  made  to  fit  neat- 
ly inside  the  larger  box.  Insert  a  small  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the 
tihcst  to  carry  off  tho  Avatcr  from  the  melting  ice.   I'or  family  uso  oi 


GROCEKS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEirTS.  203 


p-ocers,  nse  this  "will  proTe  as  serviceable  as  refrigerators  that  cost 
twenty  times  as  much. 

Soap  Makufactdbe. — ^When  wood  ashes  cannot  conTeniently  be 
had  it  is  usual  for  soap  manufacturers  to  use  equal  quantities  of  re- 
cently slacked  lime,  aud  sal  soda,  soda  ash  or  caustic  soda,  using  water 
enough  to  give  the  ley  sufficient  strength  to  support  a  fresh  egg.  It 
must  be  very  strong.  The  solution  can  be  effected  by  heat,  or  stir- 
ring, or  by  both  methods,  finally  drawing  off,  or  bailing  out  the  liquid 
clear  of  sediment,  previously  throwing  in  salt  and  giving  time  for  the 
sediment  to  settle  ;  1  ton  of  yellow  soap  will  require  about  1000  lbs. 
tallow  and  350  lbs.  resin,  with  ley  sufficient.  The  same  quantity  of 
white  soap  will  require  nearly  1300  lbs.  tallow,  boiling  in  every  aiso 
with  the  proper  quantity  of  ley,  until  it  forms  a  perfectly  homoge- 
neous mass  by  a  perfect  blenduig  of  the  component  parts  all  together, 
when  it  is  poured  out  into  suitable  frames  to  harden  and  cool.  It  is 
afterwards  cut  up  into  proper  sized  bars  by  means  of  wires  to  which 
handles  are  attached  and  then  piled  up  to  dry. 

Transparent  Soap. — Slice  6  lbs.  nice  yellow  bar-soap  into  shav- 
ings ;  put  into  a  brass,  tin  or  copper  kettle,  with  alcohol,  ^  gal.,  heat- 
ing gradually  over  a  slow  fire,  stirring  till  all  is  dissolved  ;  then  add 
1  oz.  sassafras  essence,  and  stir  until  all  is  mixed  ;  now  pour  into 
]:>ans  about  1^  inches  deep,  and  when  cold  cut  into  square  bars  tho 
length  or  widlli  of  the  pan,  as  desired. 

English  Bar-Soap. — Six  gals,  soft  water  ;  G  lbs.  good  stone  lime; 
20  lbs.  sal-soda  ;  4  oz.  borax  ;  15  lbs.  fat  (tallow  is  best)  ;  10  lbs.  pul- 
verized resin,  and  4  oz.  beeswax  ;  put  the  water  in  a  kettle  on  tho 
fire,  aud  when  nearly  boiling  add  the  lime  and  soda  ;  when  these  aro 
dissolved,  add  the  borax  ;  boil  gently,  aud  stir  until  all  is  dissolved  ; 
then  add  the  fat,  resin,  and  bees-wax  :  boil  all  gently  until  it  shows 
flaky  on  tho  stick,  then  pour  into  moulds. 

Best  Soft  Soai>. — Mix  10  lbs.  potash  in  10  gals,  warm  soft  water 
over  night ;  in  the  morning  boil  it,  adding  G  lbs.  grease  ;  then  put  all 
in  a  barrel,  adding  15  gals,  soft  water. 

■  Soap  without  Lte  or  Grease.  In  a  clean  pot  put  I  lb.  home- 
made hard  or  mush  soap,  aud  ^-  lb.  sal-soda,  and  5  pts.  of  "soft  Avater. 
Boil  the  mixture  15  minutes,  and  you  Avill  have  5  lbs.  good  soap  for 
7 J  cents.  Hard  Soap. — Take  5  lbs.  hard  soap,  or  7  lbs.  soft  soap,  and 
4lbs.  sal-soda,  aud  2  oz.  borax,  and  1  oz.  hartshoni  ;  boil  one  quarter 
hour  with  22  qts.  water  ;  add,  to  harden,  ^  lb.  resin. 

German  Yelxoav  Soap.— Tallow  and^sal-soda,  of  each  112  lbs., 
resin,  56  lbs.  ;  stone  lime,  28  lbs.  ;  palm  oil,  8  oz.  ;  soft  water,  28  gals. 
Put  soda,  lime,  and  water  into  a  kettle  and  boil,  stirring  well  ;  then 
let  it  settle,  and  pour  off  the  lye.  In  another  kettle,  melt  the  tallow, 
i^Gsin,  and  palm  oil ;  having  it'hot,  tho  lye  being  also  boiling  hot,  mix 
all  together,  stirring  well  and  tho  work  is  done.  For  small  quantities. 
— Tallow  and  sal-soda  each,  1  lb.  ;  resm,  7  oz.  ;  stone  lime,  4  oz.  ; 
X^alm  oil,  1  oz,  ;  soft  water,  1  qt. 

Hard  Soap  with-  Laiid. — Sal-soda  and  lard,  each  G  lbs.  ;  stono 
lime,  3  lbs.  ;  soft  water,  4  gals.  ;  dissolve  the  lime  and  soda  in  tho 
water  by  boiling,  stirring,  settling,  and  pouring  off  ;  then  return  to 
the  kettle  (brass  or  copper),  and  add  the  lard,  and  boil  ittill  it  becomes 
Boap  ;  then  pour  uito  a  dish  or  moulds  ;  and,  when  cold,  cut  into  bars, 
and  dry  it. 


204      GTwOCEnS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS. 


"WniTK  IIakd  SoAr  \nTn  Tai.t.o-w. — Fresh  slacked  lime,  p.il-poda, 
jind  tallow,  of  each,  2  lbs.  ;  dissolve  the  soda  in  1  gal.  boiliiig  soft 
■water  ;  now  mix  in  the  lime,  stirring  occasionally  lor  a  few  hoar.s  ; 
after  which,  let  it  settle,  pouring  off  the  clear  liquor,  and  hoiling  the 
tallow  therein  until  it  is  all  dissolved  ;  cool  it  in  a  flat  box  or  pan,  cut 
into  bars  or  cakes  as  desired.  It  may  be  perfumed  with  sassafras  oil 
or  any  otlicr  perfume  desired,  stirring  it  in  when  cool.  One  hundred 
pounds  soap,  very  cheap. — Potash,  G  lbs.  ;  lard,  4  lbs.  ;  resin,  J  lb. 
Beat  up  the  resin,  mix  all  together,  and  set  aside  for  five  days  ;  then 
put  the  whole  into  a.  10-gal.  cask  of  water,  and  stir  twice  a  day  for 
ten  days,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Variegated  Soaps.— Soft  Avater  3qtg.,  nice  ^vhito  bar  soap  .3 lbs., 
sal-soda  2  ozs.  ;  Chinese  vermilion  and  Chinese  blue,  of  each  aljout 
7  grs.,  oil  sassafras  \  oz.  ;  shave  the  soap  Into  thin  slices  and  add  it  to 
the  water  as  it  begins  to  boil,  when  dissolved  set  it  off  the  fire,  tako 
out  a  cup  of  soap  and  stir  in  the  vermillion,  take  out  another  cup  of 
soap  and  stir  in  the  blue  ;  then  pour  in  the  contents  of  the  first  cup, 
giving  two  or  three  turns  only  with  a  stirring  stick,  then  add  the  other 
cupful  in  the  same  way,  then  pour  into  moulds,  or  into  a  proper  box, 
and  wlien  cold  it  can 'be  cut  into  bars ;  it  will  i)resent  a  beautiful 
streaked  appearance. 

Casitiior  Soap. — Curd  soap  28  lbs.,  otto  of  rosemary  l^lbs.  Reduce 
tlie  camphor  to  powder,  add  one  ounce  almond  oil,  then  sift  it,  when 
the  soap  is  melted  and  ready  to  turn  out,  add  the  camphor  and  rose- 
mary. White  Windsor  Soap. — Curd  soap  1  cwt.,  marine  soap  21  lbs. 
oil  soap  14  lbs.,  oil  caraway,  Ijlbs.,  oil  thyme  and  rosemary  of  each  \ 
lb.  oils  of  cassia  and  cloves  of  each  ^  lb.  Brown  Windsor  Soap. 
Curd  soap  |  cwt. ,  marine  soap  i  cwt. ,  yellow  soap  |  cwt. ,  oil  soap  J  cwt. 
Brown  coloring  (caramel)  ^  pt.  oils  caraway,  cloves,  thyme,  cassia,  petit 
grain  and  French  lavender  of  each  2  oz.  Isand  Soap. — Curd  soap  7  lbs. 
marine  soap  7 lbs.,  sifted  silver  sand  28 lbs,,  oils  thyme,  cassia,  cara- 
way, and  French  lavender  of  each  2  oz. 

Solid  Candles  froji  lard.— DIssoIyo  ^  lb.  alum  and  i  lb.  salt- 
petre in  I  pt.  water  on  a  slow  fire  ;  then  take  3  lbs.  of  lard  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  put  into  the  pot  with  this  solution,  stirring  it  con- 
stantly over  a  very  moderate  fire  until  the  lard  is  all  dissolved  ;  then 
let  it  simmer  until  all  steam  ceases  to  rise  and  remove  it  at  once  from 
the  fire.  If  you  leave  it  too  long  it  will  get  discolored.  These  can- 
dles are  harder  and  better  than  tallow. 

Tallow — To  Cleanse  and  Bleach. — Dissolve  alum,  5  lbs,,  ia 
water,  10  gals.,  by  boiling  ;  and  when  it  is  all  dissolved,  add  tallow, 
20  lbs.  ;  continue  the  boiling  for  an  hour,  constantly  stirring  and 
skimming  ;  when  sufficiently  cool  to  allow  it,  strain  through  thick 
muslin  ;  then  set  aside  to  harden  ;  when  taken  from  the  water,  lay 
it  by  for  a  short  time  to  drip. 

Imitation  Wax  Candles. — ^Purify  melted  tallow  by  throwing  in 
powdered  quick  lime,  then  add  two  parts  wax  to  one  of  tallow,  and 
a  most  beautiful  article  of  candle,  resembling  wax,  will  be  tlie  result. 
Dip  the  wicks  in  lime  water  and  saltpetre  on  making.  To  a  gallon  of 
Avater  add  2  oz.  saltpetre  and  ^  lb.  of  lime  ;  it  improves  the  light, 
and  prevents  the  tallow  from  running. 

Adamantine  Candles  from  Tallow. — ]Melt  together  10  o::.  mut- 
ton tallow  ;  camphor,  ^  oz,  ;  bees-wax,  4  oz. ;  alum,"  2  oz. 


TABLES,  &C.,  FOR  MERCHANTS.  205 
Table  of  Miscellaneous  AYeights  and  Measures, 


Apples,  dried,  busli.  about  25  lbs. 
Almonds,  seron  of,  1  to  2  cwt. 
Beef,  firkin,  100  lbs. 

"   or  Pork,  barrel,  200  lbs. 
Buckwheat,  bush,  usually  50  lbs. 
Beans,  wMte,  bushel,  60  lbs. 
Butter,  barrel,  224  lbs. 

"     lirkin,  56  lbs. 

"     tub,  8i  lbs. 
Coffee,  tierce  of,  5  to  7  cwt. 

"     bags  of  Rio,  about  162  lbs. 

'<      "    St.  Domingo,  about  130 
lbs. 

*<      pocket  of  Java,  about  50  lbs. 
bale  of  Mocha,  2  to  21/0  cwt. 
Clover  seed,  cask,  7  to  9  cwt. 

«'        <'    bushel,  usually  60  lbs. 
Corn,  per  bushel,  in  most  places,  5G 
lbs. 

Cement,  barrel,  300  lbs- 

Cotton,  bale,  N.  Orleans  and  AlaLa- 

nia,  400  to  300  lbs. 
"  '«  East  Indies,  c20  to  c80 

lbs. 

"       "  Carolina,  Georgia  &  West 

Indies,  300  to  312  lbs. 
«  "   Brazilian  160  to  200  lbs. 

Dried  Peaches,  bush,  usually  33  lbs. 
Flax,  bale,  Russian,  5  to  6  cwt. 
Pish,  quintal,  112  lbs. 

"   barrel,  pickled,  200  lbs. 
Flaxseed,  bush,  in  most  places,  n5 
lbs. 

Flour,  bbl.  net,  196  lbs. 

"   including  bbl-,  216  lbs. 

•<   sack,  5  bushels,  280  lbs. 
Figs,  drum,  24  lbs. 
Ginger,  ground,  box,  24  lbs. 
Honey,  gal.,  12  lbs. 
Hops,  bag  of,  about  2^4  cwt. 
Hempseed,  bush,  in  most  places  44 
lbs. 

Indian  Meal,  hogshead,  800  lbs. 
Lime,  bbl.,  225  lbs. 
Lemons,  box,  Sicily,  about  350  lbs. 
Mace,  case,  about  IVa  cwt. 


Molasses,  hhd.  from  130  to  150  gals. 
Oats,  per  bush.,  32  lbs. 
Oranges,  box,  double  O,  300  to  350 
lbs. 

"  single  O,  175  to  350 

lbs. 

Rye,  bush,  in  most  place?,  UG  lbs. 
Salmon,  box,  120  to  130  lbs. 
Salt,  hhd.,  3  bush. 

"   bbl.,  31/2  bush. 

"  bushel  of,  tine  ground,  70  lbs. 
Sugar,  bbl.,  200  to  250  lbs. 

"   box,  400  to  500  lbs. 
Soap,  bbl.  256  lbs. 

"    box,  75  lbs. 
Tea,  chest,  Congou,  75  lbs. 

"      "     Hyson,  60  to  84  lbs. 

"     1/^,  about  40  lbs.  net. 
Timothy  Seed,  bushel,  45  lbs. 
Wheat,  bushel,  60  lis. 

Beer,  lihd.,  54  gals. 

Butt  of  Sherry,  108  gals. 

Brandy,  puncheon  of,  110  to  120  gals. 

"      hhd.,  65  to  60  gals. 
Claret,  hhd.,  46  gals. 
Puncheon  of  Scotch  Whiskey,  110  to 
130  gals. 

Rum,  100  to  110  gals. 
Pipe  of  Port,  115  gals. 
"     Maderia,  92  gals. 
"     Teneriffe,  100  gals. 
A  hogshead  is  one-half,  a  quarter 
cask  is  one-fourth,  and  an  oc- 
tave is  one-eighlh  of  a  pipe,  butt, 
or  puncheon. 

British  Measures  oe  Yolume. 

The  Imperial  gallon  measures  277- 
274  cubic  inches,  and  contains  10 
lbs  avoirdupois  of  distilled 
water  at  32°  Fahr. 

The  Ale  gallon  is  282  cubic  inches, 
and  contains  10.2  lbs,  avoirdupois 
of  distilled  water. 


The  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  ins.  containing  8.355  lbs.  avoirdupois  of  di.s- 
tilled  water,"i3  the  government  or  customs  gallon  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  legal  gallon  of  each  State  in  which  no  law  exists  fixing  a  State  or 
statute  gallon,  and  the  Standard  U.  S.  bushel  is  the  Winchester,  contain- 
ing 2150.42  cubic  inches,  or  77.627413  lbs.  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water. 

The  Imperial  bushel=221S.192  cubic  ins.  The  heaped  bushel=19.5  ins. 
diameter,  cone  6  ins.  high=2815.4872  cubic  ins.  For  Grain— i  bushels= 
1  quarter.  1  quarter =10.2694  cubic  feet.  Coal  or  Heaped  measure—^ 
bushels=l  sack,  12  sacks=l  chaldron  ;  1  chaldron=58.656  cubic  feet  and 
weighs  3136  lbs.  1  stoiie=14  lbs.  1  Quarter  is  equal  to  8V4  U.  S.  bushels 
1  sack  flour =5  bushs.=280  lbs.  Anthracite  coal  per  cubic  ft.  weighs  90  to 
102  lbs.  Bituminous  coal,  per  cubic  ft.  79  to  82  lbs.  Coal  as  conventional- 


20G 


TAHLES,  &C.,  roil  MERCHANTS. 


3y  pnrchascd-^'in.nc  cubic  ft.  to  n  ton  (or  about  28  bushelfi  and  C  pcclcs),  In 
I'ho  U.  S.,  and  is  bought  wJiolesalo  l)y  tho  dealer  at  2240  lbs.  per  ton,  and 
rctnilod  at  'iOOO  lbs.  In  coniniorco,  1  ton  of  tlour  is  8  sacks,  and  1  ton  of 
potatoes  10  bushels.  Tho  weight  and  nioasurCH  in  tho  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada arc  tho  same  as  llioso  of  (Jreat  ISritain,  but  tho  United  States  bunhel 
and  gallon  are  most  in  use.  Tho  dimensions  of  a  barrel  should  be,  diam. 
of  head,  17  Ins.,  do.  at  bung,  1!)  ins.*  length,  28  ins.  ;  volume  7()8Q  cub.  ins. 
A  tun  Is  2  pipes,  4  hogsheads,  .3  puncheons,  8  barrels,  or  252  gals. 

Quantity  of  Goods  k.stimatkd  to  oomposk  a  Ton  in  cat>cula- 
TiNO  FiiioioiiTS  nv  Wateii.— Lemons,  20  boxes  ;  Eaisins,  20  caslis;  do., 
80  boxes  ;  do.,  160  half  boxes  ;  do.,  320  quarter  boxes  ;  Almonds,  10  frails  ; 
Grapes,  40  kegs  ;  "Wine,  Malaga,  8  quarter  casks  ;  ditto,  14  Indian  barrels  ; 
Cassia,  25  piculs  ;  Jute,  4  bales  ;  Linseed,  1000  lbs.,  or  81/2  bags  per  ton; 
Ginger,  110  lbs.;  Twine,  890  lbs.;  Matting,  4-4,  8% rolls  of  40  yds.  ;  do.,  5-4, 

7  rolls  of  40  yds.  ;  do.,  0-4,  5%  rolls  of  40  yards  ;  Gunny  bags,  large,  425; 
medium  do.,  500  ;  small  do.,  625 ;  Saltpetre,  11  to  12  bags  per  ton  of  2240 lbs. 

New  York  Freights.— Quantity  op  Goods  wiiioir  compose  a 
'Ho'^i— Extract  from  the  Bye-Laivs  of  the  New  York  Chaviher  of  Commerce. 
In  freighting  vessels  by  the  ton,  in  the  absence  of  adefmito  agreement 
between  the  owner  of  the  vessel  and  freighter  of  the  goods,  ihe  following 
regulations  shall  be  the  standard  of  computation  :  That  the  articles  tho 
bulk  of  vjliich  shall  compose  a  Ton,  to  equal  a  Ton  of  heavy  materials,  shall 
be  in  weight  as  follows.  Coffee  in  casks,  15G8  lbs.  ;  Coffee  in  bags,  1830 
(lbs. ;  Cocoa  in  casks,  1120  lbs. ;  Cocoa  in  bags,  1307  lbs. ;  Pimento  in  casks, 
952  lbs. ;  Pimento  in  bags,  1110  lbs.  ;  Dry  hides,  10  cwt. ;  Chinese  raw  silk, 

8  cwt, ;  Bohea  tea,  net,  10  cwt. ;  Green  teas,  8  cwt.  ;  Ship-bread,  bulk,  8 
cwt. ;  Ship-bread,  bags,  7  cwt. ;  Ship-bread,  casks,  G  cwt. ;  Gram,  Peas,  or 
Beans  in  casks,  22  bushels  ;  Grain,  in  bulk,  36  bushels  ;  European  salt,  31 
bushels  ;  West  India  salt,  31  bushelj  ;  Sea  coal,  20  bushels  ;  Tobacco,  0 
hhds. ;  Pig  and  Bar  iron,  Potashes,  Sugar,  Logwood,  Fustic,  !Nicaragup 
wood  and  Heavy  Dye-woods,  Kice,  Honey,  Copper  ore,  and  all  othef 
heavy  goods,  20  cwt.=l  ton  ;  Coffee,  cocoa,  and  dried  codfish  in  bulk,  if 
cwt.=l  ton  ;  Dried  Codfish,  in  casks  of  any  siz8,12cwt.=l  ton  ;  Oil,  Wineij 
Brandy,  or  any  kind  of  liquor,  reckoning  the  full  contents  of  the  cask,  wina 
measures  200  gals. =1  ton.  Mahogany,  Square  timber.  Oak  Plank,  Pine  and 
other  boards.  Beavers,  Furs,  Peltry,  Beeswax,  Cotton,  "Wool,  and  alo 
of  all  kinds,  40  cubic  ft.=l  ton.  Flour,  in  bbls.  of  196  lbs.  each  8  bbls.= 
1  ton;  Beef,  Tallow,  Pickled  fish.  Pitch,  Tar,  and  Turpentine,  6  bbls.=l  ton. 

A  Car-load. — As  a  general  rule  the  fo^lowiifg  quantities  constitute 
a  car-load  throughout  Canada  and  the  United  States,  viz.  :  20,000  lbs. 
or  70  bbls.  of  sait,  70  of  lime,  70  of  flour,  GO  of  whiskey,  200  sacks  of 
flour,  6  cords  of  hard  wood,  7  of  softwood,  IG  head  of  horses,  18  to  20 
head  of  cattle,  50  to  GO  head  of  hogs,  80  to  100  head  of  sheep,  9,000 
feet  of  solid  boards,  17,000  feet  of  siding,  13,000  feet  of  flooring,  40,000 
shingles,  one-half  less  of  hard  lumber,  one-fourth  less  of  green  lum- 
ber, one-tenth  less  of  joists,  scantling  and  all  other  large  timber,  340 
bushels  of  wheat,  360  of  corn,  G80  of  oats,  400  of  barley,  360  of  flax-seed, 
S60  of  apples  430  of  Irish  potatoes,  356  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,000  bushels 
of  bran. 

ExcnA2;GE  ox  England. 

Exchange  is  the  method  of  adjusting  accounts  or  paying  debts,  when 
the  debtor  and  creditor  are  distant  from  each  other,  by  meaiis  of  an  order 
or  draft  called  a  bill  of  exchange,  so  as  to  avoid  the  transmission  of  either 
money  or  goods  ;  for  example,  A  of  New  York  wishing  to  pay  a  debt  to  B, 
of  London,  pays  an  equivalent  amount  to  C,  of  New  York,  who  has  a 
debtor,  D,  in  London  ;  and  A  receives  from  C  an  order,  addressed  to  D, 
requesting  him  to  pay  the  amount  to  B.  This  is  sent  in  a  letter  to  B,  who 
presents  it  to  D  for  acceptance  or  payment.  Thus  the  debtor  in  one  place 
is  substituted  for  the  debtor  in  another,  and  two  accounts  may  be  adju.st- 
ed  at  the  same  time  by  the  simple  transmission  ef  a  letter.  Far  of  ea> 


TABLES,  &C.,  FOU  MERCHANTS. 


207 


change,  is  tlie  equivalency  of  a  certain  amount  of  the  currency  of  one 
country  to  the  currency  of  another,  the  currencies  of  both  being  of  the 
precise  weight  and  purity  fixed  by  their  respective  mints.  Thus  accord- 
ing to  the  mint  regulations  of  England  and  France,  £1  sterling  is  equal 
to  25  francs,  20  centimes,  which  is  consequently  said  to  be  the  _par  between 
London  and  Paris.  Exchange  is  made  to  diverge  from  par,  either  by  de- 
preciation of  the  currency  in  either  country  below  the  mint  standard,  or 
by  the  difference  in  the  amounts  of  indebtedness  between  one  country 
and  another,  called  the  balance  of  trade,  which  effects  the  relative  de- 
mand for  bills  of  exchange.  Thus  in  the  following  table,  the  present 
standard  value  of  £1  stg.  in  the  United  States,  being  f  4.84.4,  when  ex- 
change is  at  9  per.cent.,  it  is  then  at  par  ;  if  higher  than  9,  it  is  above  par, 
if  less  than  9,  it  is  below,  as  shown  by  the  table. 

EXCHANGE  TABLE. 


5  per  cent. 

^4.66.7 

7% 
8 

per  cent. 

$4.78.9 

10   per  cent. 

!|4.88.9 

51/2  " 
534  " 

4.68.0 

4.80.0 

101/4  " 

4.90.0 

4.70.0 

8V4 

4.81.1 

101/2 

4.91.1 

G  '* 

4.71.1 

8V2 

4.82.2 

ifi  :; 

4.92.2 

CV4  " 

4.72.2 

8% 

4.83.3 

4.93.3 

CVa  " 

4.73.3 

9 

« 

4.84.4 

4.94.4 

4.74.4 

91/4 

(( 

4.85.6 

4.95.6 

7  " 

4.75.C 

9^2 

(I 

4.86.7 

113/4 

4.96.7 

4.76.7 

9% 

i( 

4.87.8 

12  " 

4.97.8 

4.77.8 

The  FOLLowma  Table  exhibits  the  Legal  Equivalents  oii- 
IJkitish  Money  in  Amekican  Dollars  and  Cents. 


s. 

$  c.  m. 

S. 

$  c.  m. 

£ 

$  c. 

£ 

S  c. 

£ 

^  c. 

£ 

^  c. 

£ 

¥  c. 

1 

24.2 

11 

2.66.2 

1 

4  84 

11 

53  24 

21 

101  64 

31 

150  04 

41 

198  44 

2 

48.4 

12 

2.90.4 

2 

9  68 

12 

58  08 

22 

106  48 

32 

154  88 

42 

203  28 

8 

72.6 

13 

3.14.6 

3 

14  52 

13 

02  92 

23 

111  32 

33 

159  72 

43 

208  12 

4 

96.8 

14 

3.38.8 

4 

19  36 

14 

67  76 

24 

116  16 

34 

164  56 

44 

212  96 

5 

1.21.0 

15 

3.63.0 

5 

24  20 

15 

72  60 

25 

121  00 

35 

109  40 

45 

217  80 

6 

1.45.2 

16 

3.87.2 

6 

29  04 

16 

77  44 

26 

125  84 

36 

174  24 

50 

242  00 

7 

1.69.4 

17 

4.11.4 

7 

33  88 

17 

82  28 

27 

130  68 

37 

179  08 

60 

290  40 

8 

1.93.6 

18 

4.35.6 

8 

38  72 

18 

87  12 

28 

135  52 

38 

183  92 

70 

338  80 

9 

2.17.8 

19 

4.59.8 

9 

43  56 

19 

91  96 

29 

140  36 

39 

188  76 

80 

387  20 

10 

2.42.0 

20 

4.84.0 

10 

48  40 

20 

96  80 

30 

145  20 

40 

193  60 

90 

436  00 

Flavoeing  Extracts,  Vanilla,  Ginger,  &c. — Vanilla  beans, 
4  ozs. ;  sugar,  2  ozs. ;  alcohol,  4  fluid  ozs. ;  simple  syrup,  4  ozs. ;  brandy, 
1  pt.  Cut  the  beans  finely,  and  rub  thoroughly  with  the  sugar,  put 
all  into  a  strong  stone  bottle,  secure  the  cork  with  twine,  and  boil  iii 
a  water  bath  for  \  hour,  then  transfer  to  a  filter  and  allow  it  to  per- 
colate through,  then  add  brandy  sufficient  to  make  4  pts.  Other 
extracts,  as  ginger,  &c.,  can  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  by  using 
the  respective  ingredients. 

Essential  oils  of  aniseed,  lavender,  peppermint,  cloves,  cinnamon, 
&c.,  are  obtained  by  submitting  parts  of  the  plants,  previously  ground 
to  a  coarse  powder,  to  distillation  with  water,  when  the  oils  are  carried 
over  in  a  minute  state  of  division  with  the  aqueous  vapor.  The 
essential  oils  enclosed  in  the  skins  of  lemons,  oranges,  berganiots, 
&c.,  are  obtained  bj^  pressing  the  rinds  of  these  fruits. 

To  Preserve  Apples. — Pack  in  boxes  cr  barrels  elevated  from  the 
cellar  floor,  with  a  layer  of  dry  sawdust  at  the  bottom  of  each  box  or 
barrel,  then  a  layer  of  aj^ples  placed  out  of  contact  with  each  other, 
then  a  layer  of  sawdust,  and  so  on  till  all  are  full.  Sound  apples 
packed  iu  this  way  will  keei^  fresh  a  long  time. 


208    GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONER'S  RECEIPTS;  AC. 


"WlCir.IITS.  IN  roUNDS,  OF  VAUIOUS  AKTIOI^KS,  as  IlATKI)  HY  RAILWAY 
COMl>ANIIC8,  WJIKN  TlUilll  WKIGHTS  CAHSiOT  OTUEUWISK  UK  ASCEIl- 
TAINKD. 

POUNDS. 

Aahes,  pot  or  pearl  Barrel   450 

Apples,  and  barrelled  fruits  Bnrrel   200 

Apples   Bushel....  50 

Barley  Bushel....  45 

Beef,  pork  bacon  Per  hhd. . . ,  1,000 

Butter,  tallow,  lard  Perbbl   i^33 

Salt  fish  and  meat  Per  lirkin  . '. '. '.  100 

Bran,  feed,  shipstuffs,  oats  Bushel  iJ5 

Buckwheat  Bushel ." ." .' .'  48 

Bricks,  common  Each ...  5 

•■:  .'.  .V.V  ".'.Cord! . !  !2,0CO 

Charcoal,....  Bushel....  22 

Coke,  and  cako  meal   Bushel  40 

Clover  seed  Bushel.' .  .  62 

Eggs....  Barrel....  200 

Fish  and  salt  meat  per  firkin ....  100 

Flour  and  meal   Per  bushel,  56  lbs,  Barrel. ...  216 

Grain  and  seeds,  not  stated  Bushel  ...  60 

Hides  (green)  Each. ...  85 

,  Hides  (dry),  salted  or  Spanish  Each   33 

Ice,  coal,  lime  Bushel   80 

Liquors,  malt  and  distilled  Barrel   250 

Liquors  ,  per  gallon   10 

Lumber — pine,  poplar,  hemlock    Ft.  b,  m   4 

Lumber — oak,  walnut,  cheriy,  ash  Ft.  b.  m. . . .  5 

Nails  and  spikes  Keg   106 

Onions,  wheat,  potatoes  Bushel   60 

Oysters  Per  bushel,  100  lbs,,  per  1,000   350 

Plastering  lath  Per  1,000   60o 

Besin,  tar,  turpentine    Barrel   300 

Sand,  gravel,  etc  Per  cubic  ft   150 

Shingles  Per  M.,  short,  900  lbs.,  Long. . .  .1  400 

Salt  Per  bushel....  70 

Stone,  undressed  Perch  4,000 

Stone,  dressed  Cubic  ft ... .  180 

Timothy  and  light  grass  seed  Bushel. ...  40 

Wood— hickory  Cord. . .  .4,500 

Wood— oak  Cord. . . .  3,500 

1  ton  (2240  lbs.)  cured  hay  is  425  cubic  ft.;  1  ton  of  hay  in  mow,  414.37 
lbs.,  or  a  cube  of  7%  ft.  Hay,  as  usually  delivered,  weighs  5  lbs.  per  cubic 
ft.;  do.,  well  pressed,  8  lbs.  Straw,  loose,  weighs  sy,  lbs.  per  cubic  ft.; 
do.,  well  pressed,  5%  lbs.  U.  S.  gallon  of  water  weiglis  8.33  lbs. ;  do-,  of 
molasses,  11%;  do.,  of  turpentine,  7.31;  do.,  of  alcohol,  6.96. 

Belfast  Ginger  Ale.— Double  refined  sugar,  powdered,  1  lb. ; 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  3^  ozs. ;  citric  acid,  4^  ozs. ;  concentrated  ess.  of 
ginger,  1|  ozs. ;  ess.  of  cayenne,  2  drs. ;  ess.  of  lemon,  40  drops.  The 
soda,  acid  and  sugar  must  be  carefully  dried  separately  at  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  120" ;  and  the  sugar  before  drying  must  be  thor- 
oughly Incorporated  with  the  essences,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  , 
caramel,  as  color,  may  be  added.  The  whole  forms  a  powder,  a  des- 
sertspoonful of  which  will  make  a  tumblerful  of  the  drink. 

Unfermented  Wine. — To  make  this,  boil  grapes  of  any  kind  over 
a  slow  fire  till  the  pulp  has  thoroughly  separated  from  the  skin,  add- 
ing just  enough  water  to  prevent  burning  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
tlien  press  the  juice  through  a  fine  cloth  and  add  |  its  weight  of  eugar, 


GROCERS  AND  confectioners' RECEIPTS,  &C.  209 


mix  well,  bring  the  juice  to  the  boiling  point  once  more,  and  cnn  it 
in  air-tight  jars.  This  Avine  will  keep  sweet  for  years,  and  has  the 
color  of  port. 

To  Improve  Spoiled  Butter.— The  cut  represents  an  excellent 
arrangement  for  the  restoration  of  bad  butter  by  means  of  the  well- 
known  absorbent  and  deodorizing  qual- 
ities of  charcoal.  The  tainted  butter  is 
removed  from  the  firkin  or  other  ves- 
sel by  removing  the  staves  and  hoops 
surrounding  it.  It  is  then  placed  in  a 
clean  bag  and  buried  in  granulated 
charcoal  in  a  suitable  barrel  or  box.  In 
a  short  time,  the  offensive  odor  and 
bad  smell  will  disappear,  and  a  fine, 
fresh,  marketable  appearance  will  be 
imparted  to  the  butter  by  the  conserv- 
ing operation  of  the  charcoal. 

Another  way,  melt  the  butter  in  twice 
its  weight  <.)f  boiling  water,  shake  well 
and  pour  the  melted  butter  into  cold 
water  to  regain  a  proper  consistence. 
Or,  wash  in  good  new  milk,  in  which  the  butyric  acid,  which  causes 
the  rancidity,  is  freely  soluble.  Wash  afterwards  in  cold  spring 
water.  Another  good  way  is  to  wash  the  butter  in  strong  lime  water, 
previously  permitting  the  lime  ample  time  to  settle,  and  using  the  clear 
portion. 

To  Can  Fruit,— The  following  instructions  for  boiling  and  can- 
ning fruit  Avill  prove  useful  to  many.  The  first  number  after  tho 
name  of  the  fruit  has  reference  to  the  number  of  minutes  required  for 
boiling,  and  the  second  to  the  ounces  of  sugar  required  to  each  quart. 
Currants,  (5,  8 ;  cherries,  5,  G  ;  crab-apples,  25,  8  ;  blackberries,  0,  6  ; 
gooseberries,  8,  8  ;  grapes,  10,8;  plums,  10,  8;  peaches  (whole),  15, 
4;  peaches  (halves),  8,  4  ;  pears  (whole),  30,  8  ;  quinces  (sliced),  15, 
10  ;  tomatoes,  30,  (no  sugar)  ;  beans  and  peas,  3  to  4  hours,  no  sugar. 

To  Can  Green  Corn. — Dissolve  2^  ozs.  tartaric  acid  in  1  pt.  water, 
and  use  1  teaspoonful  to  every  pint  of  corn  while  the  corn  is  at  boiling 
heat.  When  opened  for  use,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  every  3 
cans  of  corn. 


Percentage  of  Alcohol  in  100  Parts  of  the  following 
Liquors. — Prof.  Brande. 


Scotcli  Whiskey  54.53 

Irish        do   53.9 

Rum  53.68 

Gin  51.6 

Brandy  53.39 

Burgundy  14.57 

Cape  Muscat  18.25 

Champagne  (still).  13.80 

Do.      (sparkling)  12.61 

Cider  5.2  to  9.8 

Constantia  19.75 

Gooseberry  Wine  11 . 48 


Currant  Wine  20.50 

Port  22.90 

Maderia  22.27 

Tenerifte  ..19.70 

Sherry  19.17 

Claret  15.1 

Elder   8.79 

Ale   ...  6.87 

Porter   4.2 

Malaga  17.26 

Rhenish  12.8 

Small  Beer   1.28 


210      GU0CEH3  AND  CONFKCTIONEKS'  IirCEIPTS. 


RAriD  Process  of  markino  Goods  at  any  desired  rr.n  cent. 
ruOFiT. — Ivctail  merchants,  in  buying  goods  hy  wholesale,  buy  a  great 
many  ailicles  by  the  dozen,  such  as  boots  and  si loes,  hats  and  caps, 
and  notions  of  various  kinds  ;  now,  the  merchant,  in  buying,  for  in- 
ttanco,  a  dozen  hats,  knows  exactly  what  one  of  these  hats  will  retail 
for  in  the  market  where  he  deals  ;  and,  unless  lie  is  a  good  accountant, 
it  will  often  take  him  some  time  to  determine  whether  lie  can  alfoid 
to  purchase  the  dozen  hats  and  make  a  living  profit  by  selling  them  by 
the  shigle  hat ;  and  in  buying  his  goods  by  auction,  as  the  merchant 
often  docs,  he  has  not  time  to  make  the  calcidation  before  the  goods  aro 
bid  off.  He  therefore  loses  the  chance  of  making  good  bargains  by  be- 
ing afraid  to  bid  at  random,  or  if  he  bids,  and  the  goods  arc  cried  off, 
lie  may  have  made  a  poor  bargain,  by  bidding  thus  at  a  venture.  It  then 
becomes  a  useful  and  practical  problem  to  determine  instantly  what 
per  cent,  lie  would  gain  if  he  retailed  the  hat  at  a  ceitain  piice,  to 
tell  what  an  article  should  retail  for  to  make  a  profit  of  20  per  cent. 

IvULE. — Divide  lohat  the  articles  cost  per  dozen  hy  10,  which  is  done 
hy  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left. 

For  instance,  if  hats  cost  .$17.50  per  dozen,  remove  the  decimal  point 
,  one  place  to  the  left,  makmg  $1.75,  what  they  should  bo  sold  for 
'apiece  to  gain  20  per  cent  on  the  cost.  If  they  cost  $31.00  per  dozen, 
they  should  be  sold  at  $3.10  apiece,  etc.  We  take  20  per  cent,  as  tho 
Tiasis  for  the  foUoAving  reasons,  viz  :  because  we  can  determine  instant- 
ly, by  simply  removing  the  decimal  point,  without  changing  a  figure, 
and,  if  the  goods  w^ould  not  bring  at  least  20  per  cent,  profit  in  tho 
.home  market,  the  merchant  could  not  afford  to  purchase,  and  would 
look  for  cheaper  goods. 

The  reason  for  the  above  rule  is  obvious,  for  if  wo  divide  the  cost 
of  a  dozen  by  12,  we  have  the  cost  of  a  single  article  ;  then  if  we  wish 
lo  make  20  per  cent,  on  tho  cost  (cost  being  1-1  or  5-5),  we  add  tho 
percent.,  which  is  1-5,  to  the  6-5,  making  G-5  or  12-10  ;  then  as  we 
multiply  the  cost,  divided  by  12,  by  the  12-10  to  find  at  Avhat  price  one 
must  be  sold  to  gam  20  per  cent.,  it  is  evident  that  tlio  12s  will  cancel 
and  leave  tho  cost  of  a  dozen  to  bo  divided  by  10,  to  do  this  remove  the 
decimal  point  one  place  to  tho  left. 

ExAJViPLE  1. — If  I  buy  2  dozen  caps  at  $7.50  per  dozen,  what  stall  I 
retail  them  at  to  make  20  per  cent.  ?   Ans.  75  cents. 

ExAJMPiiE  2.— When  a  merchant  retails  a  vest  at  $4.50  and  makes 
20  per  cent,  what  did  he  pay  per  doz.  ?  Ans.  $45, 

ExAiviPLE  3. — At  what  price  should  I  retail  a  pair  of  boots  that  cost 
$85.00  per  doz.  to  make  20  per  cent  ?   Ans.  $8.50. 

Now,  as  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left,  on  the  cost 
of  a  dozen  articles,  gives  the  selling  lixice  of  a  single  one  with  20  per 
cent,  added  to  the  cost,  and,  as  the  cost  of  any  article  is  100  per  cent., 
it  is  obvious  that  tho  selling  ])rice  would  be  20  per  cent,  more,  or  120 
per  cent.  ;  hence,  to  find  50  i^er.  cent,  profit  which  would 
make  the  selling  price  150  per  cent.,  we  would  first  find  120 
per  cent,  then  add  30  per  cent,  by  increasing  it  one-fourth  itself; 
ior  85per  cent.,  increase  it  one-eight  itself,  etc.  Hence  to  mark  an.' 
article  at  any  per  cent,  iirofit  we  find  the  following: 

— G-ENEKAii  RvL-E.—Firstfind  20  per  cent,  profit  by_  removing  the  dec- 
imal point  one  place  to  the  left  on  the  price  the  articles  cost  per  doz.; 
then,  as  20  per  cent  profit  is  120  per  cent,  add  to  or  subtract  from  this 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  KECEirTS-  211 

amount  the  fractional  part  that  the  required  per  cent,  added  io  100  fa 
more  or  less  than  120. 

Merchants,  in  marking  goods,  generally  take  a  per  cent,  that  is  an  ali- 
qnot  part  of  100,  as  25,  33  1-3,  50,  &c.  The  reas^on  they  do  this  is  be- 
cause it  makes  it  much  easier  to  add  such  a  per  cent,  to  tlie  cost ;  foe 
instance,  a  merchant  could  mark  almost  a  dozen  articles  at  50  per  cent, 
profit  in  the  time  it  would  take  him  to  mark  one  at  49  per  cent. 
The  following  is  arran":ed  for  the  conveuience  of  husiuess  men  ia 
marking  tlie  prices  of  all  articles  bought  by  tlie  dozen. 
To  make  20  per  cent,  rcraovo  tlie  point  one  place  to  the  left. 

and  add  i  itself. 


GO  " 

((  ( 

(            ((  (( 

1-3  " 

50  " 

<(  ( 

C                ((  (( 

1-4  " 

44  " 

(C  ( 

(                  ((  (C 

1-5 

<; 

40  " 

ii(  ( 

(           11  li 

1-G  " 

37  " 

1-7  " 

35  " 

((  < 

1-8  " 

331-3" 

((  ( 

I           ((  (( 

1-9  " 

33 

(            li  It 

1-10  " 

30 

I           ((  <( 

1-12  " 

(( 

28 

((  ( 

1-15  " 

(( 

20 

(C  ( 

(            if  <( 

1-20  " 

(( 

25 

1-24  " 

(( 

m 

(C  ( 

'         "  Eubtract 

1-lG  " 

1G2-3  " 

1-3G  " 

183  u 

1-9G  " 

If  I  buy  a  doz.  shirts  for  $28.00,  what  shall  I  retail  them  for  to 
make  50  per  cent.  ?   Ans.  $3.50 

ExriiANATiON. — Remove  the  i^oint  one  place  to  the  left,  and  add  J 
itself. 

Amquot  Pabts  of  100  Ayro  1000.— Merchants  in  selling  goods  gen- 
erally make  the  price  of  an  article  some  aliquot  part  of  100,  as  in  sell- 
ing sugar  at  12^  cents  per  lb.,  or  8  lbs.  for  $1.00,  or  in  sell- 
ing calico  lor  IG  2-3  cents  per  yard,  or  G  yds.  for  $1.00,  etc.  Tho 
lollowing  table  Avill  be  found  valuble  for  all  such  calculations. 
12^  is  1-8  part  of  100.  8^  is  1-12  part  of  100. 

25  is  1-4  part  of  100.  162-3  is  2-12  or  1-G  of  100 

37^  is  3-8  part  of  100.  33  1-3  is  4-12  or  1-3  of  100. 

50  is  4-8  or   of  100.  GG  2-3  is  8-12  or  2-3  of  100 

02^  5-8  part  of  100.  83  1-3  is  10-12  or  5-6  of  ICQ 

TSls  G-8  or  3-4  part  of  100.  125  is  1-8  part  of  1000. 
87*  is  7-8  part  of  100.  250  is  2-8  or  i  of  1000. 

G|  is  1-16  part  of  100.  375  is  3-8  part  of  1000. 

18|  is  3-16  part  of  100.  G25  is  5-8  part  of  1000. 

3l|  is  5-16  part  of  100.  875  is  7-8  part  of  1000. 

To  multiply  by  an  aliquot  part  of  100. 

RuiiE. — Add  two  cyphers  to  the  multiplicand,  then  take  sucli  part 
of  it  as  the  multiplier  is  part  of  100. 

N,  B.  If  the  multiplicand  is  a  mixed  number  reduce  the  fraction  to 
a  decimal  of  two  places  before  dividing. 

N.  B.  For  the  sake  of  imiformitv,  it  lias  been  thought  best  to 
classify  the  Coal,  Interest  and  Ready  Reckoner  Tables  at  the  end  of 
the  Enrjinecrs'  De^xirtment, 


21?       GKOCKKS  AXD  CONFECTIONERS*  KlXKirTS. 

Tkas.— The  names  of  tlio  different  kinds  of  tea  rol.atc  to  the  timo 
of  their  being  gatliered,  or  to  some  peculiarity  in  their  inanufacturo. 
Jt  is  a  general  rule,  that  all  tea  is  line  in  proportion  to  the  tenderness 
and  imniatnrity  of  the  leaves.  The  quality  and  value  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds  diminish  as  they  are  gathered  later  in  the  season. 

Black  Teas.— As  soon  as  the  leaf-bud  begins  to  expand,  it  is 
gathered  to  make  Pekoe.  A  few  days'  later  growth  produces  black- 
leaved  Pekoe.  The  next  picking  is  called  Souchong  ;  as  the  leaves 
grow  larger  and  more  mature,  they  form  (Jomjou  ;  and  the  last  pick- 
ing is  Bohea.  JJohea  is  called  by  the  Chinese,  Ta-cha  (large  tea),  on 
iiccount  of  the  maturity  and  size  of  the  leaves  ;  it  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  woody  fibre  than  other  teas,  and  its  infusion  is  of  a 
darker  color  and  coarser  flavor.  Conr/ou,  the  next  higher  kind,  is 
named  from  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  Koonr/-foa  (great  care,  or 
assiduity).  This  forms  the  bulk  of  the  black  tea  imported,  and  is 
mostly  valued  for  its  strength. 

Souchong — Seaoa-choong  (small  scarce  sort),  is  the  finest  of  tho 
strongest  black  tea,  with  a  leaf  that  is  generally  entire  and  curly.  It 
is  much  esteemed  for  its  fragrance  and  fine  flavor.  Pekoe  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Canton  name,  Pak-ho  (white  down),  being  the  first  sprout.T 
of  the  leaf-buds  ;  they  are  covered  with  a  white  silky  down.  It  is  a 
delicate  tea,  rather  deficient  in  strength,  and  is  principally  used  for 
flavoring  other  teas. 

Grejln  Teas. — The  following  are  the  principal  kinds,  lioankay, 
Jlyson-Skin,  Hyson,  Gunpoioder,  and  Younrj  Jlyson. 

Young  Hyson  is  a  delicate  young  leaf,  called  in  tho  original  lan- 
guage Yu-tsien  (before  the  rains),  because  gathered  in  the  early 
spring.  Hyson,  from  the  Chinese  word  He-tchune,  which  means, 
flourishing  spring.  This  fine  tea  is  gathered  early  in  the  season,  and 
I)repared  with  great  care  and  labor.  Each  leaf  is  picked  separately, 
and  nipped  off  above  the  footstalks  ;  and  every  separate  leaf  is 
rolled  in  the  hand.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flavor.  Gunpowder 
Tea  is  only  Hyson  rolled  and  rounded  to  give  it  the  granular  appear- 
ance whence  it  derives  its  name.  The  Chinese  call  it  Choo-cha  (peal 
tea).  Hyson-Skin  is  so  named  from  the  Chuiese  terra,  in  which 
connection  skin  means  the  refuse,  or  inferior  portion.  In  preparing 
Hyson,  all  leaves  that  are  of  a  coarse  yellow,  or  imperfectly  twisted 
ai)pearance,  are  separated,  and  sold  as  skin-tea,  at  an  inferior  price. 

Tioankay  is  the  last  jjicking  of  green  tea,  and  the  leaf  is  not  rolled 
or  twisted  as  much  as  the  dearer  descriptions.  There  is  altogether 
less  trouble  bestowed  on  the  preparation. 

Coffees. — Java  Coffee. — Use  of  the  imported  article,  20  lbs.  | 
dried  dandelion  root,  7  lbs.  ;  chiccory,  13  lbs.  Roast  and  grind 
well  together. 

For  West  Ixdia,  use  rye  roasted  with  a  little  butter,  and  ground 
very  fine. 

For  Turkey  Coffee,  use  rice  or  wheat  roasted  with  a  little 
butter,  7  lbs.  ;  chiccory,  3  lbs.  ;  grind. 

Essence  of  Coffee  is  made  by  boiling  down  molasses  till 
hard  ;  grind  to  a  powder  ;  add  \  lb.  of  good  Java  coffee  to  every  4 
lbs.  of  the  mixture.  Put  up  for"  sale  in  roimd  tin  cans  or  air-tight 
paper  packages. 

Coffee  fob  Pouxd  Packages.— Best  Java_coffeo,  1  lb.  ;  rye,  3 


GKOCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  KECEirTS.  213 


lbs.  ;  carefully  clean  tlio  rye  from  all  bad  grains,  wash  to  remove 
dust,  drain  off  the  water,  and  put  the  grain  into  your  roaster, 
carefully  stirring  to  brown  it  evenly.  Brown  the  rye  and  coffee 
separately,  grind  and  put  up  in  tight  packages  to  preserve  tbo 
aroma. 

To  Flavor  Tobacco. — This  is  doueby  means  of  a  mixtureof  1  part 
each  of  lemon  peel,  orange  peel,  figs,  coriander  seed  and  sassafras  ; 
J  part  each  of  elderflowers,  elderberries,  and  cinnamon  ;  2  parts  of 
saltpetre,  3  of  salt,  and  4  of  sugar.  This  mixture  must  be  digested  in 
50  jiarts  of  water,  and,  before  applying  it  flavored  with  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  gum  benzion,  mastic,  and  myrrh.  It  is  said  that  this 
decoction  gives  a  flavor  to  common  leaves  resembling  Porto  Rico,  but 
to  this  end  the  leaves  must  be  avcU.  dried,  about  a  year  old,  well  per- 
meated with  the  preparation,  kept  in  a  pile  for  8  days,  turned  daily, 
and  finally  dried. 

Flavor  for  Cigar  Makers. — Take  2  ozs.  tonqna  beans  and  1 
oz.  cinnamon  ;  bruise  and  pulverize  them  to  a  powder,  and  i)i;t 
them  into  1  pint  of  Santa  Cruz  mm  ;  let  it  stand  for  a  few  days  to 
macerate  ;  stir  all  together,  and  with  this  liquid  sprinkle  your 
common  or  inferior  tobacco.  Dry  out  of  the  sun,  and  the  flavor 
will  be  unequalled. 

Tabac  Perfubiee  atjx  Fleurs  is  made  by  putting  orange  flowers, 
^asmmes,  tube  roses,  musk  roses,  or  common  roses,  to  snuff  in  a  close 
chest  or  jar,  sifting  them  out  after  24  hours,  and  repeating  if  necessary. 

Maccabot  Sntjff  is  imitated  by  moistening  the  tobacco  with  a 
mixture  of  treacle  and  water,  and  allowing  it  to  ferment. 

Spanish  Sxuff  is  made,  from  unsifted  Havana  snuff,  reduced  by 
adding  ground  Spanish  nutshells,  sprinkling  the  mixture  with  treaclo 
water,  and  allowing  it  to  sweat  for  some  days  before  packing. 

Yellow  Snuff  is  prepared  from  ordinary  pale  snvf,  moistened 
with  a  mixture  of  yelloio  ochre  diffused  in  loater,  to 'which  a  fe-^ 
spoonfuls  of  thin  mucilage  has  been  added. 

Perfumes  for  Snuff. — Tonqua  beans,  essence  of  ditto,  ambergria 
musk  civet,  leaves  of  orchis  fusca,  and  essence  of  orris  root,  essence 
cr  oils  of  bergamot,  cedar,  cloves,  lavender,  petit  grain,  neroli  and 
roFcs,  as  well  as  several  others,  either  alone  or  compounded. 

Unerring  Tests  for  good  Flour.— Good  flour  is  white,  witn  a 
j-cllowish  or  straw-colored  tint  Squeeze  some  of  the  flour  in 
your  hand  ;  if  good,  it  will  retain  the  shape  given  by  pressure. 
Ivnead  a  little  between  your  fingers;  if  it  works  soft  and  stic]:y,  it  is 
poor.  Throw  a  little  ao^ainst  a  dry  perpendicular  surface;  if  "it  fall 
like  powder,  it  is  bad. 

To  Correct  Musty  Flour.— Carbonate  of  magnesia,  oibs. ;  flour, 
7G5  lbs. ;  mix.  This  improves  bad  flour,  causing  it  to  become  moro 
wholesome,  producing  lighter  and  better  bread  than  ^when  alum  is 
used,  and  absorbs  and  dissipates  the  musty  smell. 

jErated  Bread. — lib.  flour,  100  grs.  carb.  of  soda;  GO  grs.  com- 
mon salt;  1  teaspoon  powdered  sugar;  120  grs.  muriatic  acid,  more  or 
less,  according  to  its  strength;  1  wine  pt.  of  water,  inferior  flour  will 
require  less.  Well  mix  the  flour,  soda,  salt,  and  sugar  ui  an  earthen 
vessel,  then  add  the  acid  mixed  with  the  water,  stir  Avith  a  wooden 
spoon.  Bake  in  one  loaf  about  1  hour.  Bake  in  tin  or  iron  pans,  but 
avoid  the  use  of  metallic  vessels  or  spoons  while  mixing." 


214     Gi:ocr.n3  and  conf;:ctioni:rs'  hkciiipt:?. 


Tatknt  Sklf-Raisino  Flour.— Kiln-dried  flour,  1  cwt. ;  tartaric 
acid,  10.^  oz. ;  mix  th()ron;j;hly.  Alter  2  or  3  days,  add,  of  bicarb, 
poda,  12  oz. ;  lump  puj^ar  ;V  lb. ;  common  salt,  1:^  lb.  Mix,  and  paH.i 
tlirouglitho  "  drensinij:  niacbinc."  Have  all  the  articles  perfectly  dry, 
and  se])arately  reduced  to  fine  powder  bel'c  re  adding  to  the  Hour.  Jlirc 
■with  cold  water,  and  bake  at  once.  It  produces  light  and  poroiu 
bread. 

To  Cure  Buttek. — Take  2  parts  of  fmo  salt ;  1  paH  loaf  sugar  ; 
1  part  saltpetre  ;  mix  completely.  Uso  1  oz.  of  this  mixture  to 
each  pound  of  butter  ;  work  -well.  Bury  your  butter  firkins  in  tlio 
earth  in  your  cellar  bottom,  tops  nearly  level  witli  the  ground,  or 
store  away  in  a  very  cool  i)lacc,  covering  tho  butter  Avith  a  clean 
cloth  and  a  strong  brine  ou  tlio  toj),  and  it  will  keep  tvro  ycara 
if  desired. 

To  Keep  Butter  during  Hot  Weather.— A  simple  mode  of 
keeping  butter  in  warm  weather  is  to  invert  a  largo  crock  of  earthen, 
or  a  flower  pot  if  need  be,  (varying  with  the  size  of  tho  vessel  con- 
taining the  butter,)  over  the  dish  or  firkin  in  which  the  butter  is  held. 
The  porousness  of  the  earthenware  will  keep  the  butter  cool,  and  all 
,  the  more  so  if  the  pot  be  wrapped  in  a  wet  cloth,  with  a  little  water  i;i 
'  the  dish  with  the  butter.  Not  the  porosity  of  tho  earthenware,  but 
the  rapid  absorption  of  heat  by  external  evaporation  causes  tho  butter 
.  to  become  hard. 

To  restore  Rancid  Butter.— Uso  1  pt.  water  to  each  lb.  of  but- 
ter, previously  addhig  20  grs.  chloride  of  lime  to  each  pt.  of  water  : 
wash  well  the  butter  in  this  mixture,  afterward  re-wash  in  cokl 
water  and  salt ;  or  melt  the  butter  in  a  water  bath  with  animal 
charcoal,  coarsely  i)owdered  and  previously  w^ell  sifted  to  free 
it  from  dust ;  skim,  remove,  and  strain  through  flannel ;  then  salt. 

Tomato  Catsup. — Boil  1  bushel  of  tomatoes  till  they  are  soft; 
squeeze  them  through  a  fine  wire  sieve;  add  1^ pts.  salt,  2  oz.  cayenne 
pepper,  and  5  heads  of  onions,  skimied  and  separated;  mix  together, 
and  boil  till  reduced  one  half;  then  bottle. 

The  Northern-Light  Burning  Fluid. — Get  good  deodorized 
benzine,  GO  to  Co  gravity,  and  to  each  brl.  of  42  gals,  add  2  lbs.  pulver- 
ized alum,  3^  oz.  gum  camphor,  andS^oz.  oil  of  sassafras,  or  2  oz.  oil 
bergamot;  stir  up  and  mix  thoroughly  together,  and  it  will  soon  bo 
ready  for  use.  N.  B. — As  this  fluid  creates  a  much  larger  volume  of 
light  and  flame  than  carbon  oil,  it  is  necessary  to  use  either  a  lii^h 
burner,  such  as  the  sun  burner,  to  elevate  the  flame  away  from  the 
lamp,  in  order  to  keep  it  cool,  or  instead  thereof,  to  use  a  burner  pro- 
vided with  a  tube  for  the  escape  of  the  gas  generated  from  the  fluid, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  Meriden  burner. 

Test  for  Burning  Oil. — ^lleat  water  in  a  pot  on  tho  fire  to  120° 
Fahr.  Take  a  tin  and  put  in  it  a  tablespoonf  ul  of  the  oil  you  wish  to 
test,  place  the  tin  containing  the  oil  in  the  hot  water,  let  it  cool  down 
to  112°  Fahr. ;  when  at  this  point,  approach  a  light  very  cautiously  to- 
wards the  oil,  and  if  it  takes  fire  before  the  light  touches  it  you  will 
be  safe  in  rejecting  it. 

Preserved  or  Solidified  Milk. — 1.  Fresh-skimmed  milk,  1  gal. ; 
sesquic^rbonate  of  soda  (in  powder),  1^-  dr.  Mix;  evaporate  to  J  part 
by  heat  of  steam  or  waterbath,  with  constant  agitation  ;  then  add  of 
powdered  sugar      lbs.  and  complete  tho  evaporation  at  a  reduced 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  EECEirTS.  215 


temperature.  Reduce  the  dry  mass  to  powder,  add  the  cream  well 
drained,  which  was  taken  from  the  railk.  After  thorougli  admixture, 
put  the  whole  into  well  stopped  bottles  or  tins,  and  hermetically  seal. 
2.  Carbonate  of  soda,  ^  dr.;  watei',  1  fluid  oz.;  dissolve;  add  of  fresh 
milk,  one  qt. ;  sugar,  1  lb. ;  reduce  by  heat  to  the  consistency  of  a  syrup, 
and  finish  the  evaporation  on  plates  by  exposure,  in  an  oven. 
Observe — About  1  oz.  of  the  powder  agitated  with  1  pt,  of  water  forms 
a  good  substitute  for  milk. 

Sealing-wax,  Red. — Shellac  (very  pale),  4  oz. ;  cautiously  melt  in 
a  bright  copper  jmn  over  a  clear  charcoal  fire  ;  when  fused,  add 
Venice  turpentine,  oz.  Mix,  and  further  add  vermilion,  3  oz.  ; 
remove  the  pan  from  tlie  fire,  and  pour  into  a  mould.  For  a  blacJo 
color,  use  ivory  black,  or  lampblack,  instead  of  the  vermilion  ;  for  a 
line  color,  use  Prussian  blue,  instead  of  the  vermilion,  same  quantity. 
Each  color  must  be  well  mixed  with  the  composition ;  of  the  lami^black, 
use  only  sufficient  to  color. 

IIOKTicuLTURAii  Ink.— Copper,  1  part ;  dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  10 
parts,  and  add  water,  10  parts  ;  used  to  write  on  zinc,  or  tin  labels. 

Bottle  Wax — Black. — Black  resin,  61  lbs.  ;  beeswax,  ^  lb. ;  finely 
powdered  ivory  black,  I3  lbs.  Melt  together.  Red,  as  the  last,  but 
substitute  Venetian  red,"or  red  lead,  for  the  ivory  black. 

GoLD-coLOKED  Sealing-wax. — Blcachcd  shellac,  3  lbs.;  Venice 
turpentine  1  lb. ;  Dutch  leaf  ground  fine,  1  lb. ,  or  less.  The  leaf  should 
be  ground,  or  powdered  sufficiently  fine,  without  being  reduced  to 
dust.    Mix  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  pour  into  moulds. 

LiTHOGRAPiiic  Ink.— Venice  turpentine  1  part,  lampblack  2  parts, 
hard  tallow  soap  6  parts,  mastic  in  tears,  8  parts,  shellac  12  parts, 
wax  IG  parts ;  melt,  stir,  and  pour  it  out  on  a.  slab. 

IxKS. — 1.  Fine  Black  loriting  Ink. — To  2  gals,  of  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  logwood,  well  strained,  add  1|  lbs.  blue  galls  in  coarse  powder, 
C  ozs.  sulphate  of  iron,  1  oz.  acetate  of  copper,  6  ozs.  of  well  ground 
sugar,  and  8  oz.  gum  arabic.  Set  the  above  on  the  fire  until  it  begins 
to  boil;  strain,  and  then  set  it  away  until  it  has  acquired  the  desired 
black.  2.  Green  Ink.  Cream  of  tartar  1  part,  verdigris  2  parts, 
water  8  parts.  Boil  till  reduced  to  the  proper  color.  3.  Blue  Ink. 
Take  sulphate  of  mdigo,  dilute  it  with  water  till  it  produces  the  re- 
quired color.  4.  Violet  Ink.  Is  made  by  dissolving  some  violet 
aniline  in  water  to  which  some  alcohol  has  been  added:  it  takes  very 
little  aniline  to  make  a  large  quantity  of  the  ink.  5.  Gold  Ink. 
Mosaic  gold,  two  parts,  gum  arabic,  one  part,  rubbed  up  to  a  proper 
condition.  6.  Silver  Ink.  Triturate  in  a  mortar  equal  parts  of  silver 
foil  and  sulphate  of  potassa,  until  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  then  wash 
the  salt  out,  and  mix  the  residue  with  a  mucilage  of  equal  parts  of 
gum  arabic  water.  7.  Fullam's  Recipe  for  Indelible  Stencil-plata 
Ink.  1  lb.  precipitate  carbonate  of  iron;  1  lb.  sulphate  of  iron;  IJt 
lbs.  acetic  acid.  Stir  over  a  fire  until  they  combine;  tlien  add  3  lbs. 
printer's  varnish  and  2  lbs.  fine  book  ink,  and  stir  until  well  mixed. 
Add  1  lb.  of  Ethiop's  mineral,  8  Exchequer  Ink.  Bruised  galls,  40 
lbs. ;  gum,  10  lbs. ;  green  sulphate  of  iron,  9  lbs. ;  soft  water,  45  gals. 
Macerate  for  3  weeks  Avith  frequent  agitation  and  strain.  This  ink 
will  endure  for  ages.  9.  Asiatic  Ink.  Bruised  galls,  14  lbs. ;  gum,  5 
lbs.  Put  them  in  a  small  cask,  and  add  of  boiling  soft  water,  15  gals. 
Allow  the  whole  to  macerate,  with  frequent  agitation,  for  two  weeks, 


216       GROCKTIS  AND  CONFECTIONEns'  RECIIIPTS. 


then  further  udd  Rrecn  copperan,  fi  lbs.,  dissolved  in  7  pts.  "vrator. 
Again  mix  well,  and  agitate  the  -whole  daily  for  two  or  three  weeks 
10.  tJxtra  f/ood  lilack  Ink.  ]}ruised  galls,  2  lbs.,  logwood  chips, 
green  copperas  and  gum,  of  each,  1  lb. ;  water,  7  gals.  Boil  2  hours 
and  strain.  Product.  5  gals.  11.  Jiroxon  Ink.  A  strong  decoction  of 
catechu.  The  shade  may  be  varied  by  the  cautions  addition  of  a  littlo 
weak  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash.  12.  Indelible  Ink.  Nitrato 
of  silver,  oz. ;  water,  5  oz.  Dissolve,  add  as  much  of  the  strongest 
liquor  of  ammonia  as  will  dissolve  the  precipitate  formed  on  its  first 
addition;  then  add  of  mucilage  1^  dr.,  and  a  little  sap  green,  syrup  of 
buckthorn,  or  finely  powdered  indigo,  to  color.  Turns  black  on  being 
held  near  the  fire,  or  touched  with  a  hot  iron.  13.  Indelible  Ink  for 
Glass  or  Metal.  Borax,  1  oz;  shellac,  2  oz. ;  -water,  1% fluid  oz. ;  boil 
in  a  covered  vessel,  add  of  thick  mucilage,  1  oz. ;  triturate  it  witli 
levigated  indigo  and  lampblack  q.  s.,  to  give  it  a  good  color.  After  2 
hours'  repose,  decant  from  the  drega  and  bottle  for  use.  It  may  bo 
bronzed  after  being  applied.  Resists  moisture,  chlorine,  and  acids. 
14.  Common  Ink.  To  1  gal.  boiling  soft  water,  add  ^  oz,  extract  log- 
wood ;  boil  two  minutes ;  remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  48  grains 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  8  grains  prussiate  of  potash;  for  10  gals,  use 
oz.  logwood  extract;  1  oz.  bichromate  of  potash,  and  80  grains 
prussiate  of  potash ;  strain.  15.  Black  Copying  Ink,  or  Writinrj  fluid 
Take  2  gals,  rain  water  and  put  into  it  gum  arable,  J  lb. ;  brown  sugar, 
^  lb. ;  clean  copperas,  ^  lb. ;  powdered  nutgalls,  5  lb, ;  mix,  and  shako 
occasionally  for  ten  days  and  strain;  if  needed  sooner,  let  it  stand  in 
an  iron  kettle  until  the  strength  is  obtained.  This  ink  will  stand  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  for  centuries,  if  required.  IG.  Red  Ink. 
In  an  ounce  phial  put  1  teaspoonf ul  of  aqua-ammonia ;  gum  arabie 
size  of  two  or  three  peas ;  and  G  grains  of  No,  40  carmine ;  fill  up  with 
soft  water,  and  it  is  soon  ready  for  use. 

Liquid  Blacking. — ^Ivory  black,  2  lbs. ;  molasses,  2  lbs. ;  sweet  oil, 
lib.;  rub  together  till  well  mixed;  then  add  oil  vitrei,  |  lb.;  add 
coarse  sugar,  ^  lb.;  and  dilute  with  beer  bottoms;  this  cannot  be 
excelled. 

Ticketing  Ink  for  Geocees,  fee— Dissolve  1  oz.  of  gum  arable  in 
G  oz.  water,  and  strain  ;  this  is  the  mucUage  ;  for  black  color,  use 
drop  black,  powdered,  and  ground  with  the  mucilage  to  extreme  fine- 
ness ;  for  blue,  nltra-marine  is  used  in  the  same  manner  ;  for  green, 
emerald  green  ;  for  ivhite,  flake  white  ;  for  red,  vermilion,  lake,  cr 
carmine  ;  for  yellow,  chrome  yellow.  When  ground  too  thick  they  are 
thinned  with  a  little  water.  Apply  to  the  cards  with  a  small  brush.  The 
cards  may  be  sized  with  a  thin  glue,  and  afterwards  varnished,  if  it  13 
desired  to  preserve  them. 

Bluing  fob  Clothes. — ^Take  1  oz.  of  soft  Prussian  blue,  powder  it, 
and  put  in  a  bottle  with  1  quart  of  clear  rain  water,  and  add  ^  oz.  of 
pulverized  oxalic  acid.-  A.  tablespoonf iil  is  sufficient  for  a  large  wash- 
ing 

Peemium  Method  of  keeping  IIaims,  &c. — To  4  gals,  water,  add  8 
lbs.  coarse  salt ;  ^  oz.  potash  ;  2  oz.  saltpetre  ;  2  lbs.  brown  sugar. 
Boil  together,  skim  when  cold,  put  on  the  above  quantity  to  100  lbs. 
meat ;  hams  to  remain  in  eight  weeks,  beef,  three  weeks.  Let  the 
hams  dry  several' days  before  smoking.  Meat  of  all  kinds,  salmon 
and  other  fish,  lobsters,  &c.,  may  bo  preserved  for  years  by  a  light  a]>- 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  217 


plication  of  pyroligneous  acid  applied  ^vitli  a  brusli,  sealing  np  in  cans 
as  usual.  It  imparts  a  splendid  flavor  to  tlio  meat,  is  very  clieap,  and 
an  effectual  preservative  against  loss. 

To  PRESERVE  Meats,  Salmon,  Lobsters,  &c.,  iiermeticalt-y 
SEALED, —The  meat  to  be  preserved  is  first  parboiled  or  somewhat  moro 
and  freed  from  bones.  It  is  then  put  into  tin  cases  or  canisters,  which 
are  quite  filled  up  with  a  rich  gravy.  A  tin  cover,  with  a  small  aper- 
ture, is  then  carefully  fixed  on  by  solder  ;  arid,  while  tlie  vessel  is  per- 
fectly full,  it  is  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  undergoes  the  remainder  of 
the  cooking.  The  small  hole  in  the  cover  is  completely  closed  up  by 
soldering  while  the  whole  is  yet  hot.  The  canister,  with  its  ingredients, 
is  now  allowed  to  cool,  in  consequence  of  which  these  contract,  and 
the  sides  of  the  vessel  are  slightly  forced  inward  by  atmospheric  prc:> 
siire,  and  become  a  little  concave.  The  vessel  being  thus  hermet- 
ically sealed,  and  all  access  of  the  air  prevented,  it  may  bo  sent  into 
any  climate  without  fear  of  putrefaction  ;  aud  the  most  delicato 
food  of  one  country  may  bo  used  in  another  in  all  its  original  perfec- 
tion, months  and  years  after  its  preparation.  Lobsters  should  be  boil- 
ed longer  than  meats,  and  the  scales  removed  previous  to  puttmg  into 
the  canisters.  Salmon  put  up  by  this  process  is  most  delicious.  By  the 
French  process  the  meat  is  boiled  till  it  is  three-quarters  done,  when 
two-thirds  of  it  are  taken  out,  the  remainuig  one-third  is  boiled  into  a 
concentrated  soup,  and  the  meat  previously  taken  out  is  put  mto  tho 
canisters,  which  are  then  filled  up  with  the  soup  ;  the  tin  cover  with 
aperture  is  soldered  on,  and  tho  canister  with  its  contents  sub- 
mitted to  farther  boiling  in  hot  water,  when  the  aperture  is  closed,  as 
above  stated,  and  the  canisters  laid  away  in  store. 

To  PRESERVE  Fruits  without  Sugar. — Fill  some  stone  wide- 
mouthed  bottles  with  the  fruit  carefully  picked,  and  set  them  in 
a  copper  or  large  kettle  ;  then  fill  tho  kettle  with  cold  water  nearly 
up  to  the  mouths  of  the  bottles.  Corks  should  be  prepared  to  fit 
the  bottles,  and  a  cloth  should  bo  put  under  the  bottoms  of  the 
bottles  to  prevent  their  cracking  with  the  heat.  Light  the  fire  un- 
der the  kettle,  and  heat  the  water  to  100°  or  170°.  This  heat  should 
be  continued  for  half  an  hour,  when  tho  fruit  will  bo  sufficiently 
scalded  ;  after  that,  fiU  up  the  bottles  with  boiling  water  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  cork,  and  cork  them  tightly.  Lay  the  bottles  on 
their  sides  ;  change  the  position  of  tho  bottles  once  or  twice  a 
week  during  the  first  two  months,  turning  them  round  to  prevent 
any  fermentation  that  might  take  place.  Fruits  could  also  bo 
kept  by  the  process  mentioned  above  for  meats,  remembering  that 
they  are  to  be  scalded  only,  not  boiled,  as  in  the  case  with  meats. 

Another  Method, — After  parmg  and  coring,  put  among  them 
sufficient  sugar  to  make  them  palatable  for  present  eating,  about 
3  or  4  lbs.  only  to  each  bushel ;  let  them  stand  aAvhile  to  dissolve 
the  sugar,  not  using  any  water  ;  then  heat  to  a  boil,  and  continue 
the  boiling  with  care  for  20  to  SO  minutes,  or  sufficiently  long  to 
licat  them  through,  which  expels  the  air.  Have  ready  a  kettle  of 
hot  water,  into  which  dip  tho  can  or  bottle  long  enough  to  heat  it ; 
then  fill  in  the  fruit  while  hot,  corking  it  immediately,  dipping  tho 
end  of  tho  cork  into  the  bottle-wax  preparation  described  elso- 
whero, 

■VVorcestekshirb  Sauce.— White  vinegar  15  gals. ;  walnut  catsup 


218    Gnoci:ns  axd  confectionkhs'  heceipts. 


10  gnls.  ;  Madcria  wino  B  pjala. ;  mushroom  catsnp  10  gals.  ;  table 
Bait  25  lbs. ;  Canton  Roy,  4  gals. ;  powdered  capsicum 2  lbs. ;  powdered 
allspice  1  lb. ;  powdered  coriander,  seeds  1 11). ;  cloves,  mace,  and  cin- 
namon, of  each,  lb. ;  asafoetida  ^  lb. ;  dissolved  in  brandy  1  gal.  Boil 
20  lbs.  hogs  livers  iu  10  gals,  of  water  for  12  hours,  renewing  tho  water 
from  time  to  time.  TaliO  out  tho  liver,  chop  it,  mix  with  water,  work 
through  a  sieve,  and  mix  with  the  sauce. 

Ghkrkins, — Take  small  cucumbers  (not  young),  steep  for  a  week 
3u  very  stronrj  brine  ;  it  is  then  poured  off,  heated  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  again  poured  on  tlie  fruit.  Tho  next  day  tho  gherkin.^ 
are  drained  on  a  sieve,  v/ipcd  dry,  put  into  bottles  or  jars,  with 
some  spice,  ginger,  pepper,  or  caycuuc,  and  at  onco  covered,  with 
strong  pickling  ^•iuegar. 

Mixed  ncKLES  from  cauliflowers,  "white  cabbage,  French  beans, 
onions,  cucumbers,  &c.,  are  treated  a.?  gherkins,  with  raw  ginger, 
capsicum,  mustard-seed  and  long  pepper,  added  to  each  bottle. 
A  little  bruised  turmeric  improves  both  the  color  and  flavor. 

Indian  riCKLB. — Piccalilli. — Take  one  hard  white  cabbage 
(sliced),  2  cauliflowers,  pulled  to  pieces,  20  French  beans,  1  stick 
of  horse-radish,  sliced  fine,  2  doz.  small  "white  onions,  and  1  doz. 
gherkins.  Cover  these  with  boiling  brine  ;  next  day,  drain  tho 
whole  on  a  sieve,  put  it  into  a  jar,  add  of  curry  powder,  or  tur- 
meric, 2  oz. ;  garlic,  ginger,  and  mustard-seed,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  cap- 
sicum ^  oz.  Fill  up  the  vessel  with  hot  pickling  vinegar  ;  bung 
it  up  close,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  month,  with  occasional  agitation. 

To  Preserve  Fruit  Juice  "without  Heat. — ^Ingredients  :  10  lbs. 
of  fresh-gathered,  picked,  red-ripe  currants,  or  other  fruit,  2  qtg. 
cold  water,  6  oz.  tartaric  acid,  G  lbs,  of  coarse  sifted  sugar.  Put 
the  fruit  into  a  large  earthen  pan,  pour  tho  water  Avith  the  tartaric 
acid  dissolved  in  it  over  tho  fruit,  cover  the  pan  with  some  kind  of 
lid,  and  allow  tho  whole  to  steep  for  2-1  hours  in  a  cold  place,  and 
it  would  be  all  the  better  if  tho  pan  contahiing  tho  fruit  could  bo 
immersed  in  rougli  ice.  Next,  pour  the  steeped  fruit  into  a  sus- 
pended stout  flamiel  bag,  and  when  all  the  juice  has  run  through, 
tie  up  the  open  end  of  the  bag,  and  place  it  on  a  large  earthen, 
dish,  with  another  dish  upon  it ;  place  a  half-hundred  weight  upon 
this,  to  press  out  all  the  remaining  juice,  and  then  mix  it  with  the 
other  juice.  You  now  put  tho  sifted  sugar  into  the  juice,  and  stir 
both  together  occasionally,  imtil  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  and  then 
bottle  up  the  syrup,  cork,  and  tie  do-wn  tho  bottles  with  wire,  and 
keep  them  in  tlie  ice  well  or  in  a  cold  cellar,  in  a  reclining  position. 

To  restore  Injured  Meat. — ^^Vhen  tho  brine  sours  and  taints 
the  meat,  pour  it  off ;  boil  it,  skim  it  well,  then  pour  it  back  again 
on  the  meat  boiling  hot ;  this  will  restore  it,  even  when  much 
injured.  If  tainted  meat  is  injured,  dip  it  in  the  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  prescribed  for  rancid  butter  ;  it  will  restore  it.  Fly- 
blown meat  can  be  completely  restored  by  immersing  it  for  a  few 
hours  in  a  vessel  containing  a  small  quantity  of  beer ;  but  it  will 
taint  and  impart  a  putrid  smell  to  the  liquor.  Fresh  meat,  hams, 
fish,  &c.,  can  be  preserved  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  withoufe 
salt,  by  a  light  application  of  pyroligneous  acid  applied  with  a 
brush  ;  it  imparts  a  fine  smoky  flavor  to  the  meat,  and  is  an  effect- 
ual preservative.   But  pure  acetic  acid  may  bo  used  instead. 


GROCEES  AND  CONFECTIONEIIS'  KECEIPTS.  219 


FRF.sn  Meat— TO  kekp  a  TTr.EK  on  Two  i:^  Soimeb.— Farmers 
or  others  living  at  a  distance  from  butchers  can  keep  fresh  meat 
very  nicely  for  a  week  or  two,  by  putting  it  into  sour  milk,  or  but- 
ter raillc,  placing  it  in  a  cool  cellar.  Tho  bono  or  fat  need  not  bo 
removed.  liinse  well  when  used. 

Milkman's  Pkocess.— To  give  a  body  to  diluted  milk  use  the 
following  nutritive  and  healthy  compound  at  the  rate  of  8  oz.  to 
every  5  gals.,  stirring  it  up  in  the  milk,  till  all  is  dissolved:  arrow- 
root, 6  oz.  ;  magnesia,  G  oz.  ;  starch,  1  lb. ;  flour,  h  lb.  ;  white  sugar 
in  powder,  1  lb. ;  mix  all  intimately  together,  and  keep  in  a  dry 
place  for  use. 

CtrsTAED  Powders. — Sago  meal  and  flour,  1  lb.  each ;  color  witli 
turmeric  to  a  cream  color.  Flavor  with  essential  oil  of  almonds,  1 
dr.  ;  ess.  of  lemon,  2  drs.  Use  with  sweetened  milk  to  form  ex- 
temporaneous custards. 

Corky  Powder. — Turmeric,  and  coriander  seeds,  of  each,  4  oz.  ; 
Nack  pepper,  2joz.  ;  ginger  14  drs.  ;  cinnamon,  mace,  and  cloves,  each, 
^  oz, ;  cardamon  seeds,  1  oz.  ;  cummin  seeds,  2  drs.  ;  cayeimo  pepper, 
1  oz.  ;  powder  and  mix. 

N/Vro Leon's  Camp  SAUCE.~01d  strong  beer,  2  qts., white  wine,  1  qt., 
anchovies,  4  ounces;  mix;  boil  for  ten  minutes;  remove  it  fronitlio 
fire,  i^nd  add  peeled  shallots,  3  ounces ;  macerate  for  14  days, 
and  bottle. 

Pickled  Onions. — Choose  small  round  onions,  remove  tho  skinf!, 
Etecp  them  in  strong  brme  for  a  week  in  a  stone  vessel,  pour  it  off, 
and  heat  till  it  boils  ;  then  pour  on  tho  onions,  boiling  hot ;  after 
24  hours,  drain  on  a  seive,  then  put  them  in  bottles,  fill  up  over  them 
with  strong  spiced  vinegar,  boiling  hot,  cork  dovm.  immediately,  and 
wax  over  the  cork,  in  a  similar  manner  are  pickled  mushroons, 
cauliflowers,  samphires,  peas,  beans,  green  gooseberries,  walnuts, 
red  cabbages  (without  salt,  with  cold  vinegar).  Observe  that  the  soft 
and  more  delicate  do  not  require  so  much  soaking  in  brine  as  tho  harder 
and  coarser  kinds,  and  may  be  often  kept  by  simply  pouring  very 
strong  pickling  vinegar  on  them  without  the  application  of  heat.  For 
peaches,  select  rii^e  but  not  soft  ones  ;  rub  with  a  dry  cloth  ;  put  four 
cloves,  free  from  their  heads,  in  cacli  large  jieach,  and  two  in  small 
ones  ;  to  1  gallon  vinegar,  put  6  lbs.  brovm  sugar  ;  put  tho  peaches  in 
a  jar  and  put  the  vinegar  (diluted  with  water,  if  too  strong),  and 
sugar  in  a  preserving  kettle  over  tho  fire  ;  boil  and  sidm  it ;  pour  it 
boiling  hot  over  the  peaches,  covering  them  closely  ;  repeat  tho 
operation  three  times  ;  then  seal  them  tightly  in  cans  or  bottles. 

French  Patent  Mustard.— Flour  of  mustard,  8  lbs.  ;  wheat  flour,, 
8  lbs.  ;  bay  salt,  2  lbs. ;  cayemie  pepper,  4  oz.  ;  vinegar  to  mix. 

Common  Mustard.— Flour  of  mustard  28  lbs.  ;  wheat  flour,  28  ids.  , 
cayenne  pepper,  12  oz.,  or  as  required ;  common  salt  10  lbs. ;  rapo 
oil  3  lbs.  ;  turmeric  to  color  ;  mix  well,  and  pass  through  a  fine  seivc. 

Starch  Polish. — White  wax,  1  oz,  ;  spermaceti,  2  oz.  ;  melt  them 
together  with  a  gentle  heat.  When  jon  have  prepared  a  sufilcient 
amount  of  starch,  in  the  usual  way,  for  a  dozen  pieces,  jmt  into  it'  a 
niece  of  tho  polish  about  the  si^e  of  a  large  pea  ;  more  or  lc5s,  accord- 
ing to  large  or  small  washings.  Or  thick  gum  solution  (made  by  pour- 
/^igboiliug  water  upon  gum  arable),  one  tablespoon  to  a  i^int  of  starchy 
givQS  clothes  a  beautiful  gloss. 


220       GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS*  KECEIITS. 


Piiuc  KiXDi.ERS. — To  m.ilvO  very  nice  firo  Icindlcra,  take  rosin,  any 
quantity,  and  melt  it,  putting  in  lor  eacli  pound  being  used,  from  2  to 
3  oz.  of  tallow,  and  when  all  is  hot,  stir  in  jjuio  sawdust  to  niako 
very  thick  ;  and,  Avhilo  yet  hot,  spread  it  out  about  1  inch  thick, 
upon  boards  which  have  fine  sawdust  sprinkled  upon  them,  to  prevent 
it  from  sticldng.  When  cold,  brealc  up  into  lumps  about  1  inch  square. 
But  if  for  sale,  take  a  thin  board  and  press  upon  it,  while  yet  varm, 
to  lay  it  off  into  inch  squares  ;  this  makes  it  break  regularly,  if  you 
])ress  the  crease  sullicieutly  deep,  greasing  the  marked  board  to  prevent 
it  from  stickiii^. 

To  Keep  Cider  swekt,  a>d  Sweeten  Soun  Cideii. — To  keep 
cider  perfect,  take  a  keg  and  bore  lioles  iu  the  bottom  of  it ;  spread  a 
piece  of  woollen  cloth  at  the  bottom;  then  fill  with  clean  sand  closely 
packed  ;  draw  your  cider  from  a  barrel  just  as  fast  as  it  will  run 
through  the  sand  ;  after  this,  put  iu  clean  barrels  which  have  had  a 
piece  of  cotton  or  linen  cloth  2  by  7  inches  dipped  in  melted  sulphur 
and  burned  inside  of  them,  thereby  absorbing  the  sulphur  fumes 
(this  process  will  also  sweeten  sour  cider)  ;  then  keep  it  iu  a  cellar  or 
room  Avhere  there  is  no  fire,  aud  add  ^  lb.  white  mustard  seed  to  each 
barrel.  If  cider  is  long  made,  or  souring  when  you  get  it,  about  1  qt. 
of  hickory  ashes  (or  a  little  more  of  other  hard  wood  ashes)  stirred 
into  each'barrel  Avill  sweeten  and  clarify  it  nearly  equal  to  rectifying  it 
as  above  ;  but  if  it  is  not  rectified,  it  must  bo  racked  off  to  get  clear  of 
the  pomace,  as  with  this  in  it,  it  will  sour.  Oil  or  whisky  barrels  aro 
best  to  put  cider  in,  or  ^  pint  sweet  oil  to  a  barrel,  or  a  gallon  of 
Avhisky  to  a  barrel,  or  both,  may  be  added  with  decidedly  good 
effects  ;  isinglass,  4  oz.  to  each  barrel,  helps  to  clarify  and  settle  ci- 
der that  is  not  to  be  rectified. 

Ginger  Wine. — ^^Vater,  10  gals.,  lump  sugar,  20  lbs.,  bruised  gin- 
ger, 8  oz.  ;  3  or  4  eggs.  Boil  well  and  skim  ;  then  pour  hot  on  six  or 
t;even  lemons  cut  in  slices,  macerate  for  2  hours  ;  then  rack  aud  fer- 
ment ;  next  add  spirit  2  qts.,  and  afterwards  finings,  1  pint ;  rum- 
mage well.  To  make  the  color,  boil  ^  oz.  saleratus  and  ^  oz.  alum  in 
1  pint  of  water  till  you  get  a  bright  red  color. 

Ice  Cream. — Have  rich,  sweet  cream,  and  a  half-pound  of  loaf 
sugar  to  each  quart  of  cream  or  milk.  If  you  cannot  get  cream,  tho 
best  imitation  is  to  boil  a  soft  custard,  6  eggs  to  each  quart  of  milk  (eggs 
well  beat).  Or  another  is  made  as  follows :  boil  1  quart  of  milk,  and 
stir  into  it,  while  boiling,  1  tablespoonful  of  arrowroot  wet  with  cold 
milk  ;  when  cool  stir  into  it  the  yolk  of  1  egg  to  give  it  a  rich  color. 
Five  minutes'  boiling  is  enough  for  either  plan.  Put  the  sugar  in  af- 
ter they  cool ;  keep  the  same  proportions  for  any  amount  desired. 
Or  thus  :  to  G  quarts  of  milk  add  ^  lb.  Oswego  starch,  first  dissolved  ; 
put  the  starch  in  1  quart  of  the  milk  ;  then  mix  altogether,  and  sim- 
mer a  little  (not  boil) ;  sweeten  and  flavor  to  your  taste  ;  exceUenfc. 
The  juice  of  strawberries  or  raspberries  gives  a  beautiful  color  and 
flavor  to  ice  creams,  or  about  ^  oz.  essence  or  extract  to  1  gallon,  or 
to  suit  the  taste.  Have  your  ice  well  broken,  1  qt.  salt  to  a  bucket  of 
ice.  About  one  hour's  constant  stirring,  with  occasional  scraping 
down  and  beating  together,  will  freeze  it. 

Chicago  Ice  Cream. — Irish  moss  soaked  in  warm  water  one  hour, 
and  rinsed  well  to  cleanse  it  of  sand  and  a  certain  foreign  taste  ;  then 
Btecp  it  iu  milk,  keeping  it  just  at  tho  point  of  boiling  or  simmering 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS,  221 


for  one  hour,  or  until  a  rich  yellow  color  is  given  to  the  milk  ;  •witli- 
out  cream  or  eggs,  from  1  tol^  oz.  to  a  gal.  only  is  necessary,  and 
tliis  will  do  to  steep  twice.    Sweeten  and  flavor  like  other  creams. 

Spbstitute  fou  Cream. — Take  2  or  3  whole  eggs,  beat  them  well 
np  in  a  basin  ;  then  pour  boiling  hot  tea  over  them  ;  pour  gradually 
to  prevent  curdling.  It  is  difficult  for  the  taste  to  distinguish  it  from 
rich  cream. 

GiNGEK  Beer. — Take  5^  gals,  water,  f  lb.  ginger  root  bruised, 
tartaric  acid,  ^  oz.,  white  sugar,  2^  lbs.,  whites  of  3  eggs  well 
beaten,  10  small  teaspoonfuls  of  lemon  ess.  ;  yeast,  1  gill  ;  boil  tho 
root  for  30  mmutes  in  1  gal.  of  tlie  water;  strain  off,  and  put  the  ess. 
in  while  hot;  mix,  make  over  night;  ui  the  morning,  skim  and  bottle, 
keepmg  out  the  sediments. 

PitiLADELVHiA  Beek.— Take  30  gals,  water,  brown  sugar,  20  lbs 
ginger  root  bruised,  i  lb.,  cream  of  tartar,  1^  lbs.,  carbonate  of  soda, 
3  oz.,  oil  of  lemon,  cut  in  a  little  alcohol,  1  teaspoonful,  the  white  of 

10  eggs  well  beaten,  liops,  2  oz.,  yeast,  1  qt.  The  ginger  root  and  liops 
should  be  boiled  for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  in  enough  of  the  water 
to  make  all  milk- warm ;  then  strained  into  the  rest  and  the  yeast  added 
and  allowed  to  work  itself  clear;  then  bottle, 

CiDEK  WITHOUT  ApriiES. — ^^Vatcr,  1  gallon ;  common  sugar,  1  lb. ; 
tartaric  acid,  ^oz. ;  yeast,  1  tablespoonful;  shako  Avell,  make  in  the 
evening,  and  it  will  be  fit  to  use  next  day. 

FoK  Bottling. — Put  in  a  barrel,  5  gals,  hot  water;  30  lbs.  common 
sugar;  lb.  tartaric  acid;  25  gallons  cold  water;  3  pints  of  hop  or  brew- 
ers' yeast,  worked  into  paste  with  1  pint  of  water  and  1  lb.  flour.  Let 
it  work  in  the  barrel  forty-eight  hours,  the  yeast  ruuning  out  of  tho 
bunghole  all  the  time,  putting  in  a  little  sweetened  water  occasionally 
to  keep  it  full;  then  bottle,  puttmg  in  two  or  three  broken  raisins  to 
each  bottle;  and  it  will  nearly  equal  champagne. 

Cheap  Cider. — Put  in  a  cask  5  gals,  hot  water ;  15  lbs.  brown  sugar ; 
1  gal.  molasses;  ^  gal.  hop  or  brewers'  yeast;  good  vmegar,  G  qts. ;  stir 
well,  add  25  gals,  cold  water,  ferment  as  the  last. 

Another  Cider. — Cold  water,  20 gals.,  brown  sugar,  15 lbs.,  tar- 
taric acid,  ^  lb. ;  rummage  well  together,  and  add,  if  you  have  them, 
3  or  4  lbs.  of  dried  sour  apples,  or  boil  them  and  pour  in  the  express- 
ed juice.   This  cider  will  keep  longer  than  the  others. 

Spruce  and  Ginger  Beer. — Cold  water,  10  gals. ;  boiling  water, 

11  gals. ;  mix  in  a  barrel;  add  molasses,  30  lbs.,  or  brown  sugar,  24 
lbs. ;  oil  of  spruce  or  any  oil  of  which  you  wish  the  flavor,  1  oz. ;  add  1 
pint  yeast,  ferment,  bottle  in  two  or  three  days.  If  you  wish  whito 
spruce  beer,  use  lump  sugar;  for  ginger  flavor,  use  17  oz.  ginger  root 
bruised,  and  a  few  hops ;  boil  for  thirty  minutes  in  three  gals,  of  tho 
water,  strain  and  mix  well;  let  it  stand  two  hours  and  bottle,  using 
yeast,  of  course,  as  before. 

Hop  Beer,  very  fi^e. — Mix  14  Ibs.of  molasses  and  11  gals,  water 
well  together,  and  boil  them  for  2  hours  with  G  oz.  hops.  "\v  hen  quite 
cool,  add  a  cupful  of  yeast,  and  stir  it  well  by  a  gallon  or  two  at  a 
time.  Let  it  ferment  for  16  hours,  in  a  tub  covered  with  a  sack,  then 
put  it  in  a  9-gallon  cask,  and  Iceep  it  filled  up ;  bung  it  down  in  2  days, 
and  in  7  days  it  will  be  fit  to  drink,  and  will  be  stronger  tlian  London 
porter 

Edinburgh  Ale.— Emi)loy  tho  best  pale  malt— 1st,  mash  2  barreld 


222       GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIl'TS. 


f)T.  quarter,  ntl83o,  ma^h  thrco-quartcra  of  .in  hour,  let  it  stand  1 
lOur,  and  allow  half  an  lioiir  to  run  olt'  the  Avort;  2d,  iiiash  1  barrel 
])cr  quarter.  180°,  mash  three-fourths  of  an  liour,  let  it  Ktand  about 
three-fourths,  and  tap  an  before;  .'kl,  niasli  1  barrel  per  quarter, 
at  170°,  mash  lialf  an  hour,  let  it  stand  half  an  hour,  and  tap  as 
before.  The  first  and  second  wort  may  be  mixed  together,  boiling 
them  about  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  with  a  quantity  of 
hops  proportioned  to  the  time  the  ale  is  reguii'cd  to  be  kept.  ^Iho 
first  two  may  bo  mixed  at  the  heat  of  C0°,  in  tlie  glyctun,  and  the 
Bccond  should  bo  fermented  separately  for  small  beer.  Tho  best 
hops  should  bo  used  in  tho  proportion  of  about  4  lbs.  for  every 
quarter  of  malt  employed, 

Bottling  Pokter. — Biiowx  Stout.  Pale  malt,  2  quarters  ;  amber 
and  brown  malt,  of  each  1^  do.  ;  mash  at  '3  times,  with  12,  7,  r.nd 
()  barrels  of  w\ator  ;  boil  with  hops,  50  lbs  ;  set  with  ycixat,  2'J  Iba. 
Product,  17  barrels,  or  1^  times  tho  malt. 

Lemon  Beer. — To  make  20  gals,  boil  G  oz.  of  ginger  root  bruised, 
;J  lb.  cream  of  tartar,  for  20  or  30  minutes,  in  2  or  3  gals,  water  ; 
this  will  be  strained  in  13  lbs.  coffee  sugar,  on  wliich  you  havo 
put  ^  oz.  oil  of  lemon,  and  six  good  lemons  squeezed  up  togetlier, 
having  warm  water  enough  to  make  the  whole  20  gals,  just  so 
hot  that  you  can  hold  your  hand  in  it  Avithout  burning,  or  about 
70  degrees  of  heiit ;  put  in  1^  jjints  of  hop  or  brewers'  yeast,  worked 
into  paste  with  5  or  U  oz.  flour.  Let  it  work  over  night,  then  strain 
and  bottle  for  use. 

TA.BLE  Beer. — Malt,  8  bushels  ;  hops,  7  lbs  ;  molasses,  25  lbs. ;  brew 
for  10  barrels  ;  smaller  quantity  in  proportion. 

Ilor  Beer. — Hops,  (3  ounces  ;  molasses,  5  quarts  ;  boil  tho  hops  till 
the  strength  is  out,  strain  them  into  a  30-gallon  barrel ;  add  tho 
molasses  and  one  teacupf  ul  of  yeast,  and  fill  up  with  water  ;  shake  it 
well,  and  leave  the  bung  out  till  fermented,  which  will  be  in  about 
24  hours.    Bung  up,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use  in  about  three  days. 

Molasses  Beer. — Hops,  loz.  ;  water,  1  gal.  ;  boil  for  ten  minutes, 
Ftrain,  add  molasses,  1  lb, ;  and  when  lulce-warm,  yeast,  1  spoonful. 
Perment, 

Root  Beer.— Water  10  gals,  heat  to  00°  Fah.  then  add  3  gals,  mo- 
lasses ;  let  it  stand  2  hours,  pour  it  into  a  bowl  and  add  powdered  or 
bruised  sassafras  and  wintergreen  bark  of  each  ^  lb. ;  yeast  1  pt.  ; 
braised  sarsaparilla  root,  ^  lb.  ;  add  water  enough  to  make  25  gals,  iu 
all.   Ferment  for  12  houi-s,  then  bottle, 

Ottawa  Beer  and  Ginger  Ale. — Ottawa  beer  is  made  by  using 
8  ozs.  of  a  fluid  extract  which  contains  the  concentrated  strength  of  4 
lbs.  of  13  different  roots  and  barks,  added  to  1  gal.  syrup  which  is  mixed 
with  14  gals,  water,  into  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  forced  at  a  pressure 
of  80  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  Ginger  Ale  is  made  in  the  same  way 
except  that  4  ozs.  of  extract  is  sufiicient.  When  the  ginger  is  really- 
used,  an  extract  deprived  of  resinous  impurities  is  made  use  of, 
■which  gives  a  clear  amber  colored  drink. 

Cheap  Beer, — Water,  15  gals,  boil  half  the  water  with  ^  lb. 
hops  ;  then  add  to  the  other  half  iu  tho  tun,  and  mix  well  with  1 
gal.  molasses  and  a  little  yeast 

To  RESTORE  Sour  Beer, — Good  hops,  I  lb,,  jiowdered  chalk,  2  lbs. 
Put  La  the  liole  ot  the  cask,  and  bung  close  for  a  few  days  j  for  frosted 


GKOCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEirXS.  223 


beer,  add  some  finings,  a  few  handfuls  of  flonr,  and  some  scalded 
hops  ;  for  rcpy  beer,  use  a  handful  or  two  of  flour,  the  same  of  hops, 
with  a  little  powdered  alum  to  each  barrel.    Rummage  well. 

To  Improve  the  Fi^ayor  of  Beer. — Bruised  ginger,  1  oz.  ;  bruised 
cloves,  4  oz.  ;  a  few  scalded  liops  and  a  doz.  broken  coarse  biscuits 
to  every  two  barrels.    Rummage  well. 

Lemonade. — White  sugar,  1  lb.,  tartaric  acid,  ^  ounce,  essence  of 
lemon,  30  drops,  water  3  qtg.  Mix. 

Cream  Soda. — Loaf  sugar,  ten  lbs.,  water,  3  gals,  ;  warm  gradu- 
ally so  as  not  to  bum  ;  good  rich  cream,  2  ciuarts  ;  extract  vanilla, 
li^  ounces  ;  extract  nutmeg,  ounce ;  tai-taric  acid,  4  ounces.  Just 
"bring  to  a  boiling  heat  ;  for  if  you  cook  it  any  length  of  time,  it  will 
crystallize  ;  use  4  or  5  .spoonfuls  of  this  syrup  instead  of  three,  as  i:i 
other  syrups  ;  put  ^  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  a  glass,  if  used  without  a 
fountain.    For  charged  fountains  no  acid  is  used. 

Freezing  Preparation. — Common  sal-ammoniac,  well  pulverized, 
1  part  ;  saltpetre,  2  parts  ;  mix  Avell  together.  Then  t;ike  conmiou 
soda,  well  jiulverii^ed.  To  use  take  equal  quantities  of  these  prepa- 
rations (which  must  be  kept  separate  and  well  covered  previous  to 
using)  and  put  them  in  the  freezing  pot ;  add  of  Avater  a  proper 
quantity,  and  put  in  the  article  to  be  frozen  in  a  proper  vessel  ;  cover 
up,  and  your  wants  will  soon  bo  supplied.  For  freezing  cream  or 
v.ines  this  cannot  be  beat. 

Sarsaparilla  Mead. — 1  lb.  of  Spanish  Sarsaparilla,  boil  5  hours 
and  strain  off  2  gals  :  add  sugar  IG  lbs.  and  tartaric  acid  10  ozs.,  half 
a  Avine  glass  of  syrup  to  half  pint  tumbler  of  water,  and  half  teaspoon- 
ful of  soda  is  a  fair  proi^ortion  for  a  drink. 

Portable  Lemonade. — Tartaric  acid,  1  ounce,  white  sugar,  2  lbs., 
essence  of  lemon,  quarter  ounce  ;  powder  and  keep  dry  for  use.  Quo 
dessert  spoonful  will  make  a  glass  of  lemonade. 

Imperial  Crea:m  Nectar. — Part  1st,  take  1  gallon  water,  loaf 
sugar,  (5  lbs.,  tartaric  acid,  G  ounces,  gum  arabic,  1  ounce.  Part  2d, 
lloui',  4  teaspoonfuls,  the  whites  of  6  eggs  ;  beat  finely  togetlier  ; 
then  add  ^  pint  water  ;  when  tlie  first  part  is  blood  wann,  put  in  the 
second  ;  boil  3  minutes,  and  it  is  done.  Directions  :  3  tablespoonf  uIh 
of  syrup  to  two-thirds  of  a  glass  of  water ;  add  one-third  teaspoonful 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  made  fine  ;  stir  well,  and  drink  at  your  leisure. 

Peppermint  Cordial. — Good  whisky,  10  gals.,  water  10  gals., 
Avhite  sugar,  10  lbs.,  oil  peppermint,  1  ounce,  in  1  pint  alcohol,  llb.tlour 
well  worked  in  the  fluid,  \  lb.  burned  sugar  to  color.  Mix,  and  let  it 
stand  one  week  before  using.  Other  oil  iu  place  of  peppermint,  and 
you  have  any  flavor  desired. 

Silver-top  Drink.— Water,  3  qtg.,  white  sugar,  4  lbs. ,  ess.  of  lemon, 
4  teaspoonfuls,  white  of  5  eggs,  beat  with  1  tablespoonful  of  flour ; 
Tjoil  to  a  syrup  ;  then  divide  into  equal  parts,  and  to  one  add  3  ouncea 
tartaric  acid,  to  the  other  4  ounces  of  carbonate  of  soda  ;  put  in  a 
teaspoonful  of  each  of  the  syrups,  more  or  less  (according  to  the  size 
of  the  glass),  to  two-thirds  of  a  glass  of  water  ;  drink  quick. 

Sangaree. — Wine,  ale,  or  porter,  or  tAVO-thirds  Avater,  hot  or  cold, 
fwCcording  to  the  season  of  the  year,  loaf  sugar  to  taste,  with  nutmeg. 

Soda  Syrups. — Loaf  or  crushed  sugar,  8 lbs.,  pure  Avater,  1  gallon, 
gum  arabic,  2  oz.  ;  mix  in  a  brass  or  copper  kettle.  Boil  until  the 
gum  is  dissolvedj  then  skim  and,  strain  through  Avhite  flannel,  after 


224       GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS. 


which  add  ta,rt<aric  acid,  oz,  :  dissolve  in  hot  water  ;  to  flavor,  use 
extract  of  lemon,  oranj^o,  vanilla,  rose,  sarsaparilla,  strawberry,  &c., 
&c.,  i  oz.  or  to  your  taste.  If  you  use  juice  of  lemon,  add  2^  lbs.  of 
sugar  to  a  pint,  you  do  not  uecd  any  tartfiric  acid  witli  it ;  now  use 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  syrup  to  ^  of  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  J  tea- 
spoonful  of  super-carbonate  of  soda,  made  fine  ;  drink  quick.  For 
soda  fountains,  loz.  of  super-carbon nte  of  soda  is  used  to  1  gallon  of 
water.   For  charged  fountjiins  no  acids  are  needed  in  the  syrups. 

Stouguton  Bitters. — Gentian,  4  ounces,  orange  peel,  4  ounces, 
Colunibo,  4  ounces,  camomile  flowers,  4  ounces,  quassia,  4  ounces, 
burned  sugar,  1  lb.,  whiskey,  2^  galls.  Mix  and  let  it  stand  1  week. 
Bottle  the  clear  liquor. 

Common  Small  Beer.— A  handful  of  hops  to  a  pail  of  Avater,  a 
l^int  of  bran,  add  half  a  pint  of  molasses,  a  cup  of  yciist,  and  a  spoon- 
ful of  ginger. 

IlOYAL  Pop. — Cream  tartar,!  lb.,  ginger,  l^oz.,  white  sugar,  7 
lbs.,  essence  of  lemon,  1  drachm,  water,  0  galls.,  yeast  Ipint.  Tie 
the  corks  down. 

liAsrcERRY  SvRUP  WITHOUT  RASPBERRIES.— First  make  a  syrup 
with  3G  lbs.  of  white  sugar,  and  10  gallons  of  water,  and  ])ut  it  into 
a  clean  mixing  barrel.  Then  dissolve  ^  lb.  of  tartaric  acid  in  1  qt. 
of  cold  water,  and  add  to  the  syrup.  Next  tnko  ^  lb.  orris  root 
and  pour  over  it  half  a  gallon  of  hoilinrj  water  ;  let  it  infuse  until 
cold,  then  filter,  and  put  it  into  the  mixing  barrel,  stirring  it  well. 

To  Color. — Boil  \  oz.  of  cochineal ;  ^  oz.  cream  tartar;  \  oz. 
raleratus  ;  and  ^  oz.  alum  in  1  qt.  of  water  imtil  you  get  a  bright  red 
color,  and  add  this  to  the  sjrup  till  the  color  suits.  The  above  is  a 
very  valuable  receipt,  and  Avill  make  IG  gals,  syrup  at  a  very  low  cost 
per  gallon.  If  it  is  desirable  to  produce  a  richer  syrup,  add  more 
Bugar.   Colors  should  be  made  in  a  brass  pr  copper  kettle. 

Bottled  Soda  Water  without  a  Machi>'e.— In  each  gallon  of 
water  to  be  used,  carefully  dissolve  f  lb.  crushed  sugar,  and  one  ounce 
of  super-carbonate  of  soda  ;  then  fill  pint  bottles  with  this  water,  have 
your  corks  ready  ;  now  drop  into  each  bottle  ^  dram  of  pulverized 
citric  acid,  and  immediately  cork,  and  tie  down.  Handle  the  bottles 
carefully,  and  keep  cool  until  needed.  More  sugar  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

Oyster  Soup.— To  each  dozen  or  dish  of  oysters,  put  ^  pint  of 
water ;  milk,  1  gill ;  butter  ^  oz.  ;  powdered  crackers  to  thicken ; 
l)rin^  the  oysters  and  water  to  a  boil,  then  add  the  other  ingredients 

Ereviously  mixed  together,  and  boil  from  three  to  five  minutes  only 
easou  with  pepper  and  salt  to  taste. 

Mock  Terrapin.—^  supper  dish.  Halt  a  calf's  liver ;  seasoned, 
fry  brown.  Hash  it,  not  very  fine,  dust  tliickly  with  flour,  a  teaspoon- 
ful  mixed  mustard,  as  much  cayenne  pepper  as  wiUlie  on  a  half  dime; 
2  hard  eggs,  chopped  fine,  a  lump  of  butter  as  large  as  an  egg,  a  teacup 
of  water.  Let  it  boil  a  minute  or  two  ;  cold  veal  will  do,  if  liver  is  not 
liked. 

Blackberry  Wine.— "Wash  the  berries,  and  pour  1  qt.  of  boil- 
ing water  to  each  gal.  Let  the  mixture  stand  24  hours,  stirring  occa- 
sionally ;  then  strain  and  measure  into  a  keg,  adding  2  lbs.  sugar, 
and  good  rye  whiskey  1  pint,  or  best  alcohol,  ^  pint  to  each  gaL 
Cork  tight,  and  put  away  for  use.   The  best  wi'^o  that  can  be  made 


i 


GKOCEES  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  KECEirTS.  225 


Mutton  II^viieicot. — Take  a  loin  of  mutton,  cut  it  into  small  chops, 
season  it  with  gromid  pepper,  allspice,  and  salt,  let  it  stand  a  night, 
and  then  fry  it.  Have  good  gravy  well  seasoned  with  flour,  butter, 
catsup  and  pepper,  if  necessary.  Boil  turnips  and  carrots,  cut  thera 
small,  and  add  to  the  mutton  stewed  in  the  gravy,  wiUi  the  yolhs  of 
hard  boiled  eggs,  and  forced  meat  balls. 

Imitation-  Apple  Butter.— Vinegar,  1  qt.  ;  cheap  molasses  1  qt. ; 
mix  together,  set  over  the  fire  till  it  commences  to  cook  ;  take  it  off, 
add  10  tablespoonfuls  of  wheat  flour,  and  cold  water  to  make  a  bat- 
ter, then  add  1  qt.  scalding  water,  stir  and  cook  for  fifteen  mumtes. 

Lemon  Syrup. — Havana  sugar,  1  lb.,  boil  in  water  down  to  a  quart, 
drop  in  the  white  of  1  egg;,  and  strain  it.  Add  ^  oz.  tartaric  acid;  let 
it  stand  2  days;  shako  olten;  12  drops  essence  of  lemon  will  much 
improve  it. 

Superior  Raisin  "Wine.— Take  SO  lbs.  of  chopped  raisms  free  from 
stems  and  dust;  put  them  in  a  large  keg,  add  to  them  10  gals,  soft 
water;  let  them  stand  two  weeks  unbunged,  shakuag  occasionally 
(warm  place  in  winter),  then  strain,  through  woollen,  or  filter;  color 
witli  burnt  sugar;  bottle  and  cork  well  for  use.  The  mo^^e  raisins  the 
better  the  wine,  not  exceeding  5  lbs.  to  each  gallon. 

Kaisin  Wine  equal  to  Sherry. — Boil  the  proper  quantity  of 
water  and  let  it  stand  till  cold.  To  each  gal.  of  this  add  4  lbs.  of 
chopped  raisins,  i^reviously  well  washed,  and  freed  from  stalks;  let 
•Jie  whole  stand  for  1  month,  stirring  frequently;  then  remove  the 
j:aisins,  and  bung  up  closely  for  1  month  more ;  then  rack  into  another 
vessel,  leaving  all  sodim.cnt  behind,  and  repeat  till  it  becomes  fine: 
then  to  every  10  gals,  add  6  lbs.  of  fine  sugar,  and  1  doz.  of  good 
oranges,  tlie  rinds  being  pared  very  thru,  and  infused  in  2  qts.  of 
brandy,  which  should  bo  added  to  the  liquor  at  its  last  racking.  Let 
the  whole  stand  three  months  in  the  cask,  then  bottle.  It  should  re- 
main bottled  twelve  months.  To  give  it  the  flavor  of  IMadeira,  when 
it  is  in  the  cask,  put  in  a  couple  of  green  citrons,  and  let  them  remain 
till  the  wine  is  bottled. 

Port  wine. — ^^Vorkcd  cider,  42  gals.;  good  port  wine,  12  gals  • 
good  brandy,  3  gals. ;  pure  spirits,  6  gals ;  mix.  Elderberries  and 
aloes,  and  the  fruit  of  the  black  haws,  make  a  fime  purple  color  for 
wines,  or  use  burnt  sugar, 

American  Champagne. — Good  cider  (crab-apple  cider  is  the  best), 
7  gals. ;  best  fourth-proof  brandy,  1  qt. ;  genuine  champagne  wine,  5 
pts. ;  milk,  1  gal. ;  bitartrate  of  potassa,  2  oz.  Mix,  let  stand  a  shoi-t 
time;  bottle  while  fermenting.  An  excellent  imitation. 
.  British  Chajmpagne. — Loaf  sugar,  5G  lbs.;  brown  sugar  (pale),  43 
lbs. ;  water  (warm),  45  gals. ;  white  tartar,  4  oz. ;  mix,  and  at  a  proper 
temperature  .add  yeast,  1  qt. ;  and  afterwards  sweet  cider,  5  gals. ; 
bruised  wild  cherries,  14  or  15  oz. ;  ^mle  spirits  1  gal. ;  orris-powder,  i 
oz.   Bottle  while  fermenting. 

British  Madeira. — Pale  malt,  1  bushel;  bo  fling  water,  12  gals.; 
mash  and  strain ;  then  add  white  sugar,  4  lbs. ;  yeast  1  lb.  Fer- 
ment, next  add  raisin  or  Cape  wine,  3  qts. ;  brandy,  3  qts. ;  sherry,  2 
qts. ;  port,  2  qts. ;  bung  dovni.  The  malt  may  be  mashed  again  for 
bottle  beer 

Currant  and  other  Fruit  Wines. — ^To  every  gallon  of  expressed 
juice,  add  2  gals,  soft  water,  G  lbs.  brovm  sugar,  crcaxu  tartar,  1^  oz.; 
15 


22G      CKOCEKS  AND  CONFECTIONLRS'  KECIlirXS. 


and  qt.  brandy  to  cvciy  G  sa,ls. ;  some  prefer  it  without  oraiidy.  After 
fermcntutioii,  talvO  4  oz.  isinglass  dissolved  in  1  pt.  of  tlio  Avinc,  and 

Sut  to  each  l)arrcl,  which  will  fine  and  clear  it:  when  it  must  bo 
rawn  into  clean  casks,  or  bottled,  Avhicli  is  preferable. 
BiiACKnisuiiY  AND  Stiiawbeiiky  Winks  are  made  by  taking  the 
above  wine  when  made  Avith  port  wine,  and  for  every  10  gals,  from  4 
to  G  qts.  of  the  fresh  fruit,  bruised  and  strained,  are  added,  and  let 
stand  four  days  till  the  flavor  is  extracted;  when  bottling,  add  3  or 
four  broken  raisins  to  each  bottle. 

MoiiELLA  Wine. — To  each  quart  of  the  expressed  juice  of  thcraor- 
clla,  or  tame  cherries,  add  3  qts.  water  and  4  lbs.  of  coarse  brown  su- 
gar; let  them  ferment,  and  skim  till  worked  clear;  tlien  draw  off, 
avoiding  the  sediment  at  tlio  bottom.  Bung  up,  or  bottle,  which  is 
best  for  all  wines,  letting  the  bottles  lio  always  on  the  side,  either  for 
wines  or  beers. 

London  Sheet? y. — Chopped  raisins,  400  lbs. ;  soft  water,  100  gals. ; 
gugar,  45  lbs. ;  white  tartar,  lib.;  cider,  IG  gals.  Let  them  stand  to- 
gether in  a  close  vessel  one  month ;  stir  frequently  Then  add  of  spirits, 
8  gals. ;  wild  cherries  bruised,  8  lbs.  Let  them  stand  one  month  longer, 
and  fine  with  isinglass. 

English  Patent  Wine  tt.om  Ehubakd.— To  each  gai.  of  juice, 
fidd  1  gal.  soft  water,  in  which  7  lbs.  brown  sugar  have  been  dissolved; 
fill  a  keg  or  barrel  with  this  proportion,  leaving  the  bung  out,  and  keep 
it  filled  with  sweetened  water  as  it  works  off,  imtil  clear.  Any  other 
vegetable  extract  may  be  used  if  this  is  not  liked ;  then  bung  down  or 
"bottle  as  you  please.  The  stalks  will  yield  f  their  weight  in  juice; 
fine  and  settle  with  isinglass  as  above.  This  wine  will  not  lead  to 
intemperance, 

Vakious  Wines. — To  28  gals,  clarified  cider  add  good  brandy  1  gal. ; 
crude  tartar  (this  is  what  is  deposited  by  grape  wines),  milk  to  settle 
it,  1  pt. ;  draw  off  SB  hours  after  thoroughly  mixing. 

Ginger  Wine. — ^Put  one  oz.  of  good  ginger-root  bruised  in  l  qt.  95 
per.  cent,  alcohol;  let  it  stand  nine  days,  tind  strain;  add  4  qts.  water, 
and  1  lb.  white  sugar  dissolved  in  hot  water,  color  with  tincturo  of 
ganders  to  suit. 

ANOTifER. — To  1  qt.  95  per  cent,  alcohol  add  1  oz.  best  ginger-root 
(bruised  but  not  ground),  5  grs.  capsicum  and  1  dr.  tartaric-acid.  Let 
it  stand  one  week  and  filter;  now  add  1  gal.  water  in  which  1  lb.  of 
cruslied  sugar  has  been  boiled.  Tslix  when  cold.  To  make  the  color, 
boil  -|  oz.  cochineal,  f  oz.  cream  tartar,  ^  oz.  saleratus,  and  ^  oz.  alum, 
in  1  pt.  of  water  till  you  get  a  bright-red  color. 

To  restoke  Flat  Weste. — Add  4  or  5  gals,  of  sugar,  honey,  or 
bruised  raisins  to  every  100  gals.,  and  bung  close;  a  little  spirits  may 
be  added,  to  roughen;  take  bruised  aloes,  or  powdered  catechu,  and 
add  to  the  wine  in  suitable  proportions,  or  add  a  small  quantity  of 
bruised  berries  of  the  mountain  ash,,  to  allay  inordinate  flatness.  "Lcfc 
it  stand  2  hours  and  bottle,  using  yeast,  of  course,  as  before. 

White  Wines  are  generally  fined  by  isinglass  in  the  proportion  of 
1 J  oz.  (dissolved  in  1^  pts.  of  water,  and  thinned  Avith  some  of  the  wine) 
to  the  hogshead.  Bed  Wines  are  generally  fined  with  the  whites  of 
eggs,  in  the  proportion  of  12  to  18  to  each  pipe ;  they  must  be  Avell 
beaten,  to  a  froth  with  about  1  pt.  of  water,  and  afterwards  mixed  Avith 
a  little  of  the  wine  before  adding  them  to  the  liquor,   Rummage  well 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  227 


CnAJMPAGNE  Cider. — Good  pale  cider,  1  hhd. ;  spirits,  3  gals. ;  sugar, 
20  lbs.;  mix,  aud  let  it  stand  one  fortnight;  then  fine  with  skimmed 
milk,  ^  gal. ;  this  will  be  very  pale,  and  a  similar  article,  when  pro- 
perly bottled  and  labelled,  opens  so  brisk,  that  even  good  judges 
have  mistalceii  it  for  genuine  champagne. 

Berlin  Carra way  Cordial. — Take  8  gals,  spirit,  50  per  cent. ;  1  oz. 
oil  of  carraway,  Avhich  you  dissolve  in  spirit  95  per  cent.  ;  8  lbs.  sugar; 
8  lbs.  water.    Dissolve  your  sugar  in  the  water  ;  mix,  stir  and  filter. 

SxoMACH  Bitters  Equal  to  Hostbtters'. — European  gentian 
root,  1^  oz.  ;  orange  peel,  2^  oz.  ;  ciimamon,  ^-  oz.  ;  anise  seed,  ^  oz. ; 
coriander  seed,  ^  oz.  ;  cardamon  seed,  ^  oz. ;  unground  Peruvian 
bark,  ^  oz. ;  gum  kino,  ^  oz. ;  bruise  all  these  articles,  and  put  them 
into  the  best  alcohol,  1  pt.  ;  let  it  stand  a  week,  and  pour  off  tho 
clear  tincture;  then  boil  the  dregs  a  few  minutes  in  Iqt.  of  water, 
ntrain,  and  press  out  all  the  strength  ;  now  dissolve  loaf  sugar,  1  lb. 
in  the  hot  liquid,  adding  3  qts.  cold  water,  and  mix  with  tho  spirit 
tincture  first  poured  off,  or  you  can  add  these,  and  let  it  stand  on 
tho  dregs  if  preferred, 

Boker's  Bitters. — ^Rasped  quassia,  IJoz.  ;  calamus,  1^  oz.  ;  pow- 
dered catechu,  1^  oz.  ;  cardamon,  1  oz.  ;  dried  orange  peel,  2  oz.  ; 
macerate  the  above  ten  days  in  gal.  strong  whiskey,  and  then  fil- 
ter, and  add  2  gals,  water  ;  color  with  mallow  or  malva  flowers. 

CuRACOA  Cordial,  40  Gals, — Essence  of  bitter  oranges,  2  oz,  ;  ess. 
of  neroli,  2  oz,  ;  ess,  of  cinnamon,  :|  oz.  ;  3  drs.  mace,  infused  in  alco- 
hol. Dissolve  the  above  essence  in  1  gal.  alcohol,  95  per  cent.  ; 
then  put  in  a  clean  barrel  13  gals,  alcohol,  85  per  cent.  ;  2G  gals, 
sugar  syrup,  30  degrees  Baume  ;  and  add  1  gal.  perfumed  spirit  as 
above.    Color  with  saff rou  or  turmeric. 

Curacoa  d'Hollande,  20  Gals. — Curacoa  orange-peel,  2  lbs  ;  |  lb. 
Ceylon  cinnamon.  Let  them  soak  in  water  ;  boil  them  for  fivo 
minutes  with  the  ^uice  of  32  oranges  aud  14  gals,  of  plain  whito 
syrup  ;  then  add  6"  gals,  alcohol,  95  per  cent*  ;  strain,  filter  ;  color 
dark  yellow  with  sugar  coloring. 

Anisette  Cordial,  40  Gals.— Put  in  a  barrel  13  gals,  alcohol,  75 
per  cent.  Dissolve  3^  oz.  essence  of  green  anise-seed  in  1  gal.  95 
per  cent,  alcohol,  and  add  ^  gal.  orange-llower  Avater  ;  8  or  ten  drops 
infusion  of  mace,  and  5  drops  essence  of  cinnamon.  Then  put  in  tho 
barrel  2G  gals,  sugar  syrup,  25  degrees  Baume  ;  stir  fifteen  minutes, 
and  let  it  rest  four  or 'five  days  ;  then  filter.  Add  2  or  3  sheets  of 
filtering  paper. 

Ratafia. — ^Ratafia  may  be  made  with  the  juice  of  any  fruit.  Take 
3  gals,  cherry  juice,  and  4  lbs.  sugar,  which  you  dissolve  in  the  juice  ; 
steep  in  2^  gals,  braudy  ten  days  ;  2  drs.  cinnamon,  24  cloves  ;  IS 
oz.  peach-leaves  ;  8  oz.  bruised  cherry  kernels.  Filter,  mix  both 
liquids,  and  filter  again. 

Arrack  Pqnch  Syrup.— 53J  lbs.  sugar  ;  3-J  gals,  water.  Boil  up 
■well ;  then  add  If  gals.  Jemon-juice  to  the  boiling  sugar,  and  stir 
till  the  liquid  is  clear  ;  pour  it  in  a  clean  tub,  aud  when  nearly  cool, 
add  5  gals.  Batavia  arrack,  then  filter. 

Syrups  for  Soda  Eountains,  &c. — 1.  Simple  syrup.  White  sugar, 
10  lbs  ;  water,  1  gal  ;  best  isinglass,  ^  oz.  Dissolve  the  isiug;lass  in 
hot  water,  and  add  it  to  the  hot  syrup.  The  syrup  is  to  be  made  Avitli 
gentle  heat  and  tlicn  strained.   2.  Lemon — a — (^ratc  off  the  yellow  rind 


228       GROCEllS  AXD  CONFECTIONEKS'  KECEIPTS. 


of  lemons  and  bctit  it  up  -witli  a  snlTlcicnt  quantity  of  Rraniilatcd 
sugar.  Express  tlio  lemon  jiiico,  add  to  each  j)t.  of  juico  1  ])t.  of 
wiitcr,  and  3  lbs.  of  Krauulatcd  sugar,  including  that  rubbed  with  tho 
rind  ;  warm  imtil  the  sugar  is  dissolved  and  strain,  3.  Lemon — h — 
Simple  syrup  1  gal.,  oil  of  lemon.  25  drops,  citric  acid  10  drams.  Kiib 
tho  oil  of  lemon  with  tho  acid,  add  a  small  portion  of  syrup,  and 
mix.  4.  Slraioheriij — a — Strawberry  juice  Ipt.,  simi)lo  syrup  3  pints, 
solution  of  citric  acid  2  drams.  6.  Strawberry — h — Frcsli  strawber- 
ries 5qts.  white  sugar  121bs.,  water,  Ipt.  Sprinkle  some  of  tlie  sugar 
over  the  fruit  in  layers,  and  allow  tlie  whole  to  stand  for  several 
hours  ;  express  the  juico  and  strain,  washmg  out  the  i)u]p  witli  water ; 
add  the  remainder  of  the  sugar  and  water,  bring  the  fluid  to  the  point 
of  boiling,  and  then  strain.  This  will  keep  for  a  long  time.  6.  Rasp- 
berry. Raspberry  juice  1  pt.,  simple  syrup  3  pts.,  citric  acid  2  drams. 
Raspberry  syrup  may  also  be  made  in  a  way  similar  to  No.  5  for 
strawberry.  7.  Vanilla. — Fluid  extract  of  vanilla  loz.,  citricacid,|oz., 
simple  syrup  1  gal.  Rub  the  acid  with  some  of  the  syrup,  add  tho 
extract  of  vanilla,  and  mix.  8.  Vanilla  Cream. — Fluid  extract  of 
vanilla  loz.,  simple  syrup  3 pts.,  cream  or  condensed  milk  Ipt ;  may 
be  colored  with  carmine.  9  Cream. — Fresh  cream  1  pt.,  fresh  milk  1 
pt.,  powdered  sugar  1  lb.  ;  mix  by  shaking,  and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 
The  addition  of  a  few  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  will  for  somo 
time  retard  souring.  10.  Ginger. — ^Tincture  of  ginger  2  fluid  ozs. 
simple  syrup  4  pts,  11.  Orange. — Oil  of  orange  30  drops,  tartaric  acid 
4  drams,  simple  syrup  1  gal.  Rub  the  oil  with  the  acid,  and  mix.  12. 
Pineapple. — Oil  of  pineapple  1  dram,  tartaric  acid  1  dram,  simple 
syrup  6  pts.  13.  Orgeat. — Cream  syrup  1  pt.,  vanilla  syrup  1  pt. ,  oil  of 
bitter  almonds  4  drops.  14.  Nectar. — ^Vanilla  syrup  5  pts.,  pineapple 
syrup  1  pt.,  strawberry,  raspberry  or  lemon  2  pts.  15.  Sherbet. — 
Vanilla  syrup  3  pts.,  pineapple  1  pt.,  lemou  syrup  1  pt,  IG.-  Grape. — 
Brandy  |  of  a  pt,,  spirits  of  lemon  ^  oz.,  tincture  of  red  sanders  2  ozs., 
simple  syrup  1  gal.  17.  Banana. — Oil  of  banana  2  drams,  tartaric  acid 
1  dram,  simple  syrup  G  pts,  18.  Cq^ee.rr-Coffee  roasted  |  lbs.,  boiling 
water  1  gal.  Enough  is  filtered  to  inake  about  ■^gal.  of  the  infusion, 
to  which  add  granulated  sugar  7  lbs.  19.  Wild  Clierry. — Wild  cherry- 
bark  coarse  powder,  5  ozs.  Moisten  the  bark  with  water,  and  let  it 
stand  for  24  hours  in  a  close  vessel.  Then  j)ack  it  firmly  in  a  per- 
colator, and  i)our  water  upon  it  until  1  pt.  of  fluid  is  obtained.  To 
this  add  28  ozs.  of  sugar.  20.  Winiergrcen. — Oil  of  wintergreen  25 
drops,  simple  syrup  6  i)ts.,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  burnt  sugar  to 
color,  21,  Sarsaparilla — a — Oil  wintergreen  10  drops,  oil  of  anise  10 
drops,  oil  of  sassafras  10  drops,  fluid  extract  of  sarsaparilla  2  ozs. 
simple  syrup  5  pts. ,  powdered  extract  of  licorice  1  oz,  22.  Sarsaparilla 
— 6— Simple  syrup  4  pts.,  compound  syrup  of  sarsaparilla  4  fluid  ozs., 
caramel  l^  ozs.,  oil  of  wintergreen  6  drops,  oil  of  sassafras  G  drops. 
23,  Maple. — Maple  sugar  4  lbs.,  water  2  pts.  24.  Chocolate. — Best 
chocolate  8  ozs.,  water  2  pts.,  white  sugar  4  lbs.  Mix  the  chocolate 
in  water,  and  stir  thoroughly  over  a  slow  fire.  Strain,  and  add  tho 
sugar.  25.  Coffee  Cream. — Coffee  syrup  2  pts.,  cream  1  pt.  2G.  Am- 
brosia.— ^Raspberry  syrup  2  pts.,  vanilla  2 pts.,  hock  wine  4  ozs.  27. 
Mock  and  Claret. — ^Ilock  or  claret  wine  1  pt,,  simple  syrup  2i)ts,  28. 
Solferino. — Brandy  1  pt,,  simple  syrup  2  pts.  29,  jFruit  Acid.— {JJaei 
in  some  of  the  syrups).   Citric  acid  4  ozs.,  water,  8  oz3.   Most  of  the 


GIIOCEKS  AND  CONFECTIONEllS"  RECEinS.  229 


eyrupg  not  made  from  fruits  may  have  a  little  gum  arable  added  in 
order  to  produce  a  rich  froth. 

Butyric  Ether  is  much  used  to  impart  a  pine  apple  flavor  to 
rum.  Dissolved  in  8  or  10  parts  of  alcohol,  it  forms  the  piue  apple 
essence.  From  20  to  25  drops  of  this  essence,  added  to  1  lb.  sugar, 
containing  a  httle  eitrie  acid,  imparts  to  the  mixture  a  strong  taste  of 
pine  apple. 

Ajuylo-Acetic  Ether  i,^  a  preparation  of  fruit-oil  and  other  ingre- 
dients, and  when  diluted  with  alcohol,  it  is  soli  siS  essence  of  Jaj^f/onella 
pear,  and  is  used  for  flavoring  different  liquors.  Fifteen  parts  amylo- 
acetic  ether,  with  half  a  part  of  acetic  ether,  dissolved  in  100  parts  of 
alcohol,  form  Avhat  may  be  called  the  Bergamot-pear  essence,  Avhich, 
when  employed  to  flavor  sugar,  acidulated  with  a  little  citric  acid,  im- 
parts the  odor  of  the  Bergamot  pear,  and  a  fruity,  refreshing  taste. 

rELARGONATB  OR  Ethylio  Etuer  (pclargoulc  ether),  has  the 
agreeable  odor  of  the  quince,  and,  when  dissolved  in  alcohol  in  duo 
proportion,  forms  the  quince  essence. 

Acetate  of  Ajmylic  Ether  (same  as  amylo  ether),  mixed  with 
hutyric  ether,  forms  in  alcoholic  solution  the  banana  essence.  ., 

Valeriai^ate  of  Amyeic  Ether. — An  alcoliollc  solution  of  this 
ether  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  G  or  8  of  alcohol,  forms  a  flavoring 
liquid  under  the  name  of  apple  essence. 

Mu-K  PcNcn. — One  tablespoouful  of  fine  white  sugar,  2  ditto  of 
water,  1  wine  glass  of  Cognac  brandy,  ^  ditto  Santa  Cruz  rum,  ^  tum- 
blerful of  shaved  ice;  fill  Avith  milk.  Shalco  the  ingredients  well  to- 
gether, and  grate  a  little  nutmeg  ou  top.  To  make  it  hot,  use  hot  milk 
and  no  ice. 

Glasgow  Punch. — Melt  lump-sugar  in  cold  water,  with  the  juico 
of  a  couple  of  lemons,  passed  through  a  fine  wire  strainer;  this  is  sher- 
bet, and  most  be  well  mingled.  Then  add  old  Jamaica  rum,  ouo  paii; 
of  rum  to  five  of  sherbet.  Cut  a  couple  of  lemons  in  two,  and  run 
each  section  rapidly  around  the  edge  of  the  jug  or  bowl,  gently 
squeezing  in  some  of  the  delicate  acid,  when  all  is  ready. 

Mint  Julep. — One  tablespoouful  of  white  pulverized  sugar,  2^  ditto 
water;  mix  well  with  a  spoon.  Take  3  or  4  sprigs  of  fresh  mint,"pres3 
them  well  in  the  sugar  and  water,  add  1^  wine  glasses  of  Cognac 
brandy,  and  fill  the  glass  with  shaved  ice,  then  draw  out  the  sprigs  of 
mint,  and  insert  them  in  the  ice  with  the  stems  downwards,  so  tliat 
the  leaves  will  be  above  in  the  shape  of  a  bouquet;  arrange  berries  and 
small  pieces  of  sliced  orange  on  top  in  a  tasty  manner,  dash  Avitb. 
Jamaica  rum,  and  sprinkle  sugar  on  top.  Sij)  with  a  glass  tuljo 
or  straw. 

Cider  Nectar. — One  qt.  cider,  1  bottle  soda  water,  1  glass  sherry, 
1  small  glass  brandy,  juice  of  half  a  lemon,  i^eelof  ^of  a  lemon,  sugar 
and  nutmeg  to  taste.  Flavor  it  Avith  extract  of  piue  ai^ple,  strain,  and 
ice  it  all  well. 

IIalf  and  Half, — ^InXondoii,  this  drink  is  made  by  mixing  half 
porter  and  half  ale;  in  America,  it  is  made  by  mixing  half  new  and 
half  old  ale. 

Apple  Toddy. — One  tablespoouful  of  fine  white  sugar,  1  wine- 
glass of  cider  brandy,  ^  of  a  baked  apple.  Fill  tlie  glass  two-thkda 
full  of  boiling  Avater,  and  grate  a  little  nutmeg  on  top. 

Appub  Punch. — Lay  in  a  china  bowl  slices  of  apples  and  lemons 


230      GliOCEKS   AND   CONFECTIONEUS'  liECEirTS. 


nlternatcly,  each  layer  being  thicldy  ptrcwcd  with  po-wdcred  sugar. 
I'our  over  tlio  fruit,  when  tlie  bowl  is  half  filled,  a  bottle  of  claret; 
cover,  and  let  it  atand  iov  0  hours.  Theu  pour  it  through  a  niuslm 
bag,  and  it  is  all  ready. 

Old  Man's  Milk. — One  ■v^•ino-g^ass  of  port  wine,  1  tcaspoonful of 
Giigar.    lull  the  tumbler  one  third  lull  of  hot  niilli. 

rjcKFECT  LovJE. — One  tablespoonful  sugar,  1  piece  each  of  orango 
and  lemon  i^eel.  Fill  the  tumbler  one-third  full  of  shaved  ice,  and 
fill  balance  with  wine;  ornament  iu  a  tasty  manner  with  berries  in 
Bcason  ;  sip  through  a  straAV. 

Molasses  Candy. — West-Indian  molasses,  1  gallon  ;  brown  sugar, 
2  lbs.  ;  boU  the  molasses  and  sugar  in  a  preserving  Icettlo  over  a 
glow  fire  ;  when  done  enough  it  will  cease  boiling  ;  stir  frequently, 
and  when  nearly  done,  stir  in  the  juice  of  four  lemons  or  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  essence  of  lemon  •  afterwards  butter  a  pan,  and  pour 
out. 

CoNFECTiONEEs'  COLORS. — Led,  cochincal,  1  oz.  ;  boil  5  minutes 
in  half  pint  water  ;  then  add  cream  tartar,  1  oz.  ;  pounded  alum,  ^ 
;  oz.  ;  boil  10  minutes  longer,  add  sugar,  2  oz.  ;  and  bottle  for  use. 
JJliie,  put  a  little  warm  water  on  a  plate,  and  rub  in  indigo  till  the 
required  color  is  got.  Yellow,  rub  with  some  water  a  little  yellow- 
gamboge  on  a  plate,  or  infuse  the  heart  of  a  yellow-lily  flower  with 
niilk-warm  water.  Green,  boil  the  leaves  of  spinach  about  1  miuuto 
in  a  little  water,  and.  when  strained,  bottle  for  use. 

To  Candy  Sugar. — Dissolve  2  parts  of  double  refined  sugar  in  1 
of  water.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  syrup  does  iiot  boil 
over,  and  that  the  sugar  is  not  burnt.  The  first  degree  is  called  the 
thread,  which  is  subdivided  into  the  little  and  great  thread  ;  if  you 
dip  your  finger  in  the  syrup,  and  apply  it  to  the  thumb,  the  tenacity 
of  the  syrup  will,  on  separating  the  finger  and  thumb,  afford  a  thread 
which  shortly  breaks,  this  is  the  little  tliread  ;  if  the  thread  admits  of 
a  greater  extension  of  finger  and  thumb,  it  is  called  the  great  thread; 
by  longer  boiling  you  obtain  the  pearl,  which  admits  of  being  dra^vn 
without  breaking  by  the  utmost  extension  of  finger  and  thumb ; 
this  makes  candied  sugar:  by  further  boiling  you  obtain  the  blow, 
wliich  is  known  by  dippmg  a  skimmer  with  holes  in  the  syrup,  and 
blowing  through  them  ;  if  bubbles  are  perceived,  you  have  got  the 
blow.  The  feather  implies  more  numerous  bubbles,  and  then  the  sugar 
will  fly  off  like  flakes  while  the  skimmer  is  being  tossed.  By  boil- 
ing longer,  you  obtain  the  crack  ;  it  will  crack  when  broken,  and  does 
not  stick  to  the  teeth  ;  dip  a  teaspoon  into  the  sugar,  and  let  it  drop  to 
the  bottom  of  a  pan  of  cold  water.  If  the  sugar  remains  hard,  it  has 
attained  the  degree  termed  craclc. 

Fig  Candy, — Take  1  lb.  of  sugar  and  1  ]iint  of  water  ;  set  over  a 
slow  fire.  When  done  add  a  few  drops  of  vinegar  and  a  lump  of  bat- 
ter, and  pour  into  pans  in  which  split  figs  are  laid. 

llAisiN  Candy  can  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  substituting 
Btoued  raisins  for  the  figs.  Common  molasses  candy  is  very  nico 
with  all  kinds  of  nuts  added. 

Scotch  Butter  Candy. — Take  lib.  of  sugar  and  1  pint  of  water; 
dissolve  and  boil.  When  done,  add  one  tablespoonful  of  butter, 
and  enough  lemon  juice  and  oil  of  lemon  to  flavor. 

ComioN  Lemon  Candy.— Take  3  lbs.  coarse  brown  sugar  :  add  to 


GROCERS  A^sD  CONFECTIONERS'  KECEirXS.  231 


it  three  teacupfiils  of  ^vater,  and  set  over  a  sIotv  fire  for  half 
an  hour;  put  to  it  a  little  gum  arabic  dissolved  in  hot -water;  this  is 
to  clear  it.  Continue  to  take  off  the  scum  as  long  as  any  rises.  When 
perfectly  clear,  try  it  by  dipping  a  pipe-stem  first  into  it  and  then  into 
cold  water,  or  by  takuig  a  spoonful  of  it  into  a  saucer ;  if  done,  it  Avill 
snap  like  glass.    Flavor  with  essence  of  lemon  and  cut  it  into  sticks. 

Pjippekminx,  Kose,  ok  Horehou:n-d  Candy. — They  may  be  mado 
ns  lemon  candy.  Flavor  with  essence  of  rose  or  peppermint  or  finely 
powdered  horehound.  Pour  it  out  iu  a  buttered  paper,  placed  in  a 
jjquare  tin  pan. 

Popped  Cokk,  dipped  in  boiling  molasses,  and  stuck  together,  forms 
an  excellent  candy. 

Rock  Caiojy. — To  make  fine  rock  candy,  clarify  doxiblo  refined 
white  sugar,  filter  it,  and  boil  it  till  it  is  ready  to  crystallize,  or 
hoiled  to  a  blister.  The  boiling  sugar  must  measure  35°  on  the  syrup 
Aveight,  a  degree  more  or  less  prevents  its  crystallization.  Then  tako 
a  brass  kettle,  of  about  16  or  18  inches  diameter  and  from  6  to  8  inches 
deep,  smooth  and  polished  on  the  inside.  Make  8  or  10  small  holes  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other  in  a  circle  around  the  sides  of  tho 
kettle,  about  2  inches  from  the  bottom;  i>ass  threads  through  theso 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  stop  the  holes  on  the  outside  with  pasto 
or  paper  to  prevent  the  syrup  from  running  out.  Having  thus  pre- 
pared the  kettle,  pour  in  the  syrup,  till  it  rises  about  an  inch  above 
the  threads;  then  place  it  in  a  stove  moderately  heated,  and  leave  it, 
to  crystallize,  agitating  it  from  time  to  time.  The  crj'stallization  will 
take  place  in  six  or  seven  days.  As  soon  as  the  crystals  are  formed, 
pour  off  the  remaining  syrup,  and  throw  in  a  little  water  to  wash  tho 
crystals  that  are  left  at  the  bottom  of  tho  vessel.  So  soon  as  the  mass 
is  thorouglily  draiend  set  it  in  a  very  hot  stove,  leave  it  for  two  days, 
when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Straw-colored  rock  candy  is  made  by  sub- 
stituting brown  for  loaf  sugar.  The  syrup  must  be  boiled  over  a  very 
hot  fire  in  order  to  render  the  candy  perfectly  white.  The  sides  of  tho 
kettle  should  be  sponged  repeatedly  durmg  tho  boiling  process,  to 
prevent  the  sugar  from  adhering  and  burning. 

Orange  Rock  Candy  is  made  by  flavoring  the  syrup  with  a  couiDle 
of  teaspoonfuls  of  orange  flower  water,  and  coloring  with  saffron, 
just  as  the  syrup  is  about  to  be  taken  from  the  fire.  Hose  EocJc  Candy 
is  flavored  with  rose  water,  and  colored  with  clarified  carmine  lake. 
Vanilla  Rock  Candy  is  perfumed  with  vanilla,  and  colored  AAdth  liquid 
violet.  The  degree  of  coloring  may  be  tested  by  dropping  a  little  oi: 
the  colored  syrup  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper. 

Ginger  Candy. — Dissolve  1  lb.  double-refined  sugar  in  A  pint  of 
r.pring  water;  set  it  over  a  clear  fire,  and  let  it  boil  to  a  thin  syrup, 
llave  ready  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  ginger,  mix  it  smoothly  with 
2  or  3  spoonfuls  of  the  syrup,  then  stir  it  gradually  into  the  whole. 
Boil  the  mixture  into  a  ./?aA;e,  watching  it  carefully,  that  it  may  noh 
exceed  this  pomt;  then  add  the  freshly  grated  rind  of  a  large  lemon, 
and  stir  the  sugar  constantly  and  rapidly  until  it  fall  in  a  mass  fro!:i. 
tho  spoon,  without  sinking  when  dropped  upon  a  plate.  If  boiled 
for  a  moment  beyond  the  point,  it  will  fall  into  a  powder.  Should 
this  happen  by  mistake,  add  a  little  water,  and  boil  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency. Dip  the  candy  from  the  kettle,  and  drop  it  in  small  cakes 
upon  buttered  pans,  then  set  it  away  to  cool. 


232      GliOCiaiS  and  CONFECTIONEIIS'  EECEirTS. 


•CnEAJt  Caj^py. — ^To  3  lbs.  of  loaf  sugar  add  ^  pt.  water,  and  set  if. 
over  a  hIow  firo  for  half  an  hour;  then  add  a  te:is})ooulul  of  gum 
avabic  dissolved,  and  .1  tablespoonful  of  vinegar.  Boil  ittiil  it  is  brit- 
tle, then  talvO  it  off,  and  flavor  witli  vanilla,  rose,  or  orange,  liub  tlio 
liands  "With  sweet  butter,  and  pull  the  candy  till  itis  wliite;  then  twist 
or  brealc  it,  or  stretch  it  out  into  tliiii  -wliito  strips,  and  cut  it  olr. 

Red  Vkkdun  Sugaiied  Ai^moxds, — Dry  thealmondsin  a  stove  by 
a  slow  fire.  When  dry  enongli  to  snap  between  the  tcctli,  i^ut  thenv 
into  a  swinging  basin  and  gum  them  by  throwing  over  them  a  httlo 
gum  arabic  solution,  cold;  swmg  them  constantly  till  dry;  then  give 
them  another  coating  of  gum  arable  mixed  with  4  oz.  sugar,  and 
fivring  them  again  till  dry,  using  no  fire.  When  they  are  thoroughly 
dry,  set  them  over  a  moderate  fire.  Dissolve  some  sugar  in  orango 
•or  rose  water,  not  too  thin,  set  it  over  the  fire  2  or  3  minutes,  strain  it 
through  a  sieve,  and  pour  it  over  the  almonds  in  the  basin.  Swing 
them  till  they  are  thoroughly  coated  and  dried;  then  add  another 
coatmg,  composed  of  2  parts  of  carmine,  one  part  of  gum,  and  one  part 
of  sugar,  and  proceed  as  before.  If  tlio  almonds  are  not  perfectly 
covered,  give  them  a  coating  hi  which  there  is  considerable  gum;  and 
'when  thoroughly  moistened,  throw  on  them  some  sifted  sugar,  stir 
till  the  mixture  is  all  absorbed,  then  add  successive  coatings  of  sugar 
till  they  are  large  enough,  and  put  them  into  the  stove  to  remain  till 
the  next  day,  when  in  order  to  xohiten  them,  you  will  proceed  to  boil 
G  or  7  lbs.  of  fine  clarified  sugar  to  a  blister,  add  1  lb.  of  starch  after 
taking  it  from  the  fire,  stiring  it  constantly  till  a  paste  is  formed  a 
little  thicker  than  that  used  for  pastilles;  a  few  drops  of  blue  lako 
may  be  added  to  produce  a  pearl  white.  Put  the  almonds,  warm,  in- 
to the  swinging  basin,  add  enough  of  the  prepared  sugar  to  coat  them, 
swing  the  basin  till  they  are  nearly  dry,  then  set  on  the  fire  to  finish 
the  drying,  then  take  the  basin  off  the  fire,  heap  them  up  in  the  mid- 
dle, so  as  to  allow  the  bottom  of  the  ressel  to  cool;  then  add  the  coat- 
ing of  sugar,  swing  and  dry  them  as  before,  and  continue  the  process 
until  4  successive  coatings  of  equal  thickness  hare  been  given;  then 
lieat  them  weU  in  the  basin,  put  them  mto  pans,  and  set  them  in  tho 
;&tove  to  remain  over  night.  You  will  then  proceed  to  polish  them  by 
giving  them  a  coat  of  the  prepared  sugar  and  starch,  and  shake  them 
violently  until  they  are  quite  dry;  give  them  another  coating  and  pro- 
ceed as  before,  and  continue  the  process  until  they  have  received  4 
successive  coatings,  when  they  will  generally  be  found  sufficiently 
I)olished.  "When  the  iDohshing  is  finished,  put  the  almonds  over  a  firo 
and  stir  gently  till  all  are  thoroughly  heated,  then  place  in  a  stove  till 
the  next  day  in  a  wicker  basket  lined  with  paper. 

Spanish  Sugahed  Almokds. — Make  verdun  sugared  almonds 
about  the  size  of  pigeon's  eggs,  whiten  and  polish  them  by  the  pre- 
vious directions,  and  paint  different  designs  on  them  when  completed. 

SuPEEFiNE  VajS-illa  Sugared  Almoxds. — Procccd  in  tho  same 
manner  as  in  the  manufacture  of  verdun  sugared  almonds,  make 
the  solution  of  sugar  in  pure  water  ;  crush  the  essence  of  vanilla, 
with  a  little  sugar,  and  put  in  the  solution. 

Coaoioisr  Sugared  Almo^tds. — Common  almonds,  20  lbs.,  sugar  8 
lbs.,  farina,  20  lbs.,  starch,  2  lbs.  Heat  the  almonds  in  the  swinging 
basin,  wlieii  they  boil,  make  them  into  a  pulp  with  diluted  starch ; 
give  first  a  warm  then  a  cold  coating,  cover  them  with  farina,  shaking 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  233 


the  basin  violently  ;  then,  when  the  almonds  have  been  coated  to  the 
lequisite  size,  spread  them  out  on  sieves  ;  after  a  fortnight  put  them 
in  a  stove  to  finish  drying  :  whiten  them,  and  finish  by  the  process 
described  for  the  fine  sugared  almonds. 

Superfine  Chocolate  Sugaked  Almoxds. — Caraccasa  cacao  nuts, 
shelled  and  roasted,  20  lbs.,  Martinique  sugar,  16  lbs.,  vanilla  4 drs., 
starch  10  oz.  The  same  method  is  required  as  for  the  superfine 
vaniUa  sugar  plums,  but  care  must  bo  taken  in  addhig  the  coatings 
of  gum,  to  touch  the  cacao  nuts  lightly,  as  they  are  very  easily  broken. 

SuPEKFmE  SuGaiEED  FiLBEBTs. — Filberts',  50  lbs.,  sugar,  4  lbs., 
starch,  4  oz.  Employ  the  same  process  as  for  sugared  almonds  and 
flavor  to  taste.  Kose  water  is  generally  preferred  on  account  of  its 
color  and  fragrance, 

CoKiANDER  Sugar  Pi.ums.— Coriander,  2  lbs.,  farina,  SO  lbs.,  sugar, 
14  lbs.  The  washings  of  the  basin  are  added  to  the  coriander  and 
farina  without  makuig  a  paste,  and  the  method  is  followed  that  has 
been  prescribed  for  tiie  common  sugared  abnonds  ;  8  lbs,  of  sugar 
are  used  to  whiten  them,  and  G  to  polish  them  ;  color  after  being- 
polished  with  carmine,  Prussian  blue,  and  saffron. 

Coriander  ln"  BoTiiiES. — Coriander,  10  lbs.,  farina,  10  lbs.,  sugar 
for  the  whitening,  3  lbs.,  starch,  1  lb.  These  are  simply  colored,  nnd 
do  not  require  brilliancy.  They  are  made  of  the  size  of  small  peas, 
and  are  put  into  little  bottles.  In  making  these  follow  the  receipt  for 
common  sugared  almonds. 

Anise-seed  Sugar  Plums. — Dry  2  lbs.  of  green  anise-seed  in  the 
Ftove  ;  rub  it  in  the  hands  to  break  off  the  stems,  winnow  to  rid  of 
dust,  then  put  it  in  a  swinging  basin,  and  coat  it  with  sugar  boiled  to 
a  thread,  so  as  to  render  the  candies  hard  and  brittle.  AVhen  coated 
sufficiently,  whiten  and  iwlish  them,  like  the  verdun  sugared  almonds. 
They  vary  in  size,  being  generally  as  large  as  a  pea. 

Mint  Sugar  Plums, — Dry  some  peppermint  seed  in  a  stove  and 
coat  it  in  the  same  manner  as  anise  seed  (it  must  not,  however,  be 
whiter  than  rape  seed),  whiten  and  finish  like  anise  seed.  The  first 
coating  is  sometimes  composed  of  equal  parts  of  peppermmt  and 
Biigar. 

Common  Twist  Candy. — Clarify  3  lbs.  of  common  brown  sugar,' 
and  boil  it  till  it  is  brittle,  take  it  from  the  fire,  pour  it  in  buttered 
pans  ;  rub  the  hands  with  a  little  butter,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  cooled, 
pull  it  as  you  would  molasses  candy  until  it  is  perfectly  white  ;  then 
twist  and  braid  it,  and  cut  it  into  sticks. 

Caramel  is  made  by  boiling  clarified  sugar  till  it  is  very  brittle, 
then  pouring  it  on  an  oiled  slab  or  sheet  of  tm,  and,  as  soon  as  it 
is  cool  enough  to  receive  an  impression  with  the  finger,  stamping 
it  in  small  squares,  about  an  inch  in  size,  with  a  caramel  mould  ; 
then  tumuig  over  the  mass,  wiping  the  bottom  to  remove  any  oil 
tliat  may  have  adhered  from  the  slab,  and  putting  it  in  a  dry  place  to 
harden.  If  you  have  no-caramel  mould,  you  may  score  it  on  the 
slab  with  a  common  case  knife,  after  which  tliey  are  glazed  with  an- 
other coating  with  sugar.  Keep  them  tightly  closed  from  the  air  af- 
ter they  are  made. 

Lemon  Cajbamel  is  made  by  grating  the  yeUow  rind  of  a  lemon 
with  a  lump  of  sugar  ;  add  to  this  a  fewdrcjis  of  lemon  juice  witli 
water  enough  to  dissolve  the  sugar  completely  and  stir  the  whole  in- 


234      GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS  RECEIPTS. 


to  tlio  boiled  Ryrup  a  few  minutes  before  it  is  t'lken  from  tlio  firo. 
Orange  and  Lime  caramels  are  i)repared  in  the  same  manner  from 
Ihcso" respective  fruits.  Coffee  caramel,  coffee,  2  ox.,  8u^3;ar  1  lb.  Make 
an  infusion  of  the  colfee,  lising  as  little  water  as  possible  ;  strain  it 
tlirougb  a  cloth,  and  stir  it  gradually  into  the  boiled  syrup  a  few 
minutes  before  taking  it  from  the  fire.  Chocolate  caramel,  choco- 
late, 4  oz.,  sugar  1  lb.  Dissolve  the  chocolate  in  as  little  water  as  poa- 
siblc,  and  add  it  to  the  boiled  sugar,  as  in  tlio  coffee  caramels.  Van/ 
ilia  and  Orange  cream  caramels  are  made  by  using  the  respective  cs- 
Bcnces  of  these  fruits. 

Cocoa  Nut  Canoy.— Pare  and  cut  cocoa-nut  into  slips,  or  grato 
on  a  coarse  grater  the  white  meat  of  cocoa-nuts  until  you  have  -j^  a 
pound  ;  dissolve  \  lb.  of  loaf  sugar  in  2  tablespoonfuls  of  water  ;  put 
it  over  the  fire,  and,  as  soon  as  it  boils,  stir  in  the  cocoa-nut.  Con- 
tinue to  stir  it  imtil  it  is  boiled  to  a  flake,  then  pour  it  on  a  buttered 
pan  or  marble  slab,  and  cut  in  whatever  forms  you  wish,  when  it  is 
nearly  cold.    Lemon  or  other  flavors  may  be  added. 

Candy  Drops  ok,  Pastili.es.— Pound  and  sift  double-refined  su- 
;  gar,  first  through  a  coarse,  and  then  through  a  fine  sieve.  Put  tho 
sugar  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  dilute  it  with,  tho  flavoring  extract, 
mixed  witli  a  little  water.  If  too  liquid,  the  syrup  will  be  too  thin, 
and  the  drops  will  run  together  ;  while,  if  too  thick,  the  syrup  will  be 
too  compact,  and  cannot  be  poured  out  easily.  When  tho  sugar  is 
mixed  in  a  rather  stiff  paste,  put  it  in  a  small  saucepan  with  a  spout 
and  set  it  over  the  fire.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  bubble  up  tho  sides 
cf  the  saucepan,  stir  it  once  in  the  middle,  take  it  from  the  fire,  and 
drop  it  in  small  lumps,  of  the  size  and  shape  required,  upon  sheets  of 
tin,  to  stand  for  2  hours,  tben  put  tliem  in  the  stove  to  finish  drying. 
As  soon  as  they  are  perfectly  hard  and  brilliant,  take  them  from  tho 
fire,  otherwise  they  will  lose  their  aroma.  Color  the  syrup  just  be- 
fore taking  it  from  the  fire. 

OiiANGJE,  jASMi]si!;,  AXD  Cloyis  Deops  are  made  by  mixing  tho 
above  paste  with  these  respective  extracts  : 

For  Salai)  Dkops, —  Water  distilled  from  lettuce  is  used. 

Saffron  Drops.— Make  an  infusion  of  saffron,  strain  it,  let  it 
cool,  use  it  to  mix  the  paste,  and  proceed  as  before. 

Heliotrope  Drops. — ^Proceed  in  the  same  manner,  flavoring  that 
paste  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  neroli,  or  oil  of  orange,  jasmine  and 
tube-rose,  and  color  violet. 

Pink  Drops,— Flavor  the  taste  with  tincture  of  red  pinks,  and 
color  with  carmine  lake. 

Cinnamon  Drops, — Mix  5  drs,  powdered  cinnamon  and  8  oz,  of 
sugar  with  mucilage  enough  to  make  it  into  a  paste,  and  proceed 
as  above. 

Chewing  Gtrai, — ^Take  of  prepared  balsam  of  trdu,  2  oz. ;  white 
gugar  loz.,  oatmeal  3  oz.,  soften  the  gum  in  water  bath  and  mix  in 
the  ingredients  ;  then  roll  in  finely  powdered  sugar  or  flour  to  form 
sticks  to  suit. 

MARsmiALLOW  and  Licorice  drops  are  made  the  same  way. 

Rose  Drops, — Mix  the  paste  -with  rose  water,  and  color  with 
carmine  lake.  Proceed  as  above. 

Lemon  and  Orange  Drops.- Easpoff  the  yellow  rind  of  anorango 
or  lemon;  mix  tho  raspings  with  double-refijied  sugar;  addSgrs.  of 


GKOCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  235 


tartaric  acid  to  every  pound  of  sugar,  color  witli  yeilow  lake  or  saffron,' 
and  proceed  as  before.  If  too  much  tartaric  acid  is  nscd,  tlie  candies 
will  adhere  to  the  sheets  of  tin. 

VioiiET  Drops. — Flavor  the  paste  ■with  tincture  of  Florence  iris, 
nnd  color  with  blue  and  carmine  lakes.  A  few  drops  of  tartaric  acid 
may  be  added  to  £ust;xin  the  blue. 

Coffee  Drops. — Substitute  a  strong,  filtered  infusion  of  cofCeo 
for  water,  in  mixhig  the  ]>aste. 

Chocolate  Drops. — For  every  pound  of  sugar,  take  5  pts.  good 
chocolate,  pulverize  it,  and  mix  it  into  a  paste,  as  already  directed, 
taking  care  not  to  boil  the  paste  too  long,  lest  it  granulate,  and  become 
unfit  for  use. 

Vanilla  Drops. — Mix  the  paste  with  extract  of  van.xxa,  or  finely- 
ground  vanilla  bean ;  to  which  add  2  oz.  3  grs.  of  tartaric  acid,  dis- 
solved in  water,  to  sustain  the  blue,  without  which  it  would  disappear. 

ijnTATiOK  CuRRAKT  Drops. — Mix  the  paste  with  water,  adding  a 
little  essence  of  raspberry  and  of  violet,  or  Florence  iris,  with  a  little 
tartaric  acid  dissolved  in  water;  color  with  carmine,  and  proceed  as 
above. 

Peppermint  Drops— Dissolve  finely-powdered  sugar  with  a  iittlo 
strong  peppermint- water  in  a  saucepa  n  with  a  spout.  As  soon  as  it  is 
thoroughly  dissolved,  add  an  equal  quantity  of  coarse-grained  sugar 
with  a  few  drops  more  of  the  peppermint,  stir  the  whole  for  a  few 
moments,  then  drop  the  mixture  on  paper,  and  dry  it  in  the  open  air. 
In  the  same  way  are  made  lemon,  rose,  vanilla,  and  other  drops. 
Citric  and  tartaric  acid  may  be  used  to  increase  the  acidity  of  lemou 
drops. 

ExTEivEPORAKEOug  PASTILLES.— Make  the  paste  as  usual,  without 
flavoring  the  water,  drop  the  pastilles  uponpaj^er,  leave  them  for  two 
liours,  then  take  them  off  and  put  them  into  the  stove  to  dry.  "When 
wanted  for  use,  put  the  quantity  required  into  a  large-mouthed  jar, 
and  flavor  as  desired.  For  instance,  to  make  2  lbs.  of  peppermint 
drops,  take  5  pts.  of  sulphuric  ether  in  which  are  diluted  a  few  drops 
of  essence  of  peppermint,  and  pour  it  over  the  candies,  then  cover 
the  jar,  and  shake  it  until  they  are  thoroughly  moistened  ;  then  place 
them  on  a  sieve,  and  set  them  in  the  stove  for  5  minutes,  evaporate 
the  ether.  In  this  manner  rose,  orange,  lemon,  jonquil,  tube-rose, 
mignonette,  clove,  cmnamon,  or  any  other  drops  may  be  made,  dis- 
solving their  essential  oils  in  sulphuric  ether. 

Ginger  Candy  Tablets.— Take  1  lb.  loaf  sugar,  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid  or  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon,  a  dessert-spoonful  of  essence 
of  Jamaica  ginger.  Boil  the  sugar  with  just  water  enough  to 
dissolve  it  to  the  ball  degree,  then  add  the  acid  and  the  essence, 
and  rub  the  sugar  with  the  back  part  of  the  bowl  of  a  silver  spoon 
up  against  the  sides  of  the  sugar-boiler  to  whiten  or  grain  it  suffi- 
ciently to  give  to  the  whole  an  opalized  appearance;  then  pour  it 
into  very  small-sized  moulds,  measuring  half  an  inch  or  an  inch 
oblong  square,  or  else  into  a  tin  pan,  the  bottom  part  of  which  is 
marked  out  in  small  tablets,  so  that  the  candy  may  be  easily  broken 
into  squares  when  dry.  Smear  the  moulds  slightly  with  oil  of  al- 
monds. When  the  sugar  is  poured  into  the  moulds,  place  in  the  screen 
for  half  an  hour  or  more,  to  dry  them  hard. 

Ouange  Flowee  Candy  Tablets.— Ingredients  :  1  lb.  loaf  sugai^ 


23G      GROCERS  AND  CONFFXTIONERS'  RKCEIPTS. 


n  tabloppoonfnl  of  oranKO-flowcr  water,  and  .1  few  dvoin  of  acetic 
ncid.    I'rocccd  as  directed  in  the  prccediii.i^.    No  color. 

Vanilla  Candy  Taislkts. — Iiigrediciits  ;  3  11).  loaf  snp^ar,  a  few 
drops  of  essence  of  vanilla,  sugar,  and  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid. 
l*j-occed  as  for  oniaments  ingrained  sugar. 

PEi'PKRsirNT  Candy  Tap, lets.— Ingredients  :  1  lb.  of  loaf  sugar, 
fi  few  drops  of  essence  of  peppermint,  and  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid. 
Proceed  as  above.    No  color. 

Liquor  Candy  Tablets. — Ingredients  :  1  lb.  of  loaf  sugar,  and 
a  gill  of  any  kind  of  liquor.  Boil  the  sugar  to  the  crack,  then  in- 
corporate the  liquor,  and  finish  as  in  the  preceding.    No  color. 

Cinnamon  Candy  Drops. — Use  1  lb.  loaf  sugar,  and  a  few  drops 
essence  of  cinnamon.  Proceed  as  in  the  last.  This  may  be  colored 
rose  pink,  the  color  is  to  be  added  while  the  sugar  is  boiling. 

Clove  Candy  Tablets  are  prepared  in  the  same  Avay  as  the  fore- 
going, essence  of  cloves  being  used  instead  of  cimiamon. 

Rose  Candy  Tablets. — Use  1  lb.  loaf  sugar,  a  few  drops  of  cs- 
Ecnce  of  roses,  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid,  and  a  few  drops  of  prepared 
'cochineal.   Proceed  as  in  the  preceding. 

Fruit  Candy  Tablets.— Use  1  lb.  of  loaf  sugar,  ^  pint  of  the  juice 
of  any  kind  of  fruit,  either  currants,  cherries,  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries &c.,  extracted  by  pressing  with  a  spoon  through  a  clean  hair 
sieve.  Boil  the  sugar  to  the  crack,  then  incorporate  the  fruit  juice 
by  rubbing  it  with  the  sugar,  as  directed  in  the  preceding,  and  finish 
the  candies  as  therein  indicated. 

To  FREE  Molasses  from  its  Sharp  Taste,  antd  to  render 
it  fit  to  be  used  instead  of  Sugar. — Take  24  lbs.  molasses,  24 
lbs.  water,  and  G  lbs.  of  charcoal,  coarsely  pulverized  ;  niLx  them  in  a 
kettle,  and  boil  the  whole  over  a  slow  wood  fire.  When  the  mixture 
has  boiled  half  an  hour,  pour  it  into  a  flat  vessel,  in  order  that  the  char- 
coal may  subside  to  the  bottom  ;  then  pour  off  the  liquid,  and  place  it 
over  the  fire  once  more,  that  the  superfluous  water  may  evaporate 
and  the  molasses  be  brought  to  its  former  consistence.  24  lbs.  of 
molasses  will  produce  24  lbs.  of  syrup. 

Pepperjiint  Lozenges. — Ingredients  :  1  oz.  of  picked  gum  traga- 
canth  soaked  with  5  oz.  of  tepid  water  in  a  gallipot  (this  takes  some  G 
hours),  and  afterwards  squeezed  and  wrung  through  a  cloth,  about  1^ 
lbs.  of  fine  icing  sugar,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  essence  of  peppermint. 
Work  the  prepared  gum  with  the  flattened  fist  on  a  very  clean  slab 
until  it  becomes  perfectly  white  and  elastic,  then  gradually  work  in 
the  sugar,  adding  the  peppermint  when  the  paste  has  become  a  com- 
pact, smooth,  elastic  substance  ;  a  few  drops  of  thick,  wet,  cobalt 
blue  should  also  be  added  while  working  the  paste,  to  give  a  brilliant 
v/hiteness.  The  paste  thus  prepared  is  to  be  rolled  out  with  fine  su- 
gar dredged  over  the  slab  to  the  thickness  of  two  penny  pieces,  then  if 
you  possess  a  ribbed  rolling-pin,  use  to  roll  the  paste  again  in  cross 
directions,  so  as  to  imprint  on  its  whole  surface  a  small  lozenge  or 
diamond  pattern.  You  now  use  yourtin  cutter  to  stamp  out  the  loz- 
enges ;  as  you  do  so  place  them  on  sugar  powdered  baking  sheets  to 
dry  in  the  screen. 

Gestger  Lozenges. — Proceed  as  in  the  last;  use  a  tablespoonful  of 
essence  of  ginger,  or  1  oz.  of  ground  ginger  to  flavor,  and  a  few  dro');} 
of  thick  wet  gamboge  to  color  the  paste.   JloreJioiind  Lozenges.  In- 


GROCEKS  AND  CONFECTIONErtS'  KECEirTS.  237 


{^redieiits :  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon  soaked  in  a  gill  of  very  strong  extract 
of  horeliound,  lbs  of  fine  icing  sugar.  Proceed  as  for  the  pepper- 
mint lozenges.  Cinnamon  Lozenc/es  are  prepared  in  the  siimo 
manner  as  ginger  or  peppermint,  with  this  difference  only;  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  essence  of  cinnamon  is  to  be  used  in  the  flavoring  of  them, 
a  few  drops  of  thick,  groimd,  wet-burnt  umber  should  be  used  with  a 
pinch  of  carmine  to  give  the  paste  the  tinge  of  cinnamon  color  Clove 
Lozenges.  The  same  as  peppermint  lozenges,  using  essence  of  cloves 
for  flavoring,  and  burnt  umber  to  color  the  paste.  Orange  Lozenges. 
Ingredients:  1  oz.  prepared  gum,  1|  lbs.  sugar,  2  oz.  of  orange-sugar, 
the  gum  to  be  soaked  in  2  oz.  of  orange  flower  water.  Proceed  as  for 
peppermint  lozenges.  Jjemon  JjOzenges.  Ingredients :  1  oz.  prepared 
gum,  1^  lbs.  of  icing  sugar,  2  oz.  of  lemon  sugar,  and  a  fCAV  drops  of 
acetic  acid.  CoW s  foot  Lozenges.  Ingredients :  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon 
soaked  in  2  oz.  of  orange  flower  water,  1^  lb.  of  fine  icing  sugar,  and 
^oz.  of  essence  of  colt's  foot.  Proceed  as  for  peppermint  lozenges. 
Cayenne  and  Catechu  Ljozengce.  Ingredients:  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon 
soaked  in  2  oz.  of  water,  2  lbs.  fine  icing  sugar,  ^  oz.  essence  of 
cayenne,  and  -J  oz.  of  prepared  catechu.  Proceed  as  for  x^eppermint 
lozenges. 

Gum  Pastilles,  or  Jcjtjbes. — ^Ingredients :  1  lb.  of  picked  gum 
arable,  14:  oz.  of  the  finest  sugar  pounded  and  sifted,  \  gill  of  double 
orange  flower  water,  and  1  tepid  water  to  soak  the  gum  in,  Avhich 
is  afterwards  to  be  strained  off  clean.  Put  the  soaked  and  strained 
gum  into  a  sugar  boiler  with  the  sugar,  and  use  a  clean  spoon  to  stir 
it  over  a  very  moderate  fire,  while  it  boils  and  reduces  to  the  small 
pearl  degree;  then  add  the  orange  flower  water,  stir  all  together  ou 
the  fire,  remove  the  i)rei)aration  from  the  stove,  skim  off  the  froth, 
and  use  the  mixture  to  cast  the  jujubes  in  levelled  layers  of  starch 
powder  contained  in  a  flat  box. 

Spanish  Licorice  Jujures.— Ingredients :  1  lb.  picked  gum  arabic, 
14  oz.  of  sugar,  and  2  oz.  of  Spanish  licorice  dissolved  in  a  gill  of  hot 
water,  and  afterwards  strained  clean.  First  prepare  the  gum  and 
boil  it  with  sugar  as  directed  in  the  preceding  article,  and  when 
reduced  by  boiling  to  the  small  pearl  degree,  incorporate  the  prepared 
Spanish  licorice  with  it,  remove  the  scum  from  the  surface,  and  finish 
the  jujubes  in  the  manner  indicated  above.  Raspberry  Jxijuhes. 
Ingredients :  1  lb.  picked  gum  arabic  soaked  in  1  pint  of  hot  water 
and  afterwards  strained,  14:  oz.  of  sugar,  1  gill  of  filtered  raspberry 
juice,  and  a  few  drops  of  cochineal.  Proceed  as  directed  in  tlio 
foregoing  case,  adding  the  raspberry  and  coloring  last.  Black  Cur- 
rant Jujubes.  Proceed  in  all  respects  as  indicated  for  raspberry 
jujubes,  omitting  the  cochineal,  black  currant  juice  being  used.  Reel 
Currant  jujubes. — The  same  as  black  currant  jujubes,  red  currant 
juice  being  used  and  a  few  drops  of  cochineal.  Ordinary  Jujubes, 
Ingredients  :  1  lb.  gum  arabic  soaked  in  1  pt.  of  hot  water  and  after- 
wards strained,  14  oz.  sugar,  \  oz.  essence  of  roses,  and  a  few  drops 
of  prepared  cochineal.  Let  the  mixture  be  prepared  as  for  other 
jujubes,  but  instead  of  casting  them  in  impressions  made  in  starch- 
powder,  when  the  preparation  is  ready,  pour  it  into  a  very  clean 
smooth  tinned  baking  sheet  to  the  depth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and 
set  it  to  dry  in  the  screen,  or  hot  closet  (moderate  heat) ;  when  suffi- 
ciently dried,  so  that  on  pressing  the  surface  it  proves  gomewhat 


238      GliOCEKS  AND  confectioners'  HECEirTS. 


clastic  to  tho  touch,  remove  it  from  tho  heat,  and  allow  it  to  become 
cold  ;  tlio  sheet  of  jujiil)o  may  then  1)6  easily  detached,  and  id  to  ho 
cut  up  Avith  scissors  in  tho  shape  of  diamonds. 

Stick  ArrLis  Sugar. — Boil  the  sugar  to  caramel,  flavor  ■with  applo 
juice  together  with  tartaric  or  other  acid,  pour  it  on  a  marble  slab, 
draw  it  into  sticks,  cut  them  of  equal  length,  then  roll  thcni  on  a  slab 
till  they  are  perfectly  cold  ;  when  finished,  wrap  them  in  tissue-pai)er 
and  i^ut  them  in  fancy  envelopes. 

CuiiRANT  AND  RASPBERRY  PASTE  Drops,— Ingredients  :  1  lb.  of 
pulp  (the  currants  and  raspberries  in  equal  proportions  boiled,  and 
afterwards  rubbed  through  a  sieve),  1  lb.  of  sifted  sugar.  Stir  both 
together  in  a  copper  sugar-boiler  or  preserving  jian  over  a  brisk  fire, 
nntil  the  paste  becomes  sufficiently  reduced  to  show  the  bottom  of 
the  preserviug  pan  as  you  draw  the  spoon  across  it ;  then  proceed  to 
lay  out  the  drops  about  the  size  of  a  florin,  using  a  spouted  sugar  boiler 
for  the  purpose.  The  drops  should  then  bo  placed  in  the  screen  to 
dry,  at  a  low  heat  for  an  hour  or  so.  When  the  drops  are  dry,  use  a 
thin  knife  to  remove  them  from  the  tin  sheet  on  which  you  laid  them 
out,  and  put  them  away  between  sheets  of  paper  in  closed  boxes,  in  a 
dry  place.  Damson  Paste  Drops.— Ingredients:  1  lb.  of  damson  thick 
'pnlp,  1  lb.  bruised  sugar.  Stir  the  pulp  and  sugar  on  the  fire  until 
reduced  to  a  thick  paste,  then  proceed  to  lay  out  tho  drops  on  squaro 
sheets  of  polished  tin  ;  dry  them  in  the  screen  (moderate  heat),  and 
remove  them  in  the  manner  af orcF;aid.  These  drops  may  be  prejiared 
with  all  kinds  of  plums  and  a',:o  with  gooseberries.  Pear  Paste 
Drops. — Use  1  lb.  pear  pulp  (made  by  peeling  the  pears,  and  boiling 
them  to  a  pulp  with  ^  pt.  of  cider  or  perry,  and  rubbing  this  througlx 
a  coarse  sieve),  1  lb.  of  bruised  sugar.  Proceed  as  for  damson 
paste.  A}jple  Paste  Drops. — Use  1  lb.  of  apple  pulp  (made  by  peel- 
ing, slicing  and  boiling  the  apples  with  ^-  pt.  cider),  lib.  of  bruised 
sugar.  Proceed  as  in  the  foregoing  cases,  adding  a  few  drops  of 
cochineal  to  half  of  the  paste  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Pine  Apple 
Paste  Drops. — Use  1  lb.  of  piiie-apple  pulp  (made  by  first  peeling, 
and  then  grating  tho  pine-apx)lG  on  a  dish,  using  a  clean  coarse  tin 
grater  for" the  purpose),  1  lb.  of  bruised  sugar.  Proceed  as  in  tho 
former  cases. 

Vases,  Baskets,  Figures,  A^temals,  &c.,  ettGraiked  Sugar. — 
The  sugar  being  boiled  to  the  ball  degree,  add  a  few  drops  of  acetic 
acid,  and  work  the  sugar  with  the  back  part  of  the  bowl  of  a  silver 
tablespoon  up  against  the  side  of  the  sugar  boiler,  fetching  up  tho 
whole  in  turns,  so  that  every  portion  may  acquire  an  opalized  or 
whitish  color.   As  soon  as  the  sugar  has  been  worked  up  to  this 


ready  prepared  mould  ;  and  when  it  has  become  perfectly  set  firm  ia 
the  centre,  you  may  turn  the  vase,  basket,  animal,  or  vfhatever  tho 
object  may  be,  out  of  its  mould,  and  place  it  in  the  screen  or  hot 
closet  to  dry,  at  a  very  moderate  heat.  Afterwards  they  may  bo 
painted  in  colors  to  imitate  nature. 

EvERTON  Taffy. — To  make  this  favorite  and  wholesome  candy, 
take  pounds  of  moist  sugar,  3  ounces,  of  butter,  a  teacup  and  a 
half  of  water,  and  one  lemon.  .Boil  the  sugar,  butter,  water,  and 
half  the  rind  of  the  lemon  together;  and,  when  dojie, — ^which  will 
bo  known  by  dropping  into  cold  water,  when  it  should  be  quite 


state,  which  constitutes  " 


,"  pour  it  immediately  into  tho 


GEOCEES  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.  239 

crisp, — ^let  it  stand  asido  till  the  boiling  has  ceased,  and  then  stir  iu 
the  jaice  of  the  lemon.  Butter  a  dish,  and  pour  it  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  fire  must  be  quicli,  and  the  taffy 
stirred  all  the  time. 

Candy  Fkuit. — Take  one  pound  of  the  best  loaf  sugar;  dip  each 
lump  into  a  bowl  of  water,  and  put  the  sugar  into  your  I'jreserving 
kettle.  Boil  it  down,  and  skim  it  until  perfectly  clear,  and  in  a 
candying  state.  When  sufficiently  boiled,  have  ready  the  friRts  you 
^nsh  to  preserve.  Large  white  grapes,  oranges  separated  into  small, 
pieces,  or  preserved  fruits,  taken  out  of  their  syrup  and  dried,  aro 
very  nice.  Dip  the  fruits  into  the  prepared  sugar  while  it  is  hot;  put 
them  in  a  cold  place;  tliey  will  soon  become  hard. 

Jblmes  without  Fkuit. — ^To  1  pint  of  water  put  ^  oz.  alum;  boil 
a  minute  or  two;  then  add  4  lbs.  white  sugar;  continue  the  boiling  a 
little;  strain  while  hot;  and,  when  cold,  put  in  half  a  twenty-fivo 
cent  bottle  of  extract  of  vanilla,  strawberr^^,  lemon,  or  any  other 
Havor  yon  desire  for  jelly. 

Pkize  Honey. — Good"  common  sugar,  5  lbs. ;  water,  2  lbs.  bring 
gradually  to  a  boil,  skimming  wlien  cool;  add  1  lb.  bees'  honey  and  4 
drops  essence  of  peppermint.  If  you  desire  a  better  article,  use  white 
sugar,  and  ^  lb.  less  water,  h  lb  more  honey. 

Another. — Coffee  sugar, "lO  lbs. ;  water  3  lbs. ;  cream  tartar,  2oz3. ; 
strong  vinegar,  2  tablespoons;  white  of  an  egg  vfell  beaten;  bees' 
honey,  ^Ib;  Lubin's  extract  of  honeysuckle,  10  drops.  Put  on  the 
sugar  and  water  in  a  suitable  kettle  on  the  fire ;  v/hen  lukewarm  stir 
in  the  cream  tartar  and  vinegar;  add  the  egg;  when  the  sugar  is 
nearly  melted  put  in  the  honey,  and  stir  till  it  comes  to  a  boil ;  take  it 
off,  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes;  stram,  then  add. the  extract  of  honey- 
suclde  last;  stand  over  night,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Another. — 
Common  sugar,  4  lbs. ;  water,  1  pt. ;  let  them  come  to  a  boil,  and 
Bkim.  Then  add  pulverized  alum,  ^  oz.  remove  from  the  fire,  and 
stir  in  cream  of  tartar,  -|  oz.  and  water,  or  extract  of  rose,  1  table- 
spoonfid,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

To  Keep  Fruits  Fresh.— Rosin  2  lbs. ;  tallow,  2  oz. ;  bees' -wax, 
2  oz.  Melt  slowly  over  the  fire  iu  an  iron  pot,  but  don't  boil.  Tako 
the  fruit  separately,  and  rub  it  over  with  pulverized  chalk  or  whitmg 
(to  prevent  the  coating  from  adliering  to  the  fruit),  then  dip  it  into 
the  solution  once,  and  hold  it  up  a  moment  to  set  the  coating,  then 
pack  away  carefully  m  barrels,  boxes,  or  on  shelves,  in  a  cool  place. 
Unequalled  for  preserving  apples,  pears,  lemons,  &c. 

Acid  Drops. — Pound  and  sift  into  a  clean  pan  8  ozs.  of  double 
lefined  sugar,  add  slowly  as  much  water  as  will  render  the  sugar 
sufficiently  moist  not  to  stick  to  the  stirring  spoon,  place  the  pan 
on  a  small  stove  or  slow  fire,  and  stir  till  it  nearly  boils,  remove 
irom  the  fire  and  stir  in  ^  oz.  tartaric  acid.  Place  it  on  the  fire  for 
lialf  a  minute,  then  dip  out  small  quantities  from  the  pan,  and  let 
it  faU  in  small  drops  on  a  clean  tin  plate;  remove  the  drops  in  2 
hours  ^vith  a  knife.   Ready  for  sale  ui  24  hours. 

Chocolate  Cream  Candy. — Chocolate  scraped  fine,  ^  oz.,  thick 
cream,  1  pt.,  best  sugar,  3  ozs.,  heat  it  nearly  boiling,  then  remove  it 
from  the  fire  and  millitweU;  when  cold,  add  the  whites  of  4  or  5 
eggs;  whisk  rapidly  and  take  up  the  froth  on  a  sieve.  Serve  the 
cream  in  glasses  and  pile  up  the  froth  on  top  of  them. 


240  LEATHEIi  WOKKERS',  &C.,  KECEirTS. 


TANNERS,  CURRIERS,  BOOT,  SHOE  AND  RUB- 
BER M'FRS,  MARBLE  WORKERS,  BOOK- 
BINDERS, &c. 

Best  Color  foe  Shoe  and  IIAI^^^:sg  Edge.— Alcoliol,  1  pint ; 
tincture  of  iron,  l^ozs.  ;  extract  logwood,  1  oz.  ;  pulverized  iiutgalls, 
1  oz,  ;  soft  water,  -h  pijit  ;  sweet  oil,  oz. ;  put  tliis  last  into  tlie  "alco- 
hol before  adding  the  water.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beautiful  finish 
imparled  to  the  leather  by  this  j^reparatiou. 

Cheap  Color  for  the  Eoge. — Soft  water,  1  gallon  ;  extract 
logwood,  1  oz.  ;  boil  till  the  extract  is  dissolved  ;  remove  from  tlio 
fire,  add  copperas,  2  oz.,  bichromate  of  potash,  and  gum  arabic,  of 
each  ^  oz.,  all  to  be  pulverized. 

Beautiful  Bronze  for  Leather. — Dissolve  a  little  of  the  so-call" 
cd  insoluble  aniline  violet  in  a  little  water,  and  brush  the  solution  over 
the  leather  :  after  it  dries  repeat  the  process. 

Superior  Edge  Blacking. — Soft  water  6  gallons;  bring  to  a  boil, 
and  add  8  oz.  logwood  extract,  pulverized  ;  boil  3  minutes,  removo 
from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  2^  oz.  gum  arabic,  1  oz.  bichromate  of  potash, 
Smd  80  grams  prussiate  of  "potash. 

For  a  small  quantity  of  this,  use  water,  2  quarts  ;  extract  of  log- 
-wood,  I  oz. ;  gum  arabic,  9G  grains  ;  bichromate  of  potash,  48  grains; 
prussiate  of  potash ;  8  grains.  Boil  the  extract  iu  the  water  2  minutes ; 
lemove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  the  others,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

For  tanners'  surface  blacking,  which  is  not  required  to  take  on  a 
liigh  polish,  the  gum  arabic  may  be  omitted. 

Sizing  for  Boots  and  Shoes  in  Treeing  Out. — ^Water,  1  quart; 
dissolve  in  it,  by  heat,  isinglass,  1  oz.  ;  adding  more  water  to  replace 
loss  by  evaporation  ;  when  dissolved,  add  starch,  6  oz. ;  extract 
of  logwood,  beeswax,  and  tallow,  of  each,  2  oz.  Kub  the  starch  up 
first  by  pouring  on  sufficient  boilmg  water  for  that  purpose.  It 
makes  boots  and  shoes  soft  and  pliable,  and  gives  a  splendid  appear- 
ance to  old  stoclc  ou  the  shelves. 

Black  Varnish  F'Or  the  Edge. — Take  98  per.  cent  alcohol,  1 
pint ;  shellac,  3  oz.  ;  rosin,  2oz. ;  pine  turpentine,  loz.  ;  lampblack,  J 
oz.  ;  mis  :  and  when  the  gums  are  all  cut,  it  is  ready  for  use.  This 
preparation  makes  a  most  splendid  appearance  when  applied  to  boot, 
shoe,  or  harness  edge,  and  is  equally  applicable  to  cloth  or  wood, 
where  a  gloss  is  required  after  being  painted. 

Waterproof  Varnish  for  Harness. — ^India-rubber,  %  lb.  ;  spts. 
turpentine  1  gal.  ;  dissolve  to  a  jelly,  then  ta^ce  hot  linseed  oil  equal 
i^arts  with  the  mass,  and  incorporate  them  well  over  a  slow  fire. 

Blacking  for  Harness. — Beeswax.  |  lb. ;  ivory  black,  2  ozs. ;  spts. 
of  turpentine,  1  oz.  Prussian  blue,  ground  in  oil  1  oz. ;  copal  varnish, 
^oz.  ;  melt  the  wax  and  stir  into  it  the  other  ingredients,  before  the 
mixture  is  quite  cold  ;  make  it  into  balls,  rub  a  littie  upon  a  brush, 
.apply  it  upon  the  harness,  and  poUsh  lightly  with  silk. 

Best  Harness  Varnish  Extant. — Alcohol,  1  gallon;  white tur- 

Sentine,  lbs. ;  gum  shellac,  1^  lbs. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  gill.  Let 
lem  stand,  by  the  stove  till  the  gmm  a?e  dissolved,  then  add  sweet 


LEATHER  WOKKEBS',  &C.,  RECEirXS.  241 

oil,  1  gill;  and  color  it  if  you  wish,  with  lamphlack,  2  oz.  Tliis  will 
not  crack  like  the  old  varnish. 

IIajsness  oil. — Neat's-footoil,  1  gal. ;  lampblack,  4  oz.   Mix  well. 

Brilliant  French  Vaknish  tor  Leather. — Spirit  of  wine,  f  pint ; 
vinegar,  5  pints;  gum  Senegal  in  powder,  ^  lb.;  loaf  sugar,  G  oz. ; 
powdered  galls,  2  oz. ;  green  copperas,  4  oz.  Dissolve  the  gum  and 
sugar  in  the  water;  strain,  and  put  on  a  slow  fire,  but  don't  boil;  now 
put  in  the  galls,  copperas,  and  the  alcohol;  stir  well  for  five  minutes; 
set  off ;  and  when  nearly  cool,  strain  through  flannel,  and  bottle  for 
use.   It  is  applied  with  a  loencil  brush.    Slost  superior. 

Liquid  Japan  for  Leather. — Molasses,  8  lbs. ;  lampblack,  1  lb. ; 
sweet  oil,  1  lb. ;  gum  arable,  1  lb. ;  isinglass,  1  lb.  Mix  Avell  in  32  lbs. 
water;  apply  heat;  when  cool,  add  1  quart  alcohol;  an  ox's  gall  will 
improve  it. 

Waterproof  Oil-Blacking.  Camphcnc,  1  pint;  add  all  tho 
India-rubber  it  will  dissolve;  curriers'  oil,  1  puit;  tallow,  7  lbs.; 
lamiDblack,  2  oz.    Mix  thoroughly  by  heat. 

Shoemakers'  Heel  Balls.— Beeswax,  8  oz. ;  tallow,  1  oz. ;  melt, 
and  add  powdered  gum  arabic,  1  oz. ,  and  lampblack  to  color. 

Best  Heel  B.vll. — Melt  together  beeswax,  2  lbs. ;  suet,  3  ozs. ;  stir 
in  ivory  black,  4  ozs.,  lampblack,  3  oz.,  i^owdered  gum  arabic,  2  oz., 
powdered  rock  candy,  2  oz.,  mix  and  when  partly  cold  pour  into  thi 
or  leaden  moulds. 

Channellers  akd  Shoe:viakers'  Ceivient.— India-rubber  dis- 
solved to  a  proper  consistence  in  sulphuric  ether. 

Cement  for  Leather  or  Rubber  Soles  and  Leather  Belting. — 
Gutta  percha,  1  lb. ;  India-rubber,  4  oz. ;  i)itch,  2  oz. ;  shellac,  1  oz. ; 
oU,  2  oz. ;  melt,  and  use  hot. 

German  Blacking. — Ivory-black,  1  part;  molasses,  ^part;  sweet 
oU,  ^  part;  mix,  as  before;  then  stir  in  a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
^  part;  oil  of  vitriol,  ^  part;  each  separately  diluted  witli  twice  its 
weight  of  water  before  mixing  them.  This  forms  the  ordinary  paste 
blacking  of  Germany,  accorduig  to  Liebig. 

Oil  Paste  Blacking.  Ivory-black,  4  lbs. ;  molasses,  2  lbs.;  sweet 
oil,  1  lb. ;  oil  of  vitrei  3  lbs. ;  mix  and  put  in  tms. 

Gold  Varnish. — Turmeric,  1  dram  ;  gamboge,  1  dram  ;  turpen- 
tine, 2  pmts  ;  shellac,  5  oz.  ;  sandarach,  6  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood,  8 
drams  ;  thin  mastic  varnish,  8  oz. ;  digest  with  occasional  agitation 
for  fourteen  days  ;  then  set  aside  to  fine  ;  and  pour  off  tlie  clear. 

Grain  Black  for  Harness  Leather. — ^Tirst  stain  in  tallow  ; 
then  take  spirits  turpentine,  1  pint ;  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.  ;  soda  1  oz.; 
gum  shellac,  ^  oz.  ;  thick  paste,  reduced  thin,  2  quarts.  Mix  well. 
This  will  finish  12  sides. 

Beautiful  Stains  for  Boots,  Shoes  and  Leather  Goods. — 
Soft  water  1  pt. ;  oxalic  acid,  2  tablespoonf  uls  or  more ;  if  required 
stronger,  dissolve,  and  for  a  red  color,  add  finely  pulverized  rose-pink, 
vermilion  or  drop  lake.  Blue,  add  finely  pulverized  Prussian  blue, 
or  indigo.  Yelloxo,  king's  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  &c.  White,  flake 
white.  Green,  blue  and  yellow  mixed.  Orange,  red  and  yellow 
mixed.  Purple,  red  and  blue  mixed.  Pulverize  the  ingredients  well 
before  mixing  with  the  water  and  acid.  Any  other  shade  desired 
can  be  selected  from  the  "  Compound  colors"  in  the  next  department. 

BiiiDLB  STAm-.— Skimmed,  milk,  1  pt,  ;  spirits  of  salts,  ^oz. ;  spts. 
16 


2-12  LEATUER   workers',  &C.,  RI:CEI1'Ts/ 

of  red  lavender,  ^oz.  ;  gum  araWc,  1  oz. ;  and  the  juice  o£  2  lemons ; 
mix  well  together,  and  corlc  for  use  ;  apply  -with  a  sponge  ;  when 
dry,  polisli  with  a  brush  or  a  piece  of  llaunel.  If  wished  i)aler,  put 
in  less  red  lavender. 

Ok  KujJBKii  Goods. — As  many  parties  require  to  use  rubber  goods 
who  are  entirely  ignorant  of  tli'o  cheap  mixtures  wiiich  are  vendocl 
in  large  quantities,  at  enormous  profits  by  manufacturers,  I  liavo 
thought  proper  in  tliis  place  to  irradiate  the  subject  with  a  little 
*' light"  ior  the  benefit  of  those  whom  "it  may  concem,"  and  ac- 
cordingly present  the  i"ormula3  for  compoundijig  the  difi'erent  mix- 
tures which  enter  into  the  composition  of  many  articles  sold  quite 
extensively  as  ptn-e  goods,  but  which,  owing  to  large  adulter- 

ations, in  many  cases  cost  75  per  cent,  less  than  the  prices  charged 
lor  them.    The  first  I  shall  present  is  for 

LiGUT  BuFiTER  Smiikgs. — Grind  together  clear  Java  rubber,  25 
lbs. ;  Para  rubber,  5  lbs. ;  common  magnesia,  10  lbs. ;  pure  sulphur,  25 
ozs.  This  is  brown  at  first,  but  in  a  few  days  turns  grey  or  white, 
and  just  sinks  in  water.  Springs  made  from  this  compound,  4^-  x  2j^ 
X  1,  pressed  to  half  an  inch,  showed  3^-  tons  on  the  dial. 

GuEY  PACJaxa  roxe  JMahuje  Exgixes,  &c.— Grind  together  clean- 
ed Java  rubber,  5  lbs. ;  Para  rubber,  25  lbs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  IG  lbs. ; 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  G  lbs. ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  3  lbs. ;  red 
lead,  2  lbs. ;  pure  sulphur,  30  ozs.  It  may  be  proper  to  state  that 
good  purified  Java  rubber  mi^lit  be  substitutecl  by  engineers  with 
good  effect  for  Para  rubber  in  the  above  and  some  other  com- 
positions. 

iiAG  PACKES'a  FOu  Valtes,  BEAP.DfG  SpRiXGS,  fcc— Tliis  is  mado 
principally  from  the  iiseless  cuttings  in  the  manufacture  of  India- 
rubber  coats,  when  the  gum  is  run  or  sx^read  on  calico  foundations. 
Proportions  as  follows :  grind  together  useless  scraps,  35  lbs. ;  black- 
lead  18  lbs. ;  Java  gum,  IG  lbs. ;  yellow  sulphur,  1  lb. 

CojirosiTioN  FOK  Suction  Hose  for  Fire  Exgestes,  fee. — 
Grind  together  Java  rubber,  20  lbs. ;  Para  do.  10  lbs. ;  white  lead,  14: 
lbs. ;  red  lead,  14  lbs. ;  yellow  sulphur,  1^  lbs.  This  is  spread  upon  flax 
cloth,  which  weighs  10,  16,  and  32  ozs.'to  the  square  yard. 

CoJEMON  Black  Packing. — Grind  together,  Java  rubber,  15  lbs. ; 
Para  do.,  15  lbs.;  oxide  of  zinc,  15  lbs.;  China  or  Cornwall  clay,  15 
lbs. ;  yellow  sulphur,  28  ozs. 

CoioiON  "White  Buffer  Re^gs,  &:C. — Grind  together  Java  rub- 
iDcr,  30  lbs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  18  lbs.  carbonate  of  magnesia,  6  lbs. ; 
clean  chalk  or  whiting,  G  lbs. ;  flour  of  sulphur,  2  lbs. 

Vulcanite,  or  Ebonite. — ^If  the  amount  of  sulphur  added  to  the 
prepared  rubber  amoimts  to  10  per  cent,  and  the  operations  of  vul- 
canizing is  performed  in  close  vessels,  at  a  temperature  exceeding 
800,  or  the  heat  required  for  Vulc^inizing  India-Rubber  as  de- 
cribed  under  that  head,  which  see,  an  article  will  be  produced  knoAvn. 
as  vulcanite,  or  ebonite.  It  is  a  black,  hard,  elastic  substance,,  re- 
sembling horn  in  its  texture  and  appearance,  and  capable  of  taking  a 
very  high  polish.  It  is  of  great  use  in  the  arts,  and  is  largely  man- 
ufactured for  making  combs,  door  handles,  and  hundreds  of  articles 
hitherto  made  iu  ivory  or  bone.  Its  electrical  properties  also  are 
verv  great. 

Best  Pure  Sprln-o,  or  "Washers.— Grind  together  Para  gum,  30 


LEATHER  WOKKERS',  AC,  RECEirXS.  243 

ibs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  5  lbs. ;  carb.  magnesLi,  2  lbs. ;  coinmon  clinlk,  3 
lbs. ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  2  lbs. ;  pure  sulpliur,  30  oz. 

Companion  Quality  to  above. — Para  rubber,  30  lbs.;  oxide  of 
zinc,  5  lbs. ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  6  lbs. ;  pure  sulphur,  32  oz. 

"Hypo"  Cloth  for  Waterproof  Coats. — Grind  together  cleaii 
Java  gum,  30  lbs. ;  lampblack,  6  lbs. ;  dry  chalk  or  whiting,  11  lbs. ; 
Bulphuret  of  lead,  6  lbs.  This  composition  is  applied  to  waterproof 
garments. 

To  YuiiCANizB  India  Rubber. — ^The  vulcanizing  process  patent- 
ed by  the  late  Charles  Goodyear  consists  in  incorporating  with  tlio 
rubber  from  3  to  10  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  together  with  various  me- 
tallic oxides,  chiefly  lead  and  zinc,  the  quantity  of  the  latter  articlcB 
bemg  regulated  by  the  degree  of  elasticity  &c.,  required  in  the  desired 
article.  The  goods  of  one  large  establishment  are  vulcanized  in 
cylindrical  wrought  iron  steam  heaters,  over  50  feet  long  and  from 
5  to  6  feet  in  diameter.  These  heaters  have  doors  opening  on  hinges 
at  one  end,  and  through  these  doors  the  goods  to  be  vulcanized  are 
introduced  on  a  sort  of  railway  carriage,  then,  after  the  door  is  shut, 
f.;team  is  let  on,  and  a  temperature  of  from  250°  to  300°  of  heat  is 
kept  up  for  several  hours,  the  degree  of  heat  bemg  ascertained  by 
means  of  thermometers  attached  to  the  heaters.  The  value,  solidity, 
and  quality  of  the  goods  is  much  increased  by  keeping  the  articles 
luiderthe  pressure  of  metalic  moulds  or  sheets  while  undergoing  this 
process.  The  whole  process  requires  careful  manipulation  and  great 
experience  to  conduct  it  properly. 

To  Deodorize  Eubbbe. — Cover  the  articles  of  rubber  with  char- 
coal dust,  place  thein  in  an  enclosed  vessel,  and  raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  94°  Fahr.,  and  let  it  remain  thus  for  several  hours.  Remove 
and  clean  the  articles  from  the  charcoal  dust,  and  they  will  be  found 
Iree  from  aU  odor. 

Gutta-Percha  and  Rubber  "Waste. — ^The  waste  is  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  100  lbs.  of  the  same  are  placed  in  a  well-closed 
boiler  with  10  lbs.  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  and  4  ozs.  absolute  al- 
cohol, well  stirred;  then  the  boiler  is  closed,  and  left  a  few  hours  to 
soak.  After  this  time  it  is  found  to  be  changed  into  a  soft  dougli 
mass,  which,  after  being  ground  or  kneaded,  is  fit  to  be  formed  mto 
aiiy  shape,  when  the  solvent  will  evaporate.  If  too  much  of  the 
latter  has  been  used,  a  thick  unmanageable  liquid  is  obtained. 

To  Utilize  Leather  Scraps. — First  clean  the  scraps,  then  soak 
tliem  in  water  containing  1  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  until  the 
material  becomes  soft  and  plastic,  then  compress  into  blocks  and  dry- 
by  steam.  In  order  to  soften  the  blocks,  1  lb.  of  glycerine  is  added 
to  100  lbs.  of  the  material;  they  are  then  passed  through  rollers, 
and  brought  to  the  proper  tluckness  to  be  used  as  inner  soles  of  boots 
and  shoes. 

Deer  Skins.— Tanning  and  Buefixg  for  Gloves.— For  each 
skin,  take  a  bucket  of  wafer,  and  put  it  into  1  qt.  of  lime  ;  let  the 
skin  or  skins  lie  in  from  3  to  4  days  ;  then  rinse  in  clean  water  hair, 
and  grain  ;  then  soak  them  in  cold  water  to  get  out  the  glue  ;  noviT 
scour  or  pound  in  good  soap-suds  for  half  an  hour  ;  after  which  take 
white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt,  1  tablespoonf  ul  of  each  to  a  skin  ;  theso 
■will  be  dissolved  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  skin,  and  remain  in  it 
for  24  hours  ;  wring  out  as  dry  as  convenient,  and  spread  on  with  a 


244  LEATHER  TTORKEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

brnsli  I  pint  of  curriers'  oil,  and  lian^  in  tho  sun  about  2  days  ;  aftct 
■which  yoii  will  .scour  out  tlic  oil  with  soap-suds,  and  hang  but  again 
until  perfectly  di'y  ;  then  pull  and  work  them  until  they  are  soft ; 
and  ii  a  reasonable  time  docs  not  make  them  soft,  scour  out  in  suds 
again  as  before,  until  complete.  The  oil  may  be  saved  by  pouring  or 
takuig  it  from  the  top  of  the  suds,  if  left  standing  a  snort  time. 
The  baff  color  is  given  by  si)reading  yellow  ochre  evenly  over  tlio 
Burface  of  tho  skin  when  finished,  rubbing  it  well  with  a  brush. 

TANNmo  WITH  Acid. — After  having  removed  the  liair,  scouring, 
coaking  and  pounding  in  tho  suds,  &c.,  as  in  the  last  recipe,  in  i)laco 
of  the  white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt  as  there  mentioned,  take  oil  of 
vitriol  (sulphuric  acid),  and  water,  equal  parts  of  each,  and  thoroughly 
wet  the  flesh-side  of  the  skin  with  it,  by  means  of  a  sponge  or  cloth 
upon  a  stick  ;  then  folding  up  the  skin,  letting  it  stand  for  20  minutes 
only,  having  ready  a  solution  of  sal-soda  and  water,  say  1  lb.  to  a 
bucket  of  water,  and  soak  the  skin  or  skins  in  that  for  two  liours, 
when  you  will  wash  in  clean  water,  and  apply  a  little  dry  salt,  letting 
lie  in  the  salt  over  night,  or  that  length  of  time  ;  then  remove  tho 
flesh  with  a  blunt  knife,  or,  if  doing  business  on  a  large  scale,  by 
means  of  the  regular  beam  and  flesh-knife  ;  when  dry,  or  nearly  so, 
Eoften  by  pulling  and  rubbing  with  the  hands,  and  also  with  a  piece, 
of  pumice-stone.  This  of  course  is  the  quickest  way  of  tanning, 
and  by  only  wetting  the  skins  mth  the  acid,  and  soaking  out  in  20 
mmutes,  they  are  not  rotted. 

Another  Method.— Oil  of  vitriol,  ^  oz.  ;  salt,  1  teacup  ;  milk 
sufflcient  to  handsomely  cover  the  skin,  not  exceeding  3  qts.  ;  warm 
the  milk,  then  add  the  salt  and  vitriol  ;  stir  the  skin  in  the  liquid  40 
minutes,  keeping  it  warm  ;  then  dry,  and  work  it  as  directed  in 
the  above. 

Canadian  Process. — Tho  Canadians  make  four  liquors  in  using 
the  japonica.  The  i^irst  liquor  is  made  by  dissolving,  for  20  sides  of 
upper,  15  lbs.  of  terra  japonica  in  sufScient  water  to  cover  the  upper 
being  tanned.  Tlie  second  liquor  contains  the  same  amount  of  ja- 
ponica, and  8  lbs.  of  saltpetre  also.  The  third  contains  20  lbs.  of  ja- 
ponica and  4|  lbs.  of  alum.  The  fourth  liquor  contains  only  15  lbs, 
of  japonica,  aiid  1 J  lbs.  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  the  leather  remains  4 
days  in  each  liquor  for  upper  ;  and  for  sole  the  quantities  and  timo 
are  both  doubled.  They  count  50  calf -skins  in  place  of  20  sides  of 
upper,  but  let  them  lie  in  each  liquor  only  3  days. 

To  Tan  Fur  Skins,  &o. — To  remove  the  legs  and  useless  parts, 
soak  the  skin  soft,  and  then  remove  the  fleshy  substances,  and  soak 
it  in  warm  water  1  hour.  Now  take  for  each  skin,  borax,  saltpetre, 
and  Glauber-salt,  of  each  |  oz.,  and  dissolve  or  wet  with  soft  water 
sufficient  to  allow  it  to  be  spread  on  the  flesh-side  of  the  skin.  Put 
it  on  with  a  brush  thickest  in  the  centre  or  thickest  part  of  the  skin, 
and  double  the  skin  together,  flesh  side  in  ;  keeping  it  in  a  cool  place 
for  24  hours,  not  allowing  it  to  freeze.  Then  wash  the  skin  clean, 
and  take  sal-soda  1  oz. ;  borax  ^  oz,  ;  refined  soap  2  oz.  ;  melt  them 
slowly  together,  being  careful  not  to  allow  them  to  boil,  and  apply 
the  niixture  to  the  flesh  side  at  first.  Boil  up  again  and  keep  in  a 
warm  place  for  24  hours  ;' then  wash  the  skia  clean  again,  as  above, 
and  have  saleratus  2  oz.,  dissolved  in  hot  rain  water  sufficient  to  weU 
saturate  the  skin;  take  alum  4  oz. ;  salt  8  oz. ;  and  dissolve  also  in  hot 


LEATHER  WOEKEES',  &C.,  EECEirTS.  245 

rain  Tratcr  ;  -u-licn  siifRcieTitly  cool  to  ciUotv  tlio  handling  of  it  Tritli- 
out  scalding,  put  in  the  sldn  for  12  hours  ;  then  wring  out  tho  water 
and  hang  up  for  12  hours  more  to  dry.  Repeat  this  last  soaking  and 
drying  2  or  3  times,  according  to  the  desired  softness  of  the  skin  when 
finished.  Lastly  finish,  by  pulling  and  Trorkmg,  and  finally  by  rub- 
bing with  a  piece  of  pumice-stone  and  fine  sand-paper.  This  works 
like  a  charm  on  sheep-skins,  fur  skins,  dog,  wolf,  bear-skins,  &c. 

FrOCESS  of  TAIfiSTNG  CALF,   KjP,   and  II.AJINESS  LEATHER  m 

FEOM  6  TO  30  Days.— For  a  12-lb  calf -skin,  take  3  lbs.  of  terra  ja- 
ponica,  common  salt,  2  lbs. ;  alum,  1  lb. ;  put  them  m  a  copper  kettlo 
with  sufficient  water  to  dissolve  the  whole  without  boiling.  The  skiii 
will  be  limed,  haired,  and  treated  every  way  as  for  the  old  process, 
when  it  will  be  put  ijito  a  vessel  with  water  to  cover  it,  at  which  time 
you  will  put  in  1  pint  of  tho  composition,  stirruag  it  well,  adding  tho 
game  night  and  morning  for  three  days,  when  you  will  add  the  whole, 
handling  2  or  3  times  daily  all  the  time  tanning ;  you  can  contiuuo 
to  use  the  tanning  liquid  by  adding  half  tho  quantity  each  time,  by 
keeiiing  these  proportions  for  any  amount.  If  you  desire  to  give  a 
dark  color  to  the  leather,  you  will  put  in  1  lb.  of  Sicily  sumac  ;  kip 
gklns  will  require  about  20  days,  light  horse  hides  for  harness  30  days, 
calf -skins  from  G  to  10  days  at  most. 

To  Tan  Raw  Hide.— When  taken  from  the  animal,  spread  it  flesh 
isideup;  then  put  2  parts  of  salt,  2  parts  of  saltpetre  and  alum  com- 
umed,  make  it  fine,  sprinkle  it  evenly  over  the  surface,  roll  it  up,  let 
it  alone  a  few  days  till  dissolved;  then  take  off  what  flesh  rem.ains, 
and  nail  the  skin  to  the  side  of  a  bam  in  tho  sun,  stretch  tight,  to 
make  it  soft  like  harness  leather,  put  neat's-foot  oil  on  it,  fasten  it  up 
in  the  sun  again;  then  rub  out  all  the  oil  you  can  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  stick,  and  it  is  tarmed  with  the  hair  on. 

To  Tan  Muskrat  Skins  with  the  Fuk  on. — First,  for  soaking, 
to  10  gals,  cold  soft  water,  add  8  parts  of  wheat  bran,  old  soap,  ^  pt. ; 
pulverized  borax,  1  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  2  ozs.  If  the  skins  have  not 
been  salted,  add  salt,  1  pt.  Green  skins  should  not  be  soaked  more 
than  8  to  10  hours.  Dry  ones  should  soak  till  very  soft.  The  sul- 
phuric acid  hastens  the  soaking  process.  For  tan  liquor,  to  10  gals, 
warm  soft  water,  add  bran,  ^  bushel;  stir  well,  and  let  it  ferment  in  a 
Tv-arm  room.  Then  add  slowly,  sulphuric  acid,  2^  lbs. ;  stir  all  tho 
time.  Musk  rat  skins  should  remain  in  about  4  hours ;  then  take  out 
and  rub  with  a  flesliing  knife;  an  old  chopping  loiife  with  the  edge 
taken  off  will  do.   Then  work  it  over  a  beam  until  entirely  dry. 

To  Dye  Furs. — Any  dye  that  will  color  wool  will  also  color  furs, 
and  an  immense  number  of  such  dyes  can  be  found  under  the  dyers 
department.  In  buying  furs,  examine  the  density  and  length  of  the 
down  next  the  skui,  this  can  easily  be  done  by  blowing  briskly  against 
the  set  of  the  fur,  if  it  is  very  close  and  dense  it  is  all  right,  but  if  it 
opens  easily  and  exposes  nnicli  of  the  skin,  reject  it. 

French  Finish  for  Leather. — Take  a  common  wooden  pailful  of 
scraps  (the  legs  and  pates  of  calf-skins  are  best),  and  put  a  handful 
each  of  salt  and  alum  upon  them,  and  let  stand  three  days  ;  then  boU 
until  they  get  a  thick  paste  ;  in  using,  you  will  warm  it,  and  in  the 
first  application  put  a  little  tallow  with  it,  and  for  a  second  time  a 
little  soft  soap,  and  use  it  in  the  regular  way  of  finishing,  and  your 
leather  wUl  be  soft  and  pliable,  like  Fxencli  leather. 


246  LII.VTIII^Ii  WOKKKKS',  &C.,  KIuCEIPTS. 

French  Patent  Leathek.— Work  into  tlio  pk'm  with  appropriate 
tools  3  or  4  successivG  coiithigB  of  drying  varnish,  made  by  boilinjj 
liusecd  oil  Avitli  white  lead  aiid  litharge,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  cacli  of  the  latter  to  one  gallon  of  the  former,  and  adding  a 
l)ortion  of  chalk  or  ochre,  each  coating  being  thoronglily  dried  bcforo 
the  application  of  the  next.  Ivory  black  is  then  substituted  for  the 
chalk  or  ochre,  the  varnish  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
five  additional  applications  made  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  except 
that  it  is  put  ou  thin  and  not  Avorked  in.  The  leather  is  rubbed  down 
with  pumice-stone,  m  i^owder,  and  then  placed  in  a  room  at  90  degrees, 
out  of  the  way  of  dust.  The  last  varnish  is  prepared  by  boiling  ^  lb. 
asphaltum  with  10  lbs.  of  the  drying  oil  used  in  the  first  stage  of  tlio 
process,  and  then  stirring  in  5  lbs.  copal  varnish  and  10  lbs.  of  turpen- 
tine.  It  must  have  1  month's  age  before  using  it. 

CnEAr  Tanning  without  Bakk  or  Mineral  Astringents. — Tho 
Rstruigent  liquor  is  composed  of  water,  17  gals.  ;  Aleppo  galls.  ^  lb. ; 
Bengal  catechu,  1^  oz.  and  5  lbs.  of  tormentil,  or  septfoil  root.  Powder 
the  ingredients,  and  boil  in  the  water  1  hour  ;  w^heu  cool,  put  in  tho 
skins  (which  must  be  prepared  by  being  plunged  into  a  preparation  of 
bran  and  water  for  2  days  previously)  ;  handle  them  frequentlj'-  during 
the  first  3  days,  let  them  alone  the  next  3  days,  then  handle  three  or 
four  times  in  one  day  ;  let  them  lie  undisturbed  for  25  days  more, 
when  the  process  will  be  complete. 

New  Tanning  Cojiposition. — For  harness  leather,  4  lbs.  catechu, 
3  pts.  common  ley,  3  oz.  of  alum.  For  xoax  leather  (split  leather),  3 
lbs.  catechu,  3  pts.  common  ley,  3  oz.  alum.  For  calf-sTcins  2  lbs. 
catechu,  1  pt.  ley.  For  sheep-skins,  1  lb.  catechu,  1  pt.  ley,  1  oz.  alum. 
The  catechu  by  itself  will  make  the  leather  hard  and  brittle,  the  ley 
will  soften  it;  the  alum  being  only  used  for  coloring,  can  bo  dispensed 
with,  or  other  matter  used  in  its  place.  The  mixture  is  in  every 
case  boiled,  and  the  leather  is  then  immersed  in  it  long  enough  to 
bo  thoroughly  tanned,  for  which  purpose  the  harness  leather  should 
be  steeped  from  18  to  20  days,  wax  leather  from  12  to  14  days,  calf- 
skins from  7  to  9  days,  and  sheep-skins  from  2  to  4  days. 

French  Polish  or  Dressing  por  Leather. — Mix  2  pts.  best 
vinegar,  with  1  pt.  soft  water;  stir  into  it  J  lb.  glue,  broken  up,  ^  lb. 
logwood-chips,  I  oz.  of  finely  powdered  indigo,  ^  oz.  of  the  best  soft 
soap,  ^  oz.  of  isinglass;  put  the  mixture  over  the  fire,  and  let  it  boil 
ten  minutes  or  more;  then  strain,  bottle,  and  cork.  When  cold,  it  is 
fit  for  use.   A])ply  with  a  sponge. 

Tanning. — ^The  first  operation  is  to  soak  tho  hide,  as  no  hide  can 
be  properly  tanned  unless  it  has  been  soaked  and  broken  on  a  fleshing 
beam.  Jf  the  hide  has  not  been  salted  add  a  little  salt  and  soak  it  in 
soft  water.  In  order  to  be  thoroughly  soaked,  green  hides  should 
remain  in  the  liquor  from  9  to  12  days;  of  course  the  time  varies  with 
the  thickness  of  the  hide.  The  following  liquor  is  used  to  remove 
hair,  or  wool,  viz. :  10  gals,  cold  water  (soft);  8  qts.  slacked  lime,  and 
the  same  quantity  of  wood  ashes.  Soak  until  tlie  hair  or  wool  will 
pull  oil  easily.  As  it  frequently  happens  it  is  desirable  to  cure  the 
hide  and  keep  the  hair  clean,  the  following  paste  should  be  made, 
viz :  equal  parts  of  lime  and  hard  wood  ashes  (lime  should  be  slaked) 
and  made  into  a  paste  with  soft  water.  This  should  be  spread  on  the 
fieah  side  of  the  hide  and  the  skin  rolled  up  flesh  side  in  and  placed 


LEATHER  TTOEKERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  24^ 

in  a  tub  just  covering  it  with  water.  It  should  remain  10  days  or 
until  the  hair  will  pull  out  easily,  then  scrape  with  a  knife.  The 
skins  of  animals  are  composed  mainly  of  glue  or  gluten.  This  is  soluble, 
and  the  prmciple  derived  from  the  bark,  tannin  or  tannic  acid  is  also 
to  a  considerable  extent  soluble;  when  the  latter  is  allowed  to  act 
upon  the  former,  chemical  combination  takes  place,  and  leather  is  pro- 
daced,  which  is  insoluble. 

Curriers'  Size. — Take  of  sizmg,  1  qt. ;  soft  soap,  1  gill ;  stuffing. 
1  gill ;  sweet  milk,  ^  pt. ;  boil  the  siting  in  water  to  a  proper  consistence, 
strain,  and  add  the  other  ingredients;  and  when  thoroughly  mixed,  it 
is  ready  for  use. 

Curriers'  Vaste— First  Cbaf.— Take  of  water,  2  qts. ;  flour,  ^ 
pint;  Castile  soap,  1  oz. ;  make  into  paste.  Second  Coat. — Take  of 
first  paste,  ^  pt. ;  gum  tragacantli,  1  gill;  water,  1  pt. ;  mix  all  together. 
This  will  finish  18  sides  of  upper. 

Curriers'  Skirting. — This  is  for  finishing  skirting  and  the  flesh 
of  harness  leather,  in  imitation  of  oak  tanning.  Take  of  chrome 
yeUow,  ^  11).  ;  yeUow  ochre,  1  lb.  ;  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.  ;  soda,  ^ 
oz.  ;  paste  5  qts.  ;  mix  well.    This  will  finish  twelve  sides. 

Skirting. — For  the  grain  to  imitate  oak  tan.  Take  of  chrome 
yellow,  I  lb.  ;  j^ellow  ochre,  ^  lb.  ;  cream  of  tartar  1  oz.  ;  soda,  1 
oz.  ;  paste  2  qts.  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  pt.  ;  mix  well.  This 
will  finish  twelve  sides. 

Dyes  for  Morocco  and  Sheep  Leather.— )— Blue  ia 
given  by  steeping  the  subject  a  day  in  urine  and  indigo,  then  boiling  it 
with  alum  ;  or,  it  may  be  given  by  tempering  the  indigo,  with  red 
wine,  and  washing  the  sldn  there  with. — Another. — Boil  elderberries  or 
dwarf-elder,  then  smear  and  wash  the  skins  therewith  and  wring  them 
out ;  then  boil  the  elderberries  as  before  in  a  solution  of  alum  water, 
and  wet  the  skius  in  the  same  maimer  once  or  twice,  dry  them,  and 
they  will  be  very  blue. — {Red.) — Red  is  given  by  washing  the  skin  and 
laying  them  2  hours  in  gall,  then  wringing  them  out,  dipping  them 
in  a  liquor  made  with  ligustrum,  alum,  and  verdigris,  iti  water,  and 
lastly  in  the  dye  made  of  Brazilwood  boiled  with  ley.  {Purple. )— Pur- 
ple is  given  by  wetting  the  skins  with  a  solution  of  roche  alum  in 
warm  water,  and  when  dry,  again  rubbing  them  with  the  hand  with  a 
decoction  of  logwood  in  cold  water.  {Green.) — Green  is  given  by 
smearing  the  skin  with  sap-green  and  alum  boiled,  {Dark  Green.  )— 
Dark  green  is  given  with  steel-filings  and  sal-ammoniac,  steeped  in 
wine  till  soft,  then  smeared  over  the  skin,  which  is  to  be  dried  in  the 
shade.  ( Yelloio. ) — ^Yellow  is  given  by  smearing  the  skin  over  with  aloes 
and  linseed-oil  dissolved  and  strained,  or  by  infusing  in  weld.  {Light 
Orange. ) — Orange  color  is  given  by j  smearing  it  with  fustic  berries 
boiled  in  alum  water,  or  for  deep  orange,  with  turmeric.  {Sky-color. ) 
Sky-color  is  given  with  indigo  steeped  in  boiling  water,  and  the  next 
morning  warmed  and  smeared  over  the  skin.  See  Dyers'  Department. 

To  Marble  Books  or  Paper.— Provide  a  wooden  trough  2  inches 
deep  and  the  length  and  width  of  any  desired  sheet ;  boil  in  a  brass 
or  copper  pan  any  quantity  of  linseed  and  water  until  a  thick  mucil- 
age is  formed  ;  strain  it  into  the  trough,  and  let  cool ;  then  grind  on  a 
marble  slab  any  of  the  following  colors  in  small  beer.  For  Blue. — 
Prussian  blue  or  indigo.  Red. — Rose-pinlc,  vermilion,  or  drop  lake. 
Ye^Zow.- King's  yellow,  ycUow  ochre,  £:c.  )F7iiie.— Flake  white. 


248  LEATIIEK  workers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

Blach.—hnrnt  ivory  or  lamb  bLxck.  Jirown.—V mbcv,  bumt  do. ; 
terra  di  .sicnua,  bui'ut  do.  Black,  nixed  with  yellow  or  rod,  also 
makes  brown.  Green. — Blue  and  yellow  mixed.  Omnr/c— lied  and 
yellow  mixed.  Purple. — Red  and  blue  mixed.  For  ciich  color  you 
must  liavo  two  cuj)s,  one  for  the  color  after  grinding?,  the  other  to  mix 
it  with  ox-gall,  which  must  be  used  to  thin  the  colons  at  discretion. 
If  too  much  gall  is  used,  the  colors  will  spread  :  when  they  keep  their 

lace  on  the  surface  of  the  trough,  when  moved  with  a  quill,  they  aro 

t  for  use.  All  things  in  readiness,  the  colors  aro  successively 
Bprinkled  on  the  surface  of  the  mucilage  in  the  trough  with  a  brush, 
and  are  waved  or  drawn  about  with  a  quill  or  a  stick,  according  to 
t;iste.  When  the  design  is  just  formed,  the  book,  tied  tightly  between 
cutting  boards  of  the  same  size  is  lightly  pressed  with  its  edge  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  pattern,  and  then  withdrawn  and  dried.  Tho 
covers  may  be  marbled  in  the  game  way  only  letting  the  liquid  colors 
run  over  them.  In  marbling  paper  tho  sides  of  the  paper  is  gently 
applied  to  the  colors  in  the  trough.  The  Aim  of  color  in  the  trough, 
may  be  as  thin  as  possible,  and  if  any  remains  after  the  marbling  it 
may  be  taken  off  by  applying  paper  to  it  before  you  prepare  for 
marbling  again.  To  diversify  the  effects,  colors  are  often  mixed  with 
a  little  sweet  oil  before  sprinkling  them  on,  by  which  means  a  light 
iialo  or  circle  appears  around  each  spot. 

BooKBiKDERs'  Varxish.  —  Shcllac,  8  parts  ;  gum  benzoin,  3 
parts  ;  gum  mastic,  2  parts  ;  bruise,  and  digest  in  alcohol,  48  parts  ; 
oil  of  lavender,  \  part.  Or,  digest  shellac,  4  parts  ;  gum  mastic, 
2  parts ;  giim  dammer  and  white  turpentine,  of  each,  1  part ;  with 
alcohol  (95  per  cent.),  28  parts. 

Ked  Sprinkle  fob.  BookbiivDers'  Use. — Brazilwood  (ground),  4 
parts;  alum,  1  part;  vinegar,  4  parts;  water,  4  parts.  Boil  until 
reduced  to  7  parts,  then  add  a  quantity  of  loaf  sugar  and  gum ;  bot- 
tle for  use.  Blue. — Strong  sulphuric  acid,  8  oz.;  Spanish  indigo, 
powdered,  2  oz. ;  mix  in  a  bottle  that  will  hold  a  quart,  and  place  it  in 
a  warm  bath  to  promote  solution  For  use,  dilute  a  little  to  tho 
required  color  in  a  tea-cup.  Black. — No  better  black  can  be  procured 
than  that  made  by  the  receipt  for  edge  blacking,  in  this  work,  which 
see.  Orange  color. — Ground  Brazilwood,  16  parts ;  aunatto,  4  parts, 
alum,  sugar,  and  gum  arable,  each  1  part;  water,  70  parts,  boil,  strain, 
and  bottle.  Purple. — Logwood  chips ;  4  parts,  powdered  alum,  1  part ; 
soft  water,  24  parts;  boil  until  reduced  to  16  parts,  and  bottle  for  use. 
Green. — ^French  berries,  1  part;  soft  water,  8  parts.  Boil,  and  add  a 
little  powdered  aluia,  then  bring  it  to  the  required  shade  of  green,  by 
adding  liquid  blue.  Brown. — Logwood  chips,  1  part;  annatto,  1  part, 
boil  in  water,  6  i)arts;  if  too  light  add  a  piece  of  copperas  the  size 
of  a  pea. 

Tree-Marble. — marbie  in  the  form  of  trees  may  be  done  by 
bending  the  boards  a  little  on  the  centre,  using  the  same  method  as 
the  common  marble,  having  the  covers  previously  prepared.  The  end 
of  a  candle  may  be  rubbed  on  different  parts  of  the  board  to  form 
knots.  EicG'Marble. — Color  the  cover  with  spirits  of  wine  and  tur- 
meric, then  place  on  rice  in  a  regular  manner,  throw  on  a  very  fine 
sprinkle  of  copperas  water  till  the  cover  is  nearly  black,  and  let  it  re- 
main till  dry.  The  cover  may  be  spotted  with  the  red  liquid  or 
potash-water,  very  freely,  before  tho  rico  is  thrown  of£  tlio  boards. 


LEATUER  WOKKEES',  &C.,  KECEIPTSJ  249 

Spotted  Marble  for  Books,  cfc.—Aftcr  the  fore-edge  of  the  "book  is  cut, 
let  it  remain  in  the  press,  and  thro^  on  linseeds  iu  a  regular  manner, 
sprinkle  the  edge  with  any  dark  color  till  the  paper  is  covered,  then 
shake  oil  the  seeds.  Various  colors  may  he  used;  the  edge  maybe 
colored  with  yellow  or  red  before  throwing  on  the  seeds,  and  sprmk- 
ling  with  blue.  The  seeds  will  make  a  fiue  fancy  edge  when  placed 
very  thick  on  different  parts,  with  a  few  slightly  thrown  on  the  spaces 
between.  Japan  Coloring  for  Leather  Book-covers,  etc.  —  After  the 
book  is  covered  and  dry,  color  the  cover  with  potash-water  mixed 
with  a  little  paste:  give  2  good  coats  of  Brazil  wash,  and  glaze  it;  put 
the  book  between  the  hands,  allowing  the  boards  to  slope  a  Uttle; 
dash  on  copperas-water,  then  with  a  sponge  full  of  red  liquid  press 
out  on  the  bade  and  on  different  parts  large  drops,  which  will  run 
down  each  board  and  make  a  fine  shaded  red;  when  the  cover  is  drj% 
wash  it  over  2  or  3  times  with  Brazil  wash  to  give  it  a  brighter 
color.    {See  the  various  dyes  forleather.) 

Gold  Spkestcle  fob  Books, — Put  in  a  marble  mortar  |  oz.  pure 
honey  and  one  book  of  gold  leaf,  rub  them  well  together  until  they 
are  very  fine,  add  ^  pint  clear  water,  and  mL^  well  together;  when  the 
water  clears,  pour  it  off,  and  put  in  more  till  the  honey  is  all  extracted, 
and  nothing  remains  but  the  gold;  mix  one  grain  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate in  a  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  when  dissolved,  puttlie 
pama,  together  with  a  little  gum  water,  to  the  gold,  and  bottle  for  use. 
The  edges  of  the  book  may  be  sprmkled  or  colored  very  dark,  with 
green,  blue,  or  purple,  and  lastly  with  the  gold  liquid  in  small  or 
large  spots,  very  regular,  shaking  the  bottle  before  usmg.  Burnish 
tlie  edges  when  dry,  and  cover  them  with  paper  to  prevent  the  dust 
falling  tliereou.  This  sprinkle  will  have  a  most  beautiful  appearance 
on  extra  work. 

To  Gild  theEdoesof  Books. — Armenian  bole,  4  parts;  sugar  can- 
dy, 1  part;  white  of  egg  to  mix.  Apply  this  composition  to  the  edge 
of  the  leaves,  previously  firmly  screwed  in  the  cutting-press ;  when 
nearly  dry,  smooth  the  surface  with  the  burnisher;  then  take  a 
damp  sponge  and  pass  over  it,  and  with  a  piece  of  cotton  wool,  take 
the  leaf  from  the  cushion  and  apply  it  to  the  work ;  when  quite  dry, 
burnish,  observing  to  place  a  piece  of  silver  or  India  paper  between 
the  gold  and  the  agate. 

CnixESE  Edge  eok  Books.— Color  the  edge  with  light  liquid  blue 
and  dry ;  then  take  a  sponge  charged  with  vermilion  and.  dab  on  spots 
according  to  fancy;  next  throw  on  rice,  and  finish  the  edge  with  dark 
liquid  blue, 

make  Paper  into  Parciemext. — To  produce  this  transforma- 
tion, take  unsized  paper  and  plunge  it  into  a  solution  of  two  parts  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  combined  with  1  part  water;  withdraw 
it  immsdiately,  and  wash  it  in  clean  water,  and  the  change  is  com- 
plete. It  is  now  fit  for  writing ;  for  the  acid  supplies  the  want  of  size, 
and  it  becomes  so  strong  that  a  strip  2  or  '6  inches  Avide  will  bear 
from  CO  to  80  lbs.  weight,  while  a  like  strap  of  parchment  will  bear 
only  about  25  lbs. 

To  Manufacture  Glue.— This  article  is  usually  made  from  the 
parings  and  waste  pieces  of  hides  and  skins,  the  refuse  of  tanneries, 
the  tendons  and  other  offal  of  slaughter  houses.  They  ought  to  bo 
obtained  and  kex^t  iu  the  dry  gtato,  to  prevent  decomposition.  For 


250  LEATHER  ATOravERS',  &C.,  nECEirTQ. 

iiso,  llicy  nro  first  steeped  for  11  or  15  dcays  in  milk  of  lime,  and  then 
dniiiied  and  dried  ;  tins  constitutes  tlio  cleanin;^  or  tlio  preparation, 
lieforc  couversiou  into  {^^luo  tliey  aro  usually  steci)ed  iu  weak  uiillc  ol 
linro,  well  worked  iu  water,  and  exposed  to  the  air  for  24  hours. 
Tliey  are  then  placed  iu  a  cop!)er  boiler  ^  filled  witli  water  and  fiu- 
nislied  Avitli  a  perforated  false  bottom,  to  prevent  them  from  burning, 
and  as  much  is  piled  ou  as  will  fill  tlie  vessel  and  rest  on  the  top  of 
It.  Heat  is  next  applied,  and  gentle  boiling  continued  until  tho 
liquor  ou  coolmg  becomes  a  gelatinous  mass.  Tlio  clear  portion  la 
then  ruu  off  into  another  vessel,  wliero  i<:  is  Icepthot  by  a  water  bath, 
and  all  around  to  repose  for  some  hours  to  deposit,  when  it  is  run  into 
tlie  congealing  boxes  and  placed  in  a  cool  situation.  Tlio  next  morn- 
ing the  cold  gelatinous  mass  is  turned  out  upon  boards  wetted  with 
water,  and  are  cut  horizontally  in  thin  cakes  with  a  stretched  piece  of 
brass  wire,  and  into  smaller  cakes  with  a  moistened  flat  knife.  Theso 
calces  are  placed  upon  nettings  to  dry,  after  which  they  aro  dipped 
one  by  one  in  hot  Avater  and  slightly  rubbed  with  a  brush  v/etted 
with  boilhig  water,  to  give  them  a  gloss  ;  they  are  lastly  stove  dried 
lor  sale.  I)uring  this  time  the  undissolved  skins,  &c.,  left  in  the  cop- 
per is  treated  with  water  and  the  whole  operation  is  repeated  again 
and  again,  as  any  gelatinous  matter  is  extracted.  Tho  first  runnings 
produce  the  finest  and  best  glue.  The  refuse  matter  from  the  tan- 
ners and  leather  dressers  yields  on  tho  average,  when  dried,  60  per 
cent  of  its  weight  iu  glue. 

To  Di'E  Leather  Yellow.— Picric  acid  gives  a  good  yellow 
"without  any  mordant ;  it  must  be  used  in  very  dilute  solution,  and 
not  warmer  than  70°  Fahr.,  so  as  not  to  penetrate  the  leathe 

Gbeen  Dys  fob  Leathek. — Aniluie  blue  modifies  picric  acid  to 
51  fine  green.  In  dyeing  tho  leather,  the  temperature  of  85°  Fahr., 
must  never  be  exceeded.    >S'ee  Aniline  Dyes  in  Dyers'  Dep't. 

DvES  FOR  Ivory,  Horn,  and  Bone. — Blade. — 1.  Lay  the  articles 
for  several  hours  in  a  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of  sUver,  and  exposo 
1,0  the  light.  2.  Boil  the  article  for  some  time  in  a  strained  decoction 
of  logwood,  and  then  steep  in  a  solution  of  per-sulphate  or  acetate  of 
iron.  3.  Immerse  frequently  in  ink  until  of  sufficient  depth  of  color. 
Blue.—l.  Immerse  for  some  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo,  partly 
saturated  with  potash,  and  it  will  be  fully  stained.  2.  Steep  in  a 
strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  Green. — 1.  Dip  blue-stained 
articles  for  a  short  time  in  a  nitro-hydrochlorate  of  tin,  and  then  in  a 
hot  decoction  of  fustic.  2.  BoU  in  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  vinegar 
until  the  desired  color  is  obtained.  Red. — 1.  Dip  the  article  first  in  a  tin 
mordant  used  in  dyeing,  and  then  plunge  in  a  hot  decoction  of  Brazil 
wood — I  lb.  to  a  gallon  of  water  or — cochineal.  2.  Steep  in  red  mk 
till  sufficiently  stained.  Scarlet. — Use  lack  dye  instead  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Violet. — Dip  in  the  tin  mordant,  and  then  immerse  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  logwood.  Yellow. — ^Boil  the  articles  in  a  solution  of  alum,  1  lb. 
to  4  a  gallon,  then  immerse  for  half  an  hour  in  the  following  mixure: 
Take  ^  lb.  of  turmeric,  and  |  lb.  peaiiash;  boil  in  1  gal.  water:  when 
taken  "from  this,  the  bone  must  be  again  dipped  in  the  alum  solution. 

]\Iotheb  of  Pearl  Work. — ^This  delicate  substance  requires  great 
care  in  its  workmansliip,  but  it  may  be  cut  w^ith  the  aid  of  saws,  files 
and  drills,  with  the  aid  of  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  it  is  polished 
by  colcothar,  or  the  brown  red  Oxide  of  iron  left  after  the  distillation 


LEATHER  WORKERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  251 

of  tiio  aciil  from  sulphate  of  iron.  In  all  ornamental  -work,  whero 
pearl  is  said  to  be  used,  for  flat  surfaces,  such  as  inlaying,  mosaic 
work,  &c.,  it  is  not  real  pearl,  but  mother  of  pearl  that  is  used. 

To  Polish  PeakI;.— Take  finely  pulverized  rotten  stone  and  make 
into  a  thick  paste  hy  adding  olive  oil ;  then  add  sulphuric  acid  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  make  into  a  tliin  paste,  apply  on  a  velvet  cork  ; 
xub  quickly  and,  as  soon  as  the  pearl  takes  the  polish,  wash  it. 

To  Polish  Ivory. — Remove  any  scratches  or  file  marks  that  may 
bo  present  Avith  finely  pulverized  pumice-stone,  moistened  with 
•water. — Then  wash  the  ivorjr  and  polish  with  prepared  chalk,  applied 
xnoist  upon  apiece  of  chamois  leather,  rubbing  quickly. 

Etching  PIuid  for  Ivory, — Take  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  diluto 
muriatic  acid,  equal  parts  :  mix.  For  etching  varnish  take  white  wax, 
*2  parts  ;  tears  of  mastic,  2  parts  :  m^ix. 

To  GILD  Ivory. — Immerse  it  in  a  solution  of  nitro-muriate  of  gold, 
and  then  expose  it  to  hydrogen  gas  while  damp.  Wash  it  afterwards 
in  clean  Avater. 

To  Silver  Ivory. — Pound  a  small  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  a 
mortar,  add  soft  water  to  it,  mix  them  well  together,  and  keep  in  vial 
ior  use.  When  you  wish  to  silver  any  article,  immerse  it  in  this 
solution,  let  it  remain  till  it  turns  of  a  deep  yellow  ;  then  place  it  in 
clear  water,  and  expose  it  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  If  you  wish  to 
depicture  a  figure,  name,  or  cipher,  on  your  ivory,  dip  a  camel' s-hair 
jjencil  in  the  solution,  and  draw  the  subject  on  the  ivory.  After  it  has 
turned  a  deep  yellow,  wash  it  well  with  water,  and  place  it  in  tho 
punshine,  occasionally  wetting  it  with  pure  water.  In  a  short  time  it 
will  turn  of  a  deep  black  color,  which,  if  well  rubbed,  will  change  to 
ft  bviliiant  silver. 

To  Softex  Ivory. — ^In  3  oz.  spirits  of  nitre  and  15  oz.  of  spring- 
"water,  mixed  together,  put  your  ivory  to  soak  ;  and  in  three  or  four 
'days  it  will  obey  your  fingers. 

To  Whiten  Ivory. — Slake  some  lime  in  water  ;  put  your  ivory  in 
tho  water,  after  being  decanted  from  the  grounds,  and  boil  it  till  it 
looks  quite  white.  To  polish  it  afterwards,  set  it  in  the  turner's  wheel ; 
and,  after  having  worked,  tal\:e  rushes  and  pumice-stones,  subtila 
]iowder,  with  water,  rub  it  till  it  looks  perfectly  smooth.  Next  toi 
that,  heat  it  by  turning  it  against  a  piece  of  linen  or  sheep-skin  leather  : 
and  when  hot,  rub  it  over  with  a  little  dry  whiting  diluted  in  oil  of 
olive  ;  then  with  a  little  dry  whiting  alone  :  finally  with  a  piece  of 
soft  white  rag.  When  aU  this  is  performed  as  directed,  the  ivory  will 
look  very  white. 

Another  way  to  Bleach  Ivory.— Take  2  handfuls  of  lime,  slako 
it  by  sprinkling  it  with  water  :  then  add  3  pts.  of  water,  and  stir  the 
-whole  together  ;  let  it  settle  ten  minutes,  and  pour  the  water  into  a 
pan  for  your  purpose.  Then  take  your  ivory  and  steep  it  in  the  lime- 
water  for  24:hourSj  after  which,  boil  it  in  a  strong  alum- water  1  hour, 
and  dry  it  in  the  air. 

Horn  in  Imitation  of  Tortoise-Shell.— First  steam  and  then 
press  the  horn  into  proper  shapes,  and  afterwards  lay  the  following 
mixture  on  with  a  small  brush,  in  imitation  of  the  mottle  of  tortoisc- 
ghell ;  Take  equal  parts  of  quick  lime  and  litharge,  and  mix  with 
strong  soap-lees  ;  let  this  remain  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry  ;  brush  off, 
and  repeat  two  or  three  times  if  necessary,  Such  parts  as  are  required 


252         LEATHER  woekehs',  &c.,  receipts. 

to  1)0  of  a  reddish  ljro\YU  should  bo  covered  with  a  inLxturo  of  whiting 
and  the  stain. 

To  CUT  AND  roLTsn  ]\[AiiT?T.E. — Tho  niarblo  saAV  is  a  tliiii  phite  of 
Boft  irou,  continually  yupijlicd,  during;  its  Kawui;^  motion,  with  water 
and  tho  sharpest  sand.  Tho  Bawini^  of  inodcrato  pieces  is  xjcrl'onned 
by  hand  :  that  of  largo  slabs  is  most  ocononiically  done  by  a  i>ropcr 
mill.  The  iirst  substance  used  in  the  x:)olisliin,i?  process  is  tho  sharpest 
sand,  which  must  be  worlvcd  with  till  the  surface  becomes  perfectly 
flat.  Then  a  second  and  even  a  third  sand,  of  increasing  fineness,  is 
to  bo  applied.  The  next  substance  is  emery,  of  i)rogressive  de;^ree3 
of  fineness  ;  after  which,  tripoli  is  employed  ;  and  tho  last  polish  is 
given  with  tin  putty.  Tlie  body  with  which  tho  sand  is  rubbed  upon 
the  marble  is  usually  a  plate  of  iron  ;  but,  for  the  subsequent  process, 
a  plate  of  lead  is  used,  with  fine  sand  and  emery.  Tho  polishiug- 
rubbers  are  coarso  linen  cloths,  or  bagging,  wedged  tight  into  an  iron 
planing  tool.  In  every  stcx)  of  tho  ox)eration,  a  constant  trickling 
supply  of  water  is  required. 

PowERFUii  Cement  for  Broken  JiIardle. — ^Take  gum  arable,  1 
lb.  ;  make  into  a  thick  mucilage:  add  to  it  powdered  plaster  of  Paris, 
1^  lb.  ;  sifted  quick  lime,  5  oz.  ;  mix  well  ;  heat  tho  marble,  and  ax> 
ply  the  mixture. 

Seven  Colors  For  Staining  IMarble. — It  is  necessary  to  heat 
the  marble  hot,  but  not  so  hot  as  to  injure  it,  the  proper  heat  being  that 
at  which  the  colors  nearly  boil.  Blue ;  alkaline  indigo  dye,  or  turn- 
sole with  alkali.  Bed ;  Dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of  wine.  Yellow  ; 
gamboge  in  spirits  of  wine.  Gold  Color ;  sal-annnoniac,  sulphate  of 
zinc,  and  verdigris  equal  parts.  Green ;  sap  green  in  spirits  of  pot- 
ash. Brown ;  tincture  of  logwood.  Crimson ;  alkanet  root  in  tur- 
I)entine.  Marble  may  be  veined  according  to  taste.  To  stain  marblo 
%Dell  is  a  difficult  operation. 

Perpetuai.  Ink  for  Tomstones,  etc. — Pitch,  11  lbs.  ;  lamx^black, 
1  lb,  ;  turpentine  sufficient ;  mix  with  heat. 

To  Clean  Old  Marble. — Take  a  bullock's  gall,  1  gill  soap  lees, 
lialf  a  gill  of  turpentine  ;  make  into  a  paste  with  pipeclay,  apply  it  to 
the  marble  ;  let  it  dry  a  day  or  two,  and  then  rub  it  off,  and.  it  will 
■appear  equal  to  new  ;  if  very  dirty,  repeat  the  application. 

To  extract  Oil  from  Marble  or  Stone.— Soft  soap,  1  part ; 
lullers  earth,  2  parts  ;  potash,  1  part ;  boiling  water  to  mix.  Lay  it 
on  the  spots  of  grease,  and  let  it  remain  for  a  few  hours. 

To  Gild  Letters  on  Marble. — ^Apply  first  a  coating  of  size  and 
then  several  successive  coats  of  size  thickened  with  tinely  powdered 
whiting  until  a  good  face  is  produced.  Let  each  coat  become  dry  and 
rub  it  down  witli  fine  glass  paper  before  applying  the  next.  Then  go 
over  it  thinly  and  evenly  with  gold  size  and  apply  the  gold  leaf,  burn- 
ishing with  an  agate  ;  several  coats  of  leaf  will  be  required  to  give  a, 
good  effect 

To  Clean  Marble. — Take  two  parts  of  common  soda,  1  part  pum- 
ice-stone, and  1  part  of  finely  powdered  chalk  ;  sift  it  through  a 
fine  sieve,  and  mLx  it  with  water  ;  then  rub  it  well  all  over  the  mar- 
ble, and  tho  stains  will  be  removed  ;  then  wash  the  marble  over  with 
Boap  and  water,  and  it  will  be  as  clean  as  it  was  at  first. 

To  MAKE  a  Chemical  Baroivieter. — ^Take  a  long  narrow  bottle, 
and  put  into  it  2j  drs.  of  camphor  ;  spirits  of  wine  11  drs.   When  the 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPrS.  253 

cnmphor  is  dissolved,  add  to  it  the  following  mixture  :  water  9  drs. , 
saltpetre,  38  grs.  ;  sal-ammoniac,  38  grs.  Dissolve  these  salts  ia  tho 
water  prior  to  mixing  with  the  camphorated  spirit  ;  then  shake  all 
well  together,  cork  the  bottle  weU,  wax  the  top,  but  afterwards  make 
a  very  small  aperture  hi  the  cork  with  a  red-hot  needle.  By  observ- 
ing the  different  appearances  which  the  materials  assume  as  tho 
weather  changes,  it  becomes  an  excellent  prognosticator  of  a  com- 
ing storm  or  of  a  sunny  sky. 

TkAPPERS'  AKD  AifGLEKS'  SECRET  FOB  GAME  AND  FiSH.— A  f CW 

drops  of  oil  of  anise,  or  oil  rhodium,  on  any  trapper's  bait,  will  en- 
tice any  wild  animal  into  the  snare  trap.  India  cockle  mixed  with 
flour  dough,  and  sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  still  water,  will  intox- 
icate fish,  rendering  them  insensible  ;  when  coming  up  to  the  surface 
they  can  be  lifted  in  a  tub  of  fresh  water  to  revive  them,  when  they 
may  be  used  without  fear.  Fish  may  also  be  caught  in  large  numbers 
during  the  winter  season  by  watching  them  through  the  ice  and  striking 
it  with  a  mallet  directly  over  where  they  happen  to  be.  The  shock 
stims  them,  and  they  will  rise,  belly  upwards  towards  the  surface, 
when  they  are  easily  secured  by  breaking  a  hole  iu  the  ice. 


PAINTERS,  CABINETMAKERS,  GILDERS, 
BRONZERS,  GLASS  STAINERS,  &c. 

CoMPOmrD  Colors— 63  Tlnts— Gri*nd  Prussian  blue  in 
turps,  other  blue,  very  fine  in  linseed  oil;  mix  with  white  paint  to  tho 
color  required.  Straw. — A  mixture  of  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead, 
oil  and  turps.  Steel. — Mix  ceruse,  Prussian  blue,  fine  lac,  and 
vermilion,  with  oil  and  turps.  Purple. — ^^Yhite  lead,  Prussian  bluo 
and  vermilion,  with  oil  and  turps.  French  Gray. — ^^Vhite  lead  and 
Prussian  blue  tinged  with  vermihon,  and  for  the  last  coat  substitute 
carmine  or  lake  for  vermilion.  J)rah. — White  lead  with  a  little 
Prussian  blue  and  French  yellow,  Ihiseed  oil  and  turps.  Another 
Drab. — White  lead  with  a  fi'ttle  Prussian  blue  and  lampblack,  linseed 
oil  and  turps.  Dark  Red,  for  common  pu  rposes. — ]\Iix  English  Venetian 
,red,  in  boiled  oil,  with  a  little  red  lead  and  litharge,  to  give  a  drying 
quality.  Lighter  Red. — Llix  together  equal  parts  of  Venetian  red  and 
red  lead  in  boiled  oil  and  turps.  Imitation  of  Vermilion. — Grind  togeth- 
er, in  oil,  red  lead  and  rose  pink.  Deep  Red. — Mix  in  oil,  vermilion  with, 
a  dust  of  Venetian  red,  or  red  lead.  Unfading  Orange — ^This  is  a  mix- 
ture of  orange  lead  (orpiment)  and  French  "or  stone  yellow,  oil  and 
turps.  Bright  Yellow,  for  floors. — White  lead  and  linseed  oil,  mixed 
with  some  French  yellow,  and  a  little  chrome  yellow  to  heighten  it, 
some  red  lead,  burnt  wliite* vitriol  and  litharge,  added  to  give  it  a  dry- 
mg  quality.  This  color  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and 
turpentine,  and  used  very  thin.  Dark  Yellow. — Mix  French  yellow  iu 
boiled  oil,  adding  to  it  a  little  red  lead  or  litharge  to  give  the  paint  -j. 
drying  quality.  Light  Yellow. — This  is  a  mLx'ture  of  French  yellow 
and  white  lead,  with  oil  and  turj[x;ntinc.   Another.   Freucli  yellow, 


254     CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTEPtS',   &C.,  IlECEIPTS. 

wliito  lead  and  red  le.id.  Another. — Thif,  is  a  rcixturc  of  Trnssian  bluo, 
rrench  yellow,  a  pmall  portion  of  Turkey  limber,  .'uid  a  litltlo  burnt 
vitriol.  Ground  tlio  wuno  way.  Anoiher,  in  oil. — Mix  I'russian  bluo 
and  chrome  yellow,  (iround  the  same.  Another  Shade. — A  mixture 
of  Prussian  bluo  and  French  yellow,  with  a  small  quantity  of  white 
lead  and  Turkey  nnibcr;  add  burnt  vitriol,  ground  the  same.  An- 
other, lUjht. — AViiito  mixed  with  verdi.t^ris.  A  variety  of  shades  may 
be  obtained  by  using  blue  and  yellow  with  -white  lead.  Another. 
O/wc— Black  and  blue  mixed  with  yellow,  in  such  quantities  as  to 
obtain  the  colors  or  shades  required.  For  distemper,  use  indigo  and 
yellow  pink  mixed  with  whiting  or  white  lead  powder.  Freestone 
color. — A  mixture  of  red  lead,  Venetian  red,  French  yellow  and  lamj)- 
black,  (varying  the  shade  according  to  taste,)  with  linseed  oil  and 
turpentine.  OUvq  Green. — Grind  separately,  Prussian  blue  and 
French  yellow,  in  boiled  oil,  then  mix  to  the  tints  required  with  a  little 
burnt  white  vitriol  to  act  as  a  dryer.  A  cheap  and  handsome  color  for 
outside  work,  such  as  doors,  carts,  wagons,  railings,  &c.  Li(jht 
CraT/ismade  by  mixing  white  lead  Avith  lampblack,  using  more  or 
less  of  each  material,  as  you  wish  to  obtain  a  lighter  or  a  darker  shade. 
Buff  is  made  from  yellow  ochre  and  white  lead.  Silver  or  Pearl 
Gray. — Mix  wliite  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and  a  very  slight  portion  of 
black,  regulating  tho  quantities  you  wish  to  obtain.  Flaxen  Gray  is 
obtained  by  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  with  a  small 
quaiitity  of  lake.  BricTc  Color. — ^Yellow  ochre  and  red  lead,  with  a 
little  Avhito.  OaTc  Wood  Color. — £  white  lead  and  ^  part  umber  and 
j-ellow  ochre,  proportions  of  tho  last  two  ingredients  being  determined 
by  the  desired  tints.  Walnut-tree  Color. — §  white  lead,  and  ^  red 
ochre,  yellow  ochre,  and  umber,  mixed  according  to  the  shade  sought. 
If  veining  is  required,  use  different  shades  of  the  same  mixture,  and 
for  the  deepest  places,  black.  Jonquil. — Yellow,  pink,  and  white 
lead.  This  color  is  only  i)roper  for  distemper.  Lemon  Yellow. — 
Realgar  and  orpiment.  The  same  color  can  be  obtained  by  mixmg 
yellow  pink  with  Naples  yellow;  but  it  is  then  only  fit  for  distemper. 
Oranrje  Color. — ^Red  lead  and  yellow  ochre.  Violet  Color. — ^VermUion, 
or  red  lead,  mixed  with  black  or  blue,  and  a  small  portion  of  white. 
Vermilion  is  preferable  to  red  lead  in  mixing  this  color.  Purple. — 
Dark  red  mixed  with  violet  color.  Carnatioii. — ^Lake  and  white. 
Gold  color. — Massicot,  or  Naples  yellow,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
realgar,  and  a  very  little  Spanish  white.  Olive  Color  may  be  obtained 
by  black  and  a  little  blue,  mixed  with  yellow.  Yellow-pi  ak,  with  a 
little  verdigris  and  lampblack;  also  ochre  and  a  small  quantity  of 
white  will  produce  an  olive  color.  For  distemper,  indigo  and  yellow- 
pink,  mixed  with  white  lead*  or  Spanish  white,  must  be  used.  If 
veined,  it  must  be  done  with  umber.  Lead  Color. — ^Prussian  blue  and 
wliite.  Chestnut  Color. — ^Red  ochre  and  black,  for  a  dark  chestnut. 
To  make  it  lighter,  employ  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre.  Light  timber 
Color. — Spruce  ochre,  white,  and  a  little  umber.  Flesh  Color. — Lake, 
wliite  lead,  and  a  little  vermilion.  Light  Willow  Gi^eeji. — ^^Vhite, 
mixed  with  verdigris.  Gi^ass  Green. — ^Yellow-pink  mixed  with  vir- 
digris.  Stone  Color. — White,  with  a  little  spruce  ochre.  Dark  Lead 
Color. — ^Black  and  wiiite,  with  a  little  Prussian  blue.  Fawn  Color. — 
White  lead,  stone  ocnre,  with  a  little  vermilion.  Chocolate  Color. — 
Lampblack  aad  Spanish  brown.   Ou  accouni;  of  the  fatness  of  lamp- 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  255 

hlack,  mis  somo  litliargo  and  red  lead.  Portland  Stone  Color.— 
Uriiljer,  yellow  ochre,  aiid  white  lead.  Rose  Co^or.— Wliite  lead  and 
Garmine  or  lake.  Salmon  Color. — ^^Vhite  lead  and  blue,  yellow,  and 
red.  Pearl  CoZor.— AVliite  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and  red.  Slate  Color. 
—"White  lead,  black,  red,  and  blue.  Pea  Green.— White  lead  and 
Chrome,  or  Paris  green.  Cream  Color. — White  lead,  yellow  and  red. 
Straw  Color.— \Y\\itQ  lead  and  yellow.  Peach  Blossom  Color.— WhWo 
lead  and  vermilion.  Broicn. — Venetian  red  and  lampblack.  Dark 
Green. — Lampblack  and  chrome  green.  Olive  Color. — Red,  green,  or 
black,  yellow  and  red.   Snuff  Color. — ^Yellow,  sienna,  and  red. 

Fkesco  Paintino.— Steep  good  glue  over  night  in  water  to  soften, 
then  melt  in  a  suitable  x)ot  or  kettle,  applying  the  heat  cautiously,  so 
as  not  to  boil,  as  boiling  will  render  it  unfit  for  use.  Then  take  ar? 
much  Paris  whiting  as  yon  think  yon  will  use  for  your  first  coat,  boat 
it  up  thick  with  water  to  «i  perfect  pulp  to  get  rid  of  lumjps,  &c.  Now 
put  in  a  pail  as  much  of  this  whiting  mixture  as  wUl  be  required  for 
your  work  and  proceed  to  mix  in  the  colors  required  to  produce  tho 
desired  shade.  The  colors,  previously  ground  in  water,  should  be 
cautiously  mixed  with  the  hand,  and  the  shade  tested  by  drying  a 
little  on  a  shingle  or  white  paper ;  if  too  dark,  add  more  whiting,  if 
too  light,  more  color.  Now  add  enough  of  your  melted  glue  to  bind 
or  fix  the  color  very  hard  so  as  not  to  rise  or  wash  np  with  your 
second  coat,  and  test  this  on  paper  or  wood  also,  otherwise  you  may 
ruin  your  work.  For  Yelloio,  chrome  yellow  of  differeat  tints  may- 
be used.  Biff  or  Brah  can  be  got  by  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre,  red, 
blue,  or  black,  and  sometimes  umber  is  intermixed  with  good  effect. 
Buif  or  drab  colors  may  bo  produced  by  yellow  ochre,  chromo 
yellow,  or  raw  sienna,  intermixed  with  Turkey  umber.  For  Green, 
mineral  or  Paris  greens  are  first  class.  Any  good  chromo  green  wUl 
suit  very  well.  For  Blue,  use  cobalt  ultramaruie  blue,  Prussian  blue 
and  verditer.  For  Gray,  use  composition  of  white,  blue,  red,  and 
black.  For  Red,  use  vermilion,  Indian  red,  Venetian  red,  lake,  and 
carmine.  For  Pink  or  Rose  tints,  use  a  mixture  of  red  with  white, 
if  not  wanted  bright,  use  Indian  red,  if  a  strong  rich  color  is  desired, 
use  carmine,  lake,  Venetian  red,  or  vcnnilion.  For  Black,  use  bluo 
black  and  the  Frankfort,  or  pure  ivory  black.  For  Broions  for 
shading,  <£-c.,  use  burnt  sienna,  burnt  ochre,  purple  brown,  colcother, 
burnt  umber,  Vandyke  brown.  For  other  tints,  see  Compound 
CoLOES.  French  Size  for  Gilding  Ornaments,  Ceilings,  &c.  Mix 
thick  glue  to  the  proper  consistence,  with  a  little  pure  honey,  this 
imparts  a  beautiful  color  to  the  gold,  and  gives  a  splendid  effect  to 
the  work.  Previous  to  using  the  distemper  colors,  give  the  walls  and  v 
ceilings,  if  new  and  clean,  a  good  coat  of  paint,  which  should  be 
mixed  about  §  turpentine  and  linseed  oil,  using  as  much  Japan 
dryer  as  wiU  dry  it  hard ;  be  careful  of  adding  too  much  oil,  as  it  wilj 
epoil  the  subsequent  work. 

In  preparing  vestibules,  halls,  £:c.,  to  stand  washing,  go  over  tho 
walls  with  oil  paint  for  tlie  first  coat,  but  for  the  last  coat  no  oil 
ghould  be  used,  only  spirits  of  turpentme.  A  harder  surface  will  bo 
given  to  the  wall  by  adding  1  tablespoonful  of  good  pale  copal 
varnish  to  each  25  lbs.  of  paint  used  for  the  last  coat.  Previous  to 
the  wall  receiving  the  last  two  coats,  let  tho  design  or  panelling  be  all 
correctly  laid  out. 


256     CAi:iXET.AIAKERS,  PAIXTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


To  prepare  old  walls  or  ceilings  ;  if  tlicro  aro  any  stains  or  cracks 
i;i  the  plaster,  repair  Avith  size  putty,  if  Hniall,  or  nso  j)laster  of  Paris 
luul  a  little  putty  limo  if  the  cracks  are  lai-^e,  dainpinj?  the  i^laces 
•witli  a  hrush  and  water,  then  applying  the  i)lastcr  ■with  a  small 
trowel,  afterward:!  smootning  off  neatly.  When  all  is  dry  and  hard 
]irei)are  the  walls  or  ceilings  Avith  a  coat  of  i)aint  preiiared  as  bcforo 
directed,  or  with  a  preparation  coat  in  size  made  of  whiting  witli  an 
extra  cpiantity  of  melted  gUio  containing  a  small  quantity  of  alum. 
Give  the  Avails  a  good  coat  of  tliis,  let  it  harden  Avell,  then  ai)i)ly 
another  ;  this  ought  to  he  sufficient  if  good  flowing  coats  are  applied. 

Now  mix  the  colors  to  the  proper  tints  (in  oil),  lay  in  the  panels 
first ;  then  the  stiles,  and  Avhen  dry,  put  on  the  fiat  or  *hu  t  coat  (spirit 
color).  AV'hcn  the  Avork  is  dry  for  i)anelling,  use  the  followhig  for 
mixing  the  finishing  colors :  Turpentine,  a  little  mastic  varnish,  a 
little  white  wax,  and  a  little  ]iale  damar.  Varnish,  use  but  little 
varnish,  else  too  much  gloss  Avill  bo  produced,  the  only  use  being  to 
cause  the  color  to  set  quickly  to  permit  rapid  Avork. 

The  fresco  painter  Avill  find  continued  use  for  a  book  of  designs  to 
illustrate  the  different  orders  of  architecture,  pillars,  columns,  scrolls, 
borders,  &c.  and  should  make  a  particular  study  in  the  fine  of  sketch- 
ing anything  and  everything  calculated  to  assist  him  in  the  business. 

llousE  Taixtixo. — Priviinfi,  apply  as  thick  as  the  paint  Avill 
rpread  easilj'",  rubbing  out  Avell  with  the  brush.  Use  litharge  as  a 
dryer.  After  sandpaiicring  and  dusting,  putty  up  all  the  nail  heads 
and  cracks  Avith  a  putty-knife.  Outside  second  Coat.  Mix  j'our 
paint  with  raw  oil,  using  it  as  thick  as  possible  consistent  Avith  easy 
spreading.  After  it  is  applied,  cross-smooth  the  work  mitil  it  is  level 
and  even,  then  finish  lengtliAvise  Avith  long  light  sweeps  of  the  brush. 
Outside  third  Coat.  Make  a  little  thinner  than  the  last,  rub  out  well, 
cross-smooth  and  finish  A'cry  lightly  with  the  tip  of  the  bnish. 
Inside  second  Coat.  Mix  your  paint  as  thick  as  you  can  work  it, 
using  equal  parts  of  raAV  oil  and  turpentine,  rub  this  out  well  and 
carefully  with  the  brush,  cross-smooth  and  finish  even  and  nice. 
Inside  tliird  Coat.  Mix  with  3  parts  turpentine  and  1  part  of 
raw  oil,  rub  out  Avell  and  smooth  off  Avitli  great  care.  Fourth  Coat, 
Flaitinrf.  Mix  with  turpentine  alone  thin  enough  to  admit  of  spread- 
ing before  it  sets.  Apply  quickly  Avithout  cross-smoothing,  and 
finish  lengthwise  with  light  touches  of  the  tip  of  the  brush,  losing  no 
time,  as  it  sets  rapidly.  Draim  Flatting.  Ground  white  lead  is 
mixed  with  turpentine  almost  as  thin  as  the  last-named  mixture. 
The  lead  Avill  soon  settle  and  the  oil  and  turpentine  rise  to  the  top, 
pour  it  off,  and  repeat  the  mixture  xmtil  Avhat  rises  to  the  top  is  clear 
turpentine.  The  oil  being  all  withdraAvn  by  this  process,  the  lead  is 
mixed  Avith  turpentine,  and  applied  thickly  and  evenly  Avith  great 
care.  This  is  used  as  a  fourth  coat,  and  the  room  must  l3e  kept  shut 
and  free  from  draught,  as  the  color  sets  as  fast  as  it  is  put  on.  See 
Porcelain  Fixtsii  fok  Paklors.  Plastered  Walls.  Give  them  a 
coat  of  glue  size  before  painting  in  oil.  KilUnrj  Smoky  Walls  or 
Ceilings.  Wash  over  the  smoky  or  greasy  Avails  Avith  nitre,  soda,  or 
thin  lime  whitewash,  the  last  is  the  best. 

UsEFUii  HixTS  TO  Painters.— Painters'  Colic.  To  %  gals, 
spruce  or  table  beer  add  1  dram  of  sulphuric  acid,  mix  well  and  let  it 
stand  3  hours.   A  tumbler  full  2  or  3  times  per  day  is  said  to  bo  very 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  257 

beneficial  in  casog  of  lead  colic.  Sweet  oil  and  milk  are  also  good, 
ljut  acid,  fruits,  spirituous  liquors,  and  vinegar  sliould  be  avoided  in 
every  illness  caused  by  paint.  Avoid  inhaling  tlio  dust  when  handlo- 
ing  dry  colors,  or  driiiliing  water  wliich  has  stood  long  in  a  painted 
room  or  paint  shop.  Never  eat  or  sleep  witliout  wasliing  the  hands 
and  face,  and  rinsing  the  mouth,  cleaning  well  out  under  the  nails. 
Bathe  tlie  whole  body  every  few  days,  avoid  spattering  your  clothes, 
and  either  wear  overalls  or  change  your  garments  every  week,  Avell 
.  riring  those  you  put  off.  Keep  your  paint  shop  clean,  weir  ventilated, 
and  avoid  sleeping  in  it  at  any  time.  To  Remove  Paint  from  Cloth- 
inr/.  Saturate  tlic  spots  witli  equal  parts  turi->entino  and  spirits  of 
ammonia  until  they  become  soft,  then  wash  out  with  soapsuds.  Jb 
dissolve  Paint  Skins,  Cleanings  of  Pots,  Brushes,  &c.  Save  them 
carefully,  and  dissolve  theni  by  boUmg  them  in  oil.  To  Clean 
Prushea.  Use  turpentine  first,  then  wash  in  warm  soapsuds.  To 
Clean  Paint  Pails,  &c.  Use  strong  ley,  hot.  Sandinff.  The  per- 
forated si)rinlder  of  a  watering  pot  attached  to  the  nozzle  of  a  pair 
of  bellows,  in  a  first-rate  contrivance  for  applying  sand  to  pamted 
work.  Apply  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  coat,  Avith  another  coat  on  tho 
cand.  To  remove  old  putty,  .apply  nitric  or  muriatic  acid. 

Prussian  Blue. — Take  nitric  acid,  any  quantity,  and  as  much 
iron  shavings  from  the  lathe  as  the  acid  will  dissolve ;  heat  the  iron 
as  hot  as  can  be  handled  with  the  hand;  then  add  it  to  the  acid  in 
small  quantities  as  long  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it;  then  slowly  add 
double  tlie  quantity  of  soft  water  that  tlicre  was  of  acid,  and  put 
in  iron  again  as  long  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it.  2d.  Take  prus- 
date  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in  the  hot  water  to  make  a, strong  solution, 
and  make  sufhcient  of  it  with  the  first  to  give  the  depth  of  tint  de- 
fired,  and  the  blue  is  made.  Another  Method. — ^A  'very  passable 
Prussian  blue  is  made  by  taking  sulprate  of  iron  (copperas)  and 
prussiateof  potash,  equal  parts  of  each;  and  dissolving  each  separately 
in  water,  then  mixing  the  two  waters. 

Chrome  Yellow. — 1st.  Take  sugar  of  lead  and  Paris  white,  of 
each  5  lbs.;  dissolve  them  in  hot  Avater.  2d.  Take  bichromate  of 
l^jotash,  oz.:  and  dissolve  it  in  hot  water  also;  each  article  to  bo 
dissolved  separately;  then  mix  all  together,  putting  in  the  bichro- 
mate last.   Let  stand  twenty-four  hours. 

Chrojie  Green.— Take  Paris  white,  lbs. ;  sugar  of  lead,  and 
blue  vitriol,  of  each  3|  lbs. ;  alum,  10^  oz. ;  best  soft  Prussian  blue,  and 
chrome  yellow,  of  each  3^  lbs.  Mix  thoroughly  while  in  fine  powder, 
r.nd  add  water,  1  gal.,  stirrmg  well,  and  let  stand  three  or  four  hours, 
Another  Green,  durable  and  cheap. — Take  spruce  yellow,  and  color  it 
with  a  solution  of  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue,  until  you  give  it 
the  shade  you  wish.  Another  Method. — Blue  vitriol,  5  lbs. ;  sugar  of 
lead,  Gi  lbs.;  arsenic,  2^  lbs. ;  bichromate  of  potash,  1^  oz.;  mix  them 
thoroughly  in  fine  powder,  and  add  water  3  parts,  mixmg  weU  again 
and  let  stand  three  or  four  hours. 

Pea  Brown. — 1st.  Take  sulphate  of  copper  any  quantity,  and 
dissolve  it  in  hot  water.  2d.  Take  prussiate  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in 
iiot  water  to  make  a  strong  solution;  mix  of  the  two  solutions,  as  in 
the  blue,  and  the  color  is  made. 

Rose  Pink.— Brazil  wood  1  lb.,  and  boil  it  for  two  hours,  having  1 
gal.  of  water  at  tho  end;  then  strain  it,  and  boil  alum,  1  lb.,  in  tho 


258     CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTERS',  &C.,  KECEll'TS. 

water  until  dissolved;  -when  Rnflicie-ntly  cool  to  .idmit  the  hand,  .idd 
muriiito  oi"  tin,  ;^  oz.  Now  lu'ivo  I'aris  white,  12.^  lb, ;  moisten  up  to  a 
Kalvy  cousistcncc,  and  avIicu  tlio  tirst  is  cool,  stir  them  thoroughly 
to";ether.    Let  stand  twenty-four  liours. 

Tatent  Yellow. — Common  salt,  100  lbs.,  and  litharge,  400  lbs., 
:vre  ground  top;ether  with  water,  and  for  Bonio  time  in  a  gentle  heat, 
water  being  added  to  su])p]y  tlie  loss  by  evaporation;  the  carbonato 
of  soda  is  then  washed  out  witli  moiD  water,  uud  tho  wliito  residuuiu 
heated  till  it  acquires  a  fme  yellow  color. 

Naples  Yellow. — Nol.  Metallic  antimony,  12  lbs.;  red  lead,  8 
lbs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  4  lbs.  INIix,  calcine,  triturate  well  together,  and 
fuse  in  a  crucible:  tho  fused  mass  must  bo  groimd  and  ekitriated  to 
a  fme  powder. 

Cheap  Y'elt.ow  Paint. — ^^Vhiting,  3  cwt. ;  ochre,  2  cwt. ;  ground 
^vliite  lead,  25  lbs.    Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

Stone  Color  Paint. — Koad-dast  sifted,  2  cwt.;  ground  wliito 
lead,  icwt, ;  whiting,  1  cwt.;  ground  umber,  1-1  lbs.;  lime  water,  G 
gals.  "Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

Glazier's  Putty. — AVhiting,  70  lbs. ;  boiled  oil,  20  lbs.  Mix;  if 
too  thin,  add  more  whiting;  if  too  thick,  add  more  oil. 

To  Imitate  Brown  Fiieestone. — First  malce  a  pretty  thick  oil 
paint  of  the  same  color  as  the  stone  to  be  imitated,  which  may  bo 
done  in  different  ways,  the  basis  is  white  lead  or  zinc  white,  colored 
with  umber  and  mars  red,  or  any  other  pigments  which  suit  you;  put 
it  on  as  usual,  and  while  yet  stic'lcy  throw  common  white  sand  against 
it ;  this  will  not  affect  the  color  and  will  make  a  rough,  sandy  coat 
imitatuig  the  surface  of  the  stone. 

German  Carmine. — Cochineal,  1  lb. ;  water,  7  gals.  ;  boil  for  5 
minutes,  then  add  alum,  1  oz.  Boil  for  5  minutes  more,  filter  and  set 
aside  the  decoction  in  glass  or  porcelain  vessels  for  3  days,  then  decant 
the  liquor  and  dry  the  cannino  in  the  shade.  The  remaining  liquor 
will  still  deposit  cf  an  inferior  quality,  by  standing. 

Stain  for  Floors. — To  strong  icy  of  Vv'ood-ashes  add  enough 
copperas  for  the  required  oak  shade.  Put  this  on  with  a  mop  and. 
and  varnish  afterwards. 

Lead  Color  for  Iron. — Take  litharge  and  place  it  over  a  fire  in  a 
ladle  ;  sprinkle  over  it  flour  of  brimstone  to  turn  it  dark  ;  grind  it  iu 
oil.   It  dries  quick  and  stands  well  in  any  weather. 

A  Good  Imitation  of  Gold. — ]\Iix  white  lead,  chrome  yellow  and 
burnt  sienna  until  the  proper  shade  is  obtained. 

Beautiful  White  Paint. — For  inside  work,  which  ceases  to 
smell,  and  dries  in  a  few  hours.  Add  1  lb.  of  frankincense  to  2  qts. 
turpentine  ;  dissolve  it  over  a  clear  fire,  strain  it,  and  bottle  it  for  use; 
then  add  1  pt.  of  this  mixture  to  4  yts.  bleached  linseed  oil,  shake 
them  well  together,  grind  white  lead  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
strain  it  ;  then  add  sufficient  of  the  lead  to  make  it  proper  for  paint- 
ing ;  if  too  thick  in  using,  thin  with  turpentine,  it  being  suitable  for 
the  Ijest  internal  work  on  account  of  its  superiority  and  exi^ense. 

For  a  Pure  White  Paint.— Nut-oil  is  the  best :  if  Linseed  oil  is 
used,  add  one-third  of  turpenthie. 

To  IMix  Common  White  Paint. — Mix  or  grind  white  lead  in  lin- 
seed oil  to  the  consistency  of  paste  ;  add  turi^entine  in  the  proportion 
of  one  quart  to  the  gallon  of  oil ;  but  these  proportions  must  be  va- 


CABIXET3xAiIEli3,  PAIXTEKS',  &C.,  KECEirTS.  259 


ricd  according  to  circunistancof?.  Remember  to  strain  your  color  ipr 
the  better  sorts  of  v/ork.  If  tlie  work  is  exposed  to  the  siui,  use  moro 
turpentine  for  the  ground-color,  to  prevent  its  blistering. 

IxvisiBLE  Gkken  fok  Outsidb  Wokk. — Mix  lampblack  and 
French  yellow  with  burnt  white  vitriol.  Tliese  colors  mix  in  boiled 
oil.  Biirnt  vitriol  is  tlie  best  drier  for  greens,  as  it  is  liowerful  and 
colorless,  and,  consequentlj'',  will  not  injure  the  color. 

iJlilGIIT  VAENISn  GllEEN,  FOB  INSIDE  BLINCS,  FeXDERSj  (StC. — ^TllQ 

work  must  first  be  painted  over  Avith  a  light  lead  color,  and,  when 
dry,  grind  some  white  lead  in  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  afterwards  take 
about  j\  in  bulk  of  verdigris,  which  has  been  ground  stiff  in  linseed 
oil ;  tlicn  mix  them  both  together,  and  put  into  a  little  resin  varnish, 
sufiicient  only  to  bind  the  color.  When  tliis  is  hard,  which  will  be  tlio 
case  in  15  minutes,  pour  into  the  color  some  resin  to  give  it  a  good 
gloss.  Then  go  over  the  work  a  second  time  and,  if  required,  a  third 
time.  Thus  you  will  have  a  cheap  and  beautiful  green,  with  a  high, 
polish.  It  ]josscsses  a  very  drying  quality,  as  the  work  may  be  com- 
pleted in  a  few  hours.  The  tint  may  be  varied  accordhig  to  taste,  by 
substituthig  mineral  green  for  verdigris  ;  and  if  a  bright  grass-grecu 
is  l  equircd,  add  a  little  Dutch  pink  to  the  mixture.  N.B. — This  color 
nuist  bo  used  when  quite  warm,  to  give  the  varnish  a  miiform  e::- 
tension. 

CoMrouND  Greek's.— This  is  a  mixture  of  whiting,  indigo  ar,d 
Dutch  pink,  the  intensity  of  which  may  bo  increased  or  diminished  by 
the  adclition  of  blue  or  yellow.  These  mixtures  will  not  admit  of  any 
fixed  rules  in  regard  to  the  quantities  of  the  matters  used  in  their 
composition.  They  must  depend  on  tho  taste  of  the  artist  and  tlie 
tone  he  is  desirous  of  giving  to  the  color. 

Pea  Green. — Take  one  pomid  of  genuine  mineAil  green,  one  pound 
of  the  precipitate  of  copper,  one  pound  and  a  lialf  of  blue  verditcr, 
three  pounds  of  white  lead,  three  ounces  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  three 
ounces  of  burnt  white  vitriol,  ]\Iix  the  wliole  of  these  ingredients  in 
linseed  oil,  and  grind  them  quite  fine.  It  will  produce  a  bright  mineral 
pea-green  paint,  preserve  a  blue  tint  and  keep  any  length  of  time  in 
any  climate,  without  injury,  by  putting  water  over  it.  To  use  this 
color  for  house  or  ship  painting,  take  one  pound  of  the  gi'een  paint 
with  some  pale  boiled  oil,  mix  them  well  together,  and  this  will  pro- 
duce a  strong  pea-green  paint.  Tho  tint  may  be  altered  at  pleasure, 
by  adding  a  j)roportionate  quantity  of  white  lead  to  the  green,  which, 
may  be  ground  in  linseed  oil,  and  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
for'use.  It  may  also  be  used  for  painting  ^'cnetian  Avindow  blinds,  by 
adding  white  lead  and  mixing  the  color  with  boiled  oil.  For  all  the 
aforesWd  preparations  it  will  retain  a  blue  tint,  which  is  very  desir- 
able. 

For  Knotting. — One  pint  of  vegetable  naphtha,  1  tablespoonful  of 
red  lead,  ^  pint  of  japanners'  gold  size,  7  ozs.  of  orange  shellac,  mix 
all  together,  set  in  a  warm -place  to  dissolve,  and  frequently  shako. 
Anotlier. — Mix  white  lead,  or  red  lead  powder,  in  strong  glue  size, 
and  apply  it  warm. 

AViiiTE  Lead. — The  most  usual  method  of  manufacturing  white 
lead  is  that  known  as  the  Dutch  method.  It  consists  in  exiiosing  lead, 
cast  in  thin  gratings,  to  the  combmed  action  of  acetic  acid,  moist  air 
and  carbonic  acid  gas.   The  gratings  are  suppoitcd  a  little  above  tho 


260     CAIilNETMAKEllS,  J  AINTEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

bottom  of  eai'then  pots,  similar  to  flowerpots,  in  each  of  which  a  small 
quantity  of  wealc  acetic  acid  is  placed.  The  pots  aro  built  up  in  al- 
tcruato  layers  with  spent  tanners'  bark,  until  a  stack  is  formed,  each 
layer  of  i)ot3  being  covered  with  a  board.  Fermentation  soon  takes 
place  in  tlic  tan,  and  serves  the  double  i)laco  of  generating  heat  and 
supplying  carbonic  acid.  Alter  the  lapse  of  six  or  ciglit  Aveeks,  tho 
metallic  lead  is  found  converted  into  Avhitc  masses  of  carbonic  mixed 
with  liydrated  oxide.  It  is  then  levigated,  washed,  dried,  and  ground 
vrith  oil. 

To  CcTRE  DAJvrp  Walls.— Boil  2  ozs.  of  grease  with  2  quarts  of 
tar,  for  nearly  twenty  minutes,  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  have  ready 
pounded  glass,  1  lb.  ;  slaked  lime,  2  lbs.  ;  Avell  dried  in  an  iron  pot 
and  silted  through  a  flour  sieve  ;  add  some  of  tho  lime  to  the  tar  and 
glass,  to  make  it  tho  thickness  of  thin  paste,  sullicieut  to  cover  a 
f^quare  foot  at  a  time,  as  it  hardens  so  quick.  Apply  it  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick. 

To  Protect  Wood  a>-t)  Brick  work  froim  Damp  Weather. 
— Take  3  pecks  of  lime,  slaked  in  the  air,  2  pecks  of  wood-ashes, 
and  1  peck  of  white  sand.  Sift  them  fine,  and  add  linseed  oil  suffi- 
cient to  use  with  a  paint  brush  :  thin  the  first  coat ;  use  it  as  thick  as 
it  will  Avork  for  the  second  coat,  grind  it  fine,  or  beat  it  in  a  trough, 
and  it  is  a  good  composition. 

Putty  for  Kepaikixg  Brokex  Walls. — The  best  putty  for  walls 
is  composed  of  equal  parts  of  whiting  and  plaster  of  Paris,  as  it  quick- 
ly hardens.  The  walls  may  be  immediately  colored  upon  it.  Somo 
painters  use  whiting  with  size  ;  but  this  is  not  good,  as  it  rises  above 
the  surface  of  the  walls,  and  shows  the  patches  Avhen  the  work  is 
finished.  Lime  mi^st  not  be  used  as  putty  to  repair  walls,  as  it  will 
destroy  almost  every  color  it  comes  in  contact  with. 

Instructions  fob  Sign  Writing,  -with  the  Colors  to  be 
USED  FOR  the  Ground  AND  LETTERS. — Oil  an  oalc  ground,  orna- 
mental letters,  in  ultramarine  blue,  filled  in  with  gold  and  silver  leaf, 
hlocked  up  and  shaded  Avith  burnt  sienna.  Another. — Gold  letters 
on  a  Avhite  marble  ground,  blocked  up  and  shaded  with  a  transparent 
Thrown  or  burnt  sienna.  On  glass. — Gold  letters,  shaded  Avith  burnt 
sienna.  Another. — Gold  letters,  shaded  with  black,  on  a  scarlet  or 
chocolate  ground.  On  a  rich  blue  ground,  gold  letters,  double  shaded, 
black  and  white.  White  letters  on  a  blue  ground,  shaded  Avith  black, 
look  very  Avell.  On  a  purple  ground,  pink  letters  sliaded  with  white. 
Mix  ultramarine  and  vermilion  for  a  ground  color,  white  letters 
shaded  Avith  a  light  grey.  Vermilion  ground,  chrome  yellow,  stained 
-with  vermilion  and  lake,  for  the  letters,  shaded  black.  A  substitute 
for  the  above  colors:  Kose  pink  and  red  lead;  and  for  the  letters, 
Etone  yclloAV,  white  lead  and  Venetian  red.  A  good  substitute  for 
gold  is  obtamed  by  grinding  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  dust  of 
vermilion  together.  Mix  your  colors  for  writing  in  boiled  oil,  and 
use  for  drier  gold  size.  Other  good  grounds  for  gold  letters  are: 
blues,  vermilion,  lake,  and  Saxon.   When  your  sign  is  ready  for 

filding,  follow  the  directions  given  under  the  head  of  *'  To  Gild 
,eiters  on  Wood." 

To  Give  Lustre  to  a  Light  Blue  Ground.— After  the  letters 
are  written  and  dry,  paint  the  ground  over  again,  between  the  letters, 
witli  the  same  color,  and  wlnlo  wet  take  pulverized  Prussian  blue  and 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  261 

gift  over  the  surface;  glass,  frost,  or  smalts  may  be  used  instead  ol  or 
Avithtlie  blue.   When  dry,  brush  off  the  loose  particles. 

GiLDEEs'  Got.D  Size. — Drying  or  boiled  linseed  oil,  thickened 
•with  yellow  ochre,  or  calcined  red  ochre,  and  carefully  reduced  to  tho 
utmost  smoothness  by  grmding.   Thin  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

To  Gild  Letters  os  Wood,  &c. — ^AV  hen  your  sign  is  prepared  as 
smooth  as  possible,  go  over  it  with  a  sizuig  made  by  white  of  an  eg<7 
dissolved  in  about  four  times  its  weight  of  cold  water;  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  fuller's  earth,  this  to  prevent  the  gold  sticking  to  any 
part  but  the  letters.  When  dry,  set  out  the  letters  and  cdmmenco 
^vriting,  laying  on  tho  size  as  thiiily  as  possible,  with  a  sable  pencil. 
Let  it  stand  until  you  can  barely  feel  a  slight  stickiness,  then  go  to 
work  with  your  gold  leaf,  knife,  and  cushion,  and  gild  the  letters 
Take  a  leaf  up  on  tlie  point  of  your  knife,  after  giving  it  a  slight  puf£ 
into  the  back  part  of  your  cushion,  and  spread  it  on  the  front  part  of 
the  cushion  as  straight  as  possible,  giving  it  another  slight  pulf  with 
your  mouth  to  flatten  it  out.  Now  cut  it  into  the  proper  size,  cutting 
with  the  heel  of  your  Icnife  forwards.  Now  rub  the  tip  lightly  on 
your  hair;  take  up  the  gold  on  the  jp'mt,  and  place  it  neatly  on  tho 
letters;  when  they  are  all  covered  get  some  very  fine  cottonwool, 
and  gently  rub  the  gold  until  it  is  smooth  and  bright.  Then  wash 
tlie  sign  with  clean  water  to  take  off  tho  egg  size.  jS'ce  Gildinfj  on 
Wood. 

To  Use  Smalts. — For  a  gold  lettered  sign,  lay  out  on  a  lead  color 
or  white  surface  the  line  of  letters,  and  roughly  size  the  shape  of 
each  letter  with  fat  oil  size.  This  must  be  allowed  at  least  12  hours 
to  get  tacky  and  ready  for  gildhig.  After  the  gold  leaf  is  laid  and 
perfectly  dry,  mix  up  (for  blue  smalts)  Prussian  blue  and  keg  lead 
with  oil,  adding  a  little  dryer.  Outline  carefully  around  the  letters, 
and  fill  up  all  the  outside  with  blue  paint;  then  with  a  small  sieve 
sift  on  the  smalts,  allowing  the  sign  to  lay  norizontally.  Cover  every 
]iart  with  plenty  of  smalts,  and  allow  it  to  remain  unmolested  until 
the  paint  is  dry.  Then  carefully  shake  off  the  suqilus  smalts,  and 
the  work  is  done. 

Superfiot:  Size  for  Gildixg.— Good  drying  oil,  1  lb. ;  pure  gum 
animi,  powdered,  4  ozs. ;  bring  the  oil  almost  to  the  boiling  iwint  in  a 
covered  metal  pot,  add  your  gum  gradually  and  cautiously  to  the  oil, 
stirring  all  the  time  to  dissolve  completely.  Boil  to  a  tarry  con- 
sistency and  strain  while  warm  through  silk  into  a  warm  bottle  with 
a  wide  mouth;  keep  it  well  corked;  use  as  required,  thinning  with 
turi^entine.  This  is  the  celebrated  Birmingham  "  secret  size,"  and  is 
unequalled  for  tenacity  and  durability.  Size  to  Jix  the  Pearl  on  Glass 
Sif/ns.  1.  Copal  varnish  1  part,  Canada  balsam  2  parts.  2.  Pure 
mastic  varnish.   3.  Pale,  quick  drying  copal  varnish. 

To  Paint  Banners,  &c.,  on  Cloth  or  Silk.— Stretch  the  fabric 
upon  a  frame,  and  finish  yQur  design  and  lettering.  Use  a  size  made 
of  bleached  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  thinned  to  the  proper 
consistence,  go  over  such  parts  as  are  to  be  gilded  or  painted,  over- 
rmming  the  outlines  slightly,  to  prevent  the  color  from  spreading. 
For  inside  work  the  white  of  an  egg  makes  a  good  size;  lay  the  gold 
while  the  size  is  still  wet,  when  dry,  dust  off  the  suriilus  gold,  and 
proceed  with  tho  shading,  painting,  &c.  A  little  honey,  combined 
ynth  thick  gluo,  is  another  good  size. 


2G2     CABINETMAKKIIS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


JArANNED  Tin  Sir.xs.— Draw  yonr  letters  on  paper  to  suit  your 
piece  of  tin,  haviiipf  first  cleaned  it  witli  diluted  alcohol  and  a  jiic'ce  at 
cotton.  Tliis  will  remove  any  grease  or  otlicr  matter  tliat  might  hold 
the  gold.  Then  take  some  wliiting  and  rub  it  over  the  back  of  tho 
])aper  upon  which  your  design  is  inade  and  lay  it  upon  tlic  Japanned 
tin.  Next  place  a  weiglit  upon  the  four  corners  of  tlie  paper,  or 
otherwise  fix  it  securely  to  the  tin  ;  the]i,  with  a  line  ]K)intcd  piece  of 
hard  wood,  trace  tlie  design  carefully,  hearing  upon  tlie  ])nper  with 
the  point  just  hard  enougli  to  cause  the  whiting  on  tlie  under  side  of 
the  paper  to  adhere  to  tho  tin,  and  after  going  carefully  over  tho 
whole,  you  will  have  transferred  tlio  entire  design  in  fine  white  out- 
line to  the  tin  you  are  to  finish  it  upon.  Now  size  with  oil  size,  and 
when  dry  enough  for  gilding,  lay  on  tho  gold  leaf  and  dab  it  down 
thoroughly,  afterwards  brushiug  o££  tho  looso  gold  with  your  flat 
camel-hair  brush  or  cottoii. 

Changeable  Signs. — Maks  a  wooden  sign  in  tho  usual  manner, 
and  have  a  projecting  moulding  around  it.  Now  cut  thin  groovcn 
into  the  moulding,  an  inch  apart,  allowing  each  cut  to  reach  to  tho 
surface  of  the  sign.  In  each  of  these  grooves  insert  strips  of  tin  ono 
inch  wide  ;  and  long  enough  to  reach  quite  across  the  sign  board. 
When  all  are  fitted,  take  out  the  tin  strips,  and  placing  them  edge  to 
edge  on  a  level  fcible,  paint  any  desired  words  on  their  imitcd 
Burface  ;  when  dry,  reverse  them  and  paint  other  words  on  tho 
opposite  side.  Now  finish  your  lettering  as  usual  on  the  wooden 
sign  board,  and  when  dry,  insert  the  painted  tin  strips  in  correct 
order  in  tho  grooves.  Thh  will  present  tho  curious  novelty  of  thrco 
K\gns  in  one,  as  viewed  from  difTerent  positions. 

Transparent  Ceotit. — Dissolve  together  white  rosin,  pulverized, 
8  ozs.,  bleached  linseed  oil  G  ozs.,  wiiite  beeswax  1^  ozs.,  add  tho 
turpentine  whUe  hot.  Apply  to  both  sides  of  tlie  "cloth  while  it 
is  stretched  tight.  A  good  vehicle  for  mising  colors  for  painting  on 
cloth  or  paper  is  gum  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

TiNSELEED  Letter  Glass  Signs. — Paint  tho  ground- work  of  your 
sign,  on  glass,  any  desired  color,  but  bo  careful  to  leave  the  lettering 
or  design  naked,  after  it  is  dry,  take  any  of  the  fancy  colored  copper 
or  tm  foils,  crumple  them  in  your  hand  and  apply  them  over  the 
black  lettering,  &c.,  after  partially  straightening  them  out. 

To  Incritst  "Window  Glass  with  Jewels. — Dissolve  dextrine 
in  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of  zinc, 
sulphate  of  copper  or  other  metallic  salts,  strain  the  liquid  and 
brush  a  thin  coat  of  it  over  the  glass  and  dry  slowly  at  the  ordmary 
temperature,  keeping  the  glass  level.  For  protection  it  may  bo 
varnished.  The  effect  produced  is  that  of  an  incrustation  of  dia- 
monds, sapphires,  &c.,  according  to  the  color  of  the  salt  used. 

To  Paint  in  Imitation  of  Ground  Glass. — Grind  and  mix 
white  lead  in  three-fourths  of  boiled  oil  and  one-fourth  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  to  give  the  mixture  a  very  drying  quality,  add  sufficient 
quantities  of  burnt  white  vitriol  and  sugar  of  lead.  The  color  must 
be  exceedingly  thin,  and  put  on  the  panes  of  glass  with  a  large  sized 
paint  brush  in  as  even  a  manner  as  possible.  "When  a  number  of  the 
]ianes  are  thus  painted,  take  a  dry  duster  quite  new,  dab  the  ends  of 
the  bristles  on  the  glass  in  quick  succession,  till  you  give  it  a  unifonn 
appearance.   Repeat  this  operation  till  the  work  appears  very  soft 


I 


CABIN ETilAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  263 

and  it  mil  then  appear  like  ground  glass.  When  the  glass  requires 
fresh  pamting,  get  the  old  coat  off  first  by  using  strong  pearl-ash 
water.  Another  il/ei/iod.— Spirits  of  salts,  2  bzs. ;  oil  of  vitriol,  2ozs. ; 
sulphate  of  copper,  1  oz. ;  gum  arable,  1  oz. ;  mix  all  well  together, 
and  dab  on  the  glass  Vv'ith  a  brush.  Another, — Dab  your  squares 
regularly  over  with  putty;  when  dry,  go  over  them  again;  the  imita- 
tion will  be  complete. 

Paintikg  on  Glass. — Take  clear  rosm,  1  oz.,  melt  in  an  iron  ves- 
sel. When  all  is  melted,  let  it  cool  a  little,  hnt  not  harden;  then  add 
oil  of  turpentine  sufficient  to  keep  it  in  a  liquid  state,  AVhen  cold, 
use  it  with  colors  ground  in  oil. 

Hard  Drying  Paint, — Grind  Venetian  red,  or  any  other  color 
you  Avish,  in  boiled  oil;  then  thin  it  with  black  japan.  It  will  dry 
very  hard  for  counter  tops,  &c. 

Paste  for  Paper  Hangings,  Books,  Paper  Boxes,  &c. — Good 
wheat  flour,  sifted,  4  lbs.,  make  it  into  a  stiff  batter  Avith  cold  water 
in  a  pail,  beat  it  well  to  break  the  lumps,  then  add  pulverized  alu]n, 
2  ozs.  Into  this  pour  boiling  water,  hissing  hot  from  the  fire,  stirring 
the  batter  thoroughly  all  the  time.  As  it  cooks  it  swells  and  losesits 
white  color,  and  Avhen  cold,  will  make  about  |  of  a  pail  of  thick  paste. 
Thin  with  cold  Avater  to  adapt  it  for  easy  use  witli  the  brush.  For 
painted  or  A'arnished  walls,  add  ^  oz.,  pulverized  rosin  to  each  2  qts. 
jmste,  and  reduce  the  mass  Avith  thin  gum  arable  or  glue  water.  A 
little  pulverized  corrosive  sublimate  Avill  enhance  the  keeping  qualities 
of  paste,  but  alum  used  as  above  will  do  very  well. 

To  Remoa^e  Old  Paint. — Sal  soda,  2  lbs.  ;  lime,  ^  lb.  ;  hot  water, 
1  gal.  ;  rummage  all  together  and  apply  to  the  old  paint  while  warm. 
It  will  soon  loosen  the  paint  so  that  you  can  easily  remove  it.  Ano- 
ther simple  method  is  to  sponge  over  your  old  paint  Avith  benzine,  set 
it  on  the  fire,  and  you  can  then  flake  off  the  paint  as  quick  as  you  like. 
Do  not  attempt  to  go  over  too  much  surface  at  a  time,  otherwise  yon 
might  get  more  to  do  than  you  can  attend  to. 

Refuse  Paint  and  Paint  Skins. — Dissolve  sal  soda,  |  lb.,  in 
rain  Avater,  1  gal,  ;  cover  the  refuse  paint  for  2  days,  then  heat  it, 
adding  oil  to  reduce  it  to  a  i^roper  consistence  for  painting  and  strain- 
ing. 

Spirit  Graining  for  Oak.— Two  pounds  of  whiting,  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  gold  size,  thinned  doAvn  Avith  spirits  of  turpentine;  then 
tinge  your  whiting  with  Vandyke  brown  and  raw  sienna,  ground  fine. 
Strike  out  your  lights  with  a  fitch  dipped  in  turpentine,  tinged  with  a 
little  color  to  show  the  lights.  If  your  lights  do  not  appear  clear,  add 
a  little  more  turpentine.  Turpentine  varnish  is  a  good  substitute  for 
the  above  mentioned.  This  kind  of  graining  must  be  brushed  over 
with  beer,  Avith  a  clean  brush,  before  varnishing.  Strong  beer  must 
be  used  for  glazing  up  top-graining  and  shading. 

Oil  for  Graining  Oak. — Grind  Vandyke  broAvn  in  turpentine, 
add  as  much  gold  size  as  will  set,  and  as  much  soft  soap  as  will  make 
it  stand  the  comb.  Should  it  set  too  quickly,  add  a  little  boiled  oil. 
Put  a  teaspoonful  of  gold  size  to  half  a  pint  of  turpentine,  and  as 
much  soap  as  Avill  lie  on  a  tAventy-five  cent  piece,  then  take  a  little 
soda  mixed  with  water  and  take  out  the  veins. 

To  Prepare  the  Ground  for  Oak  Rollers.— Stain  your  white 
lead  with  raw  sicima  and  red  lead,  or  with  chrome  yellow  and  Veue- 


264    CAniNETMAKEr.s,  painters',  &c,,  receipts. 

tianrcd;  thin  it  with  oil  .ind  turps,  jvnd  strain  for  use.  When  tho 
ground  work  is  dry,  grind  in  beer,  Vandyke  brown,  Avliiting  and  a 
little  burnt  sienna,  for  tlie  graining  color;  or  you  may  use  raw  sienna 
with  a  little  whiting,  umbers,  &c. 

To  Imitate  Oli>  Oak. — To  make  an  exceedingly  rich  color  for  tlie 
imitation  of  old  oak,  tlie  ground  is  a  composition  of  stone  ochre  or 
orange  chrome  and  burnt  sienna;  the  graining  color  is  burnt  umber 
or  Vandyke  brown,  to  darlcen  it  a  little.  Observe  that  tlio  above 
colors  must  be  used  whether  the  imitation  is  in  oil  or  distemper. 
AVhen  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Old  Oak,  ix  Oil.— Grind  Vandj-kc  and  whiting  in 
turi^entine,  add  a  bit  of  common  soap  to  make  it  stand  the  comb,  and 
thin  it  with  boiled  oil. 

To  Imitate  Pollard  Oak. — ^Thc  ground  color  is  prepared  with  a 
mixture  of  chrome  yellow,  vermilion,  and  white  lead,  to  a  rich  light 
buH.  The  graining  colors  are  Vandyke  brown  and  small  portions  of 
raw  and  burnt  sienna  and  lake  ground  in  ale  or  beer.  Fill  a  largo 
tool  with  color,  spread  over  the  surface  to  be  grained,  and  soften  with 
tl^e  badger  hair  brush.  Take  a  moistened  sponge  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  and  dapple  roimd  and  round  in  kind  of  Icnobs,  then  soften 
very  lightly;  then  draw  a  softener  from  one  set  of  knobs  to  the  other 
while  Avet,  to  form  a  multiplicity  of  grains,  and  finish  the  laiots  with 
a  hair  pencil,  in  some  places  in  thicker  clusters  than  others.  When 
dry  put  the  top  grain  on  in  a  variety  of  directions,  and  varnish  with 
turps  and  gold  size;  then  glaze  up  with  Vandyke  and  strong  ale.  To 
finish,  varnish  with  copal. 

To  Imitate  Mottled  ]MAnoGA>"r.— The  ground  is  prepared  with 
the  best  English  Venetian  red,  red  lead,  and  a  small  portion  of  white 
lead.  Tke  graining  colors  are  bunit  sienna,  ground  in  ale,  with  a 
small  portion  of  Vandyke  brown,  sufficient  to  take  away  the  fiery  ap- 
pearance of  the  sienna.  Cover  the  surface  to  be  grained,  soften  with 
the  badger  hair  brush,  and  while  wet  take  a  mottling-roller  and  go 
over  the  lights  a  second  time,  in  order  to  give  a  variety  of  shade,  then 
blend  the  whole  of  the  work  with  the  badger  softener.  Put  the  top 
grain  on  with  the  same  color.   AVhen  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Rosewood. — Mix  vermilion  and  a  small  quantity  of 
white  lead  for  tho  ground.  Take  rose  pink,  tinged  witli  a  littlo 
lampblack,  or  Vandyke  brown,  and  grind  very  fine  in  oil,  then  tako 
n  flat  graining  brush,  with  the  hairs  cut  away  at  unequal  distinccs, 
and  cut  down  the  grain  as  if  wendmg  round  a  knot  When  nearly 
dry,  take  a  graining  comb  that  is  used  for  oak,  and  draw  down  tho 
grain.  This  wiirgive  it  the  appearance  of  nature.  When  dry, 
vamish.  Another. — The  groimd  color  is  prepared  with  vermilion 
and  small  quantities  of  white  lead  and  crimson  lake.  When  tho 
ground  is  dry  and  made  very  smooth,  take  Vandyke  brown,  ground 
in  oil,  and  with  a  small  tool  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  in  dif- 
ferent directions  forming  kind  of  knots.  Before  the  work  is  dry,  take 
a  piece  of  leather,  and  with  great  freedom  strike  out  the  light  veins; 
having  previously  prepared  tlie  darkest  tint  of  Vandyke  brown,  or 
gum  asphaltum,  immediately  take  the  flat  graining  brush  with  few 
hairs  in  it,  draw  the  grain  over  the  work  and  soften.  When  varnished, 
the  imitation  will  be  excellent. 

Another  Rosewood  Imitation  in  Size.— Mix  Venetian  red, 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTERS',  &C.,  EECEirTS.  265 

white  lead  powder,  vermilion  and  common  size,  the  consistency  of 
which,  when  cold,  must  be  tliat  of  a  weak  trembling  jelly.  With 
this  comi^osition  paint  the  work  twice  over.  When  the  ground  is  dry, 
take  some  lampblack,  finely  ground  in  beer,  and  beat  the  white  of  an 
egg  mto  it;  take  the  flat  graining  brush,  dipped  in  the  black,  and  put 
on  the  grain.  When  dry,  stain  the  first  coat  of  varnish  witli  roso 
pink,  finely  groimd  in  turpentine,  and  finish  the  work  by  giving  it  a 
coat  of  clear  varnish 

To  Imitate  Bird's-eye  Maple.— The  groimd  is  a  light  buff,  pre- 
pared with  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  little  vermilion  or  Eng- 
lish Venetian  red,  to  take  off  the  rawness  of  the  yellow.  The  grain- 
ing color  is  equal  parts  of  raw  umber  aud  sienna  ground  in  oil  to  the 
proper  consistency.  Spread  the  surface  of  the  work  with  this  color, 
and,  having  some  of  the  same  prepared  a  little  thicker,  immediately 
take  a  sash  tool  or  sponge,  and  put  on  the  dark  shades,  and  soften 
with  the  badger' s-hair  brush  before  the  color  is  dry  put  on  the  eyes 
"by  dabbing  the  dotting  machine  on  the  work.  When  dry,  put  on  the 
grain  with  the  camel' s-hair  pencil  on  the  prominent  parts,  to  imitate 
the  small  hearts  of  the  wood.   When  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Curled  Maple.— Prepare  a  light  yellow  for  the 
ground,  by  raixmg  chrome  yelloAV  and  white  lead,  tinged  with  Vene- 
tian red.  The  graining  color  is  a  mixture  of  equal  portions  of  raw 
sienna  and  Vandyke,  ground  in  ale;  spread  the  surface  to  be  grained 
in  an  even  manner;  then  with  a  piece  of  cork  rub  across  the  Avork  to 
and  fro,  to  form  the  grains  which  run  across  the  wood.  When  dry, 
varnish. 

Curled  Maple  ix  Oil,  for  Outside  Work. — Prepare  a  rich 
ground  by  mixing  chrome  yellow,  white  lead  and  burnt  sienna.  For 
the  graining  color,  grind  equal  parts  of  raw  sienna  and  umber  with  a 
little  burnt  copperas  in  turpentine,  aud  mix  with  a  small  quantity  of 
grainer's  cream.  Thin  the  color  with  boiled  oil;  then  fill  a  tool  and 
spread  the  surface  even,  and  rub  out  the  lights  with  the  sharp  edge 
of  a  piece  of  buff  leather,  which  must  now  and  then  be  wiped  to  keep 
it  clean;  soften  the  edges  of  the  work  very  lightly,  and  when  dry, 
put  on  the  top  grain  with  burnt  umber  and  raw  sienna,  ground  in  ale, 
with  the  white  of  an  egg  beat  mto  it.    When  dry,  varnish. 

Satinwood. — ^This  ground  is  prepared  with  white  lead,  stone  ochre, 
and  small  quantities  of  chrome  yellow  aud  burnt  sienna.  The  grain- 
ing color  is  one-third  of  raw  sienna  and  whiting,  ground  in  pale  ale, 
very  thin;  then  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  to  be  grained. 
While  wet,  soften,  and  have  ready  a  wet  roller  or  mottling  brush,  in 
order  to  take  out  the  lights;  blend  the  whole  with  the  badger's-hair 
brush.  AVhen  the  work  is  dry,  take  the  flat  brush,  and  with  the  same 
color,  put  on  the  top  again.   When  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Yeav  Tree.— The  ground  is  a  reddish  buff.  For  the 
graining  color  grind  in  ale"  equal  portions  of  Vandyke  brown  and 
burnt  sienna,  with  a  smaU  quantity  of  raw  sienna.  When  the  ground 
is  dry,  spread  the  surface  even  with  the  color,  and  soften;  then  with 
a  piece  of  cork  with  a  sharp  edge,  rub  the  work  cross  and  cross  in 
order  to  form  the  fine  grain.  When  dry,  dip  the  tip  of  your  fingers 
in  the  graining  color  to  form  the  eyes  or  knots,  and  put  in  the  small 
touches  with  a  camel' s-hair  pencil.  When  dry,  put  on  the  top  grain, 
and  when  this  is  dry,  varnish. 


266     CABINETMAKERS,  TAIXTIIRS',  .tC,  RFX'KirTS. 


To  TmTATR  Br.AGiv  axt>  Gold  Marklk.— Tin;*  description  of 
marble  is  now  in  great  dciiuincl.  Tlie  ground  is  a  deep  jet  black,  or  a 
dead  color,  in  gold  size,  drop  black  and  tiiri).s:  second  coat,  black 
japan.  Commoncc  vcining;  mix  Avhito  and  yellow  ochre  with  a  small 
quantity  of  vermilion  to  give  a  gold  tinge;  dip  the  pencil  in  this  color, 
and  dab  on  the  ground  with  great  freedom  some  large  ]xitchc.s,  from 
which  small  threads  must  be  drawn  in  various  directions.  In  tho 
deepest  parts  of  the  black,  a  white  vein  is  sometimes  seen  running 
with  a  great  number  of  small  veins  attaclied  to  it;  but  care  must  bo 
talcen  that  these  threads  are  connected  with,  and  rim  in  some  degree 
in  the  same  direction  with  the  thicker  veins.  If  durability  is  not  an 
object  and  the  work  is  required  in  a  short  time,  it  may  bo  executed 
very  quick  iu  distemper  colors,  and  wlieu  varnished,  it  will  look 
well. 

Ked  Mar"bi,-e. — ^For  the  ground,  put  on  a  white  tinged  with  lake  or 
vermilion;  then  apply  deep  rich  reds  in  patches,  filling  up  the  inter- 
mediate spaces  with  broAm  and  white  mbced  in  oil ;  then  blend  them 
together;  if  in  quick  dryhig  colors,  use  about  lialf  turps  and  gold 
size.  When  dry,  varnish ;  and  while  the  varnish  is  wet,  put  in  a 
multitude  of  tlie  fine  white  threads,  crossing  the  whole  work  iu  all 
directions,  as  the  wet  varnish  brings  the  pencil  to  a  fine  point. 

Jaspeii  Makble. — Put  on  a  Avhitc  ground  lightly  tinged  with  blue; 
then  i)ut  on  patches  of  rich  reds  or  rose  i)ink,  leaving  spaces  of  tho 
■white  grounds;  then  i)artly  cover  those  spaces  Avith  various  browns 
to  form  fossils,  iu  places  running  veins ;  then  put  in  a  few  spots  of 
white  in  the  centre  of  some  of  the  red  i^atches,  and  leaving  iu  X)lacC3 
masses  nearly  all  white.   "When  dry,  use  the  clearest  varnish. 

Blue  and  Gold  Marble. — For  the  ground  put  oua  light  Wuo; 
then  lake  blue,  with  a  small  ijiece  of  white  lead  and  some  dark  com- 
mon blue,  and  dab  on  the  ground  on  patches,  leaving  portions  of  tho 
ground  to  shine  between ;  then  blend  the  edges  together  with  duster 
or  softener;  afterwards  draw  on  some  Avhite  veins  in  every  direction, 
leaving  large  opea  spaces  to  be  filled  up  with  a  pale  yelloAV  or  gold- 
paint;  finish  with  some  fine  white  rimuing  threads,  and  a  coat  of 
varnish  at  last. 

To  Imitate  GRAmTE, — For  the  ground  color,  gtiiin  your  wliito 
lead  to  a  light  lead  color,  with  lampblack  and  a  little  rose  ])iuk. 
Throw  on  black  spots,  with  a  graniting  machine,  a  pale  red^  and  fill  up 
■with  white  before  the  ground  is  dry. 

Another. — A  black  ground,  when  half  dry,  throw  in  vermilion,  a 
deep  yellow  and  white  spots. 

To  Imitate  Hair  Wood.— For  the  ground  color,  take  white  lead 
and  thin  it  with  turi^entine,  and  slightly  stain  it  with  equal  quantities 
of  Prussian  blue  and  lampblack.  For  the  graining  color,  grind  in  alo 
a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna;  when  the  ground  is  dry, 
epread  a  transparent  coat  of  the  graining  color  on  the  surface  of  the 
Avork,  and  soften;  then  with  the  cork,  mottle  by  rubbing  it  to  aiid 
fro  across  the  work,  to  form  the  fine  long  grain  or  mottle.  When 
this  is  done,  soften  and  top  grain  in  wavy  but  perpendicular  direc- 
tions; varnish  when  dry. 

Substitute  for  White  Lead.— Sulphate  of  Imrytes  ground  in  oil 
and  applied  like  paint.  It  can  also  bo  used  to  reduco  white  lead  ta 
any  desired  extent. 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  267 


Paint  for  Black  Boards  in  Schools.— Common  glue,  4  oz. ; 
fiourof  emerj^  3  oz. ;  aud  just  lampblack  enough  to  give  an  inky 
color  to  the  preparation.  Dissolve  tlio  glue  in  5  qt.  of  -warm  water, 
l)ut  in  the  lampblack  and  emery,  stir  till  there  are  no  lurap.s,  then 
apply  to  the  board  Avith  a  woollen  rag  .smoothly  rolled.  Three  coats 
are  amply  sufficient. 

Compound  Ikox  Paint. — ^Finely  pulverized  iron  filings,  1  part; 
brick  dust,  1  part;  and  ashes,  1  part.  Pour  over  them  glue-wafer  or 
size,  set  the  whole  near  the  fire,  and,  when  warm,  stir  tbem  well 
together.  With  this  paint  cover  all  the  wood  work  which  may  bo  in 
danger;  when  dry,  give  a  second  coat,  and  the  wood  will  bo  rendered 
incombustible. 

Filling  Coimpositions— 12  kintds.— 1.  Work  finished  in  oil  should 
receive  a  substantial  filling  consisting  of  equal  parts  by  Avcight  of 
whiting,  i)laster  of  Paris,  pumice-stone,  and  litharge,  to  whicii  may 
he  added  a  little  Prencli  yellow,  asphaltum,  Vandyke  brown,  and 
terra  di  sienna.  Mix  with  1  part  japan,  2  of  boiled  oil,  and  4  of  tur- 
pentine. Grind  fine  in  a  mill.  Lay  the  filling  on  with  a  brush,  rub 
it  in  well,  let  it  set  20  minutes,  then  rub  off  clean.  Let  it  harden  for 
some  time,  rub  smooth,  and  if  required,  repeat  the  process.  When 
the  filling  is  all  right,  finish  with  linseed  oil,  applying  with  a  brush, 
wipe  off,  and  rub  to  a  polish  with  fine  cotton,  and  finish  with  any  fine 
fabric.  Some  fill  with  rye  flour,  wheat  flour,  corn  starch,  Paris 
white,  &c.,  ground  fine  in  oil  and  turpentine,  but  when  work  is  to  bo 
varnished,  such  filling  should  previously  receive  one  or  two  good 
coats  of  shellac.  2.  lioiled  linseed  oil,  1  qt. ;  turpentine:  3  qts. ;  corn 
starch,  5  lbs. ;  japan,  1  qt. ;  calcined  magnesia,  2  oz.  Mix  thorouglil}'. 
3.  AVhiting,  6  ozs. ;  Japan,  ^-  i^t. ;  boiled  linseed  oil,  ^  pt. ;  turpen- 
tine, ^  pt. ;  corn  starclj,  1  oz. :  mix  well  together  and  apply  to  the 
wood.  On  walnut  wood  add  a  little  burnt  umber;  on  cherry  a  little 
Venetian  red,  to  the  above  mixture.  4.  On  furniture  apply  a  coat  of 
lioiled  linseed  oil,  then  immediately  sprinkle  dry  whiting  upon  it,  and 
run  it  in  well  with  your  hand  or  a  stiff  brush,  all  over  the  surface; 
the  whiting  absorbs  the  oil,  and  fills  tlie  pores  of  the  wood  completely. 
For  black  walnut,  add  a,  littlo  burned  umber  to  the  whiting;  for 
cherry,  a  little  Venetian  red,  &c.,  according  to  the  color  of  the  wood. 
Turned  work  can  have  it  applied  while  in  motion  in  the  latlie.  Furni- 
ture can  afterwards  be  finished  witli  only  one  coat  of  varnish.  5.  Ter- 
ra alba  is  a  very  good  and  very  cheap  filling.  JNIany  painters  have 
been  most  shamefully  imposed  on  by  parties  selling  the  stuff  at  a  high 
price.  6.  Furniture  Pastes. — Beeswax,  spts.  turpentine  and  linseed 
oil,  equal  parts;  melt  and  cool.  7.  Beeswax,  4  ozs.;  turpentine,  10 
ozs.;  alkanetroot  to  color;  melt  and  strain.  8.  Beeswax,  1  lb.;  lin- 
seed oil,  5  ozs. ;  alkanet  root,  ^  oz.,  melt  and  add  5  ozs.  turpentine, 
strain  and  cool.    9.  Beeswax,  4  ozs. ;  rosin,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  tui^:)entine, 

2  ozs. ;  digest  until  sufficiently  colored,  then  add  beeswax  till  dissolved, 
then  add  beeswax  scraped  small,  4  ozs. ;  put  the  vessel  into  hot  water, 
and  stir  till  dissolved.  If  wanted  j)a?(3  the  alkanet  root  should  be 
omitted.  10.  (White.)  White  wax,  1  lb.;  liquor  of  potassa,  ^  gal.; 
boil  to  a  proper  consistency.  11.  Beeswax,  1  lb. ;  soap,  ^  lb. ;  pearlash, 

3  ozs.,  dissolved  in  water,  ^  gal. ;  strain  and  boil  as  tlie  last.  12.  Yel- 
low wax,  18  parts;  rosin,  1  part;  alkanet  root,  1  part;  turpentine,  6 
parts;  linseed  oil  6  parts.   First  steep  the  alkanet  in  oil  with  heat, 


268    CAniNETMAKERS,  PAIXTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

rnd, -nlicn -well  colored,  pour  off  the  clear  on  llio  other  ingredients, 
and  .'isain  heat  till  all  avo  dissolved.  13.  l'\(rnUure  Cream. — Bees- 
Avax,  lib.;  soap,  4  ozs. ;  pearlash,  2  ozs. ;  soft  water,  1  gal.,  boil  to- 
gether until  mixed. 

To  liKi'Aiii  THE  SiiA-ERixo  OF  IMmRORS.— Ponr  npon  a  sheet  of 
tin  foil  3  drs.  of  quicksilver  to  the  square  foot  of  foil.  Kub  smartly 
■with  a  piece  of  buckskin  until  the  foil  becomes  brilliant.  Lay  tho 
glass  npon  a  flat  table,  face  downwards,  place  tho  foil  upon  tho 
damaged  portion  of  tho  glass,  lay  a  sheet  of  paper  over  tho  foil,  and 
place  Upon  it  a  block  of  wood  or  a  piece  of  marble  with  a  perfectly 
flat  surface;  put  upon  it  sufflcient  Aveight  to  press  it  down  tight;  let  it 
remain  iu  this  position  a  few  hours.  The  foil  will  adhere  to  tho 
glass. 

Pencils  for  Wkitixg  on  Glass.— Stearic  acid,  4  pts.;  mutton- 
suet,  3  pts. ;  wax  2  pts ;  melt  together  and  add  G  pai-ts  of  red  lead,  and 
1  pt.  purified  carbonate  of  potassa,  previously  triturated  together;  set 
aside  for  an  hour  in  a  warm  situation,  stirring  frequently;  then  pour 
into  glass  tubes  or  hollow  reeds. 

Polishes— 15  kinds.— 1.  Carvers'  Polish.— V>lnt(i  resin,""  2  oz. ; 
gecdlac,  2  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  1  pt.  Dissolve.  It  should  bo  laid  on 
warm.  Avoid  moisture  and  dampness  when  used.  2.  French  Polish. 
— Gum  shellac,  1  oz. ;  gum  arable,  |  oz. ;  gum  copal,  ^  oz.  Powder, 
and  sift  through  a  piece  of  muslin;  put  them  in  a  closely  corked  bot- 
tle with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  in  a  very  warm  situation,  shaking  every 
day  till  the  gums  are  dissolved ;  then  strain  through  muslin,  and  cork 
lor  use.  3.  Polish  for  DarTc-colorecl  Woods. — Seedlac,  1  oz. ;  gum 
guaiacum,  2  drs. ;  dra,gon's  blood,  2  drs. ;  gum  mastic,  2  drs. ;  put  in 
a  bottle  with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  cork  close,  expose  to  a  moderato 
heat  till  the  gums  are  dissolved ;  strain  into  a  bottle  for  use,  with  J 
gill  of  linseed  oil;  shako  together.  4.  Waterproof  Polish. — Gum 
benjamin,  2  ozs. ;  gum  sandarac,  f  oz. ;  gum  anima,  J  oz. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  1  pt. ;  mix  in  a  closely  stopped  bottle,  and  place  either  in  a  sand 
bath  or  in  hot  water  till  tho  gums  are  dissolved,  then  strain  off  tho 
mixture,  shake  it  up  with  ^  gill  of  tho  best  clear  poppy  oil,  and  put  it 
by  for  use.  5.  Finishinrj  Polish. — Gum  shellac,  2  drs. ;  gum  benja- 
min, 2  drs. ;  put  into  ^  pt.  best  rectified  spirits  of  wine  in  a  bottlo 
closely  corked;  keep  m  warm placo,  shaking  frequently  till  the  gums 
are  dissolved.  When  cold,  shake  up  with  it  two  teaspoonf  uls  of  the  best 
clear  poppy  oil.  6.  Polish  for  Eemoving  Stains,  Spots,  and  Mildeio 
from  Furniture. — Take  of  98  per  cent,  alcohol,  $  pint;  pulverized 
icsin  and  gum  shellac,  of  each,  ^oz.  Let  these  cut  in  tho  alcohol; 
then  add  Ihiseed  oil,  |  pt. ;  shako  well,  and  apply  with  a  sponge, 
brush,  or  cotton  flannel,  or  an  old  newspaper,  rubbing  it  well  after 
the  application,  which  gives  a  nice  polish.  7.  Polish  for  RevivinQ 
Old  Furniture. — Take  alcohol,  1^  oz. ;  spirits  of  salts  (muriatic  acid), 
\  oz. ;  linseed  oil,  8  oz, ;  best  vinegar,  ^  pt. ;  and  butter  of  antimony, 
l.^oz. ;  mix,  i>utting  in  tho  vinegar  last.  8.  Jet  or  Polish  for  Wood 
or  Leather,  Black,  Red,  or  Blue. — Alcohol  (98  per  cent.),  1  pt. ;  sealing 
wax,  the  color  desired,  3  sticks;  dissolve  by  heat,  and  have  it  warm 
wlien  applied.  A  sponge  is  the  best  to  appljr  it  with.  9.  Polish  for 
Turners'  WorJc. — Dissolve  sandarac,  1  oz.,  in  spirit  of  wine,  |  pt; 
next  shave  beeswax,  1  oz. ;  and  dissolve  it  in  a  sufTicient  quantity  of 
Bpiiits  of  turpcntinG  to  make  it  into  a  paste,  add  tho  former  mixture 


CAIilXETilAKEKS,  TAINTERS'.  »tC.,  RECEIPTS.  269 

by  degrees  to  it,  then  witli  a  woolen  cloth  apply  it  to  the  -vrork  while  it 
is  in  motionln  the  lathe,  and  with  a  soft  linen  rag  polish  it.  It  wil 
appear  as  if  highly  varnished.  10.  Furniture  Polish. — Beeswax,  \ 
lb.,  and  :i  of  an  oz.  of  alkanet  root;  melt  together  in  a  pipkin  until 
the  former  is  well  colored.  Then  add  linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, of  each  lialf  a  gill;  strain  through  a  piece  of  coarse  muslin. 
11.  French  Polishes. — 1.  Shellac,  3  lbs. ;  Avood  naphtha,  3  pts. ;  dis- 
solve. 2.  Shellac,  2  lbs. ;  powdered  mastic  and  sandarac,  of  each  1 
oz.;  copal  varnish,  ^pint;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gal.  Digest  in  the  cold 
till  dissolved.  12.  Black  Walnut  Polish. — ^I'ake  pulverized  asphal- 
tum;  put  it  in  ajar  or  bottle,  pour  over  it  about  twice  its  bulk  of  tur- 
pentine or  benzole,  put  in  a  Avarm  place,  and  shake  oocasionally; 
when  dissolved,  strain,  and  apply  it  to  the  wood  with  a  cloth  or  stiff 
brush;  should  it  j)rove  too  dark,  dilute  with  turpentine  or  benzole. 
If  desired  to  bring  out  the  grain  stiU.  more,  apply  a  mixture  of  boiled 
oil  and  turpentine ;  this  is  better  than  oil  alone  When  the  oil  is  dry, 
the  wood  can  be  i^olished  with  the  following:  shellac  varnish,  2  parts, 
boiled  oil,  1  part ;  shake  it  well  before  using  Apply  with  a  cloth,  rub- 
bing briskly  13.  To  PolishWoocl. — Take  apiece  of  pumice-stone  and 
water,  and  pass  repeatedly  over  the  work  until  the  rising  of  the  grain 
is  cut  down.  Then  take  powdered  tripoli  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  and 
polish  the  work  to  a  bright  surface  14.  Clock  Case  and  Picture 
Frame  Finish. — Copal  varnish,  2  lbs. ;  linseed  oil  varnish,  ^  oz. ;  mix 
well,  shake  often,  and  place  in  a  warm  spot  The  wood  to  be  var- 
nished is  prepared  with  a  thin  coat  of  glue- water,  and  rubbed  down 
with  fine  pumice-stone  or  something  equivalent  In  light-colored 
wood,  a  light  pigment,  such  as  chalk,  is  added  to  the  giue-water; 
in  dark  wood,  a  dark  pigment  is  added  When  ready,  the  articles  aro 
varnished  with  the  above  mLstnre,  and,  after  drying,  rubbed  with  a 
eolation  of  Avax  in  ether,  thereby  receiving  a  high  polish  15  White 
Polish  for  White  Woods. — ^\Vhite  bleached  shellac,  3  ozs. ;  whito 
gum  benzoin,  1  oz. ;  gum  sandarac,  ^  oz. ;  spirits  of  wino  or  nai)htha, 
1  pt.  Dissolve. 

Oil  Finishes.— 1.  Linseed  oil,  IG  ozs. ;  blackresin,  4ozs. ;  vinegar, 
4  ozs. ;  rectified  spirits,  3  ozs. ;  butter  of  antimony,  10  ozs. ;  spirit  of 
tsalts,  2  ozs. ;  melt  the  resin,  add  the  oil,  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  stir  iu 
the  vinegar;  let  it  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  stirring  it;  when  cool,  put 
it  into  a  bottle,  add  the  other  ingredients,  shaking  all  together.  2. 
Linseed  oil,  1  pt. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  |  pt. ;  rectified  spirits,  4  ozs. ;  pow- 
dered resin,  1|  oz. ;  rose  pink,  ^  oz. ;  mix.  3.  Acetic  acid,  2  drs. ;  oil 
of  lavender,  ^  dr. ;  rectified  spirits,  1  dr. ;  linseed  oil,  4  ozs.  4.  Linseed 
oil,  1  pt. ;  alkanet  root,  2  ozs. ;  heat,  strain,  and  add  lac  varnish,  1  oz. 
5.  Linseed  oil,  1  pt, ;  rectified  spirits,  2  ozs. ;  butter  of  antimony,  4  ozs. 
C.  Linseed  oil,  1  gal. ;  alkanet  root,  3  ozs. ;  rose  pink,  1  oz.  Boil  them 
together  ten  minutes,  and  strain  so  that  the  oil  be  quite  clear. 

Fancy  Figures  on  Wood.— Slake  some  lime  in  stale  urine.  Dip 
a  brush  in  it,  and  form  on  tlie  wood  figures  to  suit  your  fancy.  When 
dry,  rub  it  well  with  a  rind  of  pork. 

Stains  for  Wood.— 1.  Cheap  Black  Walnut  Stain.— T^wvwt  um- 
ber, 2  parts;  rose  pink,  1  part;  glue,  1  part;  water  suflicient;  heat  all 
together  and  dissolve  completely,  apply  to  the  work  first  with  a 
sponge,  then  go  over  it  with  a  brush,  and  varnish  over  with  shellac. 
2.  Ebony  Btain. — Drop  black,  2  parts;  rose  pink,  Ipart;  turpentine,  a 


270     CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

Bufncieiit  qnantity,  0.  Briqlit  Tdloio  t^lain. — 1.  BniBliovcrATiUi  tlio 
tinctui'o  ()[  tiinneric.  4.  "Warm  tlio  work,  and  Lrnsh  it  over  v.-itli  \vc;ik 
aquiilorUs;  viiniish  or  oil  us  usual.  5.  A  very  small  bit  of  aloOHi)ut 
into  the  varnish  ^vill  givo  Ji  rich  yellow  color  to  tlie  Avood.  G.  J'Jxtm 
Jilack  Stain  for  Wood. — Pour  2  quarts  boiling  water  over  1  oz.  of 
powdered  extract  of  logwood,  and,  Avheu  the  solution  Is  affected,  Idr. 
of  yellow  chromate  of  potash  is  added,  and  the  Avholo  Avell  stirred. 
It  is  then  ready  for  use  as  a  wood-stain,  or  for  writing  ink.  AYhcu 
rubbed  on  wood,  it  produces  a  pure  black.  Ilepeat  witli  2,  3,  or  4 
npplications,  till  a  deep  black  is  in-odnced,  7.  Imitation  of  Mahofjany. 
Let  the  first  coat  of  painting  bo  Avhito  lead,  the  second  orange,  aiid 
the  last  burnt  umber  or  sicuna  :  imitating  the  veins  according  to  your 
taste  and  practice.  8.  To  Imitate  Wainscot. — Let  the  lirst  coat  bo 
white;  the  second,  half  white  and  yellow  oclirc;  and  the  third,  yellow 
ochre  only,  shadow  with  nmbcr  or  sienna.  9.  2b  Imitate  Satin 
Wood. — Take  v.'hite  for  your  first  coating,  light  blue  for  the  second, 
and  dark  blue  or  dark  green  for  the  third  lo.  liosevjood  Stain,  very 
bright  shade — Used  Cold. — Take  alcohol,  1  gal.;  camwood,  2  oz. ; 
set  them  in  a  warm  place  24:  honrs ;  then  add  extract  of  logwood,  3 
oz. ;  aquafortis,  1  oz,  ;  and  when  dissolved,  it  is  ready  for  nse;  it 
makes  a  very  bright  ground  like  tlio  most  beautiful  rosewood; 
1,  2,  or  more  coats  as  you  desire.  11.  Cherry  Stain. — Rain  water,  3 
qts. ;  annatto,  4  oz. ;  boil  in  a  copper  kettle  till  the  annatto  is  dis- 
solved, then  put  in  a  piece  of  potash  the  size  of  a  walnut;  keep  it  on 
the  fire  abont  half  an  hour  longer,  and  it  is  ready  to  bottle  for  nse, 
12.  lioscivood  Stain,  very  bright  shade. — Equal  parts  of  logwood  and 
redwood  chips,  boil  well  in  water  sufficient  to  make  a  strong  stain ; 
apply  it  to  the  fui'niture  while  hot;  2  or  3  coats  according  to  the  depth 
of  color  desired,  13,  Rose  Pinlc  Stain  and  Varnish. — Put  1  oz,  of 
2">otash  in  1  qt.  water,  with  red  panders,  1.^  ozs. ;  extract  the  color  from 
the  wood  and  strain  :  then  add  gum  shellac,  Jib.,  dissolve  it  by  a 
brisk  fire.  Used  npou  logwood  stain  for  rosewood  imitation,  14. 
JJlue  Stain  for  Wood.  1.  Dissolve  copper  filings  in  aquafortis,  brush 
the  wood  with  it,  and  then  go  over  the  work  with  a  hot  solution  of 
pearlash  (2  oz,  to  1  pt.  of  writer)  till  it  assumes  a  perfectly  blue  color. 
15.  Boil  2  ozs,  of  indigo,  2  lbs,  wood,  and  1  oz.  alum,  in  1  gal.  water, 
brush  well  over  until  thoroughly  stained.  IG.  Imitation  of  Botany^ 
Bay  Wood. — Boil  J  lb.  Frelich  berries  (the  tinripo  berries  of  tho 
lihamnus  infectorius)  in  2  qts.  water  till  of  a  deep  yellow,  and  whilo 
boilhig  hot,  give  2  or  3  coats  to  the  work.  If  a  deeper  color  is  desired, 
give  a  coat  of  logwood  decoction  over  the  yellow,  "\Vhc]i  nearly  dry, 
form  the  grain  with  No,  8,  black  stain,  used  hot,  and,  when  dry,  rust 
and  varnish.  17,  Mahogany  Color — Dark. — 1.  Boil  4  HJ-  of  madder 
and  2  ozs.  logwood  chips  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  brush  well  over 
•while  hot;  when  dry  go  over  the  whole  with  pearlash  solution,  2 
drs.  to  the  quart,  2,  Put  2  ozs,  dragon's  blood,  bruised,  into  a  quart 
of  oil  of  turi^entine ;  let  the  bottle  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  fre- 
quently, and,  when  dissolved,  steep  the  work  in  the  mixture.  18. 
Box-icood  Broivn  Stain. — Hold  j^our  work  to  the  fire,  that  it  may  re- 
ceive a  gentle  warmth ;  then  take  aquafortis,  and,  with  a  feather, 
pass  it  over  the  work  till  you  find  it  change  to  a  fine  brown  (always 
keeping  it  near  the  fire),  you  may  then  varnish  or  polish  it.  19. 
Light  lied  Brown.   Boil  ^  lb.  madder  and  |  lb.  fustic  in  1  gal.  water: 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEKS',  &C.,  EECEirTS.  271 

brush  over  the  vrork,  when  boihng  hot,  until  properly  stained.  20. 
TJxe  surface  of  the  work  being  quite  smooth,  brush  over  witli  a  weak 
solution  of  aquafortis,  ^  oz.  to  the  pinfc;  tlien  finish  with  tlie  follow- 
ing :— Put  42  ozs.  dragon's  blood  and  1  oz.  soda,  both  well  bruised,  to 

3  pts  spirits  of  wme,  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently, 
strain  and  lay  on  with  a  soft  brush,  repeatmg  ruitil  of  a  proper  color; 
polish  with  linseed  oil  or  varnish.  21.  Furple. — Brusli  the  work 
several  times  with  the  logwood  decoction  used  for  No.  G  Black ;  and, 
when  dry,  give  a  coat  of  pearlash  solution,  1  dr.  to  a  quart;  lay  it  on 
evenly.  22.  lied. — 1.  Boil  1  lb.  Brazil  wood  and  1  oz.  pearlash  in  a 
gal.  of  water ;  and,  while  hot,  brush  over  the  work  imtil  of  a  proper 
color.  Dissolve  2  ozs.  alum  iu  1  qt.  water,  and  brush  the  solution 
over  the  work  before  it  dries,  23.  Take  a  gallon  of  the  above  stain, 
add  2  ozs.  more  pearlash ;  use  hot,  and  brush  over  with  the  alum 
solution.  24.  Use  a  cold  solution  of  archil^  and  brush  over  with  the 
pearlash  solution  for  iVo.  1,  Dark  mahogany.  25.  Mahcgany  Stain  on 
Wood,. — Take  nitric  acid,  dilute  with  10  parts  of  water,  and  wash  the 
wood  with  it.  To  produce  rosewood  finish,  glaze  the  same  with  car- 
mine of  Munich  lake.  Asphaltum,  thinned  with  turpentine,  forms  an' 
excellent  mahogany  color  on  new  work.  26.  Mahogany  Stain  on 
Maple. — Dragon's  blood,  ^  oz. ;  alkanet,  ^  oz. ;  aloes,  1  dr. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  16  ozs. ;  apply  it  with  a  sponge  or  brush.  27.  Crimson  Stain 
for  Musical  Instruments. — Ground  Brazil  wood,  lib.;  water,  3  qts.; 
cochmeal,  |  ounce;  boil  the  Brazil  with  the  w^ater  fbr  an  hour,  strain, 
add  the  cochineal;  boil  gently  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  wiU  be  fit  for 
use.  If  you  wish  a  scarlet  tint,  boil  an  ounce  of  saffron  in  a  quart  of 
water,  and  pass  over  the  work  before  you  stam  it.  28.  Purple  Stain. 
— Chipped  logwood,  1  lb. ;  water,  3  qts. ;  pearlash,  4  ounces;  powdered 
indigo,  2  ounces.  Boil  the  logwood  in  the  water  half  an  hour,  add 
the  pearlash  and  indigo,  and  when  dissolved,  you  will  ha,vc  a  beauti- 
ful purple.   29.  Green  Stain. — Strong  vinegar,  3  pts. ;  best  verdigris, 

4  ounces,  ground  fine ;  sap  green,  h  ounce ;  mix  together. 

Black  Stains  for  Wood. — 1  "Drop  a,  little  sulphuric  acid  into  a, 
small  quantity  of  water  ;  brush  over  the  wood  and  hold  it  to  the  firo  ; 
it  will  be  a  fine  black  and  receive  a  good  polish.  2.  For  a  beautiful 
black,  on  wood,  nothing  can  exceed  the  black  Japan  mentioned  under 
Tinsmiths'  Department.  Apply  two  coats  ;  after  which,  varnish  and 
polish  it,  3.  To  Igal  vinegar,  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  iron  rust ; 
let  it  stand  for  a  week  ;  then  add  a  pound  of  dry  lampblack,  and 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  copperas  ;  stir  it  up  for  a  couple  of  days. 
Lay  on  five  or  six  coats  with  a  sponge,  allowmg  it  to  dry  between 
each  ;  polish  with  linseed-oil  and  a  soit  woollen  rag,  and  it  will  look 
like  ebonv.  Incomparable  for  iron  work,  ships'  guns,  shot,  &:c,  4. 
Yinegar,  |gal ;  dry  lampblaclc,  ^Ib. ;  iron-rust  sifted,  3  lbs. :  mix  and 
let  stand  for  a  week.  Lay  three  coats  of  this  on  hot,  and  then  rub 
with  linseed  oil,  and  you  Avill  have  a  fine  deep  black.  6.  Add  to  the 
above  stain,  uut-galls,  1  oz:  ;  logwood-chips,  ^  lb. ;  copperas,  ^  lb.  ; 
lay  on  three  coats  ;  oil  well,  and  you  will  have  a  black  stain  that  v/ill 
stand  any  kind  of  weatlier,  and  is  well  adapted  for  ships'  combings, 
&c.  G.  Logwood-chips,  ^  lb. ;  Brazil-wood,  |  lb. ;  boil  for  1^  hours  in 
1  gal.  water.  Brush  the  wood  with  this  decoction  while  hot ;  make  a 
decoction  of  nut-galls,  by  gentle  simmermg,  for  three  or  four  days,  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  galls  in  3  qts.  water  ;  give  the  wood  three 


272  cabinj:tm.vki:us,  painters',  &c.,  RECEirxs. 

coats,  and,  while  vret,  lay  on  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (2  ozs,  to  a 
quart),  and,  -whoa  dry,  oil  or  varuisli.  7.  tiive  three  coats  with  a 
solution  of  copper  filings  in  aquafortis,  and  repeatedly  brush  over 
with  the  lo.uwood  decoction  luitil  the  greenness  of  the  copper  is 
destroyed.  8.  Boil  lb.  logwood-cliips  in  2  quarts  Avater  ;  add  an 
ounce  of  pcarlash,  and  ai)ply  hot  witli  a  brush.  Then  tal<e  2  qts.  of 
tlic  logwood  decoction,  and  ^  oz.  of  verdigris,  and  tlio  same  of  cop- 
peras ;  strain,  and  throw  iu  J  lb.  of  iron  rust.  Brush  the  work  well 
Avith  this,  and  oil. 

Black  Walnut  Stain.— Spirits  of  turpentine,  Igal.;  pulverized 
asphaltuui,  2  lbs. ;  dissolve  in  an  iron  kettle  on  a  stove,  stirring  cou- 
Btantly.  Can  be  used  over  a  red  stain  to  imitate  rosewood.  To  make 
a  perfect  black  add  a  little  lampblack.  The  addition  of  a  little  varnish 
with  the  turpentine  improves  it. 

Crystal  Vaknish,  for  Maps,  &c.— Canada  balsam,  1  oz.  ;  spirits 
of  turpentine,  2  oz.  ;  mix  together.  Before  applying  this  vaniish  to 
a  drawing  or  colored  print,  the  paper  should  be  placed  on  a  stretcher, 
and  sized  with  a  thin  solution  of  isinglass  in  water,  and  dried.  Apply 
with  a  soft  camel' s-hair  brush. 

To  EbojStize  Wood. — Mix  up  a  strong  stain  of  copperas  and  log- 
wood, to  which  add  powdered  nut-gall.  Stain  your  wood  with  this 
solution,  dry,  rub  down  well,  oil,  then  use  French  polish  made  toler- 
ably dark  with  indigo  or  finely  powdered  stone  blue. 
\  Miscellaneous  Stains. — Yelloio  is  produced  by  diluted  nitric 
acid.  Red  is  produced  by  a  solution  of  dragon's  blood  iu  spirits  of 
wine.  Black  is  produced  by  a  strong  solution  of  nitric  acid.    Green  is 

5)roduced  by  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  nitric  acid  ;  then,  dipped  in  a 
lot  solution  pearlash  produces  a  Blue  stain.  Purple  is  produced  by 
a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  in  nitric  acid. 

Beautiful  Varnish  for  Violins,  &c.— Rectified  spirits  of  wine, 
h  gal.  ;  add  G  oz.  gum  sandarac,  3  oz.  gum  mastic,  and  \  pt.  turpen- 
tine varnish  ;  put  the  above  in  a  tin  can  by  the  stove,  frequently 
shakhig  till  well  dissolved  :  strain  and  keep  for  use.  If  you  find  it 
harder  than  yon  wish,  thin  with  more  turpentine  varnish. 

Another. — Heat  together  at  a  low  temperature  2  qts.  of  alcohol,  ^ 
pt.  turpentine  varnish,  and  lib.  clean  gum  mastic  ;  when  tlie  latter  is 
thoroughly  dissolved,  strain  through  a  cloth. 

Varnish  for  Frames,  etc. — Lay  the  frames  over  with  tin  or 
silver  foil  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris,  glue  or  cement  of  some  kind, 
that  the  foil  may  be  perfectly  adherent  to  the  wood  ;  then  apply  your 
gold  lacquer  varnish,  which  is  made  as  follows  :  Ground  turmeric,  1 
lb.  ;  powdered  gamboge,  ounces  ;  powdered  sandarac,  3^  lbs.  ; 
powdered  shellac,  fibs. ;  spirits  of  wine,  2  gals.  ;  dissolve  and  strain ; 
then  add  turpentine  varnish,  1  pt.  ;  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Dyes  for  Veneers. — A  fine  Black. — Put  6  lbs.  of  logwood  chips 
into  your  copper,  with  as  many  venfeers  as  it  will  hold  without  press- 
ing too  tight,  fill  it  with  water,  let  it  boil  slowly  for  about  3  hour-s, 
then  add  ^  lb.  olpoioderecl  verdigris,  \  lb.  copperas,  bruised  gall-nuts 
4  ozs.  ;  fill  the  copper  up  with  vinegar  as  the  water  envaporates  ;  let 
it  boil  gently  2  hours  each  day  till  the  wood  is  dyed  through.  A  fine 
Jjhie.— Put  oil  of  vitriol,  1  lb.,  and  4  ozs.  of  the  best  powdered  indigo 
in  a  glass  bottle.  Set  it  in  a  glazed  earthen  pan,  ias  it  will  ferment. 
Now  put  your  veneers  into  a  coi^per  or  stone  trough ;  fill  it  rathei 


CABINETMAKEKS,  TAINTERS  ,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  273 

more  than  one-third  with  water,  and  add  as  mnch  of  the  vitriol  and 
indigo  (stirring  it  about)  as  will  make  fino  blue,  testing  it  with  a 

?)iece  of  white  paper  or  wood.  Let  the  veneers  remain  till  the  d^-e 
las  struck  through.  Keep  the  solution  of  indigo  a  few  weeks  before 
using  it ;  this  improves  the  color.  Fine  Yelloiv. — ^Reduce  4103.  of  the 
root  of  barberry  to  dust  by  sawing,  which  put  hi  a  copper  or  brass 
trough  ;  add  turmeric,  4  ozs.  ;  water,  4  gals.  ;  then  put  in  as  many 
white  holly  veneers  as  the  liquor  will  cover.  Boil  them  together  3 
hours,  often  turning  them.  When  cool,  add  aquafortis,. 2  oz,,  and 
the  dye  will  strike  through  much  sooner.  Bright  Green. — Proceed  as 
in  the  previous  receipt  to  produce  a  yellow ;  but,  instead  of  aqua- 
fortis, add  as  much  of  the  vitriolated  indigo  (see  above,  under  bluo 
dye)  as  Avill  produce  the  desired  color.  Lrirjht  Red. — ^Brazil  dust,  2 
lbs.  ;  add  water,  4  gals.  Pat  in  as  many  veneers  as  the  liquid  will 
cover  ;  boil  them  for  3  hours,  then  add  alum,  2  oz  ,  aquafortis,  2  oz.; 
and  keep  it  luke-warm  until  it  has  struck  through.  Purple. — ^To  2 
lbs.  of  chip  logwood  and  ^  lb.  Brazil  dust,  add  4  gals,  of  water  ;  and 
after  putting  in  j-our  veneers,  boil  for  3  hours  ;  then  add  pcarlash,  9 
ozs.,  and  alum  2  oz. ;  let  them  boil  for  2  or  3  hours  every  day  till  the 
color  has  struck  through.  Orange. — ^Take  the  veneers  out  of  the 
above  yellow  dye,  while  still  wet  and  saturated,  transfer  them  to  the 
"bright  red  dye  till  the  color  penetrates  throughout. 

To  inrpROVE  THE  CoLOB  OF  Stains. — Nitric  acid,  1  oz.  ;  muriatid 
acid,  \  teaspoonful;  grain  tin,  ^  oz. ;  rain  water,  2  oz.  Mix  it  at  leat;t 
2  days  before  using,  and  keep  your  bottle  well  corked. 

Strong  Glue  fob  Inlaying  ob  Veneering. — Select  the  best 
light  brown  glue,  free  from  clouds  and  streaks.  Dissolve  this  in  wa- 
ter, and  to  every  pint  add  half  a  gill  of  the  best  vinegar  and  ^  oz.  of 
isinglass.   For  other  glues  see  Engineers'  Department 

Inlaid  Mother  of  Pearl  Work,  on  sewing  machines  and  other 
fancy  work,  is  performed  by  selectin^^  the  thin  scales  of  the  shell 
and  cementing  them  to  the  surface  oi  the  material ;  the  rest  of  tlio 
surface  is  covered  with  successive  coats  of  Japan  varnish,  generally 
black,  being  subjected  to  a  bakmg  process  after  each  application. 
When  the  varnish  is  as  thick  as  the  shell,  it  is  polished,  the  gilding 
and  painting  added,  and  a  flowing  coat  of  varnish  put  over  the  whole. 

Another  Method. — Prepare  the  job  with  a  heavy  coat  of  black  Japan , 
then,  before  it  is  dry,  procure  flakes  of  pearl  and  lay  them  on  tlio 
black  surface,  pressing  them  into  the  Japan  until  they  are  level  witli 
the  surface;  then  with  colors  form  vines  and  flowers,  allowing  the 
jjcarl  to  form  the  body  of  the  flower  leaf,  and  shade  up  all  nicely. 

Transparent  Painting  on  Window  Shades. — ^The  muslin  is 
spread  on  a  frame  and  secured  tightly  with  tacks,  then  sized  Avith  a 
mixture  of  fine  flour  paste,  white  glue,  and  white  bar  soap ;  tlie  soap 
renders  the  muslin  pliable  and  soft.  A  thin  coat  is  applied,  whicli  is 
nearly  invisible  when  dry.  ,A  coat  of  pure  hnsecd  oil,  diluted  with 
spirits  of  turpentme,  is  tlien  applied,  to  the  whole,  or  part,  as  desired; 
lay  it  on  quickly  and  smoothly,  to  insure  an  even  transparent  surface. 
The  colors  used  are,  ivory  black,  ultramarine,  Paris  green,  sienna, 
umber,  verdigris,  asphaltum,  or  other  suitable  colors.  An  outline  of 
the  design  is  drawn  with  a  small  pencil  with  black  or  umber,  after 
wliich  tlie  colors  may  be  applied,  more  or  less  diluted,  as  more  or  less 
trans):arency  is  desired.  In  general,  the  brightest  colors  should  ba 
IS 


274    CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECZirXS. 

npiilied  first,  and  the  darker  shades  over  them.  These  colors  must  ho 
laid  evculy  and  smoothly  -vvitli  Kolt  brushes,  and  should  any  part  bo 
made  too  dark,  the  best  -way  is  to  scrape  off  Avith  a  sticlc  before  tlio 
color  gets  too  dry.  The  best  desisns  for  shades  consists  of  landscapo 
views,  and  should  always  bo  designed  to  acconuiiodatc  the  form  and 
position  of  the  ground  on  Avhicli  they  arc  drawn.  Stencils  will  bo 
found  useful  on  tliis  Avorlc,  in  rnalcing  corners  or  stripes  for  borders. 

To  Paikt  Magic  Lam'eiin  Sides.— Transparent  colors  only  aro 
used  for  this  work,  such  as  lakes,  sap-green,  ultramarine,  verdigris, 
gamboge,  asphaltum,  &c.,  mixed  in  oil,  and  tempered  with  light 
colored  varnish  (white  Demar).  Draw  on  the  paper  the  design  de- 
sired, and  stick  it  to  the  glass  with  water  or  gum;  then  with  a  fmo 
l")encil  put  the  outlines  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  glass  with  tlic  prop- 
er colors;  then  shade  or  fill  up  with  black  or  Vandyke  brown,  as  you 
find  best. 

Marine  Paint  for  IMetals  in  Salt  "Water.— Ecd  lead  53  part:^ ; 
quicksilver,  30  parts;  thick  turpentine,  7  parts.  Mix  Avith  boiled 
linseed  oil  to  the  proper  consistency.  The  quicksilver  must  bo 
thoroughly  amalgamated  with  the  thick  turpentine  by  grinding  or 
rubbing,  and  this  mixture  must  bo  gromid  Avith  red  lead  and  moro 
boiled  oil.  As  little  oil  as  is  necessary  to  make  tlie  paint  lay  well  must 
be  used.  To  make  the  paint  adhere  more  firmly,  a  previous  coat  of  ox- 
,,ide  of  iron  paint  may  be  used. 

To  Imitate  Tortoise  Shell,. — Paint  a  ground  of  salmon  color; 
then  when  dry  and  smoothed  off,  coat  it  over  with  rose  pink,  mixed  in 
varnish  and  turpentine ;  then  with  a  flat  piece  of  glass,  press  on  the 
surface,  and  remove  the  glass  quickly,  being  careful  not  to  push  it 
over  the  paint  so  as  to  disturb  the  curious  figures  which  the  jDressure 
will  form  thereon.  Varnish  when  dry,  and  you  Avill  find  you  have  a 
beautiful  imitation  of  tortoise  shell. 

Banner  Painting. — Lay  out  tlie  letters  very  accurately  with 
charcoal  or  crayon,  then  saturate  the  cloth  with  water  to  render  the 
painting  easy.  On  large  work  a  stencil  will  be  found  useful.  Take 
a  piece  of  tin,  lay  the  straight  edge  to  the  mark,  brush  over  with  a 
sash  tool,  and  by  this  means  you  will  make  a  very  clean-edged 
letter.   Use  stiff  bristle  pencils  in  painting  on  canvas. 

Oil  Cloth  Painting. — To  paint  canvas  for  floors,  the  canvas 
should  first  be  saturated  with  glue- water  or  flour  paste,  and  allowed 
to  dry  first.  Then  paint  it  with  any  color  desired.  To  put  in  the 
figures,  cut  out  designs  in  tin  plates  or  stiff  paper,  and  stencil  them 
on  in  various  colors. 

To  Imitate  Marble. — For  zcJiite  marble,  get  up  a  pure  "white 
ground,  then  hold  a  lighted  candle  near  the  surface,  and  allow  the 
smoke  to  form  the  shades  and  various  tints  desired.  This  will 
make  a  xcvj  handsome  imitation.  Black  marble  imitation  is  made 
by  streaking  a  black  surface  with  colors,  using  a  feather  and  pencil. 
Another  plan  is  to  get  up  a  smooth  black  surface ;  tlien  take  the  colors, 
green,  yellow,  red,  white,  &;c.,  ground  thick  in  gold  size,  and  streak 
the  surface  Avith  a  stick  or  pencil.  Allow  it  to  dry,  and  apply  a  heavy 
coat  of  lampblack  and  yellow  ochre,  mixed  Avith  rough  stuff.  When 
all  is  hard,  rub  doAvn  to  a  level  surface  witli  lump  pumice-stone, 
varnish,  and  a  beautiful  varigated  marble  will  be  the  result. 

EicnLN'G  ON  Glass.— Druggists'  bottles,  bar-tumblers,  signs,  and 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  «S:C.,  RECEIPTS.  275 

glassTvare  of  every  description,  can  be  lettered  in  a  bGantiful  stylo  of 
art,  by  vSimply  giving  the  article  to  be  engraved,  or  etched,  a  thin  coat 
of  the  engraver's  varnish  (see  next  receipt),  and  tlie  application  of 
fluoric  acid.  Before  doing  so,  the  glass  must  be  thorongliiy  cleaned 
and  heated,  so  that  it  can'hardly  be  held.  The  vnrnisli  is  tl\en  to  bo 
applied  lightly  over,  and  made  smooth  by  dabbing  it  vrith  a  small 
ball  of  silk,  filled  with  cotton.  When  dry  and  even,  tiie  lines  may  bo 
traced  on  it  by  a  sharp  steel,  cutting  clear  through  tlio  varnisli  to  tho 
glass.  The  varnish  must  be  removed  clean  from  each  letter,  otlicr- 
wise  it  will  be  an  imperfect  job.  When  all  is  ready,  pour  on  or  apply 
the  fluoric  acid  witlr  a  feather,  filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  until 
it  etches  to  the  required  depth,  then  wash  o££  witlx  vratcr,  and  removo 
the  varnish. 

Etching  VAnmsn. — Take  of  virgin  wax  and  asplialtnra,  each  2 
oz. ;  of  black  pitch  and  Burgundy  pitcli,  eacli  |  oz. ;  melt  the  wax  and 
pitch  in  a  new  earthenware  glazed  pot,  and  add  to  tliem,  by  degrees, 
the  asphaltum,  finely  powdered.  Let  the  whole  boil,  simmering 
gradually,  till  such  time  as,  taking  a  droj)  upon  a  ]  /late,  it  will  break 
when  it  is  cold,  or  bending  it  douljle  two  or  three  ^imos  betwixt  tho 
fingers.  The  varnish,  being  then  boiled  enoughj  must  bo  taken  off 
tho  fire,  and,  after  it  cools  a  little,  must  be  pourcc.;(  into  warm  water 
that  it  may  work  the  more  easily  with  the  hands,  so  as  to  ])e  formed 
iato  balls,  which  must  be  kneaded,  and  put  into  a  piece  of  taffety  for 
use.  The  sand  blast  is  now  in  extensive  use  for  ornamenting  o?\  glass. 

Fltjorio  Acid  to  Make  fob  ETcmxa  I'ckposes. — You  can 
malce  your  own  fluoric  (sometimes  called  hydro-fluoric)  acid,  by 
getting' tho  fluor  or  Derbyshire  spar,  pulverizmg  it,  and  putting  all  of 
it  into  sulphuric  acid  which  the  acid  will  cut  or  dissolve.  luasmuck 
as  fluoric  acid  is  destructive  to  glass,  it  cannot  bo  l:cpt  in  commou 
bottles,  but  must  be  kept  in  lead  or  gutta  percha  bottles. 

Glass-Grikding  for  Signs,  Shades,  &:c.  —  After  you  havo 
etched  a  name  or  other  design  upon  nncolored  glass,  and  wiiihtohavo 
it  show  off  to  better  advantage  by  permitting  the  light  to  pass  only 
through  the  letters,  you  can  do  so  hj  taking  a  piece  of  flat  bniss  suffi- 
ciently large  not  to  clip  into  the  letters,  but  pass  over  them  when  gild- 
ing upon  the  surface  of  the  glass;  then,  with  flour  of  emery,  and 
Iccepiug  it  Avet,  you  can  grind  the  whole  surface, very  quickly,  to  look 
like  the  ground-glass  globes  often  seen  npon  lamps,  except  the  letter, 
which  is  eaten  beloAV  the  general  surface. 

To  Drill  and  Ornament  Glass. — Glass  can  bo  easily  drilled 
by  a  steel  drill,  hardened  but  not  drawn,  and  driven  at  a  high  velo- 
city. Holes  of  any  size,  from  the  16th  of  an  inch  upwards,  can  bo 
drilled,  by  using  spirits  of  turpentine  as  a  drip ;  and,  easier  still,  by 
nsmg  camphor  with  the  turpentine.  Do  not  press  the  glass  very 
hard  against  the  drill.  If  you  require  to  ornament  glass  by  turning 
in  a  lathe,  use  a  good  mill  file  and  the  turpentine  and  camphor  drip, 
and  you  will  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  produce  any  shape  you  choose. 

Gilding  Glass  Signs,  &c.— Cut  a  piece  of  tliin  paper  to  the  size 
of  your  glass,  draw  out  your  design  correctly  in  black  lead-pencil  on 
the  paper,  then  prick  through  the  outline  of  the  letters  with  a  fir^o 
needle;  tie  up  a  little  dry  white  lead  in  a  piece  of  rag;  this  is  a 
pounce-bag.  Place  your  design  upon  the  glass,  right  side  up,  dust  it 
■with  the  pounce-bag;  and,  after  taking  the  paper  off,  the  design  will 


276     CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEKS',  &C.,  IlECEIPTS. 

nppcar  in  whito  dots  upon  tho  glass;  these  will  guide  you  iu  layin.T: 
on  the  gold  on  tho  opposite  side,  which  must  be  well  cleaned  ]ircpara 
tory  to  laying  on  the  gold.  Preparing  the  size. — lioil  perfectly  clea. 
■viator  in  an  enamelled  saucepan,  and  while  boiling,  add  2  or  3  shreds 
of  best  selected  isinglass,  alter  a  few  minutes  strain  it  through  a 
clean  lincii  rag;  when  cool,  it  is  ready  lor  use.  Clean  the  r/lass  per- 
fectly.— When  this  is  done,  use  a  Hat  cajncl's-hair  brush  for  laying 
on  the  size;  and  let  it  drain  off  when  you  put  tho  gold  on.  When  tho 
gold  is  laid  on  and  perfectly  dry,  tjikea  ball  of  tlie  finest  cotton  wool 
and  gently  rub  or  polish  the  gold;  you  can  then  lay  on  another  coat 
of  gold  if  desirable,  it  is  now  ready  for  Avriting.  In  doing  this,  mix  a 
little  of  the  best  vegetable  black  with  black  japan;  thin  with  turpen- 
tine to  proper  working  consistency;  apply  this  when  thoroughly  dry; 
wash  off  the  superfluous  gold,  and  shade  as  in  sign-writing. 

Glass  Gilding,  Another  Method. — Clean  and  dry  the  glass 
thoroughly,  then  lay  out  the  lines  for  letters  with  a  piece  of  hard 
scented  soap,  then  paint  tho  letters  on  tho  rigJit  side  of  the  glass 
with  lampblack  mixed  with  oil,  in  order  to  /o?'m  a  guide  for  the  work, 
then  on  the  inside  lay  on  a  coat  of  the  size  mentioned  m  the  preced- 
ing receipt,  using  a  camel' s-hair  brush,  covering  the  whole  of  the  let- 
ters next  lay  on  the  gold  leaf  with  a  tip,  until  every  part  of  the  let- 
ters is  covered  well.  Let  the  leaf  remain  Tintil  the  size  is  dry,  when 
you  will  find  that  the  letters  on  the  front  side  can  bo  easily  seen  and 
traced.  This  is  done  with  quick  drying  black,  mixed  with  a  little 
varnish.  Paint  over  the  whole  directly  over  the  gold ;  allow  it  to  dry ; 
then  wipe  off  with  soap  and  water  the  lampblack  letters  from  tlio 
front  side ;  with  pure  cold  water  and  a  clean  sponge,  wash  tho  su- 
perfluous gold  leaf  and  size  from  the  back,  and  you  will  have  a  splen- 
did gold  letter  on  the  glass  ;  next,  shade  your  letter  to  suit  the  taste, 
always  remembering  to  shade  to  the  edge  of  the  gold,  for  then  you 
have  only  one  edge  to  make  straight.  The  other  ^dge  may  be  left 
rough,  and  when  dry  may  be  straightened  by  scraping  with  a  knife. 

Ornamental  Designs  on  Glass. — In  making  scrolls,  eagles  &c., 
on  glass,  some  painters  put  on  the  outlines  and  shades  first,  and  then 
lay  the  gold  leaf  over  all ;  another  good  way  is  to  scratch  the  shades 
on  to  the  gold  leaf  after  it  is  dry,  and  put  the  colors  on  the  back  of  the 
gold.  Silver  leaf  may  be  used  iu  the  same  manner  as  gold,  but  it 
will  not  wear  as  well.  A  very  pretty  letter  may  be  made  by  incor- 
porating silver  with  gold  ;  take  paper  and  cut  any  fancy  design  to 
lit  the  parts  of  the  letter  ;  stick  it  on  the  size  before  laying  the  leaf, 
allowing  it  to  dry  and  wash  off  as  before;  then  with  a  penknife  raise 
the  paper  figure,  and  the  exact  shape  or  form  of  the  figure  will 
bo  found  cut  out  of  the  gold  letter  ;  clean  off  nicely,  apply  more  size, 
and  lay  silver  leaf  to  cover  the  vacant  spots  ;  wash  off  when  dry,  and 
a  very  handsome  letter  will  be  the  result.  Colors  may  be  used  in- 
stead, of  silver,  if  desired,  or  a  silver  letter  edged  or  "  cut  up"  with 
gold,  will  look  well. 

Glass  and  Porcelain  Gilding. — Dissolve  in  linseed  oil  an  equal 
wciglit  either  of  copal  or  amber  ;  add  as  much  oil  of  turpentine  as 
will  enable  you  to  apply  the  compound  or  size  thus  formed,  as  thin 
as  possible,  to  the  parts  of  the  glass  intended  to  be  gilt.  The  glass 
is  to  be  placed  in  a  stove  till  it  will  almost  burn  the  fingers  wlien  han- 
dled ;  at  this  temperature  tho  si^e  becomes  adhesive,  and  a  piece  of 


CABIXET3IAE:EES,  PAI^'TERS',  <tC.,  KECEirTS.  277 

gold  leaf,  applied  in  tho  nsual  vmj,  will  immediately  stick.  Sweo]i 
off  the  superriuous  portions  of  tho  leaf,  and  when  quite  cold  it  may  bo 
burnished  ;  taking  care  to  interpose  a  piece  of  India  paper  betweea 
the  gold  and  the  burnisher. 

DiiiLiiiNG  China,  Glass,  &c. — To  drill  china  vlsg  a  copper  drill 
and  emery,  moistened  with  spirits  of  turpenthie.  To  drill  glass,  uso 
a  steel  drill  tempered  as  hard  as  possible  and  camphor  and  water  as 
a  lubricant. 

Gold  Lustre  fok  Stoxewajie,  Cnrs-A,  &c.— Gold,  G  parts;  aqa- 
regia,  3G  parts.  Dissolve,  then  add  tin,  1  part  ;  next  add  balsam  of 
Biilphur,  3  parts  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  part,  lilix  gradually  into  a, 
mortar,  and  rub  it  until  the  mixture  becomes  hard  ;  then  add  oil  of 
turpentine,  4  x)arts.  It  is  then  to  be  ai^plied  to  a  ground  prepared  for 
the  purpose. 

Gilding  China  and  Glass. — ^Powdered  gold  is  mixed  with  borax 
nnd  gum-water,  and  tlie  solution  applied  with  a  camel' s-hair  pencil. 
Heat  is  then  applied  try  a  stove  until  the  borax  fuses,  when  the  gold 
is  fixed  and  afterwards  ■furnished. 

Useful  Hints  for  Caubjage  Painters.—  It  is  usual  to  apply 
three  coats  of  oil  paint  as  a  priming  to  commence  with,  and  it  is  safe 
to  use,  say  §  drying  ©il  and  ^  turpentine,  with  a  little  fine  litharge 
ground  in,  about  2  ozs.  to  every  20  lbs.  of  paint.  This  hardens  tlio 
priming  better  than  patent  dryer,  and  works  better  under  the  sand- 
paper. When  the  first  coating  is  hard  and  dry,  rub  down  with  your 
sand-paper  and  be  sure  to  make  perfectly  level  work  among  tho 
irregularities,  deficiencies  and  ridges  on  the  surface  of  your  work. 

Next  dust  your  work  carefully,  and  with  your  putty  knife  go  over 
the  whole  surface  and  putty  up  eveiy  crevice,  split,  crack  or  knot- 
hole with  the  hard  drying  putty  hereafter  mentioned.  Be  very  care- 
ful not  to  overlook  the  slightest  flaAv,  but  bring  every  spot  to  a  true 
and  perfect  level.  Now  dust  off  the  work  again,  preparatory  to 
second  coating.  Thirj  your  color  with  turpentine,  if  too  stout  or 
thick,  but  do  not  use  thin  colors,,  lor  it  neither  covers  well,  nor  rubs 
down  well.  For  dark  colors,  use  a  dark  lead  color  for  the  oil  coats, 
but,  for  preparing  for  such  a  color  as  light  green,  let  the  color  bo 
light  lead  color,  if  for  a  yellow,  begin  with  white,  or  slightly  tinted 
with  chrome  yellow. 

Be  careful  with  your  second  coat,  tO'  lay  it  fair,  regular,  and  equal, 
over  each  and  every  part  of  the  work,  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  dry, 
rub  down  with  a  finer  quality  of  sand-paper  tlian  the  last,  being 
careful  to  make  the  surface  perfectly  smooth  and  even.  Now  com- 
mence to  give  the  third  coat  (after  dusting  off),  putting  on  the  paint, 
not  lavishly,  but  rub  it  out  well. 

The  next  step,  Avhen  the  last  is  hard  and  dry,  is  to  apply  the  filling 
up  coats.  For  a  good  composition  see  receipt  for  "  Eoiujh  Stuff"  for 
carriage  worlc.  Another  good  filling  consists  of  dry  French  yellow, 
a  small  quantity  of  white  lead,  the  same  amount  of  whiting,  a  little 
red  lead,  about  one-sixteenth  of  litharge,  and  of  drying  Japan  enough 
to  nearly  mix  it,  put  in  a  very  little  drying  oil,  and  turpentine  to  tliin 
to  a  suitable  thiclcness  to  make  it  spread  like  a  stiff  coat  of  pauit. 
Thin  so  that  it  can  be  applied  easily,  and  flow  on  full  and  free. 
Apply  this  composition,  giving  the  body,  shafts,  wheels,  springs,  &c.,  a 
good  coat  leveljing  off  any  hollows,  &c. ,  existing  iu  the  parts,  and  when. 


278   CAiJixi'/rMAKERs,  painters',  itc,  ni:ci:irT3. 

this  coat  becomes  perfectly  hard  givo  it  rjiotlier.  The  next  step,  .if  tcr 
this  last  coat  dries  liard,  is  to  rub  it  dowu  Trith  lump  pumicc-.stouo, 
first  rubbin^^  the  pumice  Hat  upon  a  Btono  before  commencing  to  uso 
it.  In  rubbing  down  with  lump  pumice  use  plenty  of  water,  freely 
supplied  from  the  siiongo  in  your  left  hand  ;  be  very  cautious  to 
avoid  cutting  througli,  and  feel  the  parts  frequently  as  the  -u-orlc 
progresses,  to  ascertain  when  all  is  sufTicicntly  smooth  and  hard,  then 
Avitii  your  sponge  wash  off  tho  work  nicely,  and  with  your  wash 
leather  wrung  out,  dry  it  off  clean  and  smooth. 

The  next  step  is  to  paint  the  carriage.  See  to  it  that  your  colors 
are  freshly  ground,  your  paint  mill,  pots,  tins,  brushes,  <S:c.,  per- 
fectly clean.  Apply  your  color  the  proper  tliiclnicss,  expeditiously 
and  neatly,  so  that  the  work  will  present  a  good  clean  appearance. 
The  following  directions  will  be  found  uscf id  in  mixing  the  desig- 
nated colors.  Dark  Green,  Olive  Shade.  Take  deep  chrome  yellow 
and  powdered  drop  black,  mix  in  a  X)ot  with  the  drying  Japan,  and  a 
little  turpentine,  grind  all  together,  test  to  be  sure  that  tho  color  is 
right,  if  Avished  lighter,  add  more  chrome  yellow,  if  darker,  more 
drop  blaclc,  grade  the  Color  to  tho  proper  thiclcness  and  apply  at 
once.  Two  coats  will  be  required.  Ultramarine  blue.  For  your 
ground  color,  grind  good  Prussian  blue  in  oil,  and  add  to  whitehead 
as  much  of  the  blue  as  will  make  it  sufliciently  dark  to  form  a 
ground  for  tho  ultramarine  blue,  two  coats  of  this  will  be  required. 
"When  hard  and  dry,  grind  some  of  the  best  ultramarine  blue  on  tho 
Btone  with  a  quantity  of  varnish,  add  enough  of  this  to  your  body 
flowing  varnish  to  impart  the  right  color.  Two  good  coats  of  this 
beautiful  color  will  be  necessary;  use  sugar  of  lead  as  a  dryer. 
Before  giving  the  second  coat  rub  down  with  ground  pumice  and 
water,  using  a  cloth  ;  the  next  coat  will  flow  all  the  better  for  tliia 
treatment.  After  a  few  days  rub  down  again  with  ground  pumico 
and  water,  v^-ash,  and  dry  with  your  chamois  skin,  when  the  work 
will  be  all  ready  for  picking  out  and  striping.  Claret  or  Lake. 
Vermilion  and  rose  pink,  in'  oil,  same  as  the  last,  for  first  coat. 
When  hardened  dry,  give  another  light  coat,  pre\iously  rubbing 
domi  with  ground  pumice  aud  water,  as  directed  for  blue.  For  a 
rich  light  claret  be  sparing  of  your  rose  pink  in  the  ground  color;  for 
dark  claret,  use  more  rose  pink.  For  darker  shades  use  more  rose 
pink  in  the  ground  color,  then  use  the  best  crimson  lake,  same  way 
as  for  the  light  claret  two  good  coats  will  do.  For  a  purple  shade  of 
claret  use  vermilion,  rose  i)ink  a  spice  of  ultramarine  blue,  for  a 
ground  color.  Then  add  the  proper  quantity  of  ground  purple  lake 
to  body  flowing  varnish  and  apply  two  coats.  Japan  Broion. 
Grind  drop  black  in  Japan  using  enough.  vermUion  to  be  visible. 
Chrome  Greens.  Grind  your  greens  in  Japan,  or  use  greens  com- 
posed of  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue.  Carmine  Color  on  Firs 
Unr/ines,  &c.  Cheap  method.  For  a  ground,  use  the  best  English 
vermilion,  then  add  pure  carmine,  ground  in  a  little  drying  oiU  to 
your  body  flowing  varnish,  and  apply  two  coats  carefully.  This 
method  extends  tl;e  precious  color  so  that  an  ounce  will  suffice  for  a 
carriage  or  machine.  Oxford  Broivn.  Use  a  little  chrome  yellow, 
India  red,  best  ochre,  white  lead,  burned  umber,  just  white  enough 
to  be  seen  ;  yellow  is  the  leading  color  ;  red  to  warm  it,  and  timber 
to  impart  tho  bro^m  shade.    Ilich  Pxirple,   Yermilion  and  Prussian 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAIXTSr^G',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  279 

blue,  -w-ith  a  little  -wliito,  a  very  cheap,  nice  color.  Fawn  Color.  Uso 
yeilow,  red,  a  little  Llack,  a  little  tierra  de  sienna,  or  burned  umber 
may  be  added  to  obtain  the  right  shade,  Drah  Color.  White  and 
raw  umber  form  a  cool  drab  which  may  be  varied  "witli  chrome,  or 
red,  as  may  be  desired.  Plum  Brown.  Drop  black  and  vermilion 
makes  a  very  good  color  at  a  cheap  rate, 

SxKiPiNG  OK  "Picking  Out,"  for  Carriage  Work. — Great 
care  is  required  in  this  part  of  the  work  to  carry  a  steady  hand  so 
that  the  lines  may  be  drawn  equidistant,  clean  and  neat.  For  fiuo 
lines,  grind  the  color  in  drying  oil,  as  it  makes  the  best  work.  Japan 
color  will  do  for  broad  or  coarse  lines,  on  hhie  ground.  If  a  largo 
carriage,  with  heavy  wheels,  draw  lines  with  Frankfort-black,  Japan 
mixed  color  from  three  quarter  inch  to  one  inch  broad,  on  all  parts  of 
the  carriage,  wheels,  springs,  spokes,  hubs,  &c,,  then  draw  fine  lines 
of  light  orange  or  light  primrose  color  about  three-eighths  or  a  quarter 
inch  from  the  broad  black  line,  with  one  fine  lino  around  the  edges  of 
the  black  nuts  and  bolt  heads.  On  superior  work,  pure  white,  gold, 
or  deep  orange  lines  may  bo  drawn  down  the  middle  of  the  black 
lines,  producing  a  very  fine  effect;  07i  greens,  pick  out  with  black,  if  a 
light  green,  black  lines  will  be  sufficient,  if  desired  better,  run  up  the 
centre  of  the  black  lines  with  white,  not  too  fine.  On  dark  green, 
pick  out  with  black,  rumiing  very  fine  Imes  on  each  side  of  the  blade 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  off  the  black.  This  also  sets  off  a  very  brigh.t 
green  to  good  advantage.  On  Clarets,  pick  out  with  black,  with  \  cr- 
milion  or  rich  orange  fine  side  lines,  or  light  orange  side  lines  with 
vermilion  line  run  up  the  centre  of  the  black  ;  or  light  gold  line  up 
the  centre  of  one  large  black  line.  On  Oxford  Broivn,  pick  out  with 
"black,  fine  line  with  vermilion  or  medium  tint  of  chrome  yellow  with 
slight  tint  of  red  in  it ;  or  part  the  black  lino  with  white  domi  tho 
centre.  On  Faxon  Colors,  pick  out  with  broad  black,  fine  line  with 
white  on  each  edge,  or  brown  drab  shade.  On  Japan  or  Plum 
Browns,  vermilion  line  has  the  best  appearance.  On  Olives  or  Qua- 
kers' Greens,  pick  out  with  black,  with  white  for  fine  lines,  or  orango 
or  light  green.  On  Drabs,  pick  out  with  black,  fine  Ime  with  vermil- 
ion, or  high  colored  orange,  or  white  centre  fine  for  extra  finish.  On 
Purple,  pick  out  with  black,  fijie  line  with  a  bright  tint  of  orange  or 
vermilion. 

Varnishtjtg  of  Coaches  akd  Carriages, — ^In  this,  as  well  as  m 
the  painting  department,  absolute  cleanliness  is  indispensable,  as 
regards  brushes,  pots,  freedom  from  dust,  &c.  When  your  work 
is  ready,  if  it  is  the  under  carriage,  apply  a  good  full  coat  of  carriage 
varnish,  and  when  through  with  this  part  of  the  process,  go  over  it 
again,  this  time  using  body  varnish.  After  it  is  hard  and  dry  proceed 
to  "flat"  the  work  by  lightly  removing  the  gloss  with  ground  pumice, 
Avater,  and  a  w^oollen  cloth,  being  careful  not  to  cut  into  the  lines  or 
ground  ;  then  clean  away  all  the  pumice,  and  dry  off  nicely  with  tho 
chamois  leather  slightly  wet"  If  you  have  cut  through  in  any  part, 
repair  with  Japan  color  previous  to  second  coating.  Let  your  second 
coat  be  very  full  and  well  laid  on,  but  be  careful  that  it  does  not  run. 
A  very  superior  gloss  will  be  obtained  on  tho  wheels,  if  after  tho 
application  of  a  good  coat  you  spin  them  until  tho  varnish  is  nearly 
pet. 

If  tho  second  coat  is  not  satisfactory,  repeat  the  flattemng  process 


280    CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

with  your  pumico,  cloth  and  water,  clean  off  as  before  and  varnish 
again. 

In  more  costly  polished  work,  commenco  with  the  very  finest 
ground  pumico  or  Tripoli,  rub  until  you  bring  the  work  to  a  very 
smooth  state,  then  wash  off  very  clean  and  nice,  dry  and  dust  well. 
Use  every  precaution  against  dust,  by  sweeping  and  sprinkling  your 
Hoor  in  every  stage  of  polishing  and  varnishing.  Tlie  next  step  in 
]iolishing  is  to  use  a  fine  cloth  for  a  rubber,  rotten-stone,  sifted  fine 
through  muslin  and  mLxed  with  olive  oil ;  rub  with  this  until  the 
gloss  is  restored,  occasionally  examining  the  progress  of  the  work. 
This  stej)  being  finished,  wipe  off  with  a  perfectly  clean  cotton  cloth, 
with  a  piece  of  the  finest  flax  full  of  fine  wheat  flour  or  putty  powder 
go  over  the  work,  rubbing  well  to  polish  it  still  farther,  and  remove 
every  particle  of  the  oil  and  rotten-stone  previously  used.  Finish  off 
by  rubbing  the  work  briskly  with  an  old  silk  liandkerchief,  which 
will  induce  a  beautiful  fine  gloss.  Jii  every  instance  when  a  polish 
and  varnish  finish  is  required,  do  not  omit  to  lay  on  an  extra  coat  of 
varnish,  as  it  will  greatly  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  work. 

Gilding  and  Ohnamenting  Cakriages. — English  gold  size  is  tho 
best  for  this  purpose.  If  you  cannot  get  it  ready  prepared,  make  a 
substitute  by  using  English  vamish  and  Japan  in  equal  parts.  If 
the  gilding  is  for  striping,  you  should  mix  a  little  chrome  yellow 
with  it,  to  be  able  to  see  the  lines  the  better,  but  for  lettering  no 
coloring  is  required.  Rub  your  job  down  smoothly,  take  a  piece  of 
muslin  and  tie  up  in  it  a  little  whitening  to  form  a  "pounce  bag  ;" 
with  this  dust  over  every  part  of  the  work  where  the  gold  leaf  is  to 
be  put,  to  prevent  the  leaf  sticking  to  the  surface  not  covered  by 
the  size,  or  wash  the  job  over  with  starch  water,  or  rub  it  over  with 
the  raw  surface  of  a  potato  cut  in  halves  ;  the  juice  of  the  potato 
soon  dries,  and  leaves  a  thin  film  to  which  the  gold  will  not  adhere. 
Either  of  the  above  methods  will  do,  and  tlie  coating  will  wash  off 
when  the  gilding  is  dry.  The  surface  prepared,  take  the  size  and 
put  on  the  stripes,  figures,  or  ornaments,  and  allow  it  to  dry  just 
enough  to  enable  you  to  pass  your  finger  over  it  without  sticking, 
but  if  it  is  "tacky"  when  you  place  your  finger  upon  it,  it  is 
readjr  for  the  gold  leaf,  -which  is  to  be  applied  in  the  way  directed 
for  gilding  letters  on  wood.  The  gold  letters  may  be  shaded  with 
ultramarine,  carmhie,  asphaltum,  lake,  Paris  green,  verdigris,  &c.,  to 
suit  the  taste. 

Bronzing. — Gold  bronze  is  used  on  carriage  parts  for  striping  and 
ornamenting,  using  the  same  size  as  that  used  for  gold  leaf.  For 
taking  up  and  applying  the  bronze,  take  a  piece  of  plush  or  velvet 
and  make  a  "  pounce  bag,"  by  tying  up  a  wad  of  cotton,  rubbing  the 
bronze  gently  over  the  size.  To  vary  the  aiDpearance,  a  mixture  of 
copper,  gold,  and  silver  bronze  may  be  applied.  For  fancy  work  in 
bronze,  cut  out  any  desired  pattern  on  thin  sheet  brass,  pasteboard, 
or  paper,  and  apply  it  to  any  nearly  dry  varnished  surface  ;  rub  the 
bronze  on  through  the  apertures  in  the  pattern. 

Good  Colors  for  Business  Wagons. — No.  1.  Body. — Chrome 
green  ;  frame  or  ribs  black  striped  with  white  or  cream  color. 
Itanninfj  gear. — Cream  color  stri]>ed  with  red,  blue  or  dark  green,  or 
black,  and  red  fine  line.  No.  2.  iJodij. — ^Yellow;  frame  black,  stiiped 
with  blue  or  white.   Running  gear, — Light  vcrinilion,  striped  with 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEKS',  &C.,  RECEirXS,  281 

■black  and  -white.  No.  3.  J5oc??/.— Carmiuo  glazo  over  Indian  red. 
Running  gear. — ^Vermilion.  No.  4.  Hodi/. — Deep  vermilion.  Run" 
ninq  gear. — Light  vermilion. 

Mixture  to  kemove  old  Paikt. — ^Dissolve  i  lb.  potash  in  3  pts. 
■water  over  the  fire,  then  add  yellow  ochre  or  some  common  dry  paint 
until  it  is  as  thick  as  rough  stuff ;  spread  this  over  your  old  paint, 
and  after  a  little  it  will  come  off  quite  easily,  then  wash  the  wood 
with  soap  and  water  to  remove  all  the  potash,  dry  off  and  sand-paper, 
then  give  a  coat  of  clean  raw  oil.  Another  method  is  to  heat  a  heavy 
piece  of  iron  and  apply  to  the  paint,  which  will  cause  it  to  become 
loose  and  soft,  so  that  it  may  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  Still  another 
method  is  to  direct  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  (which  may  be  con- 
structed for  the  purpose)  on  the  old  paint,  scraping  it  off  as  it  softens. 

To  Bleach  Oil, — Pour  as  much  linseed  oil  into  a  shallow  earthen 
vessel  as  will  stand  one  inch  deep,  then  pour  in  G  inches  of  water,' 
cover  with  a  fine  cloth,  and  let  the  whole  stand  in  the  sun  for  a  few, 
weeks  until  the  liquid  becomes  thick,  Avhcu  it  should  bo  poured  into 
a  phial  and  submitted  to  a  gentle  heat ;  after  wliich  the  clear  is  to  bo 
poured  off  and  strained  through  a  flannel  cloth.. 

To  Copy  ax  Oknajient.— Place  the  paper  or  other  article 'contain- 
ing the  oniament  against  a  pane  of  glass  ;  then  laying  a  sheet  of  thia 
paper  over  it,  you  can  copy  it  exactly  with  a  lead  pencil, 

OKNAsnDNTs,  in  the  shape  of  decalcomine  or  other  gilded  pictures,! 
may  be  easily  transferred  to  carriages  or  coaches  by  following  tha 
directions  given  in  transferring  pictures.   See  farther  on. 

Vermilion, — To  prevent  vermilion  from  fading,  add  to  tno  dry 
color,  before  mixing,  ^  part  of  flour  of  sulphur.  Light  English  ver- 
milion is  used  for  striping,  ornamenting  or  lettering ;  the  deep  vermil- 
ion having  less  body,  will  not  cover  good.  English  vermilion  gives 
the  best  color  on  carriage  work  when  mixed  with  rubbing  varnish 
and  oil.  American  vermilion  should  not  be  ground,  as  the  process 
Avould  change  it  to  an  orange  color  ;  while  green,  Indian  red,  chromo 
yellow,  and  all  heavy  body  colors  are  all  the  better  for  being  ground 
as  fine  as  possible.  Raw  oil  is  preferable  to  boiled,  as  it  is  more 
volatile,  and  penetrates  and  fills  the  pores  of  the  wood  better. 

Priming  for  Carriage  Work, — First  coat  of  lead.  Mix  white 
lead  with  raw  oil,  2  parts,  Japan,  1  part,  to  make  it  proper  for  a  thick 
coat,  adding  a  very  little  turpentine  to  make  it  work  easily.  For 
carriage  parts  add  a  little  Indian  black,  but  not  for  bodies. — Second 
coat  of  lead.  ISIix  white  lead  with  1  part  raw  oil  and  2  parts  Japan, 
and  a  little  turpentine,  as  before,  adding  lampblack  for  carriage  parts, 
but  none  for  the  body. — Third  and  fourth  coat.  Mix  white  lead  into  a 
thick  paste  with  turpentine,  add  a  little  oil,  Japan  and  rubbing  varnish 
to  bind  the  paint  well ;  add,  for  the  carriage  parts,  a  little  lampblack 
and  a  little  red  lead. 

Hard  drying  Puttt, — For  carriage  icorTc.  Mix  dry  white  lead 
with  Japan  and  rubbing  varnish  equal  parts,  to  the  proper  consistency, 
beating  it  with  a  small  mallet  to  bruise  the  lumps.  Keep  it,  when 
not  in  use,  in  water,  to  prevent  it  drying. 

Roucn  Stuff, — For  carriage  xoork.  Take  3  parts  of  English  filling 
(ground  state),  2  parts  dry  white  lead,  1  part  white  lead  in  oil.  MLc 
with  Japan,  2  parts,  rubbing  varnish,  1  part.  Mix  and  crush  thor- 
oughly by  running  aU  through  the  mill  together. 


282     CADINETMAKEKS,  TAINTEIIS',  &C.,  IlECEIPTS. 

FAcrxa  Lkad  for  Catiriaok  Work:.— dry  white  load  -v^ith  2 
])arts  Japan,  1  ])ait  riibbiiiij:  varuisli,  aud  tlihi  -witli  Bpirits  of  turpen- 
tine, addin;^-  a  liltlo  lampblack  to  make  a  clean  lead  color,  and  run  all 
thron<;h  the  iiiill. 

CoACU  Paintino. — Tlio  panels  of  such  work  are  generally  painted 
in  color,  -while  tlie  pillars,  top  strip,  quarters,  deck,  &c.,  are  always 
black  ;  unibcr  colors,  lalces,  greens,  aud  blues  are  Konie  o£  the  best 
colors  used  on  this  work.  To  prepare  the  body  for  any  of  these 
colors,  a  (/round  color  is  used  iu  the  place  of  lanr.pblack  on  black 
work.  The  following  are  a  fCAT  approved  grounds.  Lake. — Indian 
red  and  vermilion  mixed  to  a  darlc  brown,  but  some  prefer  a  black 
ground  for  lake.  Ultramarine. — Mix  a  medium  blue  with  white  lead 
aud  Prussian  blue.  Vermilion. — A  light  pink  color  is  generally  used 
as  a  ground  for  vermilion.  Green. — Green  and  all  heavy-bodied 
colors  will  cover  well  on  the  lead  colors  without  any  ground  color. 
Victoria  lake  and  black  Japan  makes  a  fine  color  for  carriages. 

PiiErAKED  Oiii  FOR  CARRIAGES,  &c.— To  1  gal.  linsccd  oil  add  2 
lbs.  gum  shellac  ;  litharge,  |  lb.  ;  red  lead,  ^  lb.  ;  umber,  1  oz.  Boil 
slowly  as  usual  until  the  gums  are  dissolved;  grind  your  paints  in  this 
(any  color),  and  reduce  with  turpentine. 

Porcelain  Finish,  very  fine  for  Parlors. — To  prepare  the 
wood  for  the  finish,  if  it  be  pine,  give  one  or  two  coats  of  transparent 
varnish,  which  prevents  the  pitch  from  oosing  out,  causing  the  finish, 
to  turn  yellow;  next,  give  the  room  at  least  four  coats  of  pure  zinc, 
which  may  be  ground  in  only  sufficient  oil  to  enable  it  to  grind  prop- 
erly ;  then  inLx  to  a  proper  consistence  with  turpentine  or  naphtha. 
Give  each  time  to  drj*.  When  it  is  dry  and  hard,  sand-paper  it  to  a 
perfectly  smooth  surface,  when  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  finish,  which 
consists  of  two  coats  of  French  zinc  ground  in,  and  thinned  with 
Demar  varnish,  until  it  works  properly  under  the  brush. 

JiVPAN"  Drier  Best  Quality. — Take  linseed  oil,  1  gal.;  put  into 
it  gum  shellac,  5  lb. ;  litharge  and  burned  Turkey  umber,  each  ^  lb. ; 
rod  load,  4  Ih. ;  sugar  of  lead,  9  oz.  Boil  in  the  oil  till  all  are  dissolv- 
cd,wliich  Avill  require  about  4  hours;  remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  in 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal,,  and  it  is  done.  2.  Linsccd  oil,  6  gals.; 
add  red  lead  and  litharge,  each  Z\  lbs. ;  raw  umber,  1^  lbs. ;  sugar  of 
lead  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  each,  \  lb. ;  pulverize  all  the  articles  to- 
gether, and  boil  in  the  oil  till  dissolved;  when  a  little  cool,  thin  with 
turpentme,  G  gals.  3.  Linseed  oil,  4  gals,  red  lead  and  umber,  of  each 
8  ozs. ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  4  ozs. ;  sugar  of  lead,  4  ozs.  Boil  until  it  Avill 
scorch  a  feather,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  4.  Nut  or  linseed  oil,  1 
gal.. ;  litharge,  12  oz. ;  sugar  of  lead  and  white  vitriol,  of  each  1  oz. ; 
simmer  and  skim  xmtil  a  pellicle  forms;  cool,  and,  when  settled,  de- 
cant the  clear.  6.  Oil  1  gal. ;  litharge,  12  to  IG  oz. ;  as  last.  G.  Old 
nut  or  linseed  oil,  Ipint;  litharge,  3  oz.  Mix;  agitate  occasionally  for 
10  days;  then  decant  the  clear.  7.  Nut  oil  and  water,  of  each  2  lbs. : 
white  vitriol,  2  oz. ;  boil  to  dryness.  8.  Mix  oil  with  powdered  snow 
or  ice,  and  keep  it  for  2  months  without  thawing. 

To  Reduce  Oil  Paint  with  Water — ^Take  8  lbs.  of  pure  un- 
elaked  lime,  add  12  qts.  water,  stir  it  and  let  it  settle,  turn  it  off  gently 
and  bott;o  it;  keep  it  corked  till  used.  This  will  mix  with  oil,  and  in 
proportion  of  half  wall  render  paint  more  durable. 

Oil  Paint.— To  reduce  with  Water.— Gum  shellac,  1  lb. ;  sal- 


CACIXETMAKEIiS,  PAINTEKS',  &C.,  KF.CEIPT3.  283 

soda,  §  lb.;  water,  3  parts;  boil  all  tosetlier  iu  a  kettle,  stirring  till 
dissolved.  If  it  does  not  all  dissolve,  add  a  little  more  sal-soda ;  when 
cool,  bottle  foi  use;  mix  up  2  quarts  of  oil  paint  as  usual,  any  color 
desired,  using  no  turpentine;  put  1  pint  of  the  gum  shellac  mixturo 
■with  th<i  oil  paint  when  if  becomes  thick;  it  can  then  be  reduced  with 
water  to  a  proper  thickness  to  lay  on  with  a  brusli. 

ANOTnEK  Method.— Soft  water,  1  gal. ;  dissolve  it  in  pcarlash,  3 
oz. ;  bring  to  a  boil,  and  slowly  add  shellac,  1  lb. ;  when  cold,  it  13 
ready  to  be  added  to  oil  paint  in  equal  proportions. 

Fi-ExiBLE  Paixx  fou  Canvas.— Yellow  so:ip,  2}  lbs.;  boiling 
water,  1 J  gals. ;  dissolve;  grind  the  solution  while  hot  with  good  oil 
paint,  licwt. 

Taikteks'  Creaji.— Pale  nut  oil,  G  oz. ;  mastic,  1  oz. ;  dissolve; 
add  of  surar  of  lead,  ^  oz.,  previously  ground  in  the  least  possible 
quantity  01  oil;  then  add  of  water  q.  s.  gradually,  until  it  acquires  the 
consistency  of  cream,  working  it  well  all  the  time.  Used  to  cover  tho 
unfinished  work  of  painters.   It  will  wash  oil  with  water. 

Smalt. — lioast  cobalt  ore  to  drive  off  the  arsenic  ;  make  tho  resi- 
duum into  a  paste  with  oil  of  vitriol,  and  heat  it  to  redness  for  an 
hour  ;  powder,  dissolve  in  water,  and  precipitate  the  oxide  of  iron  by 
carbonate  of  potash,  gradually  added  until  a  rose-colored  powder 
begins  to  fall ;  then  decant  the  clear,  and  precipitate  by  a  solution  of 
silicate  of  potash,  prepared  by  fusing  together  for  5  hours  a  mixture 
of  30  parts  of  potash,  15  parts  of  finely-ground  flints,  and  1  part  char- 
coal. The  precipitate,  when  dry,  may  be  fused  and  iDowdered  very 
fine.   It  is  much  the  cheapest  way  to  buy  smalts  ready  made. 

Factitious  Lixseed  Oil.— Pish  or  vegetable  oil,  100  gallons  ; 
acetate  of  lead,  7  lbs.  ;  litharge,  7  lbs. ;  dissolved  in  vinegar,  2  galls. 
Well  mixed  with  heat,  then  add  boiled  oil,  7  gallons  ;  turpentine,  3 
gallon.   Again  well  mix. 

Vaexishes. — Common  Oil  Varnish. — Resm,  4  lbs.  ;  beeswax, 
^  lb.  ;  boiled  oil,  1  gallon  ;  mix  with  heat ;  then  add  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, 2  quarts.  Chinese  Varnish. — Mastic,  2  oz.  ;  sandarac,  2  oz. ; 
rectified  spirits,  1  i)t.  ;  close  the  matrass  with  bladder,  with  a  pin- 
hole for  tlie  escape  of  vapor  ;  heat  to  boiling  in  a  sand  or  water  bath, 
and  when  dissolved,  strain  through  linen.  Ifetallio  Varnish  For 
Coach  Bodies. — ^Asphaltun,  56  lbs.  ;  melt,  then  add  litharge,  9  lbs., 
red  lead,  7  lbs.  Boil,  then  add  boiled  oil,  12  gals. ;  yellow  resin,  12  lbs. 
Again  boil  until,  in  cooling,  the  mixture  maybe  rolled  into  pills  ;  then 
add  spts.  of  turpentine,  SO  gals.  ;  lampblack,  7  lbs.  Mix  well. 
Mastic  Varnish. — Mastic,  1  lb.  ;  white  wax,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  turpen- 
tine, 1  gallon  ;  reduce  the  gums  small ;  then  digest  it  with  heat  in  a 
close  vessel  till  dissolved.  Turpentine  Varnish. — Resin,  lib.  ;  boiled 
cil,  1  lb.  ;  melt ;  then  add  turpentine,  2  lbs.  Mix  well.  Fate  Var- 
nish.— Pale  African  copal,  1  part ;  fuse.  Then  add  hot  jxile  oil,  2 
parts.  Boil  the  mixture  till  it  is  stringy ;  then  cool  a  little,  and  add 
spirits  of  turiientine,  3  parts.  Xacquer  Varnish. — A  good  lacquer  is  i 
made  by  coloring  lac  varnish  Avith  turmeric  and  annatto.  Add  us 
much  of  these  two  coloring  substances  to  the  varnish  as  will  give  tho 
proper  color;  then  squeeze  the  varnish,  through  a  cotton  cloth  when  it 
forms  lacquer.  Gold  Varnish. — Digest  sheilac,  sixteen  parts,  gum 
sandarac,  mastic,  of  each  three  parts  ;  crocus,  one  part  ;  gum  gam- 
boge, two  parts  ;  all  bruised,  with  alcohol,  oua  hundred  and  forty- 


284    CAIilNETMAKERS,  TAINTERS',  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

four  parts.  Or,  digest  sccdlac,  sandarac,  mastic,  of  each  ci.-^jht 
parts  ;  Rambo^o,  two  parts  ;  dragon's  blood,  one  part ;  white  turpen- 
tine, six  parts  ;  turmeric,  four  parts  ;  bruised  Avitli  alcohol,  ono 
hundred  and  twenty  parts.  Deep  Gold-Colored  Lacqxier. — Seed  lac, 
'■^  oz.  ;  turmeric,  1  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood,  one-fourth  ounce  ;  alcohol,  1 
pt.  ;  digest  for  a  Aveek,  frequently  shalving  :  decant,  and  lilter.  L.i,r.. 
quersarc  used  upon  polished  metals  iind  wood  to  impart  the  appear- 
ance of  gold,  if  yellow  is  required,  use  turmeric,  aloes,  saffron  or 
gamboge  ;  for  red,  use  annatto,  or  dragon's  blood,  to  color.  Turmeric, 
gamboge,  and  dragon's  blood  generally  aiford  a  suflicient  range  of 
colors.  Gold  Lacquer. — Put  into  a  clean  4  gal.  tin  1  lb.  of  ground 
turmeric,  1^  oz.  of  gamboge,  3^  lbs.  powdered  gum  f;andarac, 
pound  of  shellac,  and  2  gals,  of  spirits  of  -wine.  "When  shaken,  dis- 
solved, and  strained,  add  1  pint  of  turpentine  varnish,  -u  ell  mLxcd. 
Varnish  For  Tools. — Take  tallow,  2  oz.  ;  resin,  1  oz  .  ;  and  melt  to- 
gether. Strain  Avhile  hot,  to  get  rid  of  specks  which  are  in  the  resin  ; 
apply  a  slight  coat  on  your  tools  with  a  brush,  and  it  will  keep  off 
rust  for  any  length  of  time.  Gold  Varnish. — Turmeric,  1  dram  ; 
gamboge,  1  dram  ;  turpentine,  2  pints  ;  shellac,  5  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood, 
S  drams  ;  thin  mastic  varnish,  8  oz.  ;  digest  with  occasional  agitation 
for  14  days  ;  then  set  aside  to  fine,  and  pour  off  the  clear.  Beautiful 
Pale  Amber  Varnish. — Amber,  jiale  and  transparent,  6  lbs.  ;  fuse  ; 
add  hot  clarified  linseed  oil,  2  gals.  ;  boil  till  it  strmgs  strongly,  cool  a 
little,  and  add  oil  of  turpentine,  4  gals.  This  soon  becomes  very  hard 
and  is  the  most  durable  of  oil-vamishes.  When  Avanted  to  dry 
quicker,  drying  oil  may  be  substituted  for  linseed,  or  "driers"  m.ay  bo 
added  during  the  cooling.  Black  Coach  Varnish. — Amber,  1  ib.  ; 
fuse ;  add  hot  drijing  oil,  |  -pt.  ;  powdered  black  resin  and  Naples 
asphaltum,  of  each  3  oz.  When  properly  incoriiorated  and  consid- 
erably cooled,  add  oil  of  turpentine,  1  pt.  Bodij  Vamisli. — Fmest 
African  copal,  8  lbs.  ;  fuse  carefully ;  add  clarified  oil,  2  gals.  ;  boil 
gently  for  4^  hours,  or  until  quite  stringy  ;  cool  a  little,  and  thm  with 
od  of  turpentine,  3J  gals.  Bries  sloioly.  Carriage  Varnish. — San- 
darac, 19  oz.  ;  pale  shellac,  9^  oz. ;  very  pale  transparent  resin,  12^ 
oz.  ;  turpentine,  18  oz.  ;  85  j)er  cent,  alcohol,.  5  pts.  :  dissolve.  Used 
for  the  internal  parts  of  carriage,  &c.  Dries  in  ten  minutes.  Cabinet- 
makers' Varnish. — Very  pale  shellac,  5  lbs.  ;  mastic,  7  oz.  ;  alcohol, 
90  per  cent.  5  or  6  pts. ;  dissolve  in  the  cold  with  frequent  stirring. 
Used  for  French  polishing,  &c.  Japanners'  Copal  Varnish. — ^Palo 
African  copal,  7  lbs. ;  fuse  ;  add  clarified  linseed  oil,  \  gal. ;  boil  five 
jninu  cs,  remove  it  into  the  open  air,  add  boiling  oil  of  turpentine,  2 
gals, ;  mix  well,  strain  it  into  the  cistern,  and  cover  it  up  immediately. 
Used  to  varnish  furniture,  and  by  japamiers,  coach-makers,  &c.  Copal 
Varnish. — ^Pale  hard  copal,  8  lbs.  ;  add  hot  and  pale  drying  oil,  2  gals.  ; 
l)oil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with  hot  rectified  oil 
of  turpentine,  3  gals.  ;  and  strain  immediately  into  the  store  cau. 
Very  line.  Gold  Varnish  of  Watin,  for  Gilded  Articles. — Gum  lac  iq 
grains,  gamboge,  dragon's  blood,  and  annatto,  of  each  12^  oz. ;  saffron, 
oz.  Each  resin  must  be  dissolved  separately  in  5  pts.  of  90  per 
cent,  alcohol,  and  2  separate  tinctures  must  be  made  with  the  dragon's 
blood  and  annatto  in  a  like  quantity  of  spirits  ;  and  a  proper  propor- 
tion of  each  mixed  together  to  produce  the  required  shade.  Trans- 
parent Varnish  for  rlourjhs,  die— Best  alcohol,  1  gal.  ;  gum  san- 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTEES',   &C.,  KECEIPTS.  285 

darac,  2  lbs. ;  sum  mastic,  %2  ]  place  all  in  a  tin  can  Tvliich  admits 
of  being  corked  ;  cork  tight,  sbake  it  frequently,  occasionally  placing 
the  can  in  hot  water.  When  dissolved,  it  is  ready  for  use.  Fi/ia 
Black  Varnish  for  Coaches. — Melt  in  an  iron  pot,  amber,  32  oz.  ; 
resin,  6  oz.  ;  aspha.ltum,G  oz.  ;  drying  linseed  oil,  1  pt.  ;  when  partly- 
cooled,  add  oi^  of  turpentine,  warmed,  1  pint.  Mordant  Varnish.—^ 
dissolve  1  oz.  mastic,  1  oz.  sandarac,  ^  oz.  ^mn  gamboge,  and  ^  oz. 
turpentine  in  6  oz.  spirits  turpentine.  One  of  the  simplest  mordants  i;; 
that  procured  by  dissolving  a  little  honey  in  thick  glue.  It  has  tho 
effect  of  greatly  heightening  the  color  of  the  gold,  and  the  leaf  sticks 
extremely  well.  Chanrjing  Varnish. — To  imitate  Gold  or  Silver,  &c. 
Put  4  oz.  best  gum  gamboge  into  32  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  4  oz. 
dragon's  blood  into  32  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  and  1  oz.  of  annatto 
into  8  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine.  Make  tho  3  mixtures  in  different 
vessels.  Keep  them  in  a  warm  place,  exposed  to  the  smr  as  much  as 
possible,  for  about  2  weeks,  when  they  will  be  fit  for  use.  Add  to- 
gether such  quantities  of  each  liquor  as  tho  nature  of  the  color  you  aro 
desirous  of  obtaining  will  point  out.  Transparent  Varnish,  for 
Wood. — Best  alcohol,  1  gal. ;  nice  gum  shellac,  2^  lbs.  Place  the  ju^l 
or  bottle  in  a  situation  to  keep  it  just  a  little  warm,  and  it  will  dis- 
solve quicker  than  if  hot,  or  left  cold.  Patent  Varnish  for  Wood  or 
Canvas. — ^Take  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal  ;  asphaltum,  2^  lbs.  ;  put 
them  into  an  iron  kettle  which  will  fit  iipon  a  stove,  and  dissolve  tho 
gum  by  heat.  When  dissolved  and  a  little  cool  add  coital  varnish,  1 
pt. ;  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  1  pt  ;  when  cold,  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Perhaps  a  little  lampblack  would  make  it  a  more  perfect  black. 

Mosaic  Gold  Powder  for  Broxzixg,  &c. — Melt  1  lb.  tin  in  a 
crucible,  add ^  lb.  of  purified  quicksilver  to  it:  when  this  is  cold,  it 
is  reduced  to  powder,  and  ground,  with  \  lb.  sal-ammoniac  and  7  oz. 
flour  of  sulphur,  till  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed.  They  are  then 
calcined  in  a  matrass  ;  and  the  sublimation  of  the  other  ingredients 
leaves  the  tin  converted  into  the  mosaic  gold  powder  which  is  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  Remove  any  black  or  discolored  particles. 
The  sal-ammoniac  must  be  very  white  and  clear,  and  the  mercury  of 
the  utmost  j^urity.  When  a  deeper  red  is  required,  grind  a  very  small 
quantity  of  red  lead  with  the  above  materials.  True  Gold  Powder. — 
Put  some  gold  leaf,  with  a  little  honey,  or  thick  gum  water  made 
with  gum  arable,  into  an  earthen  mortar,  and  iDomid  the  mixture  till 
the  gold  is  reduced  to  very  small  particles;  then  wash  out  the  honey 
or  gum  repeatedly  with  warm  water,  and  the  gold  in  powder  will  bo 
left  behind.  When  dry,  it  is  fit  for  use.  Dutch  Gold  Powder  ig 
made  from  Dutch  gold  leaf,  which  is  sold  in  books  at  a  yery  low 
price.  Treat  in  the  manner  described  above  for  true  gold  jiowder. 
When  this  inferior  powder  is  used,  cover  tho  gilding  with  a  coat  of 
clear  varnish,  otherwise  it  will  soon  lose  its  bright  appearance.  Cop- 
per Powder  is  prepared  by  dissolving  filings  or  slips  of  copper  with 
nitrous  acid  in  a  receiver.  When  the  acid  is  saturated,  the  slips  are  to 
be  removed;  or,  if  filings  be  employed,  the  solution  is  to  be  poured 
off  from  what  remains  undissolved.  Small  bars  are  then  put  in,  which 
will  precij)itate  the  copper  powder  from  the  saturated  acid;  and, 
the  liquid  being  poured  from  the  powder,  this  is  to  bo  washed  clean 
off  the  .crystals  by  repeated  waters. 
,BB02itzk  Powder  of  apaie  gold  color  is  produced  from  an  alloy  of 


286      CABIN KT3IAKERS,  TAINTEKS,   AC,  RECEIPTS. 


13i  parts  of  copper  and  2^  parts  zinc,  of  a  crimson  metallic  lustre  from 
copper,  of  a  2)alcr  color,  copper,  and  a  \  cry  little  zinc,  yi-cen  bronze 
witli  a  proportion  of  verdigris,  of  a  line  orcauje  color,  by  lih  parts  cop- 
per antl  Lit  l>nrts  zinc  ;  another  orange  color,  lo,^  paits  copper  and  2^ 
zinc  The  alloy  is  laminated  into  very  line  leaves  \vitii  careiul  anncjU- 
ing,  and  these  are  levigated  into  ii))i)ali)able  powders,  along  vi'ith  a 
iilni  of  line  oil,  to  prevent  oxidizeinent,  and  to  lavor  tlie  levigation 

GioNEKAL  DuiKCTioNS  roil  BiiONZi^d.  ^The  choicc  of  the  above 
powders  is  of  course  determined  by  the  degree  of  brilliancy  you  wisli 
to  obtain.  The  powder  is  mixed  witli  strong  gnm  water  or  isinglass, 
and  laid  on  with  a  brush  or  pencil  ;  and,  not  so  dry  as  to  have  stili 
certain  clamminess;  a  piece  of  soft  leather  wrapped  round  the  linger 
is  dipped  into  the  powder,  and  rubbed  over  the  work.  When  the  ^vork 
has  been  all  covered  with  the  bronze,  it  must  be  left  to  dry,  and  and 
loose  powder  then  cleared  away  by  a  hair-pencil. 

BiioNziNG  Irok.— The  subject  should  be  heated  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  tlie  hand  can  bear,  and  German  gold,  mixed  A^  ith  a  f  mall 
quantity  of  spirit  of  wine  varnish,  spread  over  it  with  a  pencil;  should 
the  iron  be  already  polished,  you  must  licat  it  well,  and  moisten  it 
with  a  linen  rag  dipped  in  vinegar. 

Gilder's  Parchment  Size.— The  best  is  made  from  cuttings  of 
fine  parchment.  Wash  them  clean,  cover  them  with  water,  and  al- 
lov\^  them  to  simmer  for  about  2  hours  over  a  slow  fire :  when  brought 
to  the  proper  strength  or  tenacity,  which  may  be  tested  by  the  trial  of 
a  portion  between  the  thumb  and  finger;  if  it  jiroves  adhesive  pour 
it  into  a  clean  vessel  for  use.  When  solidified,  it  resembles  a  jell}'; 
if  very  stiff,  it  will  require  dilution  with  A^-ater.  Some  gilders  use  a 
lactometer  and  a  deep  glass  to  determine  the  proper  strength  of  size. 
When  the  float  indicates  a  little  higher  than  1,  for  burnish  size,  and 
near  2,  for  matt  gold  size,  excellent  work  Vv'ill  result.  In  the  United 
States,  some  gilders  substitute  n  ichite  glue  for  jDarchment  cuttings 
in  the  making  of  size.    For  Oil  Gold  Size,  consult  that  item. 

Matt  Gold  Sizr;  is  usually  purchased  from  dealers  ready  made; 
it  is  prepared  for  use  by  intermixture,  (in  a  clean  vessel)  over  a  slov;- 
fire,  with  parchment  size,  to  the  density  of  a  thickisli  cream,  and  used 
while  w^arm. 

BuRxisii  Gold  Size  is  often  bought  ready  made  from  the  deal- 
er. Good  results  may  be  obtained  by  using  red  chalk,  black  lead, 
r.iid  deer  suet,  of  each  2  ozs.,  finely  ground  to  a  stiff  paste,  with  2  lbs. 
of  ]«pe  clay,  and  for  use  prepared  like  matt  size. 

Thick:  Wi-iite  for  application  to  the  parts  intended  to  be  burnish- 
ed, previous  to  putting  on  the  burnish  size,  is  a  composition  of  parch- 
ment size  and  wliitening,  about  the  density  of  cream. 

Gilder's  Ormollt. — Red  Sanders  wood  2  drs.,  turmeric  1  dr., 
garnet  shellac  1  oz.,  spirits  of  wine  pt. :  mix  all  together  thoroughly 
Rnd  strain.  This  is  added  to  medium  strength  parchment  size  in  or- 
der to  impart  a  more  beautiful  appearance  to  the  matt  and  oil  gilding. 

Clay  for  Gilder's  Use  is  usually  purchased  from  the  dealers 
and  is  prepared  similar  to  burnish  size. 

The  Stopping  Co]v;rFOSiTiON  used  for  filling  holes  and  deficiencies 
in  the  work  is  a  cor^^pound  of  size  and  whitening,  brought  to  the 
density  of  jDutty. 

To  Whiten  Mouldings. — On  gilded  work  to  be  exposed  to  the 
weather,  paint  is  u::cd  as  a  foundation,  and  the  gilding  is  done  in  oil 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  287 

as  burnished  gilding  is  unfit  to  withstand  exposure.  This  last  named 
description  of  work  must  have  a  good  base  oi  whitening  applied  to  the 
moulding  previous  to  gilding.  First  apply  a  very  liot  thin  priming 
coat  of  fine  whitening  and  parchment  size;  after  this  is  dry,  fill  the 
holes,  blemishes,  and  irregularities  with  the  stopping  composition; 
then  apply  a  good  coat  of  thick  ivhite,  dry,  and  apply  another.  After 
applying  several  coats  of  the  thick  white,  which  should  be  in  all  about 
l-l(jth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  pumice-stone  should  be  applied  to 
smooth  off  all  irregularities  and  the  surplus  whiting.  Make  thorou,'.;h 
work  to  ensure  a  fine  smooth  surface  ou  the  moulding,  paying  great 
attention  to  the  different  hollows,  beads,  &c. 

Composition  for  Ornaments. — Best  glue,  9  lbs.  6  ozs. ;  water 
5  pts. ;  rosin  (white)  4  lbs. ;  raw  linseed  oil  4  pts.  Boil  the  glue  in  the 
water  until  dissolved;  dissolve  the  rosin  in  the  oil,  add  the  whole  to 
the  glue  mixture.  Boil  the  whole  slowly  for  25  minutes  lonc^er,  and 
pour  the  mixture  into  a  large  vessel  among  finely  sifted  whiting,  and 
mix  up  to  the  consistency  of  thin  putty.  Set  away  in  a  damp  place, 
and  cover  with  a  wet  cloth  ready  for  use.  The  ornaments  are  mado 
by  selecting  a  portion  of  the  mixture,  steaming  it  to  a  soft  plastic  con- 
dition (for  the  mixture  becomes  very  hard  when  cold),  and  pressing 
with  the  hands  into  a  boxwood  mould,  previously  well  lubricated  or. 
smeared  with  oil  and  turpentine.  The  composition  being  fitted  into 
the  mould,  a  board  thoroughly  wet,  is  place  :  against  the  mixture  out- 
side the  mould,  and  the  whole  is  submitted  to  pressure  in  an  iron 
iscrew  press,  which  drives  the  mixture  into  the  minutest  parts  of  the 
mould.  This  done,  the  pressure  is  relaxed,  and  the  mould  taken  from 
the  press  and  the  ornament  withdrawn  from  it.  The  ornaments  may  be 
attached  to  the  frame  with  glue  or  white  lead ;  and  when  they  com- 
pose the  corners  on  frames,  require  to  have  the  vacant  space  between 
hacked  ov  filled  up  with  composition  softened  in  boiling  water. 

Gilding  in  Oir. — The  ornaments  being  properly  adjusted  and  al- 
lowed full  time  to  harden  on  the  frame,  "the  first  step  taken  by  thor 
gilder  is  to  wash  and  cleanse  them,  together Avith  the  frame,  from  the 
adherent  oil  and  dust.  This  done,  when  dry,  apply  a  uniform  coat  of 
thin  white  to  the  frame,  and,  after  drying,  fill  all  the  holes  and  defect- 
ive parts  with  the  stopping  described  above.  When  this  becomes 
hard,  go  over  every  jiart  of  the  Avork  and  bring  it  to  the  utmost 
smoothness  with  fine  glass  paper.  This  part  of  the  work  must  not  be 
slighted  if  a  good  job  is  wanted,  for  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Now 
dust  off  the  work  and  apply  the  clay  prepared  as  described  above ;  al- 
low it  to  dry  and  rub  smooth  with  fine  glass  paper  once  more.  A  coat 
of  clear  cole  is  now  applied,  consisting  of  parchment  size  diluted  to  a 
thinnish  consistency  with  water.  It  is  usual  to  apply  2  coats  of  this 
size  in  a  warm  condition.  It  effectually  prevents  the  absorption  of 
the  succeeding  coat  of  oil  size.  The  gilder  prepares  the  oil  size  (boiled 
linseed  oil  and  ochre  Avell  ground  together)  by  bringing  it  to  a  creamy 
consistency,  and  purifies  it  by  straining  through  a  clean  rag  held  un- 
der pressure,  squeezing  out  the  size.  This  jireparation  is  spread  very 
evenly  over  the  prepared  surface,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  it  be- 
comes slightly  sticky  or  tacky,  when  the  knife,  cushion  and  gold  leaf 
are  brought  into  requisition,' and  the  leaf  anpl-ed  with  the  tip  to  the 
entire  surface  covered  with  the  size.  This  process  requires  careful 
management  ;  the  gilder  blows  the  gold  leaf  out  on  the  cushion  with 
his  breath,  divides  and  subdivides  it  with  his  knife  to  cover  the  differ- 


288     CABINETMAKKRS,  PAINTERS,  &C.,  RECEirXS. 


ent  wants  of  various  parts  of  the  work.  The  leaf  is  dahbod  down 
with  a  dabbor  of  cotton  wool  or  other  soft  material,  and  finished  witli 
0,  badger.  See  Gildin(f  Lrticrs  on  Wood.  The  fi-ame  being  now  cov- 
ered with  the  leaf,  is  bruslied  off  to  clear  it  from  tlie  small  gold  parti- 
cles still  adhering,  and  is  finally  finished  by  applying  the  finish,  size 
evenly  with  a  hog's-hair  brush  over  the  work.  The  finish  consists  of 
a  somewhat  weak,  clear  size,  which  may  be  tempered  with  a  little  or- 
molu if  it  is  desired  toimpart  a  finer  color  to  the  gold. 

Watkk  and  Oil  Gijlding  on  Large,  Bkoad  Fiiames,  &c.— Re- 
move all  dust  and  dirt  from  the  frame  and  ornaments,  by  thorough 
washing  and  brushing  with  plenty  of  clear  water,  being  careful  not  to 
damage  the  ornaments  while  doing  so,  dry,  and  apply  a  coat  of  thin 
white,  fill  all  holes  and  defects  by  stopping,  and  treat  the  parts  in- 
tended to  be  burnished  with  three  or  four  coats  of  thick  white,  smooth- 
ing down  the  last  coat  when  nearly  dry,  by  passing  the  fingers  over  it 
"When  dry,  go  over  it  with  glass  paper,  making  a  complete  smooth  job; 
next  apply  a  coat  of  clay,  and  smooth  down  with  j:lass  paper  once 
more.  Next,  apply  an  even  coat  of  size,  a  nd  when  dry,  apply  another. 
The  frame  is  next  "  put  in  oil "  as  above  described,  and  subsequently, 
the  parts  intended  to  be  burnished,  which  have  received  the  coats  of 
thick  white,  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  oil  by  careful  rubbing 
with  a  wet  piece  of  cotton  applied  by  the  finger,  turning  the  rag  at 
short  intervals  so  as  to  present  a  clean  surface  to  the  work.  Guard 
against  touching  any  other  parts  of  the  frame  with  the  wet  cloth,  as 
the  mistake  will  have  to  be  corrected  with  the  oil  brush.  To  make 
Bure  that  no  trouble  will  result  from  grease,  it  is  necessary  before  lay- 
ing the  gold,  to  apply  clay  to  all  parts  intended  to  be  burnished,  in 
order  to  prevent  any  of  the  gold  leaf  from  sticking,  as  it  would  have 
to  be  removed  with  glass  paper  previous  to  applying  other  j^repara- 
tions.  The  frame  is  then  gilded  as  previously  described,  the  leaf 
pressed  into  the  cavities  of  the  ornaments,  &c.,  the  defects  corrected, 
the  work  brushed  off,  and  size  finished  as  above.  The  parts  to  be 
burnished  or  loater  gilded,  previously  noted  as  being  coated  with  clay, 
must  now  be  treated  to  three  or  four  coats  of  mat  gold  size,  laid  on 
evenly  with  a  camel' s-hair  brush.  When  dry,  polish  with  fine  glass 
paper,  brush  down,  and  pass  over  it  afterwards  with  a  damp  sponge. 
Now  apply  2  even  coats  of  burnish  gold  size,  and  apply  the  leaf  as 
soon  as  the  last  coat  becomes  dry.  This  is  applied  in  a  manner  en- 
tirely different  from  that  previously  described.  The  frame  being  ele- 
vatsd  at  a  proper  angle  to  allow  the  surplus  water  to  drain  off,  and 
the  gold  leaf,  cushion,  knife,  tip,  camel' s-hair  pencils,  glass  of  clean 
water,  &c.,  being  ready,  proceed  to  gild  the  bead  which  passes  around 
the  frame  between  those  parts  which  have  previously  been  oil-gilt,  by 
dipping  a  proper  sized  cam  el' s-hair  pencil  into  the  glass  of  water,  wipe 
it  on  the  edge,  commence  at  the  left  hand  extremity  of  the  bead,  wet- 
ting it  for  a  space  of  4  or  5  inches  or  more  down,  saturating  it 
thoroughly  with  the  water,  and  apply  the  gold  leaf  (previously  cut  to 
the  proper  size  and  held  in  readiness  oil  the  tip)  very  neatly  and 
quickly  to  the  spot  while  it  is  covered  with  water.  Go  over  the  bead, 
ornaments,  and  all  parts  intended  to  be  burnished  in  this  way,  being 
extremely  careful  to  allow  no  water  to<;ome  in  contact  with  the  gilded 
part  of  the  frame.  When  done,  examine  closely  for  faults,  and  repair 
all  defects  discovered,  dry,  and  proceed  to  burnish  by  applying  tho 
curved  part  of  the  burnisher  to  the  work,  passing  it  hither  and. 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS,  cfeC,  RECEIPTS.  289 

thither  over  the  gold  with  the  right  hand,  assisting  the  pressure  and 
steadying  the  movement  by  the  thumb  of  tlie  lel't.  This  results  in 
bringing  out  a  splendid  burnish.  Go  over  the  work  with  particular 
care,  bring  out  the  full  lustre  of  the  gold,  cover  deficiences,j?nw/i,  sizt 
the  frame  once  more,  carefully  avoiding  the  burnished  parts  ;  finally, 
tinge  the  edge  of  the  frame  with  ochre.  In  burnish  gilding,  on 
large  frames,  the  conspicious  parts  of  the  frame,  such  as  the  beads, 
ornaments,  &c.,  should  be  selected  for  operation. 

Brush  Polish. — Shellac  4  ozs.,  white  rosin  4  ozs.,  dissolve  in  2 
pts.  spirits  of  wine  and  apply  while  Avarm,  with  a  brush. 

Cabinet  Maker's  Varnish. — Cum.  shellac  3  ozs.,  gum  mastic 

1  oz.,  gum  sandarac,  3  ozs.,  spirits  of  wine,  40  ozs.    Dissolve  the  last 

2  in  the  spirits,  then  dissolve  the  shellac  and  pour  off  the  clear  for 
use. 

French  Polish  Reviver. — Linseed  oil  1  pint,  vinegar  4  ozs., 
spts.  camphor  2  ozs.,  spts.  hartshorn  ^  oz.,  butter  of  antimony,  1  oz. 
Another. — Dissolve  8  ozs.  shellac  and  ^  an  oz.  of  oxalic  acid  in  2  lbs. 
naphtha,  then  add  3  ozs.  linseed  oil. 

Ebonized  Black  for  Ebonizing  Moulding  Frames,  &;c. — 
Strong  vinegar,  1  gal.,  ext.  of  logwood,  2  lbs.,  green  copperas,  ^Ib., 
China  blue,  i  lb.,  nut-gall,  2  ozs.  Simmer  over  a  slow  fire  until  all  m 
dissolved  ;  set  off  and  cool.  Add  to  the  above  pt.  iron  rust  obtained 
by  steeping  iron  filings  in  strong  vinegar.    An  unequalled  jet  black. 

Satinwood  Stain  for  the  Inside  of  Drawers.  —  Alcohol  3 
pts.,  powdered  gamboge,  3  ozs.,  ground  turmeric,  G  ozs.  Steep  to 
obtain  full  strength,  and  strain  through  muslin.  Apply  2  coats  with 
a  fine  sponge,  sandpaper  when  dry  and  varnish  or  French  polish. 

Walnut  Stain  on  Pine  or  Whitewood. — Take  2  gals,  of  very- 
thin  sized  shellac ;  add  burnt  sienna,  2  lbs?,  burnt  umber,"2  lbs.,  lamp- 
black, ^  lb, ;  shake  all  together  and  mix  well  in  a  stouo  jug.  Apply 
1  coat  with  a  brush,  dry;  sandpaper  smooth,  and  apply  a  coat  of  com- 
mon varnish  or  shellac.    A  fine  imitation  of  walnut. 

Cheap  Black  Stain  on  Pine  or  Whitewood.— Water,  2 galf^., 
black  copperas,  1  lb.,  logwood  chips,  1  lb.,  ext.  logwood,  1  lb.,  indigo 
blue,  1  lb.,  lamp-black,  2  ozs.  ;  simmer  over  a  slow  fire,  cool  off, 
strain,  and  add  1  oz.  nut-gall.  A  splendid  black  stain  for  cheap 
work. 

To  Gild  a  Wooden  Flower  Stand.— Rub  the  wood  smooth, 
prime  with  glue  size,  tlien  put  on  2  coats  of  oil  paint  and  one  of  fiat- 
ting.  Smooth  over,  when  dry,  with  wash-leather.  Put  on  gold  size, 
and  when  it  is  vSticky  to  the  touch,  it  is  ready  for  the  leaf,  which  ]mt 
on  carefully  and  dab  down  with  cotton-wool.  A  transparent  glazing 
can  be  used  to  deaden  the  gold  in  places. 

Old  Oak  Imitation  on  White  Deal. — Burnt  umber,  1  part, 
brown  ochre,  1  part,  mix  thoroughly  with  a  very  thin  glue  size  and 
apply.  A  good  oak  stain  is  made  by  adding  1  lb.  each  of  potash  and 
pearlash  to  1  gal.  water,  adding  more  water  if  a  lighter  stain  is  re- 
quired. 

Rosewood  Imitation  on  White  Deal.— Apply  Venetian  red 
and  a  little  lamp-black  in  solution,  with  thin  glue  size.  A  good  ma- 
?io(/any  stain  is  Venetian  red,  1  lb.,  yellow  lead,  2  lbs.  ;  mix  Avith 
thin  glue  size.  WUnut  stain  on  deaL—Biirnt  umber  and  yellow 
ochre  iu  thin  size.    The  above  may  be  applied  while  warm  with  a 

10 


290     CABINETxMAKERS,  PAINTERS,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


Foft  rn<;  or  l)y  dipping  the  wood  into  a  vat  containing  the  solution,  a» 
is  done  ATith" chairs,  etc.,  in  many  manufactories. 

Maikxianv  Imitation  on  Beech. — rulverized  dragon's  blood,  2 
ozs.,  rectified  spts.  of  wine,  1  qt. 

Filling  fok  French  Polished  Work. — A  creamy  paste  com- 
posed of  water  and  plaster  of  Paris,  applied  with  a  coarse  rag  to  the 
grain  of  the  wood  forms  a  good  filling.  Apply  vigorously  to  the  wood 
to  fill  the  pores  thoroughly,  and  wipe  off  tlie  surplus.  Finely  sifted 
whitening,  mixed  with  painter's  drying  oil,  is  another  good  filling 
composition. 

Splendid  Crimson  Spirit  Stain.  —  Brazil-wood,  loz.,  cochi- 
neal, 1  oz.,  dragon's-blood,  1  oz.,  saffron,  2oz3. ;  steep  to  obtain  full 
Btrength,  in  2  qts.  alcohol  and  strain. 

Best  Mountino  Material. — Good  Bermuda  arrow  root,  12  ozs; 
sheet  gelatine,  80  grains:  mix  the  arrow  root  to  a  creamy  consistence 
with  a  spoon,  in  loz.  of  water;  then  add  14  ozs.  of  water  and  the 
gelatine  broken  into  fragments.  Boil  for  4  or  5  minutes,  set  it  aside 
imtil  partially  cool,  then  add  1  oz.  of  methylated  spirit,  and  6  drops 
of  carbolic  acid,  the  former  quite  slowly.  This  article  has  no  superi- 
or and  will  Iseep  for  years. 

To  Clean  Engravings. — Place  the  engraving  on  a  smooth  board 
with  a  sheet  of  clean  paper  between,  damp  the  picture  on  both  sidea 
with  a  sponge  and  clean  water;  then  soak  it  well  with  the  following 
solution  applied  with  a  clean  sponge:  Water,  1  pt,  chloride  of  lime, 
4  ozs. ;  oxalic  acid,  1  oz.  This  imparts  a  fine  white  appearance  to  dis- 
colored prints,  but  it  must  not  be  appUed  to  water  colors  in  any  case, 
as  it  will  certainly  destroy  them. 

To  Revive  the  Coloi^  of  Old  Paintings.— Mix  linseed  oil,  2 
ozs.,  with  methylated  chloroform,  1  oz. ;  and  apply  a  little  over  the 
painting,  previously  washing  it  with  clean  water  applied  with  a  little 
cottonwool;  wipe  off  the  composition  with  a  soft  silk  handkerchief 
during  the  next  day.  The  mixture  possesses  the  valuable  property  of 
restoring  the  faded  colors  of  paintmgs.  The  vapor  of  alcohol  has  a 
like  effect. 

To  Preserve  a  Scaling  or  Cracked  Painting.— Clean  the 
painting  very  carefully  with  pure  soft  water,  and  pour  over,  or  gently 
apply,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  methylated  chloroform  and  linseed 
oil.  Allow  it  to  remain  a  day  or  two ;  carefully  wipe  off  the  excess  of 
oil,  and  apply  more  of  the  fresh  mixture,  wiping  it  off  as  before.  Re- 
peat the  process  until  the  colors  become  fixed,  and  the  painting  be- 
comes flexible,  when  it  may  be  cleaned  and  varnished. 

Varnish  for  Paintings. — Ko  better  varnish  for  paintings  can  be 
liad  than  that  made  from  good,  ripe,  clean,  gum  mastic  and  rectified 
turpentine,  fully  matured  by  an  exposure  of  several  months  in  a  wide 
mouthed  glass  bottle.  Cover  the  bottle  so  as  to  admit  air,  but  no 
dust,  and  set  it  in  the  light,  but  out  of  the  sun. 

To  Preserve  Paintings  Indefinitely. — Varnish'  the  painting 
on  both  sides,  and  hermetically  seal  with  well  fitting  sheets  of  polished 
glass  on  the  front,  and  apply  a  good  coat  of  air  proof  material  to  the 
back.  According  to  Wagner,  the  real  cause  of  the  ultimate  destruc- 
tion of  pictures  as  well  as  of  paint,  is  the  gradual,  but  continuous, 
yet  slow,  oxidation  of  the  linoxine,  resulting  in  the  crumbling  to 
powder  of  pulverulent  matters — pigments  useda«j  ^mlors.   It  may'  not 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  291 

be  out  of  place  to  state  that  one  of  the  best  solvents  of  linoxine  (diied 
paint)  is  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  chloroform,  which  may  be  ad- 
vantageously used  to  remove  stains  of  paint,  and  also  of  wagon  and 
carriage  erease  from  silks  and  woollen  tissues.  _ 

To  Remove  Old  Black  Varnish  from  Paintings— Various 
articles  as  soda,  naptha,  spirits  of  wine,  oil  of  tartar,  &c  ,  will  effect 
this  if  carefully  handled  by  an  experienced  person,  or  the  following 
mixture  may  be  applied  to  the  painting  with  a  dabber  of  cotton  wool: 
Wood  spirits,  4  ozs. ;  linseed  oil  ^  pt.  spirits  of  salts,  2  ozs.  Go  over 
the  painting,  imparting  a  spiral  movement  to  the  rubbing  wad,  Iseep- 
ino-  the  picture  level  and  the  rubber  clean.  Watch  the  progress  of  the 
work,  taking  care  not  to  go  too  far,  and  finish  by  wipmg  with  a  clean 
rag  wet  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  ,  ,   ,    .  . 

To  Whiten  Plaster  Casts,  «ScC.— If  the  uncalcined  plaster  is  im- 
mersed for  15  minutes  in  water  containing  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phuric acid  previous  to  burning  it,  it  will  after  being  calcined  set 
more  slowly,  and  make  splendid  casts,  which  will  be  perfectly  white. 
Semi-transparent  casts  of  fancy  articles  can  be  made  of  unbaked 
gypsum,  2  parts,  bleached  bees- wax,  1  part;  paraffiue,  1  part,  it  is 
very  tough  and  becomes  plastic  at  120°.  Plaster  casts  will  bear  a  nail 
driven  in  them  without  fracture  if  they  are  immeisedmii  hot  solution 
of  glue  long  enough  to  become  saturated.  To  mend  Plaster  Models, 
use  sandarac  varnish,  saturating  the  broken  surfaces  well,  then  pres- 
sing them  tog^her,  then  drying.  As  an  application  to  the  insida 
Piaster  Moidds  use  glycerine,  or  a  mixture  of  lard  and  oil. 

To  Polish  Pianos,  Furniture,  French  Polish,  &c.— The  fol- 
lowing method  of  polishing  pianos  is  in  use  iu  all  first  class  factories. 
The  same  process  will  answer  for  any  other  piece  of  furniture,_  by 
merely  substituting  for  the  scraping,  where  scrapmg  is  not  practica- 
ble, a  filling,  properly  colored :  First,  give  the  work  three  coats  of 
scraping  or  No.  2  furniture  varnish,  allowing  each  coat  to  become  per- 
fectly hard  before  applying  the  next  ;  then  scrape  off  the  varnish  with 
a  steel  scraper,  properly  sharpened  on  an  oilstone,  and  in  scraping  bo 
careful  not  to  cut  into  the  wood,  but  merely  remove  the  varnish  from 
the  surface,  leaving  the  pores  filled.  Smooth  with  No.  1  sandpaper, 
and  the  work  will  be  ready  for  the  polishing  varnish,  four  coats  of 
which  must  be  put  on,  allowing  each  coat  to  "harden.  To  determine 
the  proper  time  required  for  the  hardening.  I  would  say  that  one  coat 
will  not  be  ready  for  the  next  until  it  is  so  hard  that  you  cannot  make 
an  impression  on  it  with  your  thumb  nail.  The  four  coats  having  been 
put  on,  and  the  work  having  stood  a  few  days— and  the  longer  the  bet- 
ter— ^rub  down  with  fine-ground  pumice-stone  and  water,  applied  with 
a  woolen  rag.  The  work  must  be  rubbed  until  all  lumps  and  marks 
of  the  brush  are  removed  ;  wash  off  with  a  sponge  and  dry  with  a 
chamois-skin  :  let  the  work  stand  out  in  the  open  air  for  a  day  or  two, 
taking  it  into  the  shop  at  night.  The  work  should  now  receive  two 
coats  more  of  polishing  varnish  and  a  second  rubbing,  after  which  it 
is  ready  for  polishing. 

Furniture  may  be  polished  after  the  first  rubbing,  and  in  that  case 
the  polishing  is  performed  with  lump  rotten-stone  and  water  applied 
with  a  woollen  rag.  Put  plenty  of  rotten-stone  on  your  work,  with 
water  enough  to  make  it  work  easy.  Rub  until  all  marks  and 
scratches  are  removed.  Rub  the  rotten-stone  off  with  your  bare  hand 
keeping  the  work  wet.  What  cannot  bo  removed  with  the  hand  should 


202      CABINET.MAKER.S,  PAINTERS',  «feC.,  RECEIl-rS. 


be  washed  off  with  a  sponj^o.  After  dryhi.cj  with  a  chamois-skin,  brii);^ 
up  the  polish  with  the  pahii  of  your  hand,  moving  it  lightly  and 
quickly  with  a  circular  motion,  over  the  work.  Clean  up  the  work 
with  a  piece  of  soft  cotton,  dipped  into  sweet  oil,  and  lightly  touch  all 
tlie  white  spots  and  marks  of  the  rotten-stone.  Remove  the  oil  with 
wheat  flour,  applied  with  soft  cotton,  and  finally  dust  off  with  a  soft 
rag  or  silk  handkerchief. 

The  following  method  is  Imown  as  the  Shellac  or  French  Polish. 
In  i)reparing  for  this  process,  add  to  one  pint  of  Sh-cllac  varnish  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  boiled  oil;  the  two  to  be  thoroughly  mixed.  If  you 
want  the  work  dark,  add  a  little  burnt  umber  ;  or  you  can  give  the 
work  any  desired  shade  by  mixing  with  the  shellac  the  proper  pig- 
ment in  the  dry  state.  Apply  the  shellac  thus  prepared  with  a  small 
bunch  of  rags  held  between  your  fingers.  In  applying  it  be  particular 
in  getting  it  on  smooth  and  even,  leaving  no  thick  places  or  blotches. 
Repeat  the  process  continually  until  the  grain  is  filled  and  the  work 
has  received  sufficient  body.  Let  it  stand  a  few  hours  to  harden,  and 
then  rub  your  work  lightly  with  pumice-stone  and  oil,  applied  with  a 
rag,  A  very  little  rubbing  is  required,  and  this  is  to  be  followed  by 
the  cleaning  of  the  work  with  rags  as  dry  as  possible.  With  a  piece 
of  muslin  wet  with  alcohol,  go  over  the  work  two  or  three  times,  for 
the  purpose  of  killing  the  oil.  Have  ready  l  lb.  of  pure  gum  shellac 
dissolved  in  one  pint  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  With  this  saturate  a  pad 
made  of  soft  cotton,  covered  with  white  muslin,  and  witli  the  pad  thus 
formed  go  over  your  work  two  or  three  times.  To  become  proficient 
in  this  work,  practice  and  close  attention  are  required. 

Walnut  Stain  for  Wood. — Water,  1  gal. ;  Vandyke  brown,  10 
ozs. ;  bichromate  of  potash,  1  oz. ;  Avashiug  soda,  G  ozs. ;  boil  10 
minutes,  immerse  the  article,  or  apply  with  a  brush  as  desired. 

Gold  Bronze  for  Furniture. — Mix  copal  varnish  with  gold- 
colored  bronze  powder.   This  is  made  from  bisulphate  of  tin. 

To  Ebonize  Wood. — Mix  lampblack  with  good  French  polish  and 
apply  in  the  usual  way.  The  lampblack  may  be  collected  on  a  tin  held 
over  a  kerosene  oil  lamp,  or  lighted  candle. 

Reviver  for  Gilt  Frames. — White  of  eggs,  2  ozs. ;  chloride  of  pot- 
ash or  soda,  1  oz.;  mix  well;  blow  off  the  dust  from  the  frames;  then 
go  over  them  Avith  a  soft  brush  dipped  in  the  mixture,  and  they  will 
be  equal  to  new. 

Bad  Smell  from  Animal  Size. — To  remove  bad  smell  pass  it 
through  powdered  charcoal.    To  preserve  it,  dissolve  one  ounce  of  • 
sulphate  of  zinc,  generally  known  as  white  copperas,  in  hot  water,  and 
add  to  everv  i  cwt.   It  will  keep  any  length  of  time.   Melt  your  size, 
and  thoroughly  mix  it. 

Polishing  Brass  and  Stone. — Plate-glass  may  be  polished  by 
rubbing  with  emery  and  water,  the  emery  being  of  a  greater  degree  of 
fineness  as  the  Avork  progresses,  until  at  last  by  employing  an  impal- 
l)able  variety  prepared  by  suspending  emery  in  water  for  an  hour  or 
more.  Of  course  no  scratches  must  exist  in  the  work  when  the  polish- 
ing operation  begins ;  such  must  have  been  removed  by  means  of  a 
coarser  emery  flour.  Stones,  such  as  Brighton  pebbles," &c.,  are  often 
cut  and  polished  on  a  rapidly  revolving  leaden  disc,  the  surface  of 
which  is  loaded  with  diamond  dust,  emery,  or  tripoli,  according  to  the 
stone  under  operation. 

Soluble  Glass.— I.  Silica,  1  part,  carbonate  of  soda,  2  parts;  fuse 
together.   2.  Carbonato  of  soda  (dry)  64  parts;  dry  carbonate  of 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  293 

<^assa,  70  parts  ;  silica,  192  parts  ;  soluWc  in  boiling  -water,  yielding 
a  fin<i,  transparent  semi-elastic  varnish.  3.  Carbonate  of  potass:i 
(dry),  10  parts  ;  powdered  quartz  (or  sand  free  from  iron  or  alumiua), 
15  parts  ;  charcoal,  1  part ;  aU  fused  together.  Soluble  in  5  or  G 
times  its  weight  of  hoilinrj  water.  The  filtered  solution  evaporated  to 
dryness,  yields  a  transparent  glass,  permanent  in  the  air. 

Glass  Staining. — The  following  colors  after  having  been  prepared, 
and  rubbed  upon  a  plate  of  ground-glass,  with  the  spirits  of  turpen- 
tme  or  lavender  thickened  in  the  air,  are  applied  with  a  hair-pencil. 
Before  using  them,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  try  them  on  small 
pieces  of  glass,  and  expose  them  to  the  fire,  to  ascertain  if  the  desired 
tone  of  color  is  produced.  The  artist  must  be  guided  by  these  proof- 
pieces  in  using  his  colors.  Tlie  glass  proper  for  receiving  these  ]iig- 
ments  must  be  colorless,  uniform,  and  difficult  of  fusion.  A  design 
must  be  drawn  on  paper,  and  placed  beneath  the  plate  of  glass.  Tho 
upper  side  of  the  glass,  being  sponged  over  with  gum-water,  affords, 
Avlien  dry,  a  surface  proper  for  receiving  the  colors  without  the  risk 
of  running  irregularly,  as  they  would  otherwise  do  on  the  slippery 
glass.  The  artist  draws  on  the  plate  (usually  in  black),  with  a  fino 
l)encil,  all  the  traces  which  marlc  the  great  outlines  or  shades  of  tho 
figures.  Afterwards,  when  it  is  dry,  the  vitrifying  colors  are  laid  on 
by  means  of  larger  hair-pencils  ;  their  selection  being  regulated  by 
the  bunit  specimen-tints  above  mentioned.  Tho  followmg  are  all 
fast  colors,  which  do  not  run,  except  the  yellow,  which  must  thercf oro 
be  laid  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  glass.  The  preparations  being  all 
laid  on,  tho  glass  is  ready  for  being  fired  hi  a  muffle,  in  order  to  fix 
and  bring  out  tlio  proper  colors.  The  muffle  must  be  made  of  very 
refractory  fire-clay,  flat  at  its  bottom,  and  only  five  or  six  inches  high, 
with  a  strong  arched  roof,  and  close  on  all  sides,  to  exclude  smoko 
and  flame.  On  tlic  bottom,  a  smooth  bed  of  sifted  lime,  freed  from 
water,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  must  bo  prepared  for  reccivuig  tlio 
glass.  Sometimes,  several  plates  of  glass  are  laid  over  each  other, 
Avith  a  layer  of  lime  powder  between  each.  The  fire  is  now  lighted, 
and  very  gradually  raised,  lest  tho  glass  should  be  broken  ;  then  keep 
it  at  a  full  heat  for  three  or  four  hours,  more  or  less,  accordhig  to  tho 
indications  of  tho  trial  slips  ;  the  yellow  coloring  being  principally 
watched,  it  furnishing  the  best  criterion  of  the  state  of  the  others. 
When  all  is  right,  let  tho  fire  die  out,  so  as  to  anneal  the  glass. 

Stained-Glass  Tigments.— No.  1.  Flesh-color.—R&A  lead,  1  oz. ; 
red  enamel  (Venetian  glass  enamel,  from  alum  and  copperas  calcined 
together)  :  grind  them  to  a  fine  powder,  and  work  this  up  with  al-' 
cohol  upon  a  hard  stone.  When  slightly  baked,  this  produces  a  fino 
flesh-color.  Xo.  2.  Black  color. — Take  14^  oz.  of  smithy  scales  of 
iron  ;  mix  them  with  2  oz.  of  white  glass  :  antimony,  1  oz.  manganese, 
^  oz.  ;  ix)und  and  grind  these  mgredients  together  with  strong  vinegar, 
Ko.  3.  Broicn  color. — ^White  gfass  or  enamel,  1  oz.  ;  good  manganese. 
^  oz.  ;  grmd  together.  No.  4.  Bed,  Eose  and  Broicn  colors  aro 
made  from  peroxide  of  iron,  prepared  by  nitric  acid.  Tho  flux  con- 
sists of  borax,  sand,  and  minium,  in  small  quantities.  Bed  color  may 
likewise  be  obtained  from  1  oz.  of  red  chalk,  poimded,  mixed  with  2 
oz.  white,  hard  enamel,  and  a  little  peroxide  of  copper.  A  red  may 
also  be  composed  of  rust  of  iron,  glass  of  antimony,  yellow  glaps  of 
lead,  such  as  is  used  by  potters,  or  litharge,  each  in  equal  quantities. 


291    CADINETMAKERS,  PAlNTEliS',  <tC.,  RECEirTS. 

to  which  a  little  Bulphuret  of  eilver  is  addccl.  Tliis  compoaition,  -well 
ground,  produces  .1  very  fine  red  color  on  glass.  No.  5.  Green. — 2  oz. 
of  brass,  calcined  into  an  oxide  ;  2  oz.  of  miniuna,  and  8  oz.  of  -white 
sand  ;  reduce  them  to  a  iino  powder,  which  is  to  he  enclosed  in  a 
■vvell-luted  crucible,  and  heated  strongly  in  an  air  furnace  for  an  houi*. 
■\Vhcn  the  mixture  is  cold,  grind  it  in  a  brass  mortar.  Green  may, 
liowever,  be  advantageously  produced,  by  a  yellow  on  one  side  and  a 
blue  on  the  other.  Oxide  of  chrome  lias  also  been  employed  ;  to 
Btain  glass  green.  No.  G.  A  fine  yelloxo  stain. — Take  fine  silver,  lam- 
inated thin,  dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  dilute  with  abundance  of  water, 
and  precipitate  with  solution  of  sea-salt ;  mix  this  chloride  of  silver- 
in  a  dry  powder,  with  three  times  its  weight  of  pipe-clay  well  bunit 
and  pounded.  The  back  of  the  glass  pane  is  to  be  painted  with 
this  powder  ;  lor,  when  painted  on  the  face,  it  is  apt  to  run  into 
the  other  colors,  A  pale  yellow  can  be  made  by  mixing  sulphuret  of 
fiilver  with  glass  of  antimony  and  yellow  ochre,  previously  calcined 
to  a  red  brown  tint.  Work  all  these  i)Owders  together,  and  paint  on 
the  back  of  the  glass.  Or  silver  laminai,  melted  with  sulplaur  and 
glasis  of  antimony,  thrown  into  cold  water  and  afterwards  ground  to 
powder,  affords  a  yelloAv.  A  pale  yclloio  may  be  made  with  tho 
powder  resulting  from  brass,  siilphur,  and  glass  of  antimony ,  calcined 
together  in  a  crucible  till  they  cease  to  smoke,  and  then  mixed  with 
a  little  burnt  ochre.  The^ne  yelloxo  of  JI.  3\Ieraud  is  ]irepared  from 
chloride  of  silver,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  rust  of  iron.  This  mixture, 
gimply  ground,  is  applied  on  tho  glass.  Orange  color. — Take  1  part 
of  silver  powder,  as  precipitated  from  tho  nitrate  of  that  metal,  by 
I)Iates  of  copper,  and  washed  ;  mix  with  1  part  of  red  ochre,  and  1  of 
yellow,  by  careful  trituration  ;  grind  into  a  thin  pap,  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine or  lavender  :  apply  this  with  a  brush,  and  bum  in. 

To  Silver  Looking  Glasses. — A  sheet  of  tin-foil  corresponding  to 
the  size  of  the  plate  of  glass  is  evenly  spread  on  a  perfectly  smooth 
nvA  solid  marble  table,  and  every  wrinkle  on  its  surface  is  carefully 
rubbed  down  with  a  brush  :  a  portion  of  mercury  is  then  poured  on, 
and  rubbed  over  the  foil  with  a  clean  piece  of  soft  woollen  stuff,  after 
which,  two  rules  are  applied  to  the  edges,  and  mercury  poured  on  to 
the  depth  of  a  crown  piece  ;  when  any  oxide  on  the  surface  is  care- 
fully removed,  and  the  sheet  of  glass,  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  is  slid 
along  over  the  surface  of  tho  liquid  metal,  so  that  no  air,  dirt,  or 
cxide  can  possibly  either  remain  or  get  between  them.  AVhen  tho 
glass  has  arrived  at  its  proper  position,  gentle  pressure  is  applied, 
and  the  table  sloped  a  little  to  carry  off  the  waste  mercury  ;  after 
which  it  is  covered  with  flannel,  and  loaded  with  heavy  weights  ;  iu 
twentj'^-four  hours  it  is  removed  to  another  table,  and  further  slanted, 
and  this  position  is  progressively  increased  during  a  month,  till  it 
becomes  perpendicular. 

Porcelain  Colors.— The  following  are  some  of  the  colors  used 
iu  the  celebrated  porcelain  manufactory  of  Sevres,  and  the  propor- 
tions in  which  they  are  compounded.  Though  intended  for  porcelain 
painting,  nearly  all  are  applicable  to  painting  on  glass.  Flux  No.  1 
ininum  or  red  lead,  3  parts  ;  white  sand,  washed,  1  part.  This  mixturo 
is  melted,  by  which  it  is  converted  into  a  greenish-colored  glass. 
Flux  No.  2.  Gray  flux. — Of  No.  1, 8  parts  ;  fused  borax  in  powder,  1 
jjart.   This  mixturo  is  melted.   Flux  No.  3.  For  carmines  and  green. 


CABINETMAKERS.  PAINTERS'.  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  295 

— ^Melt  together  fused  borax,  5  parts  ,  calcined  flints,  3  parts  ;  puro 
minum,  Ipart.  No.  1.  Indigo  blue. — Oxide  of  cobalt,  Ipart ;  flux 
Ko.  3,  2 parts.  Deep  azure  blue. — Oxide  of  cobalt,  Ipart;  oxide  of 
zinc,  2  parts  ;  flux  No.  3,  5  parts.  No.  2.  Emerald  Green. — Oxide  of 
copper,  1  part ;  antimonic  acid,  10  parts  ;  flux  No,  1,  30  parts.  Pul- 
verize togetliei',  and  melt.  No.  3.  Grass  green. — Green  oxide  of 
chromium.  1  part ;  flux  No.  3,  3  parts.  Triturate  and  melt.  No.  4> 
y  Yellow. — Antimonic  acid,  1  part ;  subsulpliatc  of  the  peroxide  of  iron, 
8  parts  ;  oxide  of  zinc,  4  parts  ;  flux  No.  1,  36  parts.  Rub  up  together 
and  melt.  If  this  color  is  too  deep  the  salt  of  iron  is  diminished.  No. 
5.  Fixed  yelloio  for  touches. — No.  4,  1  part ;  -white  enamel  of  com^ 
meroe,  2  parts.  Melt  and  pour  out ;  if  not  sufficiently  fixed,  a  little 
fsand  may  be  added.  No.  G.  Deejo  Nankin  yelloio. — Subsulphate  of 
iron,  1  part ;  oxide  of  zinc,  2  parts  ;  flux  No.  2,  8  parts.  Triturate 
■without  melting.  No.  7.  Deep  red. — Subsulphate  of  iron,  calcined  in 
a  muffle  until  it  becomes  of  a  beautiful  capucinc  red,  1  part ;  flux  No. 
2,  3  parts.  Mix  without  melting.  No.  8.  Liver  hroion. — Oxide  of 
iron  made  of  a  red  brown,  and  mixed  with  three  times  its  weight  of 
flux:  No.  2.  A  tenth  of  sienna  earth  is  added  to  it,  if  it  is  not  deep 
enough.  No.  9.  White. — The  white  enamel  of  commerce,  in  calics. 
No.  10.  Deep  black. — Oxide  of  cobalt,  2  parts  ;  copper,  2  parts  ;  oxide 
of  manganese,  1  part  ;  flux  No.  1,  G  parts  ;  fused  borax,  \  part.  Melt, 
and  add  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part  ;  oxide  of  copper,  2  parts.  Trit- 
urate without  melting.  The  Application. — Follow  the  general  direc- 
tions given  in  another  part  of  this  work,  in  relation  to  staining  glass. 

How  TO  White  oif  Glass  ik  the  Suk. — Dissolve  chalk  in  aqua- 
fortis to  the  consistency  of  milk,  and  add  to  that  a  strong  dissolution 
of  silver.  Keep  this  in  a  glass  decanter  -well  stopped.  Then  cut  out 
from  a  paper  the  letters  you  Mdll  have  appear,  and  paste  the  paper  on 
the  decanter  or  jar,  which  you  are  to  place  in  the  sun  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  rays  may  pass  through  the  spaces  cut  out  of  the  paper,  and 
fall  on  the  surface  of  the  liquor.  The  part  of  the  glass  through  which 
the  rays  pass  wiU  turn  black,  whilst  that  under  the  paper  will  remain 
■white.  Do  not  shako  the  bottle  during  the  operation.  Used  in  let- 
tering jars. 

To  Staik  or  Color  Glass.— For  amethyst,  oxide  of  manganese 
is  used  ;  blue,  oxide  of  cobalt ;  for  broicn,  oxide  of  iron  ;  for  green, 
black  oxide  of  copper  ;  for  purple,  oxide  of  gold  ;  for  ruby  red,  sub- 
oxide of  copper  ;  for  white,  oxide  of  tin  ;  for  yelloio,  oxide  of  silver, 
&c.  These  substances  pure  and  well  powdered,  are  either  added  to 
the  melted  contents  of  the  glass-pot,  or  are  applied  to  the  surface  as 
in  glass  staining.  Fine  Blue.  To  10  lbs.  of  flint  glass,  previously 
melted  and  cast  into  water,  add  zaffer,  G  drs. ;  calcined  copper,  \  oz. ; 
prepared  by  putting  sheet  copper  into  a  crucible,  and  exj)osing  it  to 
the  action  of  a  fire  not  strong  enough  to  melt  the  copper,  and  you  will 
have  the  copper  in  scales,  which  you  pound. — Bright  Purple.  Use  10 
lbs.  flint  glass  as  before  ;  zalfer  5  drs. ;  precipitate  of  calcium.  1  dr. 
Gold  Yellow.  Flint  glass  28  lbs.,  of  the  tartar  which  is  found  in 
urine,  ^  lb.,  purify  by  putting  in  a  crucible  on  the  fire  until  it  ceases 
to  smoke,  and  add  manganese,  2  ozs. 

Bottle  Glass.— No.  1.  Dark  G^?'een.— Fused  glauber-salts,  11  lbs. ; 
soaper  salts,  12  lbs.  ;  waste  soap-ashes,  ^  bush.  ;  silicious  sand,  $ 
cwt.  ;  glass-skimmings,  22  lbs.  ;  broken  green  glass,  1  cwt.to  Li  cwt. ; 


296    CADIXETMAKEr.S,  I'AINTERS^  <tC.,  RECEII'TS. 

basalt,  25  lbs.  to  ^  CAvt.  No.  2.  Pale  Green— Palo  sand,  100 lbs.  \ 
Icclp,  o5  lbs.  ;  lixiviated  wood-ashes,  1^  cwt.  ;  fresh  do.,  40  lbs. ; 
pipe-clay,  ^  cwt.  ;  cuUct,  or  brokeu  glass,  1  cwt.  No.  3.  Yellow  or 
Avhitc  sand,  120  parts  ;  Avood-ashcs,  80  parts  ;  pearl-ashes,  20  parts  : 
common  salt,  15  parts  ;  -white  arsenic,  1  part ;  very  pale.  (J^'ysicu 
Glass. — No.l.  Refined  potashes,  GO  lbs.  ;  sand,  120  lbs.  ;  chalk,  24 
lbs.  ;  nitre  and  ■white  arsenic,  of  each,  2  lbs.  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  1 
to  2  oz.  No.  2.  Pure  white  sand,  120  parts  ;  refined  ashes,  70  parts  ; 
paltpetre,  10  ijarts  ;  white  arsenic,  ^  part ;  oxide  of  manganese,  ^-  part. 
No.  o.  Sand,  120  parts  ;  rcd-lead'J  50  parts  ;  purified  pearlash,  40 
IKirts  ;  nitre,  20  parts  ;  manganese,  ^  part.  Flask  Glass  {of  St. 
Eliennc). — Pure  silicious  sand,  CI  parts  ;  potash,  2r\  parts  ;  lime,  21 
parts  ;  heavy  spar,  2  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  q.^s.  Best  German 
Crystal  Glass. — Take  120  lbs.  of  calcined  flints  or  white  sand  ;  best 
pearlash,  70  lbs.  ;  saltpetre,  10  lbs.  ;  arsenic,  ^  lb. ;  and  5  oz  magnesia. 
No.  2.  {Cheaper.) — Sand  or  flint,  120  lbs.  ;  pearlash,  40 lbs.  ;  nitre,  7 
lbs.  ;  arsenic,  G  lbs.  ;  magnesia,  6  oz.  This  will  require  a  long 
continuance  in  the  furnace,  as  do  all  others  when  much  of  the  arsenic 
is  used.  Plate  Glass. — No.  1.  Pure  sand,  40  parts  ;  dry  carbonate  of 
soda,  20^  parts  ;  lime,  4  parts  ;  nitre,  1^  parts  ;  brokeu  plate  glass,  25 
parts.  No.  2.  U7-e's. — Quartz-sand,  100  parts  ;  calcined  sulphate  of 
soda,  24  parts  ;  lime,  20  parts  ;  cullet  of  soda-glass,  12  parts.  No. 
3.  Vienna. — Sand,  100  parts  ;  calcined  sulphate  of  soda,  50  parts  ; 
lime,  20  parts  ;  charcoal,  2|  parts.  No.  4.  French. — White  quartz 
cand  and  cullet,  of  each  300  parts  ;  dry  carbonate  of  soda,  100  parts  ; 
slaked  lime,  43  x^arts.  Crown  Glass. — No.  1.  Sand,  300  lbs.  ;  soda- 
ash,  200  lbs.  ;  lime  30  to  35  lbs.  ;  200  to  300  lbs.  of  broken  glass.  No. 
2.  {Bohemian.)— PnvQ  silicious yaud,  G3  parts  ;  potash,  23  parts  ;  lime, 
12  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part.  No.  3.  {Pi'of.  Sehweiggers.) — 
Pure  sand,  100  lbs.  ;  dry  sulphate  of  soda,  50  parts  ;  dry  quicklime  in 
powder,  17  to  20  parts  ;  charcoal,  4  parts.    Product,  white  and  good. 

Best  Window-Glass. — No.  1.  Take  of  white  sand,  GO  lbs.  ;  puri- 
fied pearlashes,  30  lbs.  ;  of  saltpetre,  15  lbs.  ;  of  borax,  lib.  ;  of  arsenic, 
^  lb.  This  will  be  yery  clear  and  colorless  if  the  ingredients  be  good, 
and  not  be  very  dear.  No.  2.  ( Cheaper. ) — ^^Vhite  sand,  GO  lbs.  ;  uu- 
purified  pearl-ashes,  25  lbs.  ;  of  common  salt,  10  lbs.  ;  nitre,  5  lbs.  ; 
arsenic,  2  lbs.  ;  magnesia,  IJ  oz.  No.  3.  Common  green  ivindow- 
glass.— White  sand,  GO  lbs.  ;  unpurified  pearlashes,  30  lbs. ;  common 
salt,  10  lbs.  ;  arsenic,  2  lbs.  ;  magnesia,  2  oz.  LooTcing-Glass  Plate. 
— No.  1.  Cleansed  white  sand,  GO  lbs.  :  pearlashes,  purified,  25  lbs.  ; 
saltpetre,  15  lbs.  ;  borax,  7  lbs.  This  composition  should  be  contin- 
ued long  in  the  fire,  which  should  be  sometimes  strong  and  after- 
wards more  moderate,  that  the  glass  may  be  entirely  free  from  bub- 
bles before  it  be  worked.  No.  2.  White  sand,  CO  lbs.  ;  pearlashes,  20  lbs. ; 
common  salt,  10  lbs.  ;  nitre,  7  lbs.  ;  borax,  1  lb.  This  glass  will  run 
with,  as  little  heat  as  the  former ;  but  it  will  be  more  brittle,  and 
refract  the  rays  of  light  in  a  greater  degree.  No.  3.  Washed  white 
sand,  60  lbs.  ;  purified  pearlashes,  25  lbs.  ;  nitre,  15  lbs.  ;  borax,  7 
lbs.  If  properly  managed,  this  glass  will  bo  colorless.  Window 
Glass. — No.  1.  Dried  sulphate  of  soda,  11  lbs.  ;  soaper  salts,  10  lbs.  ; 
lixiviated  soap  waste,  ^  bush.  ;  sand,  150  to  GO  lbs.  ;  glass-pot  skim- 
mings, 22  lbs.  ;  broken  290 ?e  green  glass,  Icwt.  No.  2.  (PaZcr.)— White 
sand,  GO  lbs.  ;  pcarl-ashcs,  30  lbs.  *,  common  salt  10  lbs.  ;  arsenic,  10 


CABINETMAKERS,  TATNTEKS,'  &C.,  RECEirTS.  297 

lbs.  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  2  to  4  oz.  No.  3.  (Very  Pale.) — "Wliite 
sand,  60  lbs. ;  good  pot  ashes,  25  lbs.  ;  common  salt  10  lbs.  ;  nitre,  6 
lbs.  ;  arsenic,  2  lbs.  :  manganese,  2  to  4  oz,  as  required  ;  broken  j^aZe 
■window  glass,  14  lbs. 

Colored  Potters'  Glazings.— TP7«*fe;  prepare  an  intimate  mix- 
ture of  4  parts  of  massicot,  2  of  tin  ashes,  3  fragments  of  crystal  glass, 
and  ^  part  of  sea  salt.  Tlie  mixture  is  suffered  to  melt  in  earthen- 
ware vessels,  when  the  liquid  flux  may  be  used.  Yelloio ;  take  equal 
parts  of  massicot,  red  lead  and  sulphuret  of  antimony,  calcine  the 
mixture,  and  reduce  it  again  to  powder,  add  then  2  parts  of  pure 
sand,  and  1^  parts  of  salt ;  melt  the  whole.  Green ;  2  parts  of  sand, 
3  parts  massicot,  1  part  of  salt  and  copper  scales,  according  to  the 
shade  to  be  produced  :  melt  and  use.  Violet ;  1  pai-t  massicot,  3 
parts  sand,  1  of  smalt,  ^  part  of  black  oxide  of  manganese  ;  melt. 
Bhie ;  white  sand  and  massicot,  equal  parts  ;  blue  smalt,  ^  part ; 
melt.  Black;  black  oxide  of  manganese,  2  parts  ;  smalt ^  i)art ; 
burned  quartz,  1  part ;  massicot,  1^-  parts  ;  melt,  Broitn grccu 
bottle  glass,  1  part ;  manganese,  1  part ;  lead,  2  parts,  melt. 

Mortar,  Plaster,  &c.— 22  kixds.— 1.  Stone  Mortar.— Ccracnt, 
8 parts;  lime,  3  parts;  sand,  31  parts.  2.  Mortar. — Lime,  1  part;  shaii), 
clean  sand,  2|  parts.  An  excess  of  water  in  slaking  the  lime  swells^ 
the  mortar,  which  remains  light  and  porous,  or  shrinks  in  drying:  an 
excess  of  sand  destroys  the  cohesive  properties  of  the  mass.  3. 
Brown  Mortar. — Lime,  1  part;  sand,  2  parts,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
hair.  4.  Brick  Mortar. — Cement,  3  parts;  lime,  3  parts;  sand,  27 
parts.  Lime  and  sand,  and  cement  and  sand,  lessen  about  J,  m 
volume  when  mixed  together.  5.  Turkish  Mortar. — Powdered  brick 
and  tiles,  1  part;  fine  sifted  lime,  2  parts;  mix  to  a  proper  consistency 
with  water,  and  lay  on  layers  of  5  or  C  inches  thick  between  the 
courses  of  brick  or  stone.  Very  useful  on  massive  or  very  solid 
buildings.  G,  Interior  Plastering — Coarse  Stuff. — Common  lime 
mortar  as  made  for  brick  masonry,  with  a  small  quantity  of  hair  ;  or 
by  volumes,  lime  paste  (30  lbs.  lime,)  1  part;  sand,  2  to  2^  parts;  hair, 
J  part.  AVhen  full  time  for  hardening  cannot  be  allowed,  substitute 
from  15  to  20  j9er  cen?.  of  the  lime  by  an  equal  portion  of  hydraulic 
cement.  For  the  second  or  broion  coat  the  proportion  of  hair  may  bo 
slightly  diminished.  7.  Fine  Stuff. — (Lime putty):  Lump  lime  slaked 
to  a  paste  with  a  moderate  volum'e  of  water,  and  afterwards  diluted  to 
the  consistency  of  cream,  and  then  harden  by  evaporation  to  the  re- 
quired consistency  for  working.  In  this  state  it  is  used  as  a  slipped 
coat,  and  when  mixed  with  sand  or  plaster  of  Paris,  it  is  used  for  the 
finishing  coat.  8.  Gauge  Stiff' or  Hard  Finish  is  composed  of  3  or  4 
volumes  of  fine  stuff  and  1  volume  of  plaster  of  Paris,  in  proportions 
regulated  by  the  degree  of  rapidity  required  in  hardening  for  cornices, 
&c.,  the  proportions  are  equal  volumes  of  each,  fine  stuff  and  plaster. 
9.  Stucco  is  composed  of  from  3  to  4  volumes  of  white  sand  to  1 
volume  of  fine  stuff  or  lime  putty.  10.  Scratch  Coat.—T\\Q  first  of  3 
coats  when  laid  upon  laths,  and  is  from  |  to  §  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

11.  One  Coat  Work. — Plastering  in  1  coat  without  finish,  either  on 
masonry  or  laths  that   is   rendered  or  laid.    Work  on  well. 

12.  Txco  Coat  Tro?-^-.— Plastering  in  2  coats  is  done  either  in  a  laijing 
coat  and  set  or  in  a  screed  coat  and  set.  The  Screed  Coat  is  also  termed 
a  Floated  Coat.   Laying  the  first  coat  in  two  coat  work  is  resorted  to 


298    CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  ScC..,  IlECEirT3 

In  common  work  instead  of  screedinr/,  -when  tho  finished  surface  in 
not  required  to  bo  exact  to  a  straight  edge.  It  is  laid  in  a  coat  of 
about  i  inch  in  tliickness.  Tho  laying  coat,  except  for  very  common 
work,  should  bo  hand  floated,  as  the  tenacity  and  firmness  of  tho 
work  is  much  increased  thereby.  Screeds  are  strips  of  mortar,  2G  to 
28  inches  in  width,  and  of  tlie  required  tliickness  of  tlio  first  coat,  ap- 
plied to  the  angles  of  a  room  or  edge  of  a  wall  and  parallclly,  at  iii- 
tcrvals  of  3  to  5  feet  over  tho  surlaco  to  bo  covered.  When  theso 
have  become  sufficiently  hard  to  withstand  tho  pressure  of  a  straight 
edge,  the  interspaces  between  tho  screeds  should  be  filled  out  flush 
with  thein.  so  as  to  produce  a  continuous  and  straight,  even  surface. 
Slipped  Cfoat  is  the  smoothing  off  of  a  brown  coat  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  putty,  mixed  with  three  per  cent  of  white  sand  so  as 
to  make  a  comparatively  even  surface.  This  finish  answers  when  tho 
surface  is  to  be  finished  in  distemper  or  paper.  Hard  Finish Fino 
f  tuff  applied  with  a  trowel  to  tho  depth  of  about  ^  of  an  inch,  13. 
Cement  for  External  Use. — ^Ashes,  2  parts;  clay,  3  parts;  sand,  1 
part;  mix  with  a  little  oil.  Very  durable.  14.  Compositions  for 
Streets  and  lioads. — Bitumen,  IG. 875  parts ;asphaltum.  2.25 parts;  oil 
of  resin,  G.25;  sand,  1.35  parts.  Thickness  from  1^  to  1|  inches. 
Asphaltum,  55  lbs.,  and  gravel  28.7 lbs.  will  cover  an  area  of  10.75 
square  feet.  15.  Asphalt  Composition. — ^Mineral  pitch,  1  part:  bitu- 
men, 11  parts;  powdered  stone  or  wood  ashes,  7  parts.  IG.  Asphalt 
Mastic  is  composed  of  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime  and  about  9  or 
10  per  cent,  of  bitumen.  AVhen  in  a  state  of  powder  it  is  mixed  with 
about  7  per  cent,  of  bitumen  or  mineral  pitch.  The  powdered  asphalt 
is  mixed  with  the  bitumen  in  a  melted  state  along  with  clean  gravel, 
and  consistency  is  given  to  pour  it  into  moulds.  The  asphalt  is  duc- 
tile, and  has  elasticity  to  enable  it,  with  the  small  stones  sifted  upon 
it,  to  resist  ordinary  wear.  Sun  and  rain  do  not  affect  it,  wear  and 
tear  do  not  seem  to  injure  it.  The  pedestrhin  in  many  cities  in  tho 
United  States  and  Canada,  can  readily  detect  its  presence  on  the  side- 
walk by  its  peculiar  yielding  to  the  foot  as  ho  steps  over  it.  It  is  also 
a  most  excellent  roofing  material  when  rightly  applied,"  it  being  on 
record  in  France  that  a  stout  roof  of  this  material  withstood  tho  ac-" 
cidental  fall  of  a  stack  of  chimneys,  with  tho  only  effect  of  bruising 
the  mastic,  readily  repaired.  17.  Asphalt  for  Walks. — ^Take  2  parts 
very  dry  lime  rubbish,  and  1  part  coal  ashes,  also  very  dry,  all  sifted 
fine.  In  a  dry  place,  on  a  dry  day,  mix  them,  and  leave  a  hole  in 
the  middle  of  the  heap,  as  bricklayers  do  when  making  mortar.  Into 
this  pour  boiling  hot  coal  tar ;  mix,  and  when  as  stiff  as  mortar,  put  it 
three  inches  thick  where  the  walk  is  to  be;  the  ground  should  bo  dry 
and  beaten  smooth;  sprinkle  over  it  coarse  sand.  When  cold,  pass 
a  light  roller  over  it;  in  a  few  days  the  walk  w^ill  be  solid  and  water- 
proof. 18.  Mastic  Cement  for  Covering  the  Fronts  of  Houses.— Ydty 
parts,  by  measure,  of  clean  dry  sand,  50  of  limestone  (not  burned) 
reduced  to  grains  like  sand,  or  marble  dust,  and  10  parts  of  red  lead, 
mixed  with  as  much  boiled  linseed  oil  as  will  make  it  slightly  moist. 
The  bricks  to  receive  it,  should  be  covered  with  three  coats  of  boiled 
oil,  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  suffered  to  dry  before  the  mastic  is  put 
on.  It  is  laid  on  with  a  trowel  like  plaster,  but  it  is  not  so  moist.  It 
becomes  hard  as  stone  in  a  few  months.  Care  must  bo  exercised  not 
to  use  too  much  oil.  19.  Cement  for  TiZe-iJoo/s.— Equal  parts  of  whit- 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  299 

lug  and  dry  sand,  and  25  per  cent,  of  litharge,  made  into  the  consist- 
ency of  putty  with  linseed  oil.  It  is  not  liable  to  crack  when  cold,  nor 
meft,  like  coal-tar  and  asphalt,  with  the  heat  of  the  sun.  20.  Cement 
for  Outside  of  Brick  Walls. — Cement  for  the  outside  of  brick  walls, 
to  imitate  stone,  is  made  of  clean  sand,  90  parts;  litharge,  5  parts; 
plaster  of  Paris,  5  parts;  moistened  with  boiled  linseed  oil.  The 
oricks  should  receive  two  or  three  coats  of  oil  before  the  cement  is 
applied.  21.  Water  Lime  at  Fifty  Cents  per  Barrel. — Fine  clean  sand, 
100  lbs. ;  quick-lime  in  powder,  28  lbs. ;  bone  ashes,  14  lbs. ;  for  use, 
teat  up  with  water,  and  use  as  quick  as  possible.  22.  Cement  for 
Seams  in  Roofs. — Take  equal  quantities  of  white  lead  and  white  sand, 
and  as  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  the  consistence  of  putty.  It  will 
in  a  few  weeks  become  as  hard  as  stone. 

Silver  Polish  Kalsomine.— Take  7  lbs.  of  Paris  white  and  ^  lb. 
of  light  colored  gkxe.  Set  the  glue  in  a  tin  vessel  containing  3  pts.  of 
water,  let  it  stand  over  night  to  soak,  then  put  it  in  a  kettle  of 
boiling  water  over  the  fire,  stirring  till  it  is  well  dissolved  and  quite 
thin.  Then,  after  putting  the  Paris  white  into  a  large  water  pail, 
pour  on  hot  water  and  stir  it  till  appears  like  thiclc  mUk.  Nowmmglo 
the  glue  liquid  with  the  whiting,  stir  it  tliorouglily  and  apply  with  a 
whitewash  brush,  or  a  large  paint  brush.  , 

MEASUREMENT  OF  STONE  OR  BEA^K  WORK. 

1.  Percli,  Masons^  or  Quarrymens*  Measure. 

16^  feet  long     )  ( 

IG  inches  wide  >  =    <  22  cubic  feet.  To  bo  i  msured  ki  waU. 

12     "     high)  ( 

S^n?"!!/^.  I     _    ]  24.75  cubic  feet.    To  \;0  ;^casured  in 


1  cubic  yard  =  3  feet  X  3  feet  X  3  feet  =  27  cubic  fee\  The  cubic 
^ard  has  become  the  standard  for  all  contract  work  of  ."ate  years. 
Stone  walls  less  than  16  inches  thick  count  as  if  IG  inches  thick  to 
masons;  over  IG  inches  thick,  each  additional  inch  is  counted. 

IfUMBER  OF  BRICK  REQUIRED  IN  WALL  TEE  SQUAJtfi.  TOOT  FACE  OB- 
WALL. 

Thickness  of  wall.  Tliickness  o.-'.  wall. 

4  inches         Ih  24  inch^f^  4G 

8     "  15  28     "  52^ 

12     "  22^  32     "  GO 

16     "  »        30  36     "  G7i 

20     «  37^  42     "  ^5 

Cubic  yard  =  600  bricks  in  wall. 
Perch  (22  cubic  feet)  =  500  bricks  in  wall. 
To  pave  1  sq.  yard  on  flat  requires  48  bricks. 
"    "    1        "      edge      "      G8  " 
Best  Wash  for  Barns  and  Houses.— Water  lime,  1  peck; 
freshly  glaked  lime,  1  peck;  yellow  ochre  in  powder,  4-  lbs.;  burnt 


300    CAlilNETMAKERS,  TAINTERS',  AC,  RECEirXS. 

vimbcr,  4  lbs.  To  bo  dissolved  in  hot  ^vater,  and  applied  witli  a 
■brush. 

Durable  Outside  Paint.— T.ako  2  parts  (in  bulk)  of  water  limo, 
ground  line;  Ipart  (in  bulk)  of  white  lead,  in  oil.  Mix  tlieia 
thoroughly,  by  adding  best  boiled  linseed  oil,  enough  to  prepare  it  to 
pass  through  a  paint-mill ;  after  which,  temper  with  oil  till  it  can  bo 
applied  with  a  common  paint  brush.  MalvO  any  color  to  suit.  It  Aviil 
lust  3  times  as  long  as  lead  paint.   It  is  surEitiOB. 

Farmers'  Paint.— Farmers  will  find  the  following  profitable  for 
house  or  fence  paint:  ekim  milk,  two  quarts;  fresh  slaked  lime  3 
oz. ;  linseed  oil,  6  oz. ;  white  Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz. ;  Spanish  Avliito, 
3  lbs.  The  lime  is  to  be  slaked  in  water,  exposed  to  the  air,  and  tlien 
mixed  with  about  one-fourth  of  the  milk;  the  oil  in  which  the  pitch  in 
dissolved  to  be  added  a  little  at  a  time,  then  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and 
afterwards  the  Spanish  white.  This  is  sufficient  for  twenty-seven 
yards,  2  coats.  This  is  for  white  pamt.  If  desirable,  any  other  color 
may  be  produced;  thus,  if  a  cream  color  is  desired,  in  place  of  part  of 
the  Spanish  white  use  the  other  alone. 

ESTIilATE   OF  MATERIALS  AND  LABOR  FOR  100  SQUARE   YARDS  OF 
liATH  AND  BLASTER. 


IVIatcrials 
and  Labor. 

Three  coats 
hard  finish. 

Two  Coats 
Slipped. 

Lratcrials 
and  Labor. 

Three  coats 
hard  liuish. 

Two  coats 
Slipped. 

Limo .    .  . 
Luinp  Lime 
Plaster  of 
Paris  .  . 
Laths.   .  . 
Hair  .   .  . 
Sand.   .  . 

4  Casks. 
%  " 

2000 

4  buslis. 
6  loads. 

31/2  casks. 

2000 

3  buslis. 
G  loads. 

White  Sand 
Nails.   .  . 
Masons  .  . 
Laborer 
Cartage .  . 

2y>buslis. 
13  'lbs. 
4  days, 
3  " 
1  " 

13  lbs. 
31/0  days. 
2  " 
%  " 

Painting  in  LIilk, — Skimmed  milk,  ^  gallon  ;  newly  slaked 
lime,  6  oz. ;  and  4  oz.  of  poppy,  linseed,  or  nut  oil;  and  3  lbs.  Spanish 
white.  Put  the  lime  into  an  earthen  vessel  or  clean  bucket;  and 
having  poured  on  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk  to  make  it  about 
the  thiclaiess  of  cream,  add  the  oil  in  small  quantities  a  littlo 
at  a  time,  stirring  the  mixture  well.  Then  put  in  the  rest  of 
the  milk,  afterwards  the  Spanish  white  finely  powdered,  or 
any  other  desired  color.  For  out-door  work  add  2  oz.  each  more  of 
oil  and  slaked  lime,  and  2  oz.  of  Burgundy  pitch  dissolved  in  the  oil 
by  a  gentle  heat. 

Premium  Paint  without  Oil  or  Lead.— Slake  stone-lime  with 
boiling  water  in  a  tub  or  barrel  to  keep  ui  the  steam  ;  then  pass  0 
quarts  through  a  fine  sieve.  Now  to  this  quantity  add  1  quai-t  of 
coarse  salt,  and  a  gallon  of  water;  boil  the  mixture,  and  skim  it  clear. 
To  every  five  gallons  of  this  skimmed  mixture,  add  1  lb.  alum;  J  lb. 
copperas;  and  by  slow  degrees  5  lb.  potash,  and  4  quarts  sifted  ashes 
or  fine  sand;  add  any  coloring  desired.  A  more  durable  paint  wa.^ 
never,  made. 

Green  Paint  for  Garden  Stands,  Blinds,  etc.— Take  mineral 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  301 

green,  and  white  lead  ground  in  turpentine,  mix  up  the  quantity  you 
■wish  with  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  varuisli.  Tliis  serves  lor  t!io 
first  coat.  For  the  second,  put  as  much  varnish  in  your  mixture  as 
will  produce  a  good  gloss.  If  you  desire  a  brigliter  green,  add  a  little 
rrnssian  blue,  which  will  much  improve  the  color. 

Milk  Paint,  for  Barns,  any  Color.— Mbc  water  lime  with  skim 
millr,  to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  and  it  is  ready  to 
use.  It  will  adhere  well  to  wood,  wliether  smooth  or  rough,  to  brick, 
mortar,  or  stone,  where  oil  has  not  been  used  (in  which  caseit  cleaves 
to  some  extent),  and  forms  a  very  hard  substance,  as  durable  as  the 
best  oil  paint.  It  is  too  clicap  to  estimate,  and  any  one  can  put 
it  on  who  can  use  a  brush.  Any  color  may  be  given  to  it,  by 
using  colors  of  the  tinge  desired.  If  a  red  is  preferred,  mix 
Venetian  red  with  milk,  not  using  any  lime.  It  looks  well  for  fifteen 
years. 

Paint.— To  Make  without  Lead  or  Oil.— Whiting,  5  lbs.; 
Gkimmed  milk,  2  qts. ;  fi-esli  slaked  lime,  2  cz.  Put  the  lime  into  a 
stoneware  vessel,  pour  upon  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  milk  to 
make  a  mixture  resembling  cream;  the  balance  of  the  milk  is  then  to 
be  added;  and  lastly,  the  whiting  is  to  be  crumbled  upon  the  surface 
of  the  fluid,  in  whicli  it  gradually  sinks.  At  this  period  it  must  bo 
well  stirred  in  or  ground,  as  you  would  other  paint,  and  it  la  fit  for 
use. 

Paris  Green. — Take  unslaked  lime  of  the  best  quality,  slake  it 
with  hot  water;  then  take  the  finest  part  of  the  powder,  and  add 
alum  water  as  strong  as  it  can  ho  made,  sufficient  to  form  a  thick 
paste;  then  color  it  with  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  copper 
until  the  color  suits  your  fancy,  and  dry  it  for  use.  N.B. — Tlie  sul- 
phate of  copper  gives  a  blue  tinge;  the  bichromate  of  potash,  a  y^-l- 
low.    Observe  this,  and  you  will  get  it  right. 

Beautiful  Green  Paint  for  Walls. — Take  4  lbs.  Roman 
vitriol,  and  pour  on  it  a  teakettleful  of  boiUng  water.  When  dis- 
solved, add  2  lbs.  pearlash,  and  stir  the  mixture  well  with  a  stick  un- 
til the  effervescence  ceases;  then  add  ^  lb.  pulverized  yellow  arsenic, 
and  stir  the  whole  together.  Lay  it  on  with  a  paint  brush ;  and  if  tho 
wall  has  not  been,  painted  before,  2  or  even  3  coats  will  be  requisite. 
If  a  pea-green  is  required,  put  in  lesf,  if  an  apple-green,  more,  of  the 
yellow  arsenic.  This  paint  does  not  cost  the  quarter  of  oil  paint, 
and  looks  better. 

Blue  Color  for  Ceilings,  &o. — ^Boil  slowly  for  3  hours  1  lb. 
"blue  vitriol  and  ^  lb.  of  the  best  whiting  in  about  3  qts.  water;  stir  it 
frequently  while'boiling,  and  also  on  taking  it  off  tho  fire.  When  it 
lias  stood  till  quite  cold,  pour  off  the  blue  liquid,  then  mix  the  cake 
of  color  with  good  size,  and  use  it  with  a  plasterer's  brush  in  tho 
same  manner  as  whitewash,  cither  for  walls  or  ceilings. 

To  Harden  Whitewash. — ^To  ^  pail  of  common  whitewash  add 
^  pint  of  flour.  Pour  on  boiling  water  in  quantity  to  thicken  it. 
Then  add  G  gals,  of  the  lime  water,  and  stir  well. 

Whitewash  that  will  not  Rub  Off, — Mix  up  lialf  a  pailful  of 
lime  and  water,  ready  to  put  on  the  wall;  then  take  ^  pt.  flour,  mLx  it 
up  with  water;  then  pour  on  it  boiling  water,  a  sufficient  quantity  to 
thicken  it;  then  pour  it  while  hot  iiito  tho  whitewash,  stir  all  well 
together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 


802  CALCULATIONS,  &C.,  FOR  liUILDEllS. 

Slatiko.— Tho  pitch  of  a  slatod  roof  eliould  be  about  1  in  height  to  4 
in  lenytli;  tl>.o  usual  lap  is  about :}  ins.,  but  it  is  sometimes  4.  Each  slato 
Bhoiild  bo  fastened  by  2  nails,  cither  of  copper  or  zinc.  A  square  of  slato 
is  100  supcrlicial  feet,  allowances  being  made  for  tbo  trouble  of  cutting 
tlie  slates  at  the  hii)S,  eaves,  round  chimneys,  etc.  The  sides  and  bottom 
edges  of  the  slates  should  be  trimmed,  and  the  nail  holes  puiu;hed  as  near 
the  head  as  possible;  they  should  bo  sorted  in  sizes,  when  they  arc  not 
all  of  ono  size,  and  the  smallest  size  placed  near  tlio  ridge.  The  tliick- 
ness  of  slates  varies  from  3-lG  to  5-16  of  an  inch,  and  their  weight  from 
2.G  to  4.53  lbs.  per  square  foot.  The  following  table  of  sizes,  etc.,  of  roof- 
ing slates  is  very  useful: 


Description . 

Siz 
Length 

e. 

Bre'th. 

Av'rage 
guage 

in 
inches. 

No;  of 
squares 
1200Avill 

cover. 

Weight 
per  IMOO 
in  tons. 

No.  re- 
quired 
to cover 

ono 
square. 

No.  of 
nails  re- 
quired 
to  ono 
square. 

Countesses  . . 
Duchesses . . , 

Imperials  — 
Hags  and 
Queens 
Westmore- 
lands,  of 
various 
sizes. 

ft.  in. 
1  1 
1  4 

1  8 

2  0 

2  G 

3  0 

ft.  in. 

0  G 
0  8 

0  10 

1  0 

2  0 
2  0 

7 
9 

1  a  ton 

2 

41/. 
7  " 
10 

vill  cove 

f 

r  2V4  to  2 

480 
280 
176 
127 

squar 

480 
280 
352 
254 

3S. 

The  next  table  exhibits  the  comparative  weight  of  various  roof  cover- 
ings. 


Plain  tiles,  per  squaro  of  100  sup'l  feet  — 

"Weight. 

Least 
Slope. 

8  to  18  cwt. 
91/4  cwt. 
7  to  9  cwt. 
614  cwt. 
3  cwt. 
1  cwt. 

560  to  C72  lbs. 
21/2  cwt. 
5  cwt. 
S5  cwt. 

2Gy2  to  30<3 

251/2  to  30° 

40 

40 

40 

250 
25° 

60° 

Copper,  or  zinc,  16  ozs.  per  sup'l  feet  

Timber  framing  for  slated  or  tiled  roofs  . . . 

Cement  for  Makble  and  Alabaster.— Mix  12  parts  of  Port- 
laud  cement,  6  parts  slacked  lime,  6  p9.rts  of  fine  sand,  and  1  part  of 
infusorial  earth,  and  make  up  into  a  thick  paste  with  silicate  of  soda. 
The  object  to  be  cemented  does  not  require  to  be  heated.  It  sets  in  24 
hours,  and  the  fracture  can  not  readily  be  found. 

Superior  Blasting  Compound. — The  English  mining  engineer, 
Mr.  W.  B.  Brain,  lias  found  that  one  of  the  most  available  blasting 
compounds  consists  of  equal  parts  of  potash  chlorate,  potash  nitrate, 
charcoal,  and  dry  oak  saw-dust;  3  parts  of  this  mixture  is  made  to 
about  2  parts  nitroglycerine  of  1.6  specific  gravity. 

To  Thaw  Frozen  Sink  Pipes,  &c.— Place  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
lead  pipe  against  the  ice  to  be  thawed,  and  then  through  a  funnel  iu 


CALCULATIONS,  &C.,  FOR  BUILDERS. 


303 


tlie  other  end  pour  'boilmg  water.  Keep  the  pipe  constantly  against 
the  ice  and  it  will  soon  disappear.  Or  stiffen  rubber  tubing  with  fine 
wire  and  introduce  it  into  the  pipe  as  far  as  possible,  and  direct  a  jet 
of  steam  from  a  small  boiler  over  a  portable  charcoal  furnace,  as  is 
done  by  plumbers  in  many  cases. 

Extinguishing  Fires. — A  solution  of  pearlash  in  water,  thrown 
upon  a  fire,  extinguishes  it  instantly ;  the  proportion  is  4  ozs.,  dis- 
solved in  hot  water,  and  then  poured  into  a  bucket  of  cold  water.  In 
extinguishing  kerosene  fires,  use  uo  water,  but  smother  the  flames 
Avith  blankets  or  rugs. 

In  clapboarding,  1  bundle  laid  314  ins.  to  tlio  weather  v/ill  cover  26 
equar©  feet.  To  be  laid  witli  5-penny  nails. 

COMPAKATIVE  WEIGHT   OP  DIFFERENT  WoODS   IN   GrEEN  AND 

Seasoned  states  in  Pounds  and  Ounces  Per  Cubic  Foot.— Ash, 
green,  58.3;  do.,  seasoned,  50.  Beech, green,  00;  do.,  seasoned,  50.  Amer- 
ican pine,  green,  44.12;  do.,  seasoned,  30.11.  Cedai-,  green,  32;  do.,  sea- 
Boned,  28.4.  English  oak,  green,  71.10;  do.  seasoned,  43,8.  Riga  Fir, 
green,  48.12;  do.,  seasoned,  35.8. 

Shrinkage  in  Dimensions  of  Timber  by  Seasoning. 


Woods. 


Ins. 


Pitch  pine,  South. . . 

Spruce  

White  pine,  America 
Yellow  pine  


18%  to  ISY4 
SY2  to  8% 
12  to  11% 

18  to  nvs 


Woods. 

Ins. 

14  to  1314 

11  to  10% 

12  to  11%  [934 
10x10  to  1)3/4  by 

Percentage  of  Water  in  Different  Woods. 


Alder  41.6 

Ash  28.7 

Birch  30.8 

Elm  44.5 

Horse  chestnut  38.2 


Larch  48.6 

Mountain  ash  28.3 

Oak  34.7 

Pine  39.7 

Red  beech  39.7 1 


Red  pine  45.2 

White  oak  30. 2 

White  pine  37.1 

White  poplar  50-6 

Willow  26.0 


In  sJiingling,  1  bundle  of  16-inch  shingles  will  cover  30  square  ft.;  1 
bundle  of  18-inch  shingles  will  lay  33  square  ft.,  when  laid  5%  ins.  to  tho 
weather;  6  lbs.  4-penny  nails  will  lay  1000  split  pine  shingles. 

Plasterer's  Memoranda.— 130  yards  of  lath,  lay  and  set,  require  1 
Joad  of  laths,  10,000  nails,  2%  cwt.  of  lime,  ly,  double  load  of  sand,  and  7 
bushels  of  hair;  plaster,  laborers  and  boy,  6  days  each. 

Bender  and  Set.— 100  yards  requires  il^  cwt.  of  lime,  1  double  load  of 
sand,  and  4  bushels  of  hair;  plasterer,  laborer  and  boy,  3  days  each. 

Setting — 375  yards  require  ly^  cwt.  of  lime  and  5  bushels  of  hair- 
In  lathing,  1  bundle  of  laths  and  384  nails  will  cover  5  yards.   In  ren- 
dering, 187%  yards  require  1%  cwt.  of  lime,  2  double  loads  of  sand  and  5 
bushels  of  hair.   Floating  requires  more  labor,  but  only  half  as  much 
material  as  rendering. 

1000  bricks,  closely  stacked,  occupy  56  cubic  feet ;  1000  old  bricks, 
cleaned  and  loosely  stacked,  occupy  72  cubic  ft. 

1  rod  of  brickwork  requires  126  gals,  water  to  slack  the  lime  and  mix 
the  mortar.  Bricks  absprb  1-15  of  their  weight  in  water.  No.  of  bricks  in 
cubic  yard,  384.  A  bricklayer's  hod  will  hold  20  bricks,  or  %  cubic  ft.  of 
mortar,  or  1^  bushel,  nearly. 

Safe  Load  in  Structures,  Including  Weight  of  Structure. 

In  cast-iron  columns  ,  1/4  breaking  weight. 

Wrought-iron  structures    <'  "  ' 

In  cast-iron  girders  for  tanks  1/4      "  " 

In  cast-iron  tor  bridges  and  tanks  1-6     "  *' 

In  timber  1-10  " 

Stone  and  bricks  i/g      "  " 


CABINETMAKERS,  TAINTEIIS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  305 

Whitewash.— The  best  method  of  making  a  -whitewash  for  out- 
side exposure  is  to  slake  ^  bushel  of  lime  iu  a  barrel,  add  1  lb.  oi 
common  salt,  ^  lb.  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  a  gallon  of  sweet  mUk. 
Anj  desired  color  may  be  imparted  to  whitewash  by  adding  coloring 
matter  to  suit.    See  Compound  Colors. 

Terra  Cotta  Manufacture.— In  the  terra  cotta  manufacture  of 
the  north  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  purest  lumps  of  fire  clay  are 
selected  by  their  color  and  texture,  and  used  alouo  without  any  other 
clay,  while  the  firms  near  London  prepare  more  carefully  a  mixture 
of  clays,  which  produce  a  body  of  better  texture.  One  of  the  chief 
difficulties  met  in  manufacturing  terra  cotta  figures  and  ornamental 
works  is  the  contraction  the  clay  suffers  after  it  has  left  the  mould  ; 
first,  iu  drying,  afterwards  in  firing  ;  By  mixing  the  claj^s,  a  further 
advantage  is  gained  iuthe  diminished  shrinkage,  as  fire  clay  terra 
cotta  (that  is,  unmixed)  shrinks  in  lineal  dimensions  about  13  per  cent, 
from  the  time  it  leaves  the  mould  until  it  leaves  the  kiln  ;  the  mixed 
clay  terra  cotta  shrinks  G  per  cent,  or  less,  and  red  clays  shrink  3  per 
cent.  To  enhance  the  durabiUty  of  the  body  of  terra  cotta,  a  partial 
vitrification  of  the  mass  is  aimed  at  by  adding  clays  and  substances 
which  contain  a  small  amount  of  alkalies  which  act  as  a  flux  to  fuse 
the  body  harder  ;  also  vitrifying  ingredients,  pure  white  river  sand^ 
old  fire  brick,  ground  fine,  previously  ground  clay  called  "  grog,"  are 
added  in  various  proportions,  amounting  even  to  25  per  cent.  They 
counteract  excessive  shrinkage,  act  as  vitrifjring  elements,  and  keep 
the  color  lighter.  In  the  manufacture  the  mixture  of  clays  is  ground 
under  an  edge  rmmer  to  the  consistency  of  flour.  The  mills  have 
cither  revolving  or  stationary  pans  ;  tlie  former  do  the  most  work. 
In  order  to  mix  aud  incorporate  the  different  clays,  a  subsequent  care- 
ful pugging  is  required,  for  hot  water  is  sometimes  used.  Tlie  mix- 
ture when  brought  to  the  proper  homogeneous  consistency,  is  placed  in 
a  plaster  mould,  dried  near  the  kilns  or  otherv^^ise,  an-  baked  in  a  kiln 
for  five  or  seven  days,  durmg  which  time  it  is  slowly  brought  to  a  white 
heat,  aud  is  gradually  cooled  down  again.  I  order  to  avoid  twisting 
and  warping  during  the  firing,  it  is  necessary,  besides  complete  mix- 
ing of  clays,  that  the  mould  be  shaped  so  as  to  give  a  uniform  thick- 
ness of  material  throughout,  and  if  the  temperature  of  the  kihis  bo 
well  graded,  the  homogeneous  body  will  not  warji.  To  cheapen  terra 
cotta  building  blocks,  they  are  made  hollow,  and  filled,  during  the  con- 
Etruction,  with  concrete  or  cement.  Although  in  the  kilns  the  pro- 
ductions are  separated  from  the  wares,  it  is  found  that  the  use  of  sul- 
phurous fuel  darkens  aud  tarnishes  the  surface,  and  it  is  to  be  avoid- 
ed. This  material  admits  of  being  used  with  the  greatest  facility  iu 
the  formation  of  the  most  elaborate  architectural  ornaments  and  other 
beautiful  designs  which  can  be  multiplied  to  any  required  extent  at  a 
very  cheap  rate.  A  piece  of  four  inch  column  tested  at  the  1851  Exhibi- 
tion required  a  pressure  of  400  tons  per  square  foot  to  crush  it,  or  as 
much  as  good  granite  and  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  most  build- 
ing stone. 

Excellent  Cheap  Roofing, — Have  your  roof  stilT,  rafters  made 
of  stuff  IJ  by  8  inches,  well  su^jported  and  G  feet  apart,  with  ribs  1 
inch  by  2  inches,  set  edgeways,  well  nailed  to  the  rafters,  about  18 
inches  apart.  The  boards  may  be  thin  but  must  be  well  seasoned,  and 
nailed  close  together  •  this  done,  lay  dQWft  Wd  coyer  the  roof  with  thin 
20 


806   cabinetmakehs,  painters',  &c.,  RECEirxs. 

Boft,  spongy  straw  paper  used  in  raakinfj  pa]-)cr-boxes,  -winch  comes  in 
rolls  and  comcH  very  low.  Lay  in  coui  sos  np  and  down  the  roof,  and 
lap  over,  nailing  down  with  common  No,  (3  tacks,  with  leather  under 
the  heads  like  carpet  tacks.  Then  spread  on  several  coatings  of  tho 
following  composition,  previously  boiled,  stirred,  and  mixed  togctlier: 
good  clean  tar,  8  gals.  ;  lioman  cement,  2  gals,  (or  in  its  place  very 
fine,  clean  sand  may  he  used)  ;  resin,  5  lbs.  ;  tallow,  3  lbs.  ;  apply 
hot :  and  let  a  hand  follow,  and  sift  on  sharp  grit  sand,  pressing  it  in- 
to the  tar  composition.  If  wished  fire-proof,  go  over  tho  above  with 
the  following  preparation  ;  Blake  stone  lime  under  cover  with  hot 
water  till  it  falls  hito  a  fine  powder,  sift  and  mix.  C  qts.  of  this  with 
1  qt.  salt ;  add  2  gals,  water,  boil  and  skim.  To  5  gals,  of  this  add  1 
lb  of  alum,  and  1^  lb.  of  copperas,  slowly  while  boiling,  l^lbs.  potash 
and  4  qts.  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  any  color  desired.  Apply  a  thick 
coat  with  a  brush,  and  you  have  a  roof  which  no  firo  can  injure  from 
the  outside. 

How  TO  Build  Gra\t:l  IIotjses. — ^Tliis  is  tho  best  building  ma- 
terial in  the  world.  It  is  four  times  cheaper  thaa  wood,  six  times 
cheaper  than  stone,  and  superior  to  either.  Proportions  for  mixing  : 
to  eight  barrows  of  slaked  lime,  well  deluged  with  water,  add  15 
barrows  of  sand  ;  mix  these  to  a  creamy  consistency,  then  add  GO 
barrows  of  coarse  gravel,  which  must  be  worked  well  and  completely  ; 
you  can  then  throw  stones  into  this  mixture,  of  any  shape  or  size,  up 
to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Form  moulds  for  the  walls  of  tho  house 
by  fixing  boards  horizontally  against  upright  standards,  which  must 
be  immovably  braced  so  that  they  will  not  jield  to  the  immense  pres- 
sure outwards  as  the  material  settles ;  set  the  standards  in  pairs 
around  the  building  where  the  walls  are  to  stand,  from  six  to  eight 
feet  apart,  and  so  wide  that  the  inner  space  shall  form  the  thickness 
of  the  wall.  Into  the  moulds  thus  formed  throw  in  the  concreto 
material  as  fast  as  j^ou  choose,  and  the  more  promiscuously  tho 
better.   In  a  short  time  the  gravel  will  get  as  hard  as  the  solid  rock. 

Vabxish  fok  Plaster  Casts. — White  soap  and  white  wax,  each^ 
oz.,  water  2  pts.,  boil  together  in  a  clean  vessel  for  a  short  time.  This 
varnish  is  to  be  applied  when  cold  with  a  soft  brush. 

The  BRONzixa  of  Plaster  Casts  is  effected  by  giving  them  a 
coat  of  oil  or  size  varnish,  and  when  this  is  nearly  dry,  applying  with 
a  dabber  of  cotton  or  a  camel-hair  pencil  any  of  the  metallic  bronze 
powders  ;  or  the  powder  may  be  placed  in  a  little  bag  of  muslin,  and 
dusted  over  the  surface,  and  afterwards  finished  with  a  wad  of  linea. 
The  surface  must  be  afterwards  varnished. 

Substitute  for  Plaster  of  Paris.— Best  whiting,  2  lbs.  ; 
glue,  1  lb.  ;  linseed  oil,  1  lb.  Ileat  all  together,  and  stir  thoroughly. 
Let  the  compound  cool,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  stone  covered  with 
powdered  whiting,  and  heat  it  well  till  it  becomes  of  a  tough  aud 
firm  consistence  ;  then  put  it  by  for  use,  covering  with  wet  cloths  to 
keep  it  fresh.  When  wanted  for  use,  it  must  be  cut  in  pieces  adapted 
to  the  size  of  the  mould,  into  which  it  is  forced  by  a  screw  press. 
Tlie  ornament  may  be  fixed  to  the  wall,  picture-frame,  &c.,  with  glue 
or  white  lead.   It  becomes  in  time  as  hard  as  stone  itself. 

Modelling  Clay. — Knead  dry  clay  with  glycerine  instead  cf 
water,  and  a  mass  is  obtained  which  remains  moist  and  plastic  for  a 
considerable  time,  being  a  great  convenience  to  the  modeller. 


WATCHMAKEKS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  307 

Roman  Cement.— Drift  sand,  94  parts  ;  unslaked  lime,  12  IIds.  ; 
nnd  4  lbs.  of  tlie  poorest  cheese  grated  ;  mix  well ;  add  hot  (not  boil- 
ing) water  to  reduce  to  a  proper  consistence  for  plastering.  Work 
well  and  quick  with  a  thin  smooth  coat. . 

To  Polish  Plaster  of  Pabis  wokk. — ^The  addition  of  1  or  2  per 
cent,  of  many  salts,  such  as  alum,  sulphate  of  potash,  or  borax, 
confers  upon  gypsum  the  property  of  setting  slowly  in  a  mass  capable 
of  receiving  a  very  high  polish. 

To  MAKE  Plaster  of  Paris  as  hard  as  Marble.— The  plaster- 
is  put  in  a  drum,  turning  horizontally  on  its  axis,  and  steam  admitted 
irom  a  steam  boiler  :  by  this  means  the  plaster  is  made  to  absorb  in 
a  short  space  of  time  the  desired  quantity  of  moisture,  which  can  bo 
regulated  with  great  precision.  The  plaster  thus  prepared  is  filled 
into  suitable  moulds  ;  and  the  whole  submitted  to  the  action  of  an 
hydraulic  press  :  when  taken  out  of  the  moulds,  the  articles  aro 
Tcady  for  use,  and  will  be  foimd  as  hard  as  marble,  and  will  take  a 
polish  like  it. 

To  TAKE  A  Plaster  of  Paris  Cast  from  a  Person's  Face. — 
The  person  must  lie  on  his  back,  and  his  hair  be  tied  behind  ;  into  each 
nostril  put  a  conical  piece  of  paper,  open  at  each  end,  to  allow  of 
breathing.  The  face  is  to  be  lightly  oiled  over,  and  the  plaster,  being 
properly  prepared,  is  to  be  poured  over  the  face,  taking  particular 
care  that  the  ejes  are  shut,  till  it  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  In  a 
few  minutes  the  plaster  may  be  removed.  In  this  a  mould  is  to  bo 
formed,  from  which  a  second  cast  is  to  be  taken,  that  will  furnish 
casts  exactly  like  the  original. 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS  AND  GILDEES' 
RECEIPTS,  TABLES,  &c. 

On  Watch  Cleaning.— The  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  taking 
the  watch  down,  and  separating  its  parts.  First,  remove  the  handiJ 
carefully,  so  as  not  to  bend  the  slight  pivots  on  which  they  work,  next, 
remove  the  movement  from  the  case,  and  take  ofE  the  dial  and  dial 
wheels ;  next,  let  down  the  main  spring  by  placing  your  bench  key 
upon  the  arbor,  or  winding  post,  and  turning  as  though  you  were 


308  WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEirTS. 

po'm^  to  Tvind  tlio  vratch  until  tho  elide  rests  lightly  upon  the  r.itchct; 
then  Avith  your  screw-driver  press  tbo  point  of  tlio  cliclc  away  from 
the  teetli  and  ease  down  the  springs;  next,  draw  tlio  screws,  or  pins, 
and  remove  tlie  bridges  of  tlio  train  or  tlio  upper  jilate,  as  tlio 
case  may  Iro,  next,  remove  the  balance  with  tlie  greatest  care  to  avoid 
injuring  the  liair  spring.  Tlio  stud  or  small  j)ost  into  which  the  hair 
spring  is  fastened  may  be  removed  from  tlio  bridge  or  i)Iate  of  most 
modern  watches  without  unkeying  the  spring,  by  slipping  a  thin  in- 
strument, like  the  edge  of  a  blade  knife,  under  the  corner  of  it  and 
prying  upward,  this  will  savo  much  trouble,  as  you  will  not  have  tho 
hair-spring  to  adjust  when  you  reset  tho  balance.  If  the  watch  upon 
which  you  propose  to  work  has  an  upper  plate,  as  an  American  or  an 
English  lever  for  instance,  loosen  tho  lever  before  you  have  entirely 
separated  the  plates,  otherwise  it  will  hang  and  probably  be  broken. 
The  watch  being  now  taken  apart,  brush  tho  dust  away  from  its  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  subject  them  to  a  careful  examination  with  your 
eye-glass.  Assure  yourself  the  teeth  of  tho  wheels  and  leaves  of  the 
pinions  are  all  perfect  and  smooth;  that  tho  pivots  aro  all  straight, 
rdund,  and  highly  polished;  that  the  holes  through  which  they  are  to 
work  are  not  too  large,  and  have  not  become  oval  in  shape ;  that  every 
jewel  is  smooth  and  perfectly  sound;  and  that  none  of  them  are  loose 
m  their  settings.  See  also  that  the  escapement  is  not  too  deep  or  too 
shallow ;  that  the  lever  or  cylinder  is  perfect;  that  all  tho  wheels  havo 
sufficient  play  to  avoid  friction,  but  not  enough  to  derange  their 
coming  together  properly;  that  none  of  them  work  against  the  pillar- 

})late;  that  the  balance  turns  horizontally  and  does  not  rub:  that  tho 
lair-springis  not  bent  or  wrongly  set  so  that  the  coils  rub  on  each  other 
on  the  plate,  or  on  the  balance;  in  short,  thnt  everything  about  tho 
whole  movement  is  just  as  reason  would  teach  you  it  should  bo.  If 
you  find  it  otherwise,  proceed  to  repair  in  accordance  with  a  carefully 
weighed  judgment  and  the  processes  given  in  this  chapter,  after  which 
clean;  if  not,  tho  watch  only  needs  to  be  cleaned,  and,  therefore,  you 
may  go  on  with  your  work  at  once. 

To  Clean. — The  best  process  is  to  simply  blow  your  breath  upon 
tho  plate  or  bridge  to  be  cleaned,  and  then  to  use  your  brush  vdth  a 
little  prepared  chalk.  The  wheels  and  bridges  should  be  held  between, 
the  thumb  and  finger  in  a  piece  of  soft  paper  while  undergoing  the  pro- 
cess ;  otherwise  the  oil  from  tho  skin  will  prevent  their  becoming 
clean.  The  pinions  may  bo  cleaned  by  sinking  them  several  times 
into  a  piece  of  pith,  and  the  holes  by  turning  a  nicely  shaped  piece  oE 
pivot  wood  into  them,  first  dry,  and  afterwards  oiled  a  very  little  with 
watch  oil.  When  the  holes  pass  through  jewels,  you  must  work 
gently  to  avoid  breaking  them. 

Tub  "  Chemical  Process." — Some  watchmakers  employ  what 
they  call  the  "  Chemical  Process  "  to  clean  and  remove  discoloration 
from  watch  movements.   It  is  as  follows  : — 

Kemove  the  screws  and  other  steel  parts  ;  then  dampen  with  a 
solution  of  oxalic  acid  and  water.  Let  it  remain  a  few  minutes,  after 
which  immerse  in  a  solution  made  of  one-fourth  pound  cyanuret  pot- 
assa  to  one  gallon  rainwater.  Let  remain  about  five  minutes,  and 
tlien  rinse  well  with  clean  water,  after  which  you  may  dry  in  sawdust, 
or  with  a  brush  and  prepared  chalk,  as  suits  your  convenience.  This 
gives  the  work  an  excellent  appearance. 


WATCmiAKERS,  JEWELLERS  ,  &C.,  KECEIPTS.  300 

To  PRErAnE  Chalk  fob  Cleantitg.— Pulverize  your  chalk  thor- 
oughly, and  then  mix  it  with  clear  rain  water  in  the  proportion  to 
two  pounds  to  tlie  gallon.  Stir  well,  and  then  let  stand  about  two 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  gritty  matter  will  have  settled  to  the  bot- 
tom. Pour  the  water  into  another  yessel  slowly  so  as  not  to  stir  up 
the  settUngs.  Let  sfcind  until  entirely  settled,  and  then  pour  off  as 
tefore.  The  settlings  in  the  second  vessel  will  be  your  prepared 
chalk,  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  dried.  Spanish  whiting,  treated  in 
the  same  way,  makes  a  very  good  cleanuag  or  polishing  powder. 
Some  operatives  add  a  little  jeweller's  rouge,  and  we  think  it  an  im- 
provement ;  it  gives  the  powder  a  nice  color  at  least,  and  therefore 
fldds  to  its  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  uninitiated.  In  cases  where 
a  sharper  polishing  powder  is  required,  it  may  bo  prepared  in  the . 
same  way  from  rotten-stone. 

Pivot  Wood. — ^Watchmakers  usually  buy  this  article  of  watch- 
material  dealers.  A  small  shrub  known  as  Indian  arrow-wood,  to  bo 
met  with  in  the  northern  and  western  states,  makes  an  excellent 
pivot  wood.  It  must  be  cut  when  tlie  sap  is  down,  and  split  into  quar- 
ters so  as  to  throw  the  pith  outside  of  the  rod. 

Pith  for  Cleaking. — The  stalk  of  the  common  mullen  affords 
the  best  pith  for  cleaning  pinions.  Wmter,  when  the  stalk  is  dry,  i.i 
the  time  to  gather  it.  Some  use  cork  instead  of  pith,  but  It  i3 
inferior 

To  Pivot. — ^Wlicn  you  find  a  pivot  broken,  you  will  hardly  be  at  a 
loss  to  understand  that  the  easiest  mode  of  rcpairmg  the  damage  is  to 
drill  into  the  end  of  the  pinion  or  staff,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  having 
inserted  a  new  pivot,  turn  it  down  to  the  proper  proportions.  This  is 
by  no  means  a  difficult  thing  when  the  piece  to  be  drilled  is  not  too 
hard,  or  when  the  temper  maybe  slightly  drawn  without  injury  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  article. 

To  TELii  WEEK  THE  Lever  IS  OF  PROPER  Lei^gth. — ^You  may 
readily  learn  whether  or  not  a  lever  is  of  proper  length,  by  measur- 
ing from  the  guard  point  to  the  pallet  staff,  and  then  comparing  with 
tlie  roller  or  ruby-pin  table  ;  the  diameter  of  the  table  should  always 
bo  just  half  the  length  measured  on  the  lever.  The  rule  will  work 
both  ways,  and  may  be  useful  in  cases  where  a  new  ruby-pin  table 
has  to  be  supplied. 

To  CHANGE  Depth  of  Lever  Escapement. — If  you  arc  opera- 
ting on  a  fine  watch,  the  best  plan  is  to  put  a  new  staff  into  the  lever, 
cutting  its  pivots  a  little  to  one  side,  just  as  far  as  you  desire  to 
change  the  escapement.  Common  watches  will  not,  of  course,  justify 
60  much  trouble.  The  usual  process  in  their  case  is  to  knock  out  the 
staff,  and  with  a  small  file  cut  the  hole  oblong  in  a  direction  opposite 
to  that  in  which  you  desire  to  move  your  j)allets  :  then  replace  the 
staff,  wedge  it  to  the  required  position,  and  secure  by  soft  soldering. 
In  instances  where  the  staff  is  put  in  with  a  screw,  you  will  have  to 
proceed  differently.  -  Take  out  the  staff,  pry  the  pallets  from  the 
lever,  file  the  pin  holes  to  slant  in  the  direction  you  would  move  the 
pallets,  without  changing  their  size  on  the  other  side  of  the  lever. 
Connect  the  pieces  as  they  were  before,  and,  with  the  lever  resting  on 
some  solid  substance,  you  may  strike  lightly  with  your  hammer 
until  the  bending  of  the  pins  will  allow  the  pallets  to  pass  into  posi- 
tion. 


310   WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  «&C.,'  RECEIPTG. 

CoiMTKKSATiox  Bat.akck  OF  CiTiiONOMETERS.— Tlio  balaiico  in  a 
email  pioco  of  steel  covered  with  a  hoop  of  brass.  The  rim,  consisting 
of  the  two  metals,  is  divided  at  the  two  extremities,  the  one  diamet- 
rical arm  of  the  balance,  so  that  the  increase  of  tcmperaturo  which 
weakens  the  balance  vsprings  contract,  iu  a  proportionate  degree, 
tlio  diameter  of  the  balance,  leaving  the  spring  less  resistance  to 
overcome.  Tills  occurs  from  the  brass  expanding  much  more  by 
heat  than  steel,  and  it  therefore  curls  the  semicircidar  arcs  inwards, 
an  action  that  will  bo  immediately  understood,  if  wo  conceive  the 
compoiuid  bar  of  steel  to  be  straight,  as  the  heat  would  render  the 
brass  side  longer  and  convex,  and  in  the  balance  it  renders  it  moro 
curved.  In  the  compensation  balance,  the  two  metals  are  united  as 
follows :  the  disk  of  steel  when  turned  and  pierced  with  a  central  holo 
is  fixed  by  a  little  screw-bolt  and  nut  at  the  bottom  of  a  small  cru- 
cible, with  a  central  elevation  smaller  than  the  disk ;  the  brass  ia 
now  melted  and  the  whole  allowed  to  cool.  The  crucible  ia  broken, 
the  excess  of  brass  is  turned  off  in  the  lathe,  the  arms  are  made 
with  the  file  as  usual,  the  rim  is  tapped  to  receive  the  compensation 
screws  or  weights,  and,  lastly,  the  hoop  is  divided  in  two  places  at 
the  opposite  ends  of  its  diametrical  arm.  The  balance  springs  of 
marine  chronometers,  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  screw,  are  wound 
into  the  square  thread  of  a  screw  of  the  appropriate  diameter  and 
coarseness  ;  the  two  ends  of  the  spring  are  retained  by  side  screws, 
and  the  whole  is  carefully  enveloped  in  platinum  foU,  and  lightly 
bound  with  wire.  The  mass  is  next  heated  in  a  piece  of  gim  barrel 
closed  at  one  end,  and  plunged  into  oil,  which  hardens  tlic  sprmg 
almost  without  discoloring  it,  owing  to  the  exclusion  of  the  air  by 
the  close  platinum  covering,  which  is  now  removed,  and  the  spring  is 
let  down  to  the  blue  before  removal  from  the  screwed  block.  Tho 
balance  or  hair  spring  of  common  watches  are  frequently  left  soft, 
those  of  the  best  watches  are  hardened  in  the  coil  upon  a  plain 
cylinder  and  are  then  curled  into  tho  spiral  form  between  tho  edge 
of  a  blunt  knife  and  the  thumb,  the  same  as  in  curling  up  a  narrow 
ribbon  or  paper,  or  the  filaments  of  an  ostrich  feather.  The  soft 
springs  are  worth  CO  cents  each,  those  hardened  and  tempered  $1.2G 
each.  This  raises  the  value  of  tho  steel ;  originally  less  than  4 
cents,  to  $2000  and  $8000  respectively.  It  takes  3200  balance  springs 
to  weigh  an  ounce. 

Watch  Spring  Mantjfacture. —  "WaLch  springs  are  hammered 
cut  of  round  steel  wire,  of  suitable  diameter  imtil  they  fill  the  gauge, 
for  width,  which  at  the  same  time  insures  equality  of  thickness. 
The  holes  are  pimched  in  their  extremities,  and  they  are  trimmed 
on  the  edge  with  a  smooth  file.  The  springs  are  then  tied  up  with 
binding  wire,  in  a  loose  open  coil  and  heated  over  a  charcoal  fire 
upon  a  perforated  revolving  plate.  They  are  hardened  in  oU  and 
blazed  off.  The  spring  is  now  distended  in  a  long  metal  frame,  simi- 
lar to  that  used  for  a  saw  blade,  and  groimd  and  polished  with 
emery  and  oil  between  lead  blocks.  By  this  time  its  elasticity  appears 
quite  lost,  and  it  may  be  bent  in  any  direction  ;  its  elasticity  is,  how- 
ever, entirely  restored  by  a  subsequent  hammering  on  a  very  bright 
anvil  which  puts  the  "  nature  into  the  spring."  The  coloring  is  done 
over  a  flat  plate  of  iron,  or  hood,  under  which  a  small  spirit  lamp 
is  kept  burning ;  the  spring  is  continually  dra-wn  backward  and 


WATCmiAKEES,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  311 

forward,  about  two  or  three  inclies  at  a  time,  until  it  assumes  tlio 
orange  or  deei)  blue  tint  througliout,  according  to  the  tasto  of  tho 
purchaser.  By  many  the  coloring  is  considered  to  be  a  matter  of 
ornament  and  not  essential.  The  last  process  is  to  coil  the  spring 
into  the  spiral  form,  that  it  may  enter  the  barrel  in  which  it  is  to  be 
contained.  This  is  done  by  a  tool  with  a  small  axis  and  winch 
liandles,  and  does  not  require  heat. 

To  TELii  WHEN  Lever  Pallets  aiie  of  proper  Size. — Tho 
clear  space  between  the  pallets  should  correspond  with  the  outside 
measure,  on  the  points  of  three,  teeth  of  the  scape  wheal.  The  usual 
mode  of  measuring  for  new  pallets  is  to  set  the  wheel  as  close  as  pos- 
sible to  free  its  self  when  in  motion.  You  can  arrange  it  in  your  dep- 
thing  tool,  after  which  tlie  measurement  between  the  pivot  holes  of 
the  two  pieces,  on  the  pillar  plate,  will  show  yon  exactly  what  is  re- 
quired. 

To  LENGTHEN  LeYERS  OF  AnCHOR-ESCAPEMENT  WATCHES  WITH- 
OUT Hammering  or  Soldering. — Cut  square  across  with  a  screw- 
head  file,  a  little  back  from  the  point  above  the  fork,  and,  when  you 
have  thus  cut  into  it  to  a  sufficient  depth,  bend  forward  tho  desired 
distance  the  piece  thus  partially  detached.  In  tho  event  of  the  pieco 
snapping  off  while  bending — ^\vhich,  however,  rarely  happens— file 
down  the  point  level  with  the  fork,  and  insert  a  pin  English  lever 
style. 

To  temper  Case  and  other  Springs  of  "Watches.— Draw  tho 
temper  from  the  sprmg,  and  fit  it  properly  in  its  place  in  the  watch  ; 
then  take  it  out  and  temper  it  hard  in  rain-water  (the  addition  of  a 
little  table-salt  to  the  water  will  be  an  improvement)  ;  after  which 
place  it  in  a  small  sheet-iron  ladle  or  cup,  and  barely  cover  it  with  lin- 
seed-oil ;  then  hold  the  ladle  over  a  lighted  lamp  until  the  oil  ignites, 
let  it  bum  until  the  oil  is  nearly,  not  quite  consumed  ;  then  re-cover 
with  oil  and  burn  down  as  before  ;  and  so  a  third  time;  at  the  end  of 
which,  plunge  it  again  into  water.  Main  and  hair  springs  may,  in 
like  manner,  be  tempered  by  the  same  process ;  first  draw  the  temper, 
and  properly  coil  and  clamp  to  keep  it  in  position,  and  then  proceed 
the  same  as  with  case-sprmgs. 

To  MAKE  Eed  Watch  Hands. — 1  oz.  carmine,  1  cz.  muriate  of 
silver,  ^  oz.  of  turner's  Japan  ;  mix  together  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and 
hold  over  a  spirit-lamp  until  formed  into  a  paste.  Apply  this  to 
tho  watch  hand,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  copper  plate,  face  side  up, 
and  heat  the  plate  sufficiently  to  produce  the  color  desired. 

To  Drill  into  Hard  Steel. — Make  your  drill  oval  in  form,  in- 
stead of  the  usual  pointed  shape,  and  temper  as  hard  as  it  will  bear 
without  breaking;  then  roughen  the  surface  where  you  desire  to  drill 
witli  a  little  diluted  muriatic  acid,  and,  instead  of  oil,  use  turpentine 
or  kerosene,  in  which  a  little  gum  camphor  has  been  dissolved  with 
your  drill.  In  operatipg,  keep  the  pressure  on  your  drill  firm  and 
steady  ;  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  hole  should  chance  to  become  bur- 
nished that  the  drill  will  not  act,  as  sometimes  haj)pens,  again  roughen 
with  diluted  acid  as  before;  tlien  clean  out  the  hole  carefully,  and 
proceed  again. 

To  Put  Teeth  m  Watch  or  Clock  Wheels  without  Dove- 
tailing OR  Soldering. — Drill  a  hole  somewhat  wider  than  tho 
toothj  square  through  tho  plate,  a  little  below  the  base  of  tho  tooth  ; 


812  WATcmrAKERS,  jewellers',  &c.,  receipts. 

cut  from  the  edge  of  tho  wheel  square  down  to  the  hole  .already  drill- 
ed ;  then  flatten  a  piece  of  wire  bo  as  to  fit  snugly  into  the  cut  of  tho 
saw,  and  with  a  light  hammer  form  a  head  on  it  like  the  head  of  a 
pin.  When  thus  prepared,  press  tlio  wire  or  pin  into  possession  in 
tlic  wheel,  the  head  filling  the  hole  drilled  through  the  plate,  and  tho 
projecting  out  so  as  to  form  the  tooth  ;  then  with  a  sharp-pointed 
graver  cut  a  small  groove  each  side  of  the  pin  from  the  edge  of  tlio 
wheel  down  to  the  hole,  and  with  a  hlow  of  your  hammer  spread  the 
face  of  the  pin  so  as  to  fill  the  grooves  just  cut.  Repeat  tlie  same  op- 
eration on  the  other  side  of  the  wheel,  and  finish  olf  in  the  usual 
way.  The  tooth  will  he  found  perfectly  riveted  in  on  every  side,  and 
as  strong  as  the  original  one,  while  in  appearance  it  will  ho  equal  to 
the  hest  dovetailing. 

To  Case-harden  Iron". — ^If  you  desire  to  harden  to  any  consider- 
able depth,  put  the  article  into  a  crucible  with  cyanide  of  potash, 
cover  over  and  heat  altogether,  then  plunge  into  water.  Thisx)rocess 
will  harden  perfectly  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  inches. 

To  TIGHTEK  A  CaNNON  PiNION"  ON  THE  CENTRE  ArBOR  WHEN" 

Too  LOOSE.— Grasp  the  arbor  lightly  with  a  pair  of  cutting  nippers, 
iind,  by  a  single  turn  of  the  nippers  around  tho  arbor,  cut  or  raise  a 
small  thread  thereon. 

To  Frost  Watch  Movements.— Sink  that  part  of  tho  article  to  ba 
frosted  for  a  short  time  in  a  compound  of  nitric  acid,  muriatic  acid, 
iiud  table  salt,  one  ounce  of  each.  On  removing  from  the  acid,  place 
it  in  a  shallow  vessel  containing  enough  sour  beer  to  merely  cover  it, 
then  with  a  fine  scratch  brush  scour  thoroughly,  letting  it  remain 
under  the  beer  during  the  operation.  Next  wash  off,  first  in  i)ure 
water  and  then  in  alcohol.  Gild  or  silver  in  accordance  with  any 
iccipe  in  the  plating  department. 

Rule  for  determining  the  correct  Diameter  of  a  Pinion 

r>Y  MEASURING  TeETH  OF  THE  WhEEL  THAT  MATCHES  INTO  IT. — 

The  term  full,  as  used  below,  indicates  full  measure  from  outside  to 
outside  of  the  teeth  named,  and  the  term  centre,  the  measure  from 
centre  of  one  tooth  to  centre  of  the  other  tooth  named,  inclusive. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  15  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a 
shade  less  than  6  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  14  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  shade 
less  than  6  teeth  of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  12  leaves  measure,  with  calipers.  5  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  10  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  4  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  full. 

I'or  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  9  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  little 
less  than  4  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  8  leaves  measure,  witli  calipers,  a  little 
less  than  4  teeth  of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  7  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  little 
less  than  3  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  6  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  3  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  5  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  3  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

As  a  general  rule,  pinions  that  lead,  as  in  tho  hour  wheel,  should 


WATCmiAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  313 

bo  somewhat  larger  than  those  that  drive,  and  pinions  of  cloclr^ 
should  generally  be  somewhat  larger  proportionally  than  those  of 
watches. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  4  leaves  measnre,  with  calipers,  ono 
half  of  one  space  over  2  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

To  Polish  Wheels  perfectly  without  iifjunY. — ^Take  a  flat 
"hnrnishing  file,  warm  it  over  a  spirit  lamp,  and  coat  it  lightly  with 
beeswax.  When  cold,  wipe  off  as  much  of  the  wax  as  can  be  readily 
removed,  and  with  your  file  thus  prepared,  polish  the  wheel,  restiu* 
the  wheel  while  polishing  on  a  piece  of  cork.  The  finish  produced 
will  be  quite  equal  to  the  finest  buff  polish,  while  there  will  be  no 
clogging,  and  the  edges  of  the  arms  and  teeth  will  remain  perfectly 
equare. 

Sandoz'  Method  of  PrtODUcrs-a  Isochkoxis:,!  i:^-  Flat  axd 
Breguet  Sprln-gs. — Isochronism,  from  the  Greek,  meaning  equal 
time,  is  the  property  possessed  by  the  pendulum  and  the  hair  spring 
to  accomplish  their  arcs  of  vibration  of  different  amplitudes  in  the 
same  space  of  time.  In  a  pendulum,  the  only  condition  required  is 
that  its  length  be  such  as  to  make  the  centre  of  gravity  move  accord- 
ing to  the  cycloid  curve;  but  in  the  hair  spring  the  means  change 
with  the  forms  effected  by  the  spring.  In  the  spherical  or  conicrd 
springs,  the  extreme  curves  constructed  after  the  mathematical  rules 
discovered  by  Prof.  Phillipps,  of  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Paris, 
will  produce  an  Isochronism  very  nearly  perfect.  In  the  flat  spring, 
these  curves  cannot  exist,  therefore  other  means  must  be  resorted  to. 
I  shall  give  now  the  results  of  several  years  of  experiment  and  study, 
which  can  be  embodied  in  the  two  following  theorems  : 

1.  In  the  flat  spring,  ever]/ coil  has  theoretically  a  point  tohcre  the 
vibrations  are  Isochronal.  2.  That  point  of  Isochronism  is  determined 
bij  the  relative  position  of  thetioo  points  connecting  the  hairspring 
icith  the  collet  and  stud,  called  Points  d" attache. 

These  two  propositions  form  the  base  of  Isochronism  in  the  flat 
epring;  therefore  the  idea  generally  accredited  among  watchmakers 
that  the  Isochronal  properties  of  a  Hat  spring  depend  on  its  length  is 
incorrect,  since  the  10th  as  well  as  the  20th  coil  of  the  spring  is  able 
to  produce  the  Isochronism,  the  only  limit  being  such  sizes  of  springs 
that  would  prevent  the  perfect  freedom  of  its  action. 

Freedom  of  action  being  necessary  for  the  Isochronal  properties  of 
the  spring  to  develop  themselves,  the  spring  must  be  bent  to  the 
centre,  according  to  Fig.  II. — the  first  coil  being  too  near  or  the  curve 
too  flat,  so  that  even  a  minute  part  of  the  spring  could  touch  tlio 
collet,  would  hinder  the  Isochronism.  Next,  the  spring  must  bo 
]->inned  perfectly  tight  in  the  collet  and  stud,  and  move  freely  between 
the  regulator  pins. 

These  conditions  fulfilled,  the  watch  is  run  3,  G  or  12  hours  with  just 
Btrength  enough  to  keep  it  going;  the  result  is  compared  with  a  regu- 
lator and  set  down.  Next,  the  watch  is  fully  wound  up,  and  after 
n  space  of  time  equal  to  the  first  trial,  the  result  is  again  set  down. 
Jlost  generally  the  watch  will  run  slower  in  the  short  vibrations  than 
in  the  wide  ones,  and  consequently  lose  time  in  the  pocket  in  the  last 
twelve  hours  of  its  running.  Having  set  down  as  a  principle  that  every 
coil  has  an  Isochronal  point,  we  have  now  to  determine  that  point,  re- 
membering that  as  a  general  rule,  cvcrij  increase  of  length  of  ilic 


811    ^VATCnMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  KECEirTS. 

spring  over  that  point,  will  causa  the  watch  to  rjain  in  the  short  vibra- 
tions] and  cvenj  decrease  hack  of  that  point  will  cause  it  to  rjain  in  the 
wide  vibrations.  This  rule  is  correct  only  for  certain  limits,  as  I  am 
fjoing  to  explain.  Supposing  that  a  hair  spring  of  15  coils  is  per- 
fectly Isochronal  with  the  t^o points  d' attache  just  opposite  each 
other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  III.,  the  14th  and  tlio  iGth  coil,  as  well  as  tlio 
15th,  will  produce  the  Isochronism  very  nearly  at  the  same  point. 
.Su])posing  that  we  increase  gradually  the  len.gt'li  of  that  hair  8|)ring 
of  15  coils,  pimicd  up  so  that  the  two  points  d' attache  arc  primitively 
opposite  eacli  other — so  that  its  length  will  noio  be  15^  coils — the  two 
Xioints  d' attache  are  now  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig."  IV.,  or  what  is 
called  pinned  to  the  half  coil.  The  result  will  bo  that  . the  hair  spring 
will  cause  the  watch  to  gain  in  the  short  vibrations  as  much  as  it  is  in 
its  power  to  do. 

But  if  we  go  further  than  the  half  coil,  wo  now  enter  the  ground 
that  belongs  to  the  16th  coil,  and  every  increase  of  length  in  that  half 
coil  will  cause  the  hair  spring  to  lose  in  the  short  vibrations,  intho 
same  proportion  that  it  has  been  gaining  in  increasing  the  length  of  the 
fu'sthalf.  That  change  will  continue  mitil  we  reach  the  same  point 
on  the  16th  coil  that  we  started  from  on  tho  15th.,  the  two  pins  op- 
jiositc  each  other;  at  that  point  we  shall  have  again  tlio  Isochronism. 
The  same  operation  is  applicable  to  tho  14th  coil,  with  the  same  re- 
Bults. 

Now  it  is  immaterial  whether  wo  take  that  half  coil  to  the  centre,  or 
to  the  outside  of  the  spring,  because  both  of  these  operations  will  pro- 
duce the  same  results,  viz.,  the  change  of  the  relative  places  of  tho 
jwints  cV  attache  of  tho  spring.  Therefore  the  artist  has  his  choice, 
and  is  guided  by  the  size  of  the  spruig  and  the  weight  of  the  balance; 
for  taking  half  a  coil  to  the  centre  of  the  spring  will  not  much  affect 
the  rate  of  the  watch,  but  taken  outside,  the  difference  will  be  great. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  very  short  cut  to  the  centre  will  greatly  affect 
the  Isochronism,  and  at  the  outside,  a  full  half-coil  will  generally 
produce  from  15  to  2o'f  difference  m  24  hours.  If  then  the  watch- 
maker would  produce  the  greatest  possible  changes  of  Isochronism  in 
a  watch,  the  change  of  i:)Osition  of  the  two  points  cV attache  of  tho 
Bprmg  of  one  coil  around,  will  give  him  the  two  highest  degrees  of 
gaining  and  losing  in  the  short  vibrations. 

It  follows  from  the  following  pages,  that  if  a  watch  loses  in  tho  last 
running  (short  vibrations),  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  increase  tho 
length  "of  the  hair  spring  from  the  outside;  if  the  result  is  better,  but 
not  yet  good,  give  still  more  length;  if  tho  result  is  worse,  it  shows 
that  you  are  too  far  on  the  coil.  Take  back  the  whole  length  that 
you  had  given  in  the  first  operation,  and  draw  more  length,  so  as  to 
affect  the  sprmg  the  other  way;  or  if  your  spring  is  already  small  or 
your  balance  pretty  heavy,  cut  to  the  centre  so  as  to  come  around  to 
the  required  positions. 

Some  springs  cannot  produce  tho  Isochronism ;  this  cornea  from  a 
defect  in  making  the  spring,  or  "a  want  of  homogeniety  in  the  metal ; 
the  only  remedy  is  a  new  spring. 

In  the  Breguet  Spring,  the  Isochronism  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  flat  springings,  but  great  care  must  bo  taken  in  making 
the  curve,  for  if  it  is  not  made  in  conformity  to  the  principle  of  riiil- 
lipps,  the  Isochronism  wUl  be  disturbed. 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS,'  RECEIPTS.  313 

For  instance,  in  Fig.  V,,  the  spring  "being  pinned  in  A,  and  the 
xvatch  losing  in  the  last  12  hours  (short  vib.),  I  first  increase  tho 
length  of  the  hair  spring  to  the  point  B  ;  but  as  I  am  already  on  tho 
ground  belonging  to  the  losing  action,  the  result  will  be  an  increased 
loss  of  time  in  the  last  running,  fthen  go  back  to  the  point  A,  and 
moreover  pin  the  spring  to  C,  and  then  I  shall  approximate  Isochron- 
ism.  However,  in  most  cases  the  increase  of  length  will  make  tho 
watch  gain  in  its  last  running. 


Adjustments  to  Positions.— This  adjustment  is  Imown  to  but 
few  watchmakers,  and  they  make  it  a  regular  business.  It  requires 
of  the  operator  considerable  manual  skill  and  reflective  powers.  Tho 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  317 

great  principle  is  to  equalize  the  frictions,  so  that  the  pivots  will  offer 
to  the  action  of  the  sprmg  the  same  resistance  in  the  four  positions 

generally  required,  \iz.,  dial  up,  XII  up,  cock  up  and  III  up.  After 
aving  inspected  and  corrected  the  train  so  that  the  motive  power  is 
transmitted  uniformly  to  the  balance,  tlie  pivots  and  jewels  of  tho 
lever  should  he  polished  and  shortened  so  as  to  have  very  little  fric- 
tion; next,  tlie  lever  should  be  poised  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible, 
and  the  slot  also  in  the  fork  where  the  ruby  pin  acts  should  be 
polished.  The  balance  jewels  ought  to  be  made  short  enough  to 
have  the  holes  square,  roimded  infeido,  and  perfectly  polished,  tho 
"balance  pivots  well  burnished  and  their  ends  half  rounded,  and  tli8 
balance  poised  very  carefully.  The  Englisli  method  of  throwing  tho 
balance  out  of  poise  to  obtain  the  same  rate  in  different  positions  is 
not  accepted  generally,  and  is  considered  a  bad  practice  by  the  most 
eminent  Avatchmakers.  The  hair  spring  is  put  in  its  position  without 
the  balance,  and  bent  so  that  the  collet  and  the  cock  jewel  will  havo 
the  same  centres.  The  watch  beuig  now  in  good  running  order,  is 
put  under  trial  for  12  or  24  hours,  and  tho  rate  in  each  position  carc- 
luUy  noted.  If  there  is  any  difference  in  tho  running  with  the  cock 
lip,  or  dial  up,  making  the  ends  of  the  pivots  even  and  equally  well 
polished  will  remove  the  discrepancy.  If  the  watch  loses  with  XII 
up,  wlilch  is  generally  the  case,  and  the  friction  on  the  balance  jewels 
being  reduced  as  much  as  possible,  tho  remedy  is  to  increase  the 
friction  when  the  watch  is  either  dial  or  cock  up.  Tliis  is  done  by 
throioiiig  the  hair  sprinrj  a  little  out  of  the  centre  of  the  cock  jewel, 
thereby  adding  to  the  friction  on  the  pivot  end,  a  lateral  pressure 
against  the  balance  jewels.  If  the  watch  is  well  regulated  with  XII 
np,  and  loses  with  III  up,  throio  the  spring  a  little  toicards  the  figure 
III;  this  operation  lifts  up  the  balance  when  the  watch  is  in  losing 
position  and  diminishes  the  friction  of  tho  pivots  in  that  particular 
case.  Making  the  ends  of  the  pivots  perfectly  flat  has  a  tendency  to 
make  the  watch  gain  with  dial  or  cock  up.  The  sound  of  the  watch 
must  be  clear  in  all  positions,  else  it  indicates  a  friction,  as  for  instance 
rough  jewels  or  pivots,  safety  pin  rubbing  against  the  roUer,  etc. 

IIow  TO  Regulate  a  Watch  Ef  a  few  Minutes,  axd  a  Peacti- 
CAL  Method  to  put  a  new  Hair  Spuing,  of  the  bight  size  and 

rERFECTI^Y  ReGUEATED  IN  A  WATCH  WITHOUT  RUNNING  It. — First, 

ascertain  how  many  vibrations  the  watch  beats  in  one  minute,  by 
counting  every  other  vibration  and  comparing  that  time  with  a  well- 
regulated  watch  or  regulator.  In  general,  Swiss  watches  beat  18,000 
in  one  hour,  viz.,  300  in  one  minute;  American  watches,  either  18,000 
cither  10,200,  or  270  per  minute ;  and  the  English  levers,  14,400,  or 
240  per  minute.  If  there  is  any  doubt,  it  is  better  to  count  up  leaves 
and  teeth,  and  ascertain  the  right  number-  but  these  cases  are  scarce 
where  watches  will  beat  odd  numbers. 

Having  found  out  tKe  right  number,  examine  tne  oalance  carefully 
for  one  or  two  minutes,  counting  every  vibration  going  from  right  to 
left,  and  in  the  mean  time  examining  the  regulator  or  clock,  to  see 
when  one  mmute  is  up.  If  the  watch  is  well  regulated,  the  number 
of  vibrations  must  be  exactly  half  of  the  regular  first  number,  viz., 
150,  135,  or  120,  as  only  every  other  vibration  has  been  recorded  to 
facilitate  the  observation.  If  not  so,  move  the  regulator,  right  ox 
Ifiit,  until  a  perfect  coincidence  comes. 


318   WATCnMAKEIlS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

To  pick  tip  a  new  hair  spring,  after  having  recorded  the  right  num- 
ber of  beats— either  by  the  old  hair  sprmg  or  by  the  numbers  of  the 
train — lay  first  the  spring  with  its  centre  well  in  the  centre  of  the  cock 
jewel,  and  having  ascertained  where  the  coil  will  cuter  between  the 
pma  of  the  regulator,  note  the  place.  Stick  to  the  pivot  of  the  balance 
a  small  round  piece  of  beeswax;  then  stick  it  to  the  centre  of  the 
spring,  so  as  to  establish  a  temporary  but  firm  connection  of  the  two 
pieces,  and  having  pinched  with  the  tweezers  the  hair  spring  to  the 
place  indicated  by  the  regulator  pins,  cause  it  to  vibrato  gently;  then 
count  up  the  vibrations  for  one  minute,  and  when  you  have  got  a 
spring  that  will  produce  nearly  the  required  number  of  beats,  pin  it 
to  the  collet,  and  canse  it  again  to  vibrate,  moving  the  tweezers  for- 
ward and  backward,  until  the  right  number  of  beats  is  produced; 
with  another  pair  of  tweezers,  pinch  the  hair  spring  about  onc-eightli 
of  an  inch  back  of  the  regulating  point,  so  as  to  counterbalance  tho 
gain  produced  by  the  regulator  pins,  and  bend  slightly  the  wire, 
which  is  the  place  where  the  hair  spring  must  be  pinned  to  the  stud. 
Having  then  trued  up  the  spring,  proceed  to  put  the  regulator  to  tho 
right  place,  by  using  the  way  indicated  in  the  beginning  of  this  article, 
and  the  work  is  done.  Success  is  certain,  when  the  operation  has 
been  carefully  performed.  The  balance  must  bo  made  to  vibrate  on 
Bome  hard  aiid  well  polished  substance,  so  as  to  keep  xi])  the  vibra- 
tion to  about  the  standard  of  regular  running.  A  littlo  practice  will 
soon  enable  the  watchmaker  to  change  a  hair  spring  very  quick, 
and  without  any  trouble  whatever. 

Of  Compensation. — A  most  accurate  way  of  counterbalancing 
effects  produced  on  the  running  of  watches  by  different  temperatures, 
is  the  expansion  balance,  formed  of  two  concentric  rings,  one  in- 
terior, of  steel,  and  one  exterior,  of  brass,  jomcd  together  by  hard 
soldering  or  smelting.  The  general  proportion  of  these  two  metals  ia 
one  ^art  of  steel,  two  of  brass.  Tho  stronger  dilation  of  brass,  causes 
the  rim  of  the  balance  to  head  inwardly  when  the  heat,  increasing, 
diminishes  the  strength  of  the  hair  spring;  the  greater  contraction 
bends  the  rim  outwardly  when  cold  comes  to  increase  the  rigidity  of 
the  spring's  coils.  Pushing  forward  or  backward  the  screws  of  tho 
lim  will  alTect  the  compensating  powers  of  the  balance,  by  causuig 
their  weight  to  be  more  active  as  they  come  nearer  tho  end  of  the  cut 
arm.  The  thinner  and  higher  the  rim,  the  greater  the  action.  A  few 
trials  will  bring  the  balance  to  compensate  the  effect  of  temperature 
^rom  30°  to  100°  Fahrenheit.  For  extreme  temperatures  another 
compensation,  called  auxiliary,  is  used,  but  only  in  ship  chronome- 
ters. A  soft  spring  will  be  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature 
tlian  a  hardened  one ;  this  affords  a  way  to  compensate  certain  bal- 
ances, Avhere  otherwise  new  ones  would  have  to  be  used.  A  precau- 
tion to  observe  in  compensating  is  to  make  the  screws  go  freely  on  the 
balance,  and  not  screw  them  too  tight,  else  the  action  of  the  rim  not 
being  free,  a  good  compensation  could  not  be  attained,  until  the  com- 
bined actions  of  dilation  and  contraction  of  the  rim  have  freed  the 
screws. 

For  watchmakers  who  would  want  to  compensate  a  watch  without 
having  an  expansion  balance,  I  give  the  folloAving  process,  which  I 
have  successfully  used  :  After  having  cut  off  the  greater  part  of  tho 
regulator's  arm,  another  arm  is  to  be  fitted  with  a  screw  on  the  run 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  319 

of  the  regulator,  so  as  to  revolve  freely  around  that  sctevr  as  an  axis. 
The  pins  are  put  in  the  same  position  as  on  the  old  arm.  A  ring,  of 
two  parts  of  brass  and  one  of  steel,  is  then  fastened  to  one  end  on 
that  movable  arm,  and  the  other  end  is  screwed  at  any  convenient 
place,  either  on  the  regulator  itself,  or  on  the  cock.    See  Fig.  1.  13y 

E lacing  the  whole  ring  on  the  regulator,  the  latter  may  be  moved  v.a 
1  any  other  watch,  the  ring  opening  or  shutting  itself  under  tho 
changes  of  temperature,  will  push  backward  and  forward  the  rcg;> 
lator  pins,  and  so  effect  the  compensation  which  is  to  be  regulated  Ijj 
varying  either  the  proportion  of  brass  and  steel,  or  the  size  of  the 
ling. 

To  try  the  running  of  the  watches,  a  common  refrigerator  is  used 
to  produce  the  low  temperature,  and  then  an  apparatus,  self-regula- 
ting, will  produce  the  high  temperature.  It  is  commonly  a  squaro 
box  of  tin  or  copi^er,  hermetically  closed,  rmder  which  is  a  gas  burner. 
A  compensating  arm  of  the  form  of  a  U,  made  of  brass  and  steel,  is 
fastened  inside  the  box,  and  is  connected  by  a  string  with  a  lever  at- 
tached to  the  key  of  the  burner,  and  acts  so  that  at  the  high  temper- 
ature, say  100°  Fah.,  the  gas  is  nearly  shut  off,  the  compensating 
arm  gradually  releasing  itself  and  consequently  letting  out  more  gag 
when  the  heat  diminishes  inside  the  box.  Use  steel  pins  to  securo 
spring  to  collet  and  stud. 

To  MAKE  Polishing  BROAcrrES.— These  are  usually  made  of  ivory, 
and  used  with  diamond  dust,  loose,  instead  of  having  been  driven  in. 
You  oil  the  broach  lightly,  dip  it  into  the  finest  diamond  dust,  and 
proceed  to  work  it  into  the  jewel  the  same  as  you  do  the  brass 
broach.  Unfortunately,  too  many  watchmakers  fail  to  attach  suffi- 
cient importance  to  the  polishing  broach.  The  sluggish  motion  of 
watches  now-a-days  is  more  often  attributable  to  rough  jewels  than 
to  any  other  cause. 

To  Polish  Steel.— Take  crocus  of  oxide  of  tin  and  graduate  it  in 
in  the  same  way  as  in  preparing  diamond  dust,  and  apply  it  to  the 
steel  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  iron  or  bell  metal,  made  proper  form, 
and  prepared  with  flour  of  emery,  same  as  for  pivot  burnishers;  use 
the  coarsest  of  the  crocus  first,  and  finish  off  with  the  finest.  To  iron 
or  soft  steel  a  better  finish  may  be  given  by  burnishing  than  can  bo 
imparted  by  the  use  of  polishing  powder  of  any  kind  whatever.  The 
German  Method  of  Polishing  Steel  is  performed  by  tlie  use  of  crocns 
on  a  buff  wheel.  ITothing  can  exceed  the  surpassing  beauty  imparted 
to  steel  or  even  cast  iron  by  this  process. 

Crocus  Powder  for  Polishing.— Chloride  of  sodium  and  sul- 
phate of  iron  are  well  mixed  in  a  mortar.  The  mixture  is  tlien  put 
into  a  shallow  crucible  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat;  vapor  escapes 
and  the  mass  fuses.  When  no  more  vapor  escapes,  remove  tho 
crucible  and  let  it  cool.  The  color  of  the  oxide  of  iron  produced, 
if  the  fire  has  bel3n  properly  regulated,  is  a  fine  violet ;  if  the  heaS 
has  been  too  high  it  becomes  black.  The  mass  when  cold  is  to  bo 
powdered  and  washed,  to  separate  the  sulphate  of  soda.  Tho 
powder  of  crocus  is  then  to  be  submitted  to  a  process  of  careful 
elutriation,  and  the  finer  particles  reserved  for  the  more  delicr.to 
work.  An  excellent  powder  for  applying  to  razor  strops  is  raado 
by  igniting  together  in  a  crucible,  equal  parts  of  well  dried  green 
vitrol  and  common  salt.   The  heat  must  bo  slowly  raised  and  well 


320   WATCIIMAKEPtS,  JinVELLERS',  &C.,  nECEIPTS. 

regulated,  otbonviso  tlio  materials  'will  boil  over  in  a  pasty  Ktatc, 
and  bo  lost.  When  avcU  made,  out  of  coutact  with  air,  it  has  tho 
brilliant  aspect  of  black  lead.  It  requires  to  be  ground  and  elutri- 
ated, after  which  it  affords,  on  drying,  an  impalpable  powder,  that 
,  may  bo  either  applied  on  a,  strop  of  Bmooth  buff  leather,  or  mixed 
up  with  hog's  lard  or  tallow  into  a  stiff  cerate. 

To  IlRMOVE  Rust  FKOM  IiioN  OR  Steel,  &c.— For  cleaning  -pxir^ 
poses,  &c.,  kerosene  oil  or  benzine  are  probably  the  best  things 
laiown.  When  articles  have  become  pitted  by  riist,  however,  tho'so 
can  of  course,  only  be  removed  by  meclianical  means,  such  as  scour- 
ing with  fine  powder,  or  flour  of  emery  and  oil,  or  with  very  fiuo 
emery  paper.  To  prevent  steel  from  rusting,  rub  it  Avith  amLxturo  of 
lane  and  oil,  or  with  mercurial  ointment,  either  of  which  will  bo 
found  valuable. 

To  Make  Burnisiiers. — Proceed  the  same  as  in  making  pivot  files, 
■\7ith  the  exception  that  you  are  to  use  fine  flour  of  emery  on  a  slip  of 
oiled  brass  or  copper,  mstead  of  the  emery  paper.  Burnishers  which 
have  become  too  smooth  may  be  improved  vastly  with  tho  flour  of 
emery  as  above  without  drawing  the  temper. 

To  Prepare  a  Burnisher  for  Polishing. — Melt  a  little  bees- 
wax on  the  face  of  your  burnisher.  Its  effect  then  on  brass  or  other 
finer  metals,  will  be  equal  to  the  best  buff.  A  small  burnisher  prc- 
liared  in  this  way  is  the  very  thing  with  which  to  polish  up  watcli 
wheels.   Rest  them  on  a  piece  of  pith  while  polishing. 

Rules  for  Determining  the  Correct  Length  of  the  LE^^:I:, 

SIZE  OF  RUBY-riN  TABLE,   SIZE  OP  THE  PALLETS,  AND  DEPTH  OF 

Escapement  of  Lever  Watches. — A  lever,  from  the  guard  point  to 
the  pallet  staff,  should  correspond  in  length  with  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  ruby-pin  table,  and  when  a  table  is  accidentally  lost,  the  cor- 
rect size  thereof  may  be  known  by  measuring  half  the  length  of  tho 
lever  between  the  points  above  named.  For  correct  size  of  pallet,  tho 
clear  space  between  the  pallets  should  correspond  with  the  outsido 
measure  on  the  points  of  three  teeth  of  the  escapement  wheeh  The 
only  rule  that  can  be  given,  without  the  use  of  diagrams,  for  correct 
depth  of  the  escapements,  is  to  set  it  as  close  as  it  will  bear,  and  stUl 
free  itself  perfectly  when  in  motion.  This  may  be  done  by  first 
placing  the  escapement  in  your  depthing  tool,  and  then  setting  it  to 
the  correct  depth.  Then  by  measuring  the  distance  between  tho 
pivots  of  the  lever  staff  and  esca])eraent  wheel,  as  now  set,  and  tho 
corr^ponding  pivot  holes  in  the  watch,  you  determine  correctly  liovy 
much  the  depth  of  the  escapement  requires  to  be  altered. 

To  Prevent  Watches  losing  Tibie  from  Action  of  Pendulttji 
Spring. — ^Pin  the  pendulum  spring  into  the  stud,  so  that  that  part, 
the  part  of  the  eye  immediately  emerging  from  the  collet,  and  tho 
centre  of  the  collet,  are  in  a  line;  then  you  will  have  tho  spring  pin- 
ned in,  in  equal  terms,  as  it  is  called  by  those  who  are  versed  in  tho 
higher  branches  of  springing.  Bring  the  watch  to  time  by  adding  to 
or  taking  from  the  balance,  and  poise  it;  try  the  watch  with  tho  13 
up  for  2  hours,  then  with  the  6  up  for  2  hours,  then  lying  down  for 
the  same  time;  the  trials  here  described  will  be  sufficient  if  tho 
watch  has  seconds ;  keep  the  curb  pin  close  so  as  to  allow  the  spring 
only  a  little  play;  the  vibration  of  tlio  balance  should  bo  turn  or 
'  lilyin^. 


WATCmiAKEES,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  321 


LIST  OF  TRAINS  OF  WATCHES. 

BHOWlXa  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  IN  THE  WHEELS,  rEAVES   lU  THE 
riMIONS.  BEATS  IN  A  MINUTE,  AND  TIME  THE  FOURTH 
WHEEL  KEVOLVES  IN. 


Trains,  for  Seven  Tectli  in  tis.&  E^scapement  Wheel. 


No.  of 
Teoth 
In  the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

Leares 

Leaves 

Teeth 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 

Leaves 
in  the 

JSo.  ot 
5econdj 

Teeth  in 

in  3d 

Teeth  in 

in  4th 

Escape- 

No. of  Beats  in 

th3  4tli 

3(i  Wheel. 

Wheel 

4th  Wheel 

Wheel 

ment 

one  minute. 

Wheoi 

Pinion. 

rinion. 

AYheel 
Pinion. 

rerol- 
vcs  in. 

72 

GG 

6 

58 

G 

G 

298— 

2'/ 

GG 

G4 

6 

G'4 

G 

7 

G 

292-}- 

31 

G6 

G4 

6 

G3 

G 

7 

C 

287+ 

31 

GG 

63 

6 

C3 

G 

7 

G 

283— 

31 

GG 

C3 

6 

62 

G 

7 

G 

278-1- 

31 

G6 

|^3 

C 

61 

G 

7 

(•■ 

274- 

31 

GG 

G3 

G 

CO 

G 

7 

G 

269+ 

31 

Trains,  for  Nine  Tcettia  ia  tlao  Escapement  Wliecl, 


G-J 

60 

G 

57 

G 

9 

6 

299+ 

31 

G5 

60 

G 

54 

G 

f) 

G 

297 

33 

G3 

60 

G 

56 

9 

6 

294 

34 

GG 

60 

G 

53 

6 

9 

6 

291+ 

S3 

G3 

GO 

C 

55 

G 

9 

G 

289— 

34 

G3 
G3 

GO 

G 

52 

6 

9 

6 

283 

33 

61 

G 

54 

G 

9 

6 

■      283  f 

31 

GG 

G) 

G 

51 

G 

9 

G 

28;j+ 

3i 

C3 

GO 

G 

53 

G 

9 

6 

278+ 

31 

GG 

GO 

G 

5) 

G 

9 

6 

275 

33 

G3 

60 

G 

52 

G 

9 

G 

273 

3t 

Trains,  for  Eleven  Toetli  ia  t3ao  Escapement  Wiacel. 


60 

60 

G 

49 

6 

11 

G 

oUJ  — 

CO 

51 

6 

54 

6 

11 

G 

£97 

40 

60 

56 

6 

52 

G 

11 

6 

233— 

3) 

61 

52 

6 

52 

G 

11 

G 

291— 

39 

58 

53 

G 

53 

G 

11 

6 

292+ 

40 

GO 

54 

6 

53 

6 

11 

6 

291+ 

40 

G2 

51 

6 

51 

6 

11 

6 

290- 

3:) 

53 

54 

6 

54 

6 

11 

6 

287+ 

41 

58 

55 

6 

53 

6 

11 

G 

287 

41 

59 

5t 

6 

53 

G 

n 

6 

283-L 

41 

GO 

51 

6 

52 

G 

11 

6 

283 

40 

CO 

55 

6 

51 

G 

11 

6 

283- 

39 

61 

55 

6 

,  50 

G 

11 

6 

285- 

33 

G3 

55 

G 

48 

6 

11 

G 

282+ 

33 

59 

54 

6 

52 

6 

11  . 

6 

281+ 

41 

GO 

54 

G 

51 

6 

11 

6 

281+ 

40 

Gl 

51 

6 

50 

6 

11 

6 

280— 

89 

56 

5!, 

6 

5t 

G 

n 

6 

277+ 

43 

GO 

60 

6 

48 

6 

11 

6 

293+ 

35 

62 

54 

G 

52 

G 

11 

6 

295+ 

30 

C3 

54 

6 

50 

6 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

63 

48 

G 

53 

6 

11 

G 

287+  I 

43 

70 

70 

7 

56 

7 

]i 

7 

293 -f- 

33 

TO 

70 

43 

7 

11 

6 

293^ 

3) 

70 

60  1 

7 

4^ 

.  6 

]i 

6 

?93+  1 

33 

21 


822    WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


Ho.  of 

In  tho 
Centre 
fiheel. 
— — 

Leaves 

Teeth 
la  tho 
E«icai)c- 
mont 
Wheel. 

L«avos 
in  tlio 

.Mu.  o£ 

Soconds 

Tooth  in 

in  M 

Toeth  In 

ln4t,h 

Kscapc- 

No.  of  Treats  In 

tlio  4tLi 

3d  Wliool. 

lU 

"Wheel 
Pinion. 

)'iui«n. 

ono  MInuto. 

Wheel 
ve.3  in. 

60 

_ 

70 

6 

48 

7 

11 

6 

203-}- 

3S 

€3 

CO 

6 

66 

7 

11 

G 

287-1- 

40 

63 

63 

6 

60 

7 

]1 

G 

280— 

33 

80 

80 

8 

64 

8 

11 

8 

293-1- 

63 

80 

80 

8 

56 

8 

11 

7 

293  H 

8i5 

80 

80 

8 

48 

8 

11 

G 

293  f 

SC 

80 

70 

8 

50 

7 

11 

7 

293  h 
293  1^ 

3> 

70 

43 

11 

3-3 

80 

8 

7 

G 

80 

60 

8 

48 

G 

11 

6 

293-1- 

293-1- 

85 

70 

PO 

7 

5(3 

8 

11 

7 

3> 

70 

80 

7 

48 

8 

11 

G 

293-1- 

33 

60 

G 

48 

8 

11 

6 

293-i- 

8) 

84 

-9 

8 

59 

8 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

84 

C3 

8 

50 

7 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

84 

54 

8 

50 

6 

u 

6 

289— 

83 

C3 

72 

G 

50 

8 

]1 

6 

289— 

33 

63 

C3 

G 

50 

11 

G 

289- 

S3 

84 

G4 

8 

50 

8 

11 

G 

287+ 

40 

81 

C8 

8 

5G 

7 

11 

G 

287+ 

40 

84 

43 

8 

50 

G 

11 

G 

287+ 

40 

63 

G4 

6 

53 

8 

11 

6 

287+ 

40 

63 

50 

6 

5G 

7 

11 

G 

287+ 

40 

Trains,  for  Tliirteen  I'eetii  in  tlao  Escapoiaent  "Wlaeel. 


f)4 

53 

G 

52 

6 

13 

6 

298+ 

45 

66 

53 

6 

50 

6 

13 

6 

298— 

44 

69 

51 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

29G— 

43 

60 

51 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

294+ 

42 

64 

53 

6 

51 

6 

13 

6 

293— 

45 

66 

53 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

292— 

44 

68 

54 

6 

48 

6 

]3 

6 

291+ 

44 

67 

53 

6 

43 

6 

13 

6 

291— 

43 

64 

52 

6 

51 

6 

13 

6 

287+ 

4'J 

64 

43 

6 

50 

6 

13 

G 

287+ 

45 

60 

51 

6 

50 

6 

13 

6 

286+ 

45 

61 

52 

6 

50 

6 

13 

6 

282— 

45 

66 

51 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

281- 

45 

67 

51 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

280— 

44 

62 

52 

6 

51 

6 

13 

G 

277— 

43 

63 

52 

6 

50 

6 

13 

C 

276+ 

46 

62 

52 

6 

52 

6 

13 

6 

293- 

43 

65 

51 

G 

51 

6 

13 

6 

287 

45 

66 

50 

6 

51 

6 

13 

6 

283+ 

46 

50 

52 

6 

43 

6 

13 

G 

280+ 

44 

66 

52 

6 

50 

6 

13 

G 

2^2+ 
277+ 

44 

60 

48 

6 

43 

6 

13 

6 

45 

60 

50 

G 

43  • 

6 

13 

6 

289— 

43 

60 

54 

G 

00 

8 

13 

6 

292+ 

53 

60 

58 

7 

56 

7 

13 

6 

287+ 

51 

60 

GO 

8 

64 

6, 

]3 

6 

800 

44 

62 

56 

7 

66 

7 

13 

296+ 

47 

63 

52 

7 

51 

6 

13 

6 

285 

6) 

63 

60 

7 

60 

7 

13 

6 

290 

60 

64 

60 

7 

60 

7 

13 

6 

285 

60 

^2 

70 

68 

8 

68 

8 

13 

G 

280 

6) 

74 

8 

68 

8 

13 

6 

286+ 

GO 

WATCmiAKEES,  JEWELLEES',  &C.,  HECEIPTS.  323 


Trains,  for  Fifteen  Tcetia  in  tJie  Escapement  WSaeel, 


yro.  of 

To«th 
In  the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

■  

Teeth  in 
3d  Wheel. 

Leaves 
in  3d 
;  Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeili  In 
4th  Wheel 

Leaves 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 

Leave.3 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheal 
Pinion. 

ITo.  of  Beats  in 
one  Minute. 

No.  oj? 

Seconds 

AVhecl 
roTol- 
Tes  in. 

54 



50 

6 

48 

6 

15 

- 

6 

286 



48 

58 

48 

6 

4G 

6 

15 

6 

290 

50 

48 

45 

6 

59 

6 

15 

C 

291 — 

60 

48 

45 

6 

58 

6 

15 

6 

300 

@2 

48 

45 

6 

57 

6 

15 

6 

283 

62 

48 

45 

6 

56 

6 

15 

6 

288 

50 

56 

48 

6 

46 

6 

15 

6 

289 — 

50 

C3 

56 

7 

56 

7 

15 

7 

288 

50 

CO 

56 

8 

58 

7 

15 

6 

288 

50 

C2 

60 

8 

GO 

8 

15 

6 

288 

50 

{■a 

64 

g 

50 

g 

15 

(5 

288 

0\f 

72 

64 

8 

5G 

8 

15 

7 

2S8 

50 

72 

64 

8 

CA 

8 

15 

8 

288 

50 

52 

50 

G 

48 

6 

15 

6 

28S 

50 

64 

48 

G 

43 

G 

15 

6 

283 

50 

72 

64 

8 

48 

8 

16 

6 

283 

50 

73 

80 

8 

64 

10 

15 

8 

288 

50 

72 

80 

8 

56 

10 

15 

7 

283 

50 

72 

80 

8 

48 

10 

15 

6 

283 

50 

03 

80 

7 

64 

10 

15 

8 

288 

50 

C3  i 

80 

56 

10 

15 

7 

288 

50 

C3  1 

80 

7 

48 

10 

15 

6 

288 

50 

Trains,  for  Seventeen  Teotli  in  the  Escapement  Wlieel. 


64 

80 

8 

43 

10 

1 

G 

1  299+ 

1  53 

54 

48 

6 

41 

C 

5? 

6 

1  299+ 

50 

61 

48 

6 

45 

6 

G 

{  295+ 

53 

64 

48 

G 

43 

G 

17 

6 

292+ 

60 

48 

48 

G 

4! 

G 

17 

6 

1  290-h 

53 

51 

48 

6 

ij 

6 

17 

0 

1  289 

63 

54 

48 

G 

42 

G 

17 

C 

286- 

53 

48 

48 

G 

47 

G 

17 

G 

1  284+ 

63 

61 
48 

48 
48 

G 

41 

G 

17 
17 

G 

283— 
278 

53 
53 

G 

45 

G 

G 

48 

48 

G 

45 

G 

17 

6 

272 

53 

64 

64 
64 

8 

G4 

8 

17 
17 

8 
8 

290+ 
2S6— 

60 
50 

72 

8 

53 

8 

64 

64 

8 

GO 

8 

17 

8 

289— 

63 

56 

56 

7 

5G 

7 

17 

7 

290+ 

63 

63 

56 

7 

49 

7 

17 

7 

286— 

50 

64 

56 

8 

43 

7 

17 

6 

290+ 

53 

80 

80 

10 

64 

10 

17 

8 

290+ 

53 

80 

64 

10 

G4 

8 

17 

8 

290+ 

53 

80 

64 

10  ' 

66 

8 

17 

7 

290+ 

bii 

80 

64 

10 

43 

8 

17 

6 

290+ 

53 

80 

53 

10 

56 

7 

17 

7 

290+ 

63 

80 

56 

10 

43 

7 

17 

G 

290+ 

53 

64 

80 

8 

64 

10 

17 

8 

290+ 

63 

64 

80 

8 

56 

10 

17 

7 

290+ 

63 

To  Remove  Soft  Solder  from  Gold. — Place  the  work  in  spirita 
of  salts,  or  remove  as  much  as  possible  with  the  scraper,  using  a 
gentle  heat  to  enable  you  to  get  off  the  solder  more  easily.  Very 
useful  to  be  known  where  hard  SQldering  is  required,  either  ia 
bright  or  colored  work. 


824  TVATCnMAKERS.  JEWELLERS',  *fcC.,  RECEIPTS 


Trains,  for  Third  Wlieel  and  Patent  Scconde. 


No.  of 
Teeth 

Centra 
Wheel 

Teeth  in 
3a  Wheel. 

in  3d 
Whcol 
riniou. 

Teeth  in 
4thWhco; 

LcaTCs 
in  4th 
Whcol 
I'iiuou. 

Tooth 
in  thn 

Who"l. 

^n  tho* 
Escape- 
ment 
Whcol 
riniou. 

No.  of  Bnata  in 
cao  Minute. 

iSo.  tit 
Seconds 
Iho  4tl» 
Wheel 
rcvol« 
VGJ  in. 

"co 

72 

G 

CO 

u 

G 

200 

CO 

00 

GO 

6 

CO 

1) 

G 

3U0 

CO 

G) 

43 

6 

GO 

8 

C 

8  0 

CO 

^.3 

GO 

G 

GO 

8 

G 

300 

GO 

CO 

72 

G 

Ci 

12 

G 

270 

GO 

CO 

GO 

G 

54 

10 

G 

270 

GO 

48 

GO 

G 

51 

8 

G 

270 

GO 

GO 

72 

C 

43 

12 

G 

240 

CO 

GO 

GO 

G 

48 

10 

G 

240 

GO 

48 

63 

G 

43 

8 

6 

240 

CO 

Trains,  for  Fourtli  Wliecl  Seconds?  witli  Elovon  Tcctll 
ill  tlie  Escai^ement  Wlieel. 


^8 

45 

C 

7i 

6 

li 

G 

GO 

43 

45 

6 

U 

6 

11 

6 

CO 

48 

45 

6 

G 

11 

G 

GO 

48 

45 

G 

73 

G 

11 

G 

233 

GO 

60 

40 

7 

7i 

7 

11 

G 

271+ 

GO 

60 

iO 

7 

73 

7 

11 

G 

270- 

GO 

GO 

40 

7 

( J 

7 

11 

G 

283 

GO 

45 

5G 

G 

71 

7 

11 

G 

271+ 

60 

45 

53 

G 

11 

G 

279- 

GO 

45 

56 

G 

73 

11 

G 

283 

GO 

64 

GO 

8 

7J. 

8 

11 

G 

271+ 

G) 

64 

GO 

8 

0 

11 

5 

279- 

GO 

64 

CO 

8 

73 

0 

11 

G 

23G 

GO 

60 

5G 

8 

74 

7 

11 

G 

271+ 

GO 

60 

5G 

8 

7G 

7 

IL 

G 

279— 

60 

60 

66 

8 

73 

7 

11 

G 

283 

CO 

60 

48 

8 

7'i 

G 

11 

6 

ia+ 

60 

48 

48 

8 

78 

6 

11 

G 

60 

48 

GO 

6 

71 

8 

11 

C 

271+ 

283 

60 

48 

GO 

6 

78 

8 

11 

6 

GO 

56 

GO 

7 

74 

8 

11 

6 

271+ 

GO 

Trains,  for  Foiirtli  Wlieel  Seconds,  witia  TWrteen  Teeth 
in  llae  Escapement  Wlieel. 


C4 

60 

0 

66 

8 

13 

6 

2»d 

uo 

64 

CO 

8 

C7 

8 

lo 

6 

290+ 

GO 

64 

CO 

8 

C3 

8 

13 

6 

295— 

60 

64 

CO 

8 

G9 

8 

13 

G 

299 

CO 

60 

40 

77 

7 

13 

7 

283 

60 

CO 

49 

7 

G3 

7 

12 

G 

28G 

60 

60 

40 

7 

67 

7 

13 

G 

290+ 

60 

48 

45 

6 

GG 

G 

13 

G 

28G 

60 

48 

45 

6 

G7 

6 

13 

G 

290+ 

CO 

48 

45 

6 

G3 

6 

13 

G 

264— 

60 

48 

45 

6 

G9 

6 

13 

G 

299 

60 

60 

£G 

8 

66 

7 

13 

6 

283 

60 

80 

CO 

10 

66 

8 

13 

6 

283 

60 

64 

75 

8 

66 

10 

13 

6 

283 

60 

43 

60 

6 

C6 

8 

13 

6 

283 

60 

48 

75 

6 

66 

10 

13 

6 

286 

60 

45 

56 

6 

6G 

7 

13 

6 

283 

60 

53 

75 

7 

68 

10 

13 

6 

295— 

63 

WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  325 


Trains,  for  Fourtla  "Wlieel  Seeon<fls,  wit3a  Fifteen  Teeth 
in  Bscapement  Wl2.eel« 


Ko.  of 

Teeth 
in  the 

WTieel. 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Teeth 
in  the 
Escape- 
Wheel. 

Leaves 
in  tho 

JSo.  of 
Second- 

Teeth  in 

In  3d 

Teeth  in 

in  4th 

Escfipc- 

N"©.  of  Tjeats  in 

tho  4tk 

3a  Wlieel. 

"Wheel 

ith.  Wheel 

Wheel 

ment 

cn3  Minute. 

Wheel 

Pinion. 

Pinion. 

Wheel 
Pinion. 

reyol- 
ves  in. 

o*t 

~ 

_ 
o 

^1 
lO 

0 

15 

? 

TT 
800 

60 

04 

60 

8 

60 

8 

15 

6 

300 

60 

45 

8 

60 

6 

35 

6 

300 

60 

56 

8 

7 

35 

6 

800 

60 

AQ 

W 

G 

60 

8 

35 

G 

300 

GO 

DU 

70 

' 

70 

7 

35 

7 

300 

G) 

ou 

49 

/ 

GO 

7 

35 

G 

300 

60 

/Q 

4t> 

49 

G 

60 

G 

35 

6 

£00 

60 

QCt 

o\j 

45 

30 

70 

8 

15 

7 

300 

60 

to 

GO 

10 

GO 

8 

15 

G 

300 

60 

n  1 

Gi 

8 

7 ) 

30 

35 

8  0 

60 

Ci 

75 

8 

GO 

30 

35 

800 

60 

56 

75 

7 

70 

10 

35 

8  0 

G3 

60 

75 

7 

GO 

10 

35 

G 

800 

GO 

fil 

75 

8 

5 1 

8 

35 

G 

270 

GO 

GO 

GO 

g 

5i 

7 
( 

35 

Q 

27J 

GO 

Ct 

C(5 

8 

5i 

G 

35 

G 

270 

GO 

48 

45 

G 

51 

0 

35 

G 

270 

GO 

60 

GO 

7 

G3 

7 

35 

7 

270 

GO 

GO 

49 

7 

54 

35 

G 

270 

■  GO 

48 

49 

G 

51 

G 

35 

C 

270 

GO 

G4 

45 

8 

48 

0 

35 

C 

240 

GO 

CO 

GO 

8 

43 

7 

35 

G 

240 

GO 

48 

50 

C 

43 

8 

35 

G 

240 

G) 

64 

GO 

8 

43 

35 

G 

240 

GO 

to 

45 

7 

5  3 

15 

7 

240 

C9 

(0 

49 

7 

43 

7 

35 

G 

240 

GO 

iS 

45 

G 

43 

G 

35 

G 

240 

GO 

GO 

fin 

8 

43 

35 

G 

240 

CO 

Trains,  for  Fourtli  Wlieel  Seconds,  witii  Seventeen 
Teetli  in  Escapement  "Wlieel, 


G4 

bU 

« 

51 

8 

1/ 

G 

OJ 

64 

GO 

8 

50 

8 

37 

G 

2S3-h 

50 

60 

53 

8 

51 

7 

37 

G 

289 

GO 

80 

60 

30 

50 

8 

37 

G 

283-1- 

GO 

75 

64 

10 

50 

8 

17 

6 

283 -i- 

60 

75 

5G 

10 

G3 

37 

8 

289 

60 

75 

68 

30 

G3 

8 

1/ 

8 

289 

60 

80 

75 

10 

63 

1) 

37 

8 

289 

CO 

Train  of  tlio  American  Watcli  Company's  Watcla. 


Gl     I     60     I     8     I      Gt     I      8     I    15     I      7     I       300         |  C) 


TT0TK.—B7  Tiso  of  til Q  foregoing  eet  of  Trains,  and  the  rule  for  sizes  of 
pinions,  on  page  312,  all  difficulty  of  calculating  is  obviated  ;  and  at  one 
view,  in  case  of  the  accidental  loss  of  a  wheel  nnd  pinion,  may  be  known 
tho  correct  size  and  count  of  the  pinion,  and  number  of  teeth  in  tha 
wheel  lost. 


826    -WATCIIJIAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

To  Put  Watches  in  Beat.— If  a  cylinder  C!5capcracnt,  or  a  do- 
taclicd  lever,  put  tlio  balance  into  a  position,  then  turn  the  re^nlator 
Ko  that  it  will  point  directly  to  the  pivot-liole  of  the  pallet  staff,  if  a 
lever,  or  of  the  scape-wheel,  if  a  cylinder.  Then  lift  out  the  balance 
•with  its  bridge  or  clock,  turn  it  over  and  set  the  ruby-pin  directly  in 
lino  Avitli  the  regulator,  or  the  square  cut  of  the  cylinder  at  right 
angles  with  it.  Your  watch  will  then  be  in  perfect  beat.  In  case  of 
an  American  or  an  English  lever,  when  the  regulator  is  placed  upon 
the  plate,  you  Avill  have  to  proceed  differently.  Fix  the  balance  into 
its  place,  cut  off  the  connection  of  the  train,  if  the  mainspring  is  not 
entirely  down,  by  slipping  a  fine  broach  into  one  of  the  wheels,  look 
between  the  plates  .and  ascertain  how  the  lever  stands.  If  the  end 
larthest  from  the  balance  is  equi-distant  between  the  two  brass  pins, 
it  is  all  right;  if  not,  change  the  hair-spring  till  it  becomes  so.  If 
dealing  with  a  duplex  watch,  you  must  see  that  the  roller  notch, 
■when  the  balance  is  at  rest,  is  exactly  between  the  locking  tooth  and 
the  line  of  centre;  that  is,  a  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  roller 
to  the  centre  of  the  scape- wheel.  The  balance  must  start  from  its 
rest  and  move  through  an  arc  of  about  ten  degrees  before  bringing  the 
locking  tooth  into  action. 

To  Frost  Watch  Pirates. — Watch  plates  arc  frosted  by  means 
of  fine  brass  wire  scratch  brushes  fixed  in  a  lathe,  and  made  to  re-, 
volve  at  great  speed,  the  end  of  the  wire  brushes  striking  the  plato 
producing  a  beautiful  frosted  appearance. 

To  Restore  Watch  Dials. — If  the  dial  be  painted,  clean  the 
figure  off  with  spirits  of  wine,  or  anything  else  that  will  render  the 
dial  perfectly  clean ;  then  heat  it  to  a  bright  red,  and  plunge  it  into  a 
fitrong  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  then  wash  in  soap  and  water, 
and  dry  in  box  dust.  Repeat  if  not  a  good  color.  India  ink,  ground 
■with  gum  water,  will  do  for  the  figures. 

To  Whiten  Silver  Watch  Dials. — Flatten  a  piece  of  charcoal 
lay  rubbing  it  on  a  flat  stone:  on  this  place  the  dial  face  upwards,  ap- 
ply a  gentle  heat  carefully  with  the  blow-pipe,  allowing  the  flame  to 
play  all  over  the  surface  of  the  dial  without  touching  it,  .so  as  to 
thoroughly  heat  without  -carping  the  dial.  Then  pickle  and  rinse, 
using  acid  enough  to  make  the  water  very  tart,  and  immersing  but 
for  a  few  fjeconds.  Silver  dials  may  also  be  annealed  by  heating 
them  red  hot  on  a  flat  piece  of  copper  over  a  clear  fire. 

To  make  a  Watch  Keep  Good  Tenie  ■when  the  Cylinder 
Edges  are  Worn  Off,  by  Altering  the  Escapement  without 
Putting  a  nts-w  Cylinder  in. — Look  at  the  cylinder,  and  see  if 
there  is  room,  either  above  or  below  the  old  wears,  to  shift  the  action 
of  the  wheel.  If  the  wheel  holes  are  brass,  making  one  a  littlo 
deeper,  and  putting  a  shallower  one  on  the  other  side,  will  ijerhaps 
be  sufficient.  This  must  be  done  according  as  you  want  your  wheel 
Aip  or  down.  If  the  holes  are  stone,  shift  your  wheel  on  the  pinion 
by  a  new  collet,  or  turning  away  more  of  the  old  one,  as  the  case 
may  require.  If  you  raise  your  wheel  see  that  it  works  free  of  i^lato 
and  top  of  cylinder,  and  that  the  web  of  wheel  clears  the  top  of  pas- 
sage. This  last  fault  may  be  altered  by  polishing  the  passage  a  littlo 
wider,  if  the  rub  be  slight.  If  shifted  downwards,  see  to  freedom  at 
bottom  of  cylinder,  &c. 

Poising  Watch  Balance.— This  may  be  douo  with  sufficient  ac- 


WATOmiAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEirTS.  327 

curacy  by  scraping  one  arm  of  tlie  callipers  with  a  file  Avlion  tlie 
balance  is  set  in  motion.  This  will  catise  the  heaviest  part  to  settle 
downwards  with  certainty,  observing  always  that  the  pivots  are  nicely 
rounded  and  formed  at  the  ends.  In  some  cases  it  becomes  uecessaiy 
to  put  a  balance  out  of  poise,  in  order  to  make  the  Avatch  go  equally 
in  various  positions.  The  rule  for  this  is :  to  make  the  watch  gain, 
the  balance  should  be  heaviest  on  the  lower  side  Avhen  hanging  up: 
to  make  it  lose,  the  reverse. 

To  Pkevent  a  Chain  Running  off  the  F usee.— In  the  first 
j)lace,  you  must  look  and  ascertain  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  If  it 
results  from  tlie  chain  being  too  large,  the  only  remedy  is  a  new 
chain.  If  it  is  not  too  large,  and  yet  runs  offAvithout  any  apparent 
cause,  change  it  end  for  end — that  will  generally  make  it  go  all  right. 
In  cases  where  the  channel  in  the  fusee  has  been  damaged  and  is 
rough,  you  will  be  under  the  necessity  of  dressinii  it  over  with  a  file 
the  proper  size  and  shape.  Sometimes  you  find  tlie  chain  naturally 
inclined  to  work  away  from  the  body  of  the  fusee.  The  best  way  to 
remedy  a  difficulty  of  this  kind  is  to  file  off  a  very  little  from  tho 
outer  lower  edge  of  the  chain  the  entire  length ;  this,  as  you  can  see, 
will  incline  it  to  work  on  instead  of  off.  Some  workmen,  when  they 
liave  abadcaseand  a  common  watch,  change  the  standing  of  the  fusee 
r.oas  to  cause  the  winding  end  of  its  arbor  to  incline  a  little  from  tho 
barrel.  This,  of  course,  cannot  do  otherwise  than  make  the  chain  run 
to  its  place. 

To  Weaken  the  Haik-Spring. — This  is  often  effected  by  grinding 
the  spring  down.  You  remove  the  spring  from  the  collet,  and  place 
it  upon  a  piece  of  pivot  wood  cut  to  fit  the  centre  coil.  A  piece  of 
soft  steel  wire,  flattened  so  as  to  pass  freely  between  tho  coils,  and 
armed  with  a  little  pulverized  oil-stone  and  oil,  will  serve  as  your 
grinder,  and  with  it  you  may  soon  reduce  tho  strength  of  the  spring. 
Your  operations  will,  of  course,  be  confined  to  the  centre  coil,  for  no 
other  part  of  the  spring  will  rest  sufficiently  against  tlie  wood  to  en- 
able you  to  grind  it,  but  this  will  generally  suffice.  The  effect  will 
be  more  rapid  than  one  would  suppose,  therefore  it  will  stand  you  in 
band  to  be  careful,  or  you  may  get  the  spring  too  weak  before  yoa 
cuspect  it. 

To  Tighten  a  Ruby  Pin,— Set  tho  ruby  pin  in  asphaltum  varnish. 
It  will  become  liard  in  a  few  minutes,  and  be  much  firmer  and  better 
than  gum  shellac,  as  generally  used. 

To  Temper  Brass,  or  to  Draw  its  Te::mper, — Brass  is  rendered 
hard  by  hammering  or  rolling;  therefore,  when  you  make  a  thing  of 
brass  necessary  to  be  in  temper,  you  must  prepare  the  material  be- 
fore shaping  the  article.  Temper  may  be  drawn  from  brass  by  heat- 
ing it  to  a  cherry  red,  and  then  simply  plunging  it  into  water,  the 
came  as  though  you  were  going  to  temper  steel. 

To  Teiviper  Gravers. — Gravers,  and  other  instruments  larger 
than  drills,  may  be  tempered  in  quicksilver  as  above ;  or  you  may  use 
lead  instead  of  quicksilver.  Cut  dovm.  into  the  lead,  say  half  an 
inch;  then,  having  heated  your  instrument  to  a  light  cherry  red, 
press  it  firmly  into  the  cut.  The  lead  will  melt  around  it,  and  an  ex- 
cellent temper  will  be  imparted. 

To  Teiviper  Drills. — Select  none  but  the  finest  and  best  steel  for 
your  drills.   In  making  tlicm,  never  Jieat  liigher  than  a  cherry  red, 


328    WATCILVAKERS,  JEWELLEKS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

and  nlway.T  liammcr  till  nearly  cold.  Do  all  jonr  liainmcring  in  ona 
■v\-ay,  for  if,  alter  you  have  flattened  your  i)iece  out,  you  attempt  to 
lianimcr  it  back  to  a  square  or  a  round,  you  spoil  it.  When  your  drill 
is  in  ])ropcr  sliape,  heat  it  to  a  cherry  red,  and  thrust  it  into  a  picco 
of  resin  or  into  quicksilver.  Some  use  a  solution  of  cyanuret  potassa 
and  rain-water  for  tempering  their  drills,  but  the  resiii  or  quicksilver 
"will  Avork  best. 

Other  METnoD5?  to  Temper  Springs.— ITavin.j?  fitted  the  sprin^f 
into  the  case  according  to  your  liking,  temper  it  hard  by  heating  and 
plunging  into  Avater.  Next  polish  the  small  end  so  that  you  may  . bo 
able  to  sec  Avhen  the  color  changes ;  lay  it  on  a  piece  of  copper  or 
brass  plate,  and  hold  it  over  your'lamp,  with  the  blaze  directly  under 
tlio  largest  part  of  the  sprinjj.  Watch  the  polished  part  of  the  steel 
closely,  and  when  you  see  it  turn  blue,  remove  the  plate  from  the? 
lam]-),  letting  all  cool  gradually  together.  When  cool  enough  to 
liandle,  polish  the  end  of  the  spring  again,  place  it  on  the  plate,  and 
hold  it  over  the  lamp  as  before.  The  third  bluing  of  the  polished  end 
will  leave  the  spring  in  proper  temper.  Any  steel  article  to  which 
you  desire  to  give  a  spring  temper  may  bo  treated  in  the  same  Avay. 
!A  nother  process,  said  to  be  good,  is  to  temper  the  spring  as  in  tho 
first  instance;  then  i^ut  it  into  a  small  iron  ladle,  cover  it  with  linseed 
oil,  and  hold  over  a  lamp  till  the  oil  takes  fire.  Remove  the  ladle, 
but  let  the  oil  continue  to  bum  until  nearly  all  consumed,  then  bloAV 
out,  re-coA^er  with  oil,  and  hold  over  the  lamp  as  before.  The  third 
burning  out  of  the  oil  will  leave  tho  spring  in  the  right  temper. 

To  Tejiper  Clicks,  Ratchets,  &c. — Clicks,  ratchets,  or  other 
steel  articles  requiring  a  similar  degree  of  hardness,  should  be  tem- 
pered in  mercurial  ointment.  The  process  consists  in  simply  heating 
to  a  cherry  red  and  plunging  into  the  ointment.  No  other  mode  will 
combine  toughness  and  hardness  to  such  an  extent. 

To  Draw  the  Tejiper  from  Delicate  Steel  Pieces  wiTn- 
ouT  Springing  them. — Place  the  articles  from  which  you  desire  to 
draw  the  temper  into  a  common  iron  clock  key.  Fill  around  it  with 
brass  or  iron  filings,  and  then  plug  up  tho  open  end  with  a  steel,  iron, 
or  brass  plug,  made  to  fit  closely.  Take  the  handle  of  the  key  with 
your  pliers  and  hold  its  pipe  into  the  blaze  of  a  lamp  till  near  hot, 
then  let  it  cool  gradually.  When  sufficiently  cold  to  handle,  remove 
the  plug,  and  you  Avill  find  the  article  with  its  temper  fully  drawn, 
but  m  all  other  respects  just  as  it  was  before. 

You  will  understand  the  reason  for  having  the  article  thus  plugged 
up  while  passing  it  through  the  heating  and  cooling  process,  wiieu 
you  know  that  springing  always  results  from  the  action  of  changeable 
currents  of  atmosphere.  The  temper  may  be  drawn  from  cylinders, 
staffs,  pinions,  or  any  other  delicate  pieces,  by  this  mode  with  perfect 
safety. 

To  Teimper  Staffs,  CrLiNDERS,  or  Pinions,  without  Springing  , 
THEM. — Prepare  the  articles  as  in  the  preceding  process,  using  a  steel 
plug.  Having  heated  the  key-pipe  to  a  cherry  red,  plunge  it  into 
Avater;  then  polish  the  end  of  your  steel  plug,  place  the  key  upon  a 
plate  of  brass  or  copper,  and  hold  it  over  your  lamp  with  the  blaze 
immediately  under  the  pipe  till  the  polished  part  becomes  blue.  Let 
cool  gradually,  then  polish  again.  Blue  and  cool  a  second  time,  and 
the  work  Avill  bo  done. 


WATCnMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  EECEirTS.  329 

To  Dra-w  the  Temper  from  tart  Oi?  a  Small  Steel  Article.— 
Hold  the  part  from  wliicli  you  wish  to  draw  the  temper  with  a  pair  of 
tweezers,  and  with  your  blow-pipe  direct  the  flame  upon  them — not 
the  article— till  suflicieut  heat  is  commmiicated  to  the  article  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect. 

To  Blue  Screws  Eveklt. — Take  an  old  watch  loarrel  and  drill  as 
many  holes  into  the  head  of  it  as  you  desire  to  blue  screws  at  a  time. 
Fill  it  about  one-fourth  full  of  brass  or  iron  fillings,  put  in  the  head, 
and  then  fit  a  wire,  long  enough  to  bend  over  for  a  liandle,  into  tho 
arbor  holes— head  of  the  barrel  upwards.  Brighten  the  heads  of  your 
screws,  set  them  point  downwards,  into  tho  holes  already  drilled,  and 
expose  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  to  yonr  lamj)  till  the  screws  assumo 
the  color  you  wish. 

To  Remove  Bluing  fro^i  Steel. — ^Immerse  in  a  pickle  composed 
of  equal  parts  muriatic  acid  and  elixir  vitriol,  llinsc  iu  pure  water, 
and  dry  in  tissue  paper. 

To  Make  Diabiond  Broaches. — Make  you  broaches  of  brass  tlio 
size  and  shape  you  desire;  then,  having  oiled  them  slightly,  roll  their 
points  into  fine  diamond  dust  till  entirely  covered,  liold  them  thou 
on  the  face  of  your  anvil,  and  tap  with  a  light  hammer  till  the  grains 
disappear  in  the  brass.  Great  caution  will  bo  necessary  iu  this 
operation.  Do  not  tap  heavy  enough  to  flatten  tho  broach.  Very 
light  blows  are  all  that  will  be  required ;  the  grains  will  be  driven  iu 
much  sooner  than  one  would  imagine.  Some  roll  the  broach  betu^ecu 
two  small  pieces  of  steel  to  imbed  the  diamond  dust.  It  is  a  very 
good  way,  but  somewhat  more  Avasteful  of  tho  dust.  Broaches  mado 
on  this  plan  are  used  for  dressing  out  jewels. 

Jewellln-g. — In  using  the  broaches,  press  but  lightly  into  the  jewel 
hole,  and  turn  the  broach  rapidly  with  your  fingers.  For  polishing, 
use  a  bone  or  ivory  point,  lightly  coated  with  the  finest  diamond  dust 
and  oil,  and  while  using  it  with  the  one  hand,  accompany  the  motion 
with  a  slight  oscillating  motion  of  the  other  hand,  in  which  tho  jewel 
is  held.  This  will  insure  a  more  even  polish  to  the  hole,  with  less 
liabflity  to  press  the  jewel  out  of  its  place  iu  the  plate,  than  if  held 
firm  and  steady. 

To  make  Diamond  Files.— Shape  your  file  of  brass,  and  cliargOf 
with  diamond  dust,  as  in  case  of  the  mill.  Grade  the  dust  in  accord- 
ance with  the  coarse  or  fine  character  of  the  file  desired. 

To  MAKE  Pivot  Files.— Dress  up  a  piece  of  wood  file-fashion, 
about  an  inch  broad,  and  glue  a  ]iiecc  of  fine  emery  paper  upon  it. 
Shape  your  file  then,  as  you  wish  it,  of  tho  best  cast  steel,  and  before 
tempering  pass  your  emery  paper  heavily  across  it  several  times, 
diagonally.  Temper  by  heating  to  a  cherry  red,  and  plunging  into 
linseed  oil.  Old  worn  pivot  files  may  be  dressed  over  and  made  new 
by  this  process.  At  first  thought,  one  would  be  led  to  regard  them 
too  slightly  cut  to  work  well,  but  not  so.  They  dress  a  pivot  mora 
rapidly  than  any  ether  file. 

To  Make  a  Diamond  Mill. — Make  a  brass  chuck  or  wheel,  suit- 
able for  use  on  a  foot-laLhe,  with  a  flat  even  surface  or  face  of  about 
1^  or  2  inches  in  diameter;  then  place  a  number  of  the  coarsest  pieces 
of  your  diamond  dust  on  different  parts  of  its  face,  and  with  smooth 
faced  steel  hammer  drive  the  pieces  of  dust  ail  evenly  into  the  brass  to 
nearly  or  quite  level  with  the  surface.   Your  mill,  thus  prepared,  ia 


I 


330   WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

flow  used  for  making  pallet  jewels  or  for  grinding  ptono  and  glass  of 
tiny  Ivind.  For  polishing,  usea  bono  or  boxwood  ciiiiclt  or  wlieel,of  sim- 
Hur  form  to  your  niill,  and  coat  it  liglitly  Avitli  the  finest  grade  of 
your  diamond-dust  and  oil;  with,  this  a  beautiful  polish  may  bo  givcu 
to  tlie  hardest  stone. 

To  Make  Diamond  Dust. — ^Placo  a  few  small  pieces  of  common 
or  cheap  diamond  on  a  block  of  hard  polished  steel,  iu  a  suitable  ves- 
eel,  and  cover  it  with  Avater  to  prevent  it  Hying  or  scattering,  thou 
place  a  flat  steel  punch  ou  each  piece  separately,  and  strike  the  punch 
with  a  mallet  or  hammer,  with  sufficient  force  to  crush  tlie  diamond. 
When  reduced  sufficiently  fine  in  this  way,  tho  dust  may  be  collected 
and  dried  for  use  ;  after  drying,  it  may  bo  graduated  for  different 
purposes,  by  mixing  it  Avith  a  little  watch  oil ;  Avheu  agitated,  the  fin- 
est particles  will  lloat  near  the  surface,  while  tho  coarsest  pieces  will 
rink  at  once  to  tho  bottom  ;  and  thus  by  decantijig  the  oil  in  which 
the  dust  floats,  as  many  grades  of  fineness  as  desired  may  bo  obtain- 
ed. The  dust  may  bo  separated  from  the  oil  by  pouring  on  a  piece  of 
smooth  clean  paper  ;  the  paper  will  absorb  tho  oil,  or  allow  it  to  fil- 
ler through,  Avhiletho  dust  \nll  remain  ou  the  surface  ;  but  to  pre- 
vent Avasto,  tlio  better  AA-ay  is  to  leave  it  in  tho  oil  and  use  directly 
therefrom  as  required,  or  tho  oil  may  bo  washed  out  of  tho  dust  Avith 
jilcoliol. 

To  ruESERYE  PiNioirs  OR  Bearings  from  Corrosion  and  Rust. 
• — ^In  case  of  the  lower  centre  bearing  under  tho  cannon  pinion  cor- 
roding or  rusting,  when  you  clean  the  Avatch,  bo  particular  to  take  tho 
central  wheel  off.  Clean  it  thoroughly;  if  the  pivot  is  scratched,  pol- 
ish it,  then  make  a  little  hollow  in  the  top  hole  ;  put  good  fresh  oil 
on  it,  and  tho  pivot  AviU  not  corrode  or  rust  for  two  or  three  years. 
As  to  the  other  pivots  iu  the  watch,  they  should  all  be  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  old  oil  cleaned  out ;  then  if  no  dust  gets  iu,  and  no  acci- 
dent happens  the  watch,  it  will  run  for  years. 

To  Clean  a  Clock. — ^Takethe  movement  of  the  clock  "  to  pieces." 
Brush  the  Avheels  and  pinions  thoroughly  AvIth  a  stiff  coarse  brush  ; 
also  the  plates  which  the  trains  work.  Clean  the  pivots  well  by  turn- 
ing in  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  held  tightly  between  your  thumb  and 
finger.  The  pivot  holes  in  the  plates  are  generally  cleansed  by  turn- 
ing a  piece  of  Avood  into  them,  but  I  have  always  found  a  strip  of 
cloth  or  a  soft  cord  drawn  tightly  through  them  to  act  tho  best.  If  yoa 
use  two  cords,  tho  first  one  slightly  oiled,  and  the  next  dry,  to  clean  tho 
oil  out,  all  the  better.  Do  not  use  salt  or  acid  to  clean  your  clock — 
it  can  do  no  good,  but  may  do  a  great  deal  of  liarili.  Boiling  tlia 
movement  in  water,  as  is  tho  practice  of  some,  is  also  foolishness. 

To  Bush. — The  hole  through  which  the  great  arbors,  or  winding 
axles,  work,  are  the  only  ones  that  usually  require  bushing.  When 
they  have  become  too  much  worn,  the  great  wheel  on  the  axle  before 
named  strikes  too  deeply  into  the  pinions  above  it  and  stops  the  clock. 
To  remedy  this,  bushing  is  necessary,  of  course.  The  most  common 
Avay  of  doing  it  is  to  drive  a  steel  point  or  punch  into  the  plate  just 
above  the  axle  hole,  thus  forcing  the  brass  downwards  until  the  hole 
is  reduced  to  its  original  size.  Another  mode  is  to  solder  a  piece  of 
brass  upon  the  plate  in  such  a  position  as  to  hold  tho  axle  down  to  its 

{)roper  place.  If  you  simply  wish  your  clock  to  run,  and  have  no  am- 
)ition  to  produce  a  bush  that  wUl  look  workmanlike,  about  as  good  a 


WATCIIMAKEES,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  331 

■vray  as  any  is  to  fit  a  piece  of  hard  wood  bet-^vccn  the  post  -which 
comes  through  the  top  of  the  plate  and  axle.  Make  it  long  enougli 
to  hold  the  axle  to  its  proper  place,  so  that  the  axle  wiU  run  on  tho 
end  of  the  grain.  Cut  notches  where  the  pivots  come  through,  ana 
secure  by  wrapping  around  it  and  the  plate  a  piece  of  small  wire  or  a 
thread. 

To  Remedy  Worn  Pinion,— Turn  the  leaves  or  rollers,  so  the 
worn  places  upon  them  will  he  towards  the  arbor  or  shaft,  and  fasten 
them  m  that  position.  If  they  are  "rolling  pinions"  and  you  caimot 
secure  them  otherwise,  you  had  better  do  it  with  a  little  soft  solder. 

To  Oil  Properly,— OU  only,  and  very  lightly,  the  pallets  of  tho 
yerge,  the  steel  pin  upon  which  the  verge  works,  and  tho  point  where 
tho  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  the  pendulum  wire.  Use  nono 
but  the  best  watch  oil.  Though  you  might  be  working  constantly  at 
the  clock-repairing  business,  a  bottle  costmg  you  but  twenty-fivo 
cents  would  last  you  two  years  at  least.  You  can  buy  it  at  any  watch- 
iurnishing  establishment. 

To  Make  the  Clock  Strike  Correctly, — If  not  very  cautious 
inputting  up  your  clock  you  will  get  some  of  the  striking-train  wheels 
in  wrong,  and  thus  produce  a  derangement  in  the  striking.  If  this 
should  happen,  pry  the  plates  apart  on  the  striking  side,  slip  tho 
pivots  of  the  upper  wheels  out,  and  havmg  disconnected  them  from 
the  train,  turn  them  part  around  and  put  them  back.  If  still  noli 
light,  repeat  the  experiment.  A  foAV  efforts  at  most  will  get  them  to 
working  properly.  The  sound  in  cuckoo  clocks  is  caused  by  a  wire 
acting  on  a  small  bellows  which  is  connected  with  two  small  pipes 
like  organ  pipes. 

A  Defect  to  look  after. — Always  examine  the  pendulum  wire 
at  the  point  where  the  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  it.  You  will 
generally  find  a  small  notch,  or  at  least  a  rough  place  worn  there. 
I)ress  it  out  perfectly  smooth,  or  your  clock  will  not  be  likely  to  work 
well.  Small  as  this  defect  may  seem,  it  stops  a  large  number  of 
clocks. 

Figures  on  Gold  and  Silver  Dials,— Hold  a  small  piece  of 
copper  over  a  gas  flame  for  a  few  minutes  till  it  is  coated  with  soot ; 
clear  this  off  on  to  a  piece  of  finely  ground  glass,  add  fat  oil  and  a 
small  quantity  of  oil  of  spike  lavender,  and  grind  up  ;  paint  with  a 
email-camel  liair  pencil. 

To  Deter]mine  the  Exact  Focal  Distance  of  Spectacle 
Glasses. — Place  tho  end  of  a  measure  of  thirty  or  forty  inches  in 
length  against  a  smooth  wall,  or  other  suitable  ground,  in  plain  view 
of  some  well-defined  object  a  few  rods  distant,  as  for  instance  a 
building  or  window  on  tho  opposite  side  of  the  street.  Then  place 
the  edge  of  your  lens  on  the  measure,  and  move  it  backwards  or 
forwards  xmtil  a  spectrum  is  formed,  or,  m  other  words,  until  a  clear 
and  distinct  outline  ofthe  distant  object  is  produced  on  the  ground 
against  which  your  measure  rests.  This  point  will  represent  suffi- 
ciently near,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the  exact  focal  distance  of  tho 
jlens,  and  will  correspond  in  inches  with  the  number  on  all  properly 
j  marked  convex  spectacles.  For  mending  fine  steel  spectacle  frames, 
luse  the  best  gold  solder  in  preference  to  silver  or  brass  solder. 

Valuable  Receipts  for  Goldsmiths. — Standard  gold  is  com- 
pouaded  of  440  grains  of  fine  gold,  and  40  grains  (Troy  weight,)  tc 


332  WATciniAKERs,  jewellers',  &c.,  receipts. 


the  oz.  alloy  ;  therefore,  -when  you  judpG  how  mnch  gold  a  piece  ol 
"^vork  will  take,  comi)f)uiid  it  to  tlie  standard  wci<?lit  by  the  ioUowintj 
directions  :  Aasuy  Weif/ht. — The  weight  of  gold  is  a  i)Ound,  which  is 
divided  into  12  ozs.  each  oz.  into  24  carats,  each  carat  into  4  grains, 
and,  lastly,  each  grain  into  4  quarters  ;  then  you  see  the  assay  quarter- 
grain,  is  in  reality  1^  grain  Troy. 

On  MiiLTiNG  AND  REFINING. — 111  mclting  Brass  Gold,  urge  tho 
fire  to  a  great  heat,  and  stir  the  metal  with  tho  long  stem  of  a 
tobacco  pipe  to  prevent  honey-combing.  If  Steel  or  Iron  Jilinr/s 
get  into  gold  Avhile  melting,  tiiroAv  in  a  piece  of  sandivcr  the  sizo 
of  a  common  nut ;  it  will  attract  the  iron  or  steel  from  the  gold 
into  the  flux,  or,  sublimate  of  mercury  will  destroy  the  iron  or 
Etccl.  To  cause  Gold  to  roll  toell,  melt  with  a  good  heat,  add  a 
tcaspoouful  of  sal  ammoniac  and  charcoal,  equal  quantities,  both 
pulverized,  stir  up  well,  put  on  the  cover  for  2  minutes,  and  pour. 

To  Refine  Sweepings  Containing  Gold  or  Silver.— To  8 
ozs.  of  the  dirt,  which  has  been  washed  and  burnt,  add  salt,  4  ozs.  ; 
pcarlash  4  ozs.  ;  red  tartar  1  oz.  ;  saltpetre  ^  oz.,  mix  thoroughly  in 
a  mortar,  melt  in  a  crucible,  and  dissolve  out  the  precious  metals  in 
a  button. 


QUANTITY  of  STANDARD  GOLD  TO  C03IP0UND  AN  OZ.  OF  ANY  OP 
THE  FOLLOWING  ALLOYS  CALCULATED  TO  TUE  ^  OF  A  GRAIN, 
AS  FOLLOWS  : 


Carat, 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

Qrs. 
9 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

Qrs. 

1 

0 

21 

19 

2 

2 

2 

1 

19 

7 

18 

4 

4 

3 

2 

17 

5 

17 

G 

G 

4 

3 

15 

3 

ADDED. 

16 

8 

8 

6 

4 

13 

1 

15 

10 

10 

C 

5 

10 

10 

14 

33 

1 

7 

G 

8 

8 

13 

35 

3 

8 

7 

G 

G 

12 

17 

5 

9 

8 

4 

4 

W 

11 

19 

T 

10 

9 

2 

2 

10 

21 

9 

11 

10 

0 

0 

w 

10 

0 

0 

12 

10 

21 

9 

o 

9 

2 

2 

13 

11 

19 

7 

H 

8 

4 

4 

li 

12 

17 

5 

7 

6 

6 

15 

13 

15 

3 

o 

G 

8 

8 

16 

14 

13 

1 

5 

10 

10 

17 

15 

10 

10 

4 

13 

18 

IG 

8 

8 

3 

15 

3 

19 

17 

G 

G 

2 

17 

5 

20 

18 

4 

4 

1 

19 

7 

21 

22 

19 
22 

2 
0 

2 
0 

0 

21 

9 

To  Fuse  Gold  Dust. — Use  such  a  crucible  as  is  generally 
used  for  meltmg  brass  ;  heat  very  hot ;  then  add  your  gold  du.«t 
mixed  with  powdered  borax  ; — after  some  time  a  scum  or  slag  Avill 
arise  on  the  top,  which  may  be  thickened  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  lime  or  bone  ash.  If  the  dust  contains  any  of  the  more 
oxidizeable  metals,  add  a  little  nitre,  skim  off  the  slag  or  scum  very 
carefully  ;  when  melted,  grasp  the  crucible  with  strong  iron  tongs ; 


WATCmiAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  333 

and  pour  off  immediately  into  cast  iron  moulds,  slightly  greased. 
The  slag  and  crucibles  may  be  afterwards  pulverized,  and  tho 
tiuriferous  matter  recovered  from  the  mass  through  cupellation  by 
means  of  lead. 

Gold  Allots. — The  "Xow  Standard"  for  Tvatch  cases,  &c.,  is  IS 
carats  of  fine  gold  and  6  of  alloy.  No  gold  of  inferior  quality  can 
receive  the  ''Hall  mark  ;"  and  gold  of  lower  quality  is  generally 
described  by  its  commercial  valae.  The  alloy  may  be  entirely 
eilver,  which  will  give  a  green  color,  or  entirely  copper  for  a  red 
color,  but  the  copper  and  silver  are  more  usually  mixed  in  ono 
alloy  according  to  the  taste  of  the  jeweller.  It  AviU  be  understood 
that  these  are  all  made  Avith  fine  gold,  fine  silver,  and  fine  copi^er, 
direct  from  tho  refiner.  Gold  of  22  carats  fine  bein^  so  little  used, 
is  intentionally  omitted.  1.  Gold  of  18  carats,  of  yetloio  tint.  Gold 
15  dwt.,  silver,  2  dwt.,  18  grs.,  copper  2  dwt.,  G  grs.  2.  Gold  of  13 
carats,  red  tint.  Gold  15  dwt.,  silver,  1  dwt.  18  grs.,  copper,  3  dwt. 
C  grs.  3.  Spring  gold  of  IG  carats.  Gold  1  oz.  IG  dwt.,  silver,  G  dwt., 
copper,  12  dwt.  This  when  drawn  or  rolled  very  hard  makes  springs 
little  inferior  to  steel ;  4  Jev)ellers'  Fine  Gold,  yelloio  tint,  IG  carats 
nearly.  Gold,  1  oz.  silver,  7  dwt.,  copper,  5  dwt.  5.  Gold  of  red 
tint  16  carats.    Gold,  1  oz.  silver,  2  dwt.,  copper,  8  dwt. 

Sterling  Gold  Alloy,  78s.  per  oz. — 1,  Tinogold,  18dwts.,12 
grs.,  fine  silver,  1  dwt.,  fine  copper,  12  grs.  2.— Dry  colored  Gold 
Alloys.  17  Carat.  Fine  gold,  15  dwts.,  fine  silver,  1  dwt.  10  grs.,  fine 
copper,  4  dwts.  17  grs. — 3.  Another,  18  Carat.  Tmo  gold,  1  oz.,  fine 
Eilver,  4  dwts.  10  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  dwts.  5  grs. — i.  Another,  18 
Carat.  Fine  gold,  15  dwts.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.  4  grs.,  fine  copper,  2 
«l\vts.  19  grs. — 5.  Another,  18  Carat.  Fine  gold,  18  dwts.,  fine  silver, 
2  dwts.  18  grs.,  fino  copper,  3  dwts.  18  grs. — G.  Another,  19  Carat. 
Fine  gold,  loz.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.  Ggrs.,  fine  copper,  3  dwts.  12 
grs. — 7.  Another,  20  Carat.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.,  fino 
coi^per,  2  dwts.  4  grs. — 8.  Another,  22  Carat.  Fine  gold,  18  dwts.,  fino 
silver,  12  grs.,  fine  copper,  1  dwt.  3  grs. — 9.  Gold  solder  for  the  fore- 
going Alloys.  Take  of  the  alloyed  gold  you  arc  using,  Idwt.,  fino 
silver,  G  grs. — 10.  Alloy  for  Dnj  Colored  Rings.  Fine  gold,  1  oz., 
fine  silver,  4  dwts.  Ggrs.,  fino  copper,  4  dwts.  Ggrs. — 11.  Solder  for 
ditto.  Scrap  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  3  dwts.,  fine  copper,  3  dwts. — 12. 
Dry  Colored  Scrap  reduced  to  35s.  Gold.  Colored  scrap,  1  oz.,  0 
dAvts.  12  grs.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.,  fine  copper,  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  spelter, 
4  dwts. 

Pry  Coloring  for  the  Foregoing. — Polish  your  work  well  and 
for  every  2  ozs.,  take  saltpetre,  8  ozs.,  alum,  4  ozs.,  salt,  4  ozs.,  melt 
all  together  in  a  black  lead  pot,  stirring  with  a  thin  iron  bar  when 
dissolving.  Use  the  fire  on  a  forge  and  urge  it  well  with  the  bellows, 
as  you  can  not  make  it  too  hot.  Your  polished  work  bemg  well 
cleaned  with  soda,  soap,  and  hot  water,  is  dried  in  box  sawdust,  is 
afterwards  covered,  with  a  thin  layer  of  borax  ;  annealed  and  boiled 
out,  and  again  dried  in  box  sawdust,  and  finally  hung  on  platinum 
or  silver  wire.  When  the  "  color  "  in  the  pot  assumes  a  brown  yellow 
flame,  the  work  is  dipped  in  for  two  or  three  seconds,  and  quenched 
with  hot  water  diluted  with  muriatic  acid,  which  removes  any  "  color" 
tliat  may  adhere  to  the  work.  This  ought  to  produce  tho  desired 
color,,  but  if  it  does  not,  repeat  the  process,  previously  drying  the 


334   WATCUMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C\,  RECEIPTS. 

"work  before  ro-immcrsion  in  the  "color."  '  The~color-pot  must  bo 
emptied  immediately  upon  the  forgo,  so  that  it  may  bo  ready  for 
future  use. 

Wet  Colored  Ai.t.ots.— 1.  Fine  pokl,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  3  dwta.  13 
jrs.,  fmo  copper,  9  dwts.  2.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4dvvt3. 12grs., 
fiuo  copper,  10  dwts.  3.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4  dwts.  12  grs., 
fnio  copper,  lOd^Vts.  12  grs.  4.  Fine  Gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4  dwts., 
liue  copper,  9  dwts.  12  grs.  5  Green  Gold  for  Fancy  Work.  Fino 
jjold,  1  oz.,  fiue  silver,  6  dwts.  IG  grs.  G.  Another  Green  Gold 
Fine  gold,  10  dwts.,  fiuo  silver,  2  dwts.  2  grs.  7.  Red  Gold,  for 
fancy  loork.  Fino  gold,  5  dwts.,  fiuo  copper,  2  dwts.  12  grs. 
8,  Another  Bed  Gold.  Fino  gold,  5  dwts.,  fino  copper,  1  dwt. 
6  grs.  9.  Gold  solders  for  the  for  eg  oinr/  Alloys.  Take  of  the  alloyed 
gold  you  are  using,  1  dwt.,  fino  silver,  G  grs.,  or,  5  grs.  silver  and  1  gr. 
copper  may  be  used.  10.  Solder  for  Repairing.  Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt., 
fiue  silver,  5  grs.,  pin  brass,  1  gr.  11.  Wet  Colored  Solder.  Wet 
colored  scrap,  3  ozs.,  fine  silver,  10  dwts.,  fiuo  copper,  5  dwts.  12. 
Gold,  15  carat,  cost  66s.  or  $14  per  oz.  Fino  gold,  1  oz.  18  dwts.,  fino 
silver,  12  dwts.  12  grs.,  fiue  copper,  10  dwts.  13.  Fiue  gold,  1  oz.,  fino 
silver,  8  dwts.  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  14.  Fiue  gold,  1  oz.,  fiue  silver,  8 
dwts.,  fiue  copper,  4  dwts.  15.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fiue  silver,  6  dwts., 
fiue  copper,  8  dwts.  16.  Gold  solder  for  the  last.  Gold  scrap,  1  oz., 
fiue  silver,  5  dwts.  17.  Gold  good  color.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver, 
Cdwts.,  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  18.  Gold  costGOs.  or  $15,  good  color. 
Fine  gold,  1  dwt.,  fine  silver,  6  dwts.,  fine  copper,  4  dwi;s.  19.  Wet 
colored  solder.  Scrap  gold,  4  ozs.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  G 
dwts.  16  grs.  20.  To  reduce  22  carat  into  Wet  colored  Gold.  Gold 
coins  4  ozs.  8  dwts.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  1  oz.  13  dwts.  21. 
To  reduce  22  carat  to  ordinary  loet  colored  Gold  toith  scrap.  Coins  1 
oz.,  fiue  gold,  3  ozs.,  fiue  silver,  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  1 
dwt.  12  grains.,  scrap,  3  ozs.  1  dwt.  22.  Another  loay  with  scrap. 
Coins,  3  ozs.  1  dwt.  6  grs.,  fine  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  1  oz.  1  dwt., 
fine  copper,  2  ozs.  11  dwts.,  scrap,  1  oz.  G  dwts.  18  grs.  23.  Another 
way  with  scrap.  Coins,  2  ozs.,  fine  gold,  3  ozs.  3  dwts.  8  grs.,  fino 
silver,  1  oz.  1  dwt.  4  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  10  dwts.  12  grs.,  scrap,  1 
oz.  5  dwts.  24.  To  reduce  22  carat  to  ordinary  loct  colored  Gold  loith- 
out  so^ap.  Coins,  1  oz.,  fine  gold,  8  ozs.,  fine  silver,  2  ozs.,  fine  cop- 
per, 4  ozs.  14  dwts.  25.  Another  loay  without  scrap.  Coins,  loz., 
fino  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  1  oz.  11  dwts.  26. 
Another  luay  without  scrap.  Coins,  2  ozs.,  fine  gold,  G  ozs.,  fine  silver, 
1  oz.  14  dwts.,  fine  copper,  4  ozs.  2  dwts. 

To  WET-CoiiOR  THE  FOREGOING  ALLOTS. —  For  5  OZS.  of  worktako 
saltpetre,  16  ozs.,  alum,  8  ozs.,  salt,  8  ozs.,  all  ijulverized  and  muriatic 
field  2  ozs.,  dissolve  the  ingredients  gradually  in  a  black  lead  pot. 
"When  it  boils  up,  add  the  acid,  and  stir  the  whole  with  a  wooden 
spoon.  Having  amiealed  your  work  and  made  it  perfectly  clean,  tie 
in  small  parcels  with  platinum  or  fine  silver  wire,  and  when  the  color 
boils  up  immerse  it  therein  for  four  minutes,  moving  it  about  to  qv> 
sure  a  perfect  contact  with  all  parts  of  the  surface.  Then  take  it  out 
and  rinse  it  well  in  boiling  water,  then  immerse  in  the  color  again  for 
lor  1^  minutes  and  rinse  well  once  more  in  fresh  hot  water.  Now 
jidd  2  ozs.  of  fresh  hot  water  to  the  color  in  the  pot,/ which  will  causo 
it  to  gink.   When  it  rises  put  in  your  work  for  1  minute,  rinsing  in 


WATCHMAKEES,  JEWELLEKS',  &C.,  KECEIPTS.  335 

fresli  Iiot  water  again,  when  it  will  begin  to  brighten.  Now  immerse 
your  work  for  half  a  minute  longer,  and  rinse  for  the  last  time  La 
clean  hot  water,  when  it  will  appear  of  a  most  beautiful  color. 

Alloys,  continued.  1.  Pale  gold  for  coloring  Enamelling,  or 
Zapping— ^ine  gold,  1  oz. ,  fine  silver,  9  dwts,  fine  copper,  2  d-wts.  12 
grs,  2.  Another  ditto — Fine  gold  1  oz,,  fine  silver  9  awts.,  fine  cop- 
per 3  dwts.  12  grs.  3.  Another  ditto — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  10 
dwts.,  fine  copper  3  dwts.  12  grs.  4.  Enamelling  Gold  No.  1 — Fine 
gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  1  dwt.  12  grs.,  fine  copper  2  dwts.  12  grs.  6, 
enamelling  Gold  from  Sterling — Sterling  1  oz.,  fine  silver  8  grs.,  fine 
copper  2  dwts.  6.  Enamelling^  Gold  Solder — Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt, 
fine  silver  4  grs.  7.  Another  ditto,  cost  43s.  stg.,  or  $10.75  peroz. — 
Fine  gold  12d^vts.,  fine  silver  7  dwts.  3  grs.,  fine  copper  6  dwts.  8. 
Enamelling  Gold  No.  2.  cost  50s  stg.  per  oz. — Fine  gold  1  oz,,  fine  sil- 
ver 9  dwts.  12  grs,,  fine  copper  7  dwts.  12  grs.  9.  Enamelling  Gold 
No.  3. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  14  dwts.,  fine  copper  8  dwts.  10. 
Enamelling  Gold  No.  4, — Fine  gold  2  ozs.  5  dwts.,  fine  silver  1  oz.  G 
dwts.,  fine  copper  1  oz.,  pin  brass 5  dwts.  11.  Enamelling  Gold  No.  5. 
— Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  13  dwts.,  fine  copper  6  dwts.  12.  En- 
amelling Gold  No.  G.  for  transparent  enamelling — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine 
Bilvcr  14  dwts.,  fine  copper  G  dwts.  13.  Gold  solder  for  enamelled 
zcork — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  1  oz,,  fine  copper  10  dwts,,  silver 
solder  8  divts.  8  grs.  14.  Pale  Gold  alloys  for  polishing,  &c.,  Nol. 
— Fme  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  8  dwts,,  fine  copper  3  dwts.  12  grs.  15, 
Another,  No.  2. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  1  dwt.  20  grs.,  fine  cop- 
per 1  dwt.  4  grs.  IG.  Pale  18  Carat  Gold — ^Fino  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver 
4  dwts.,  fine  copper  2  dwts.  15  grs.  17.  Another  Pale  18  Carat  Gold 
— Fine  gold  1  oz.  12  grs,,  fine  silver  3  dwts.  8  grs.,  fine  copper  3  dwts. 

8  grs.  18.  Pale  Gold  Solder — Gold  alloyed  1  dwt.  G  grs,,  fine  silver 
1  dwt.  19.  Alio]/  for  best  Pens — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  5  dwts., 
fine  copper  7  dwits.  18  grs.,  spelter  1  dwt.  G  grs.  20.  Solder  for  ditto 
^Fine  gold  12  dwts,,  fine  silver  7  dwts.  3  grs.,  fine  copper  G  dwts, 

21.  Medium  quality  pens — Fine  gold  1  oz,,  composition  1  oz,,  13  dwts. 

22.  Composition  for  the  last — Fine  silver  1  oz.  17  dwts.,  fine  copper  5 
ozs.  15  dwts,,  spelter  18  dwts,  20  grs.  23.  Solder  for  ditto — Fine  gold 
1  oz.,  fine  silver  2  ozs.,  pin  brass  1  oz.  24.  Gold  for  common  pens — 
Fine  gold  1  oz, ,  fine  silver  2  ozs, ,  fine  copper  1  oz.  25.  Solder  for  ditto . 
Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  2  ozs.,  pinbrass  1  oz.  2G,  Alloys  of  Gold 
with  Brass,  N'o.  1,— Fine  gold  1  oz,,  fine  silver  5  dwts.  G  grs.,  fine  cop- 
per 3  dwts.  12  grs.,  pin  brass  18  dwts.  27.  Another  ditto.  No.  2. — 
Fine  gold  1  oz,,  fine  silver  4  dwts.,  fine  copper  4  dwts.,  pin  brass  16 
dwts.  28.  Another  ditto.  No.  3.  — Fine  gold  loz,,  fine  silver  5  dwts, 
12  grs.,  fine«copper  3  dwts.  12  grs.,  pin  brass  19  dwts.  G  grs.  29. 
Another  alloy. — Fine  gold  1  oz,,  fine  silver  3  dwts.  21  grs,,  fine  copper 

9  dwts.  3  grs.,  composition  5  dwts.  G  grs.  30,  Another  ditto— Yino 
gold  15  dwts.  9  grs.,  fijie  silver  5  dwts.  19  grs.,  fine  copper  3  dwts,  21 
grs,,  composition  15  dwts.  31.  Composition  for  the  last  two  alloys — 
Finest  copper  1  oz,,  spelter  5  dwts,  32.  Solder  for  foregoing  alloys-^ 
Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt,  fine  silver  12  grs.  S3.  Imitation  Cfold,  costs  87c. 
per  oz. — Fine  silver  2  oz.  6  dwts,,  fine  copper  1  oz,,  composition  1  oz.. 
keeps  its  color  very  well.  34.  Composition  for  ditto — Fine  copper  li 
ozs.,  spelter  2 ozs.  35.  "  California"  Gold—Ym.Q  gold  5  ozs.  12  dwts. 
composition  7_ozs,  17  dwts.  3G.  Composition  for  "  California" —Tm^ 


836  WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS'    &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

Bilver,  7  0Z3. 17  d\vt3.  fino  copper  33  oza.  12  dwtn.,  Bpeltcr  5  ozn.  12  dwts. 
37.  Medium  (Hold — Fino  jiold  1  oz.,  fiue  silver  12  d.wts.,fino  copper  13 
dwts.  38.  J{ri(//U  Gold — Fino  gold  1  oz.,  line  silver  7  dvv'ts.,  compo- 
Bition  marked  No.  34,  1  dvvt.  G  grs.  39.  Common  Gold  JVo.  1.— Fine 
gold  1  oz.,  line  silver  8  dwts.,  composition  No.  34. 1  oz.  12  dwtg,  41. 
'Common  Gold,  No.  2. — Fiue  gold  5  dwts.,  line  silver  3  dwts.  G  grs.,  fim 
copper  G  dwts.  12  grs.  42.  Gold  for  Fins — Fino  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silvei 
C  dwts. ,  line  copper  1  oz. ,  spelter  5  dwts.  43.  Lnj  Colored  Scrap  redaacii 
to  35s.  or  $8.75  Gold — Colored  scrap  1  oz.  9  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  silver  2 
dwts.,  line  copper  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  spelter  4  dwts.  44.  Alloy  for  Gold 
Chains. — Fine  gold  11  dwts.  G grs.,  fnio silver  2  dwts.  5  grs.,  line  cop- 
per 6  dwts.  13  grs.  45.  Another  ditto — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  line  silver  9 
dwts.,  line  copper  8  dwts.  4G.  Gold  worth  45  str/.  or  $11.25. — Fine  gold, 
1  oz.,  composition  (see  No.  22)  1  oz.  47.  Solder  for  ditto. — Fine  gold  1 
oz.,  finesilver  15  dwts.,  line  copper  15  dwts.  48.  12  Carat  Gold, — Fino 
gold  1  oz.,  line  silver  10  dwts.,  line  coppor  9  dwts.  G  grs.  49.  Com- 
mon Gold  from  "  California" — "California,"  (see  No.  35)  8  ozs.  lino 
silver  13  ozs.  16  dwts.,  line  copper  G  ozs.  IG  dwts.  50.  29s  or  $7.25 
^old. — Fine  gold  1  oz.  13  dwts.  G  grs.,  line  silver  1  oz.  12  dwts.  13 
grs.,  fine  copper  1  oz.  KJ  dwts.  G  grs.,  spelter  4  dwts.  Stands  nitric 
acid  very  well. 


OKDINAEY  BRIGHT  GOLD  "SVIRE,  TABLE  SnOWTNG  THE  BROPORTIOis'S 
OF  ALLOY  FUOM  1  OZ,  W  TO  21  OZ. 


Fine  Gold. 

Fine  Silver. 

Fine  Copper. 

Total. 

Oz.  Dwts. 

Grs. 

Oz.  Dwts.  Grs. 

Oz.  Dwts.  Grs. 

Oz.  Dwts. 

Grg. 

0  5 

21 

0 

G 

6 

0 

G 

21 

1 

0 

0 

0  11 

18 

0 

14 

12 

0 

13 

18 

2 

0 

0 

0  17 

15 

1 

1 

18 

1 

0 

15 

3 

0 

0 

1  15 

G 

2 

3 

12 

2 

1 

G 

G 

0 

0 

2  12 

21 

3 

5 

G 

2 

1 

21 

9 

0 

0 

S  10 

12 

4 

7 

0 

4 

2 

12 

12 

0 

0 

4  8 

3 

5 

8 

18 

5 

3 

3 

15 

0 

0 

5  4 

18 

6 

10 

12 

G 

3 

18 

18 

0 

0 

G  3 

8 

7 

12 

G 

2 

4 

9 

21 

0 

0 

To  Recover  the  Gold  lost  in  Coloring.— Dissolve  a  handfnl 
of  sulphate  of  iron  in  boiling  water,  then  add  this  to  your  "color" 
"water,  it  precipitates  the  small  particles  of  gold.  Now  draw  off  Iho 
•water,  being  very  careful  not  to  disturb  the  auriferous  sediment  at 
the  bottom.  You  will  now  proceed  to  wash  the  sediment  from  all 
trace  of  acid  with  plenty  of  boiling  water  ;  it  will  require  3  or  4  sep- 
arate washings,  witli  sufficient  time  between  each  to  allow  the  water  to 
cool  and  the  sediment  to  settle,  before  pouring  the  water  off.  Then 
dry  in  an  iron  vessel  by  the  fire  and  finally  fuse  in  a  covered  skittlo 
pot  with  a  flux  as  directed  on  page  202. 

Allots  for  Gold.— 1.  Red  ^/oZcZ.- Copper,  6G.G7  parts  ;  gold,  33.- 
33  parts.  2.  Yelloio  gold. — Copper,.  12.50  parts  ;  silver,  37.50  paits; 
gold,  50  parts.  3.  Green  gold. — Silver,  25  parts  ;  gold,  75  parts.  4. 
YcllQiv  £roW.— Silver,  CG.G7  parts  ;  gold,  33.33  parts.  6.  Gra^j  rjold.—' 


\7ATCn:\IAIvERS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  337 

Silver,  5.89  parts  ;  gold,  88.23  parts  ;  iron,  5.89  parts,  6.  Dentists'  gold. 
—Silver,  8.34  parts  ;  platinum,  66.67  parts  ;  gold,  24.29  parts.  7. 
English  gold  com.— Copper,  8. 34  parts  ;  gold,  91. 66  parts.  8.  AmericaTh 
gold  coin.— Copper,  10  parts  ;  gold,  90  parts.  French  gold  coin  same 
as  American.  10.  Alloys  for  Silver  Coin  and  Plate.— English 
standard— Go^'^Qv,  7.50  parts ;  silver,  92.50  parts.  11.  American  ditto, 
— Copper,  10  parts  ;  silver  90  parts.   French,  the  same. 

GiLDma  Metal  for  common  jewelry  is  made  by  mixing  4  parts 
copper  with  one  of  calamme  brass.  Sometimes  1  lb.  copper,  with  6 
oz.  of  brass.  Dentists'  Plate.— ^o.  1  Gold,  20  dwts.  ;  silver,  1  dwt. ; 
copper,  2  dwts.  2.  Gold,  21,  silver,  2,  copper.  Gold  for  Springs, 
— Gold,  18  dwts.  12  grs. ;  silver,  6  dwts. ;  copper,  5  dwts. 

Jewellers' SoLDEiiiNG  Fluid. — Muriatic  acid,  |pt.;  grain  zinCj, 
1\  oz.   Dissolve,  and  add  a  little  common  solder  and  sal-ammoniac. 

Jewellers'  Gold  Compositions. — Common  Gold. — Silver,  1  part; 
Spanish  copper,  16  parts,  gold,  2  parts;  mix.  Ring  Gold. — Spanish, 
copper,  6  parts;  silver,  3  parts;  gold,  5  parts;  mix.  Manheim  Gold. — 
copper,  3  imrts;  zinc,  1  part.  Molt,  and  stir  well.  Mosaic  Gold. — 
copper  and  zinc,  equal  parts ;  melt  at  the  lowest  temperature  that  will 
fuse  the  former,  then  mix  by  stirring,  and  add  5  per  cent,  more  zinc. 
Parker's  Mosaic  Gold. — Copper,  100  parts ;  zinc,  54  parts.  For  common. 
Jeioelry — Copper,  3  parts ;  1  of  old  brass,  and  4  oz.  of  tin  to  every  lb. 

copper.  Factitious  GoZc?.— Copper,  16  parts;  platinum,  7  parts; 
zinc,  Ipart;  fused  together.  TJiis  alloy  resembles  gold  of  16  carat3 
fine,  or  §,  and  will  resist  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  uiiless  very  concen- 
trated and  boiling.  Harmstadt's  True  Imitation  of  Gold. — is  stated 
not  only  to  resemble  gold  in  color,  but  also  in  specific  gravity  and 
ductility.  Platinum,  16  parts ;  copper,  7  parts ;  zinc,  1  part ;  put  it  in  a 
crucible,  cover  with  charcoal  powder,  and  melt  into  a  mass.  Do.  of 
Silver. — Copper,  ^  oz. ;  brass,  2  oz. ;  pare  silver,  3  oz. ;  bismuth,  2  oz. ; 
saltpetre,  2  oz. ;  common  salt,  1  oz. ;  arsenic,  1  oz. ;  potash,  1  oz. ;  melt 
in  a  crucible  with  powdered  charcoal.  This  compound,  used  by  a 
German  chemist  for  unlawful  purposes,  was  so  perfect  that  he  wa3 
never  discovered. 

Artificial  Gold. — ^This  is  a  new  metallic  alloy  which  is  now  very 
extensively  used  iu  France  as  a  substitute  for  gold.  Pare  copper,  100 
parts;  zinc,  or,  preferably,  tin,  17  parts;  magnesia,  6  parts;  sal- 
ammoniac,  3-6  parts ;  quick-lime,  ^  part ;  tartar  of  commerce,  9  parts ; 
are  mixed  as  follows  :  The  copper  is  first  melted,  and  the  magnesia, 
sal-ammoniac,  lime  and  tartar  are  then  added  separately,  and  by- 
degrees,  in  the  form  of  powder;  the  whole  is  now  briskly  stirred  for 
about  ^  an  hour,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly;  and  when  the  zinc  is  added 
in  small  grains  by  throwing  it  on  the  surface,  and  stirring  till  it  is 
entirely  fused;  the  crucible  is  then  covered,  and  the  fusion  maintained 
for  about  35  minutes.  The  surface  is  then  skimmed,  and  the  alloy  is 
ready  for  casting.  It  ha's  a  fine  grain,  is  malleable,  and  takes  a  splen- 
did poUsh.  It  dose  not  corrode  readily,  and  for  many  purposes,  is  an 
excellent  substitute  for  gold.  When  tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  bo 
restored  by  a  little  acidulated  water.  If  tin  be  employed  instead  of 
zinc,  the  alloy  will  be  more  brilliant.  It  is  very  much  used  in  France, 
and  must  ultimately  attain  equal  popularity  here. 

New  French  Patent  Alloy  for  Silver. — INIessieurs  De  Ruolz 

Fontcnay  have  invented  the  following  aUoy,  which  may  bo  used 
22' 


338  wATCimAKEns,  jewellers',  sx^.,  receipts 

for  almost  all  purposes  in  ■which  silver  in  usnally  applied.  Silver,  20 
parts ;  piirilied  nickel,  28  parts ;  copper,  52  parts.  Melt  tho  coi)pcr  aud 
iiiclccl  in  tlie  granular  state,  tlien  introduce  tlio  silver.  Tlie  ilux  to  bo 
employed  is  charcoal  and  borax,  both  in  the  state  of  powder;  and  tho 
ingots  obtained  are  to  be  rendered  malleable  by  annealing  for  a  cou- 
eiderablo  time  in  powdered  charcoal. 

Gold.— To  find  tlie  number  of  carats  of  gold  in  an  object,  first  weigh 
the  gold  and  mLx  with  seven  times  its  weight  in  silver.  This  alloy  i.j 
"Jjeaten  into  thin  leaves,  and  nitric  acid  is  added  ;  this  dissolves  tlio 
silver  and  copper.  Tho  remainder  (gold)  is  then  fused  aud  Aveighcd  ; 
by  comparing  the  first  aud  last  weights  tho  number  of  carats  of  puro 
gold  is  found.  This  operation  is  always  repeated  several  times, 
and  if  any  difference  occurs  in  tho  result,  all  is  done  over  again. 

Jewellers'  Allots. — Solder,  &c.  Eighteen-carat  gold  for  rings — 
Gold  coin,  19^  gr. ;  pure  copper,  3  grs. ;  pure  silver,  1^  gr.  Cheap  gold, 
txoelve  carat. — Gold  coin,  25  gr.  ;  jjure  copper,  13^  gr.  ;  puro  silver, 
7^  grs.  Very  cheap  four-carat  gold. — Copper,  18  parts ;  gold,  4  parts  ; 
silver,  2  parts,  imitations  of  gold. — 1  Platina,  4  d^vt,  ;  puro  copper, 
2\  dwt.  ;  sheet-zinc,  1  dwt.  ;  block-tin,  1^  dwt.  ;  pure  lead,  1^  dwt. 
If  this  should  be  found  too  hard  or  brittle  for  practical  use,  re-melting 
the  composition  with  a  little  sal-ammoniac  will  generally  render  it 
malleable  as  desired.  2.  Platina,  2  parts  ;  silver,  1  part ;  copper,  3 
parts.  These  compositions,  when  properly  prepared,  so  nearly  resem- 
ble pure  gold  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  them  therefrom.  A 
little  powdered  charcoal,  mixed  "with  metals  while  melting,  will  bo 
found  of  service.  Best  oreide  of  gold. — Pure  copper,  4  oz,  ;  sheet 
zinc,  Ifoz.;  magnesia,  §oz. ;  sal-ammoniac,  ^  oz.  ;  quick-lime,  9-32 
oz. ;  cream  tartar,  ^  oz.  First  melt  the  copper  at  as  low  a  temperaturo 
as  it  will  melt  ;  then  add  the  zinc,  and  afterwards  tho  other  articles 
in  powder,  in  the  order  named.  Use  a  charcoal  fire  to  melt  theso 
metals.  Bushing  Alloy  for  Pivot-holes,  &c. — Gold  coin,  3  dwts. ;  sil- 
ver, 1  dwt.  20  grs. ;  copper,  3  dwts,  20  grs. ;  palladium,  1  dwt.  Tho 
best  composition  known  for  the  purpose  named.  Gold  Solder  for 
Fourteen  to  Sixteen-carat  Work. — Gold  coin,  1  dwt.  ;  pure  silver,  9 
grs. ;  pure  copper,  6  grs. ;  brass,  3  grs.  Darker  solder. — Gold  coin,  1 
dwt. ;  pure  copper,  8  grs. ;  pure  silver,  5  grs. ;  brass,  2  grs, ;  melt  to- 
gether in  charcoal  fire.  Solder  for  Gold. — Gold,  6  dwts.  ;  silver,  1 
dwt. ;  copper,  2  dwts.  Soft  Gold  Solder. — Gold,  4  parts  ;  silver,  1 
3>art ;  copper  1  part.  Solders  for  Silver. — (For  the  use  of  jewellers.  > — 
Fine  silver,  19  dwts.  ;  copper,  1  dwt.  ;  sheet  brass,  10  dwts.  White 
Solder  for  Silver. — Silver,  1  oz. ;  tin,  1  oz.  Silver  Solder,  forPlated 
Metal.— Fine  silver.  1  oz.  ;  brass  10  dwts.  Solders. — For  Gold. — 
1.  Silver,  7  parts;  copper,  1  part,  with  borax.   2.  Gold,  2 parts;  silver, 

1  part ;  copper,  1  part.  3.  Gold,  3  parts  ;  silver,  3  parts  ;  copper,  1 
part;  zinc  |  part.  For  Silver. — Silver,  2  parts;  brass,  1  part,  with  bo- 
rax ;  or,  silver,  4  parts  ;  brass,  3  parts;  zinc,  1-18  part,  with  borax. 
Gold  Solders. — 1.  Coiiper,  24.24  parts  ;  silver,  27.57  parts  ;  gold,  48. 
19  parts.  2.  Enamel  Solder. — Copper,  25  parts;  silver,  7.07  parts;  gold, 
67.93 parts.  3.  Copper,  2G.55  parts;  zinc,  6.25  parts;  silver,  31.25 parts; 
gold,  36  parts.  4.  Enamel  Solder. — Silver,  19.57  parts  ;  gold,  80.43 
parts.   Solder. — For  22  carat  gold. — Gold  of  22  carats,  1  dAvt,;  silver, 

2  gr. ;  copper,  1  gr.  For  18  carat  gold. — Gold  of  18  carats,  1  dwt. ;  sil- 
ver. 2  gr.  ;  copper,  1  gr.  For  cheaper  gold, — Gold,  1  d^\i; ;  silver,  10 


"WATCHMA.KERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  339 

gr. ;  copper,  8  gr,  CJicapcr  still. — Fine  gold,  1  dwt.  ;  silver,  1  dwt. ; 
copper,  1  dwt. 

Silver  Solders. — 1.  (hard.)  Copper,  30 parts  ;  zinc,  12.85  parts  ; 
silver,  57.15  parts.  2.  Copper,  23.33  parts  ;  zinc,  10.00  parts  ;  silver, 
CG. 67  parts.  4,  Copper,  26. GO  parts;  zinc,  10.00  parts;  silver,  63.34 
parts.  5.  (soft.)  Copper  14.75  parts;  zinc 8.50  parts :  silver,  77.05 
parts.  6.  Copper,  22.34  parts  ;  zinc,  10.48  parts  ;  silver,  67.18  parts. 
7.  Tin,  63.00j)arts  ;  lead,  37  parts. 

Colored  Gold. — 1.  Full  red  gold. — Gold,  5  dwts. ;  copper,  5  dwta. 

2.  lied  gold. — Gold,  5  dwts.  ;  silver,  1  dwt.  ;  copper,  4  dwts.  3. 
Green  Gold. — Gold,  2  dwt.  ;  silver,  21  gr.  4.  Gray  gold. — Gold,  3 
dwts.  15  gr  ;  silver,  1  dwt.  9  gr.  5.  Blue  gold.— Gold,  5  dwt. ;  steel 
filings,  5  dwt.  6.  Antique  gold,  greenish-yellow  coZor.— Gold,  18  dwts. 
9  gr. ;  silver,  21  gr.  ;  copper  18  gr.  These  all  require  to  be  submitted 
to  the  i)rocess  of  wet  colormg.  7.  Fictitious  gold,  venj  bright. — Cop- 
per, 16  parts  ;  platina,  7  i)arts  ;  zinc,  1  part  ;  fused  together. 

Ekglish  Standard  tor  Silver. — Puro  silver,  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  ; 
copper,  22  dwts.  :  melt.  Silver  Imitation, — Copper,  1  lb.;  tin,  f  oz., 
melt.   This  composition  will  roll  and  ring  very  near  to  silver. 

French  Gold  Plate. — 1.  Gold,  92  parts  ;  copper,  8  parts.  2. 
Gold,  84  i)arts;  copper,  16  parts.  3,  Gold,  75  i)arts;  copper,  25  parts. 
Jeioellers'  Metal. — Copper,  30 parts ;  tin,  7 parts;  brass,  10  parts;  mix. 

Alloy  for  Watch  Pinion  Sockets. — Gold,  31  parts;  silver,  19 
parts ;  copper  39  parts ;  palladium,  1  part. 

Coloring  OF  Jewelry. — 1.  To  Heighten  the  Color  of  Yellow  gold. 
— Saltpetre,  6  ozs  ;  green  copperas,  2 ozs.  ;  white  vitriol  and  alum,  of 
each  1  oz.  If  wanted  redder,  a  .sinall  quantity  of  blue  ^'itrio^  must 
be  added,  2.  For  Green  Gold. — Saltpetre,  1  oz.  10  dwts. ;  sal-ammo- 
niac, 1  oz.  4  dwts.  ;  Roman  vitriol,  1  oz.  4  dwts.  ;  verdigris,  18  dwts. 

3.  To  Clean  Gilt  Jewelry. — Boiling  water  in  a  clean  flask,  ^  pt. ; 
cyanide  of  potassium,  1  oz.  ;  shake  the  flask  to  dissolve  the  potas- 
sium. Add,  when  cold,  liquor  ammonia,  ^  oz.  ;  rectified  alcohol,  1 
oz.  Used  by  brushing  over  gilded  articles.  4.  Coloring  J eioelry. — 
Boil  the  articles  m  a  diluts  Bolution  of  terchloride  of  gold,  to  which 
some  bicarbonate  of  soda  has  been  added.  5.  Coloring  of  Gilding. — 
Defective  colored  gilding  may  also  be  improved  by  the  help  of  tho 
following  mixture  ;  nitrate  of  potash,  3  ozs.  ;  alum  1\  ozs.  ;  sulphato 
of  zinc,  Ij  ozs.  ;  common  salt,  Ih  ozs.  These  ingredients  are  to  be  put 
into  a  smaU  quantity  of  water  to  form  a  sort  of  paste  which  is  put 
upon  the  articles  to  be  colored  ;  they  are  then  placed  upon  an  iron 
plate  over  a  clear  fire,  so  that  they  will  attain  nearly  to  a  black  heat, 
w^heu  they  are  suddenly  plunged  into  cold  water  ;  this  gives  them  a 
beautiful  high  color.  Different  hues  may  be  had  by  a  variation  in 
the  mixture.  6.  For  Bed  Gold. — ^To  4  ozs.  melted  yellow  wax,  add,  in 
fine  powder,  l|ozs.  of  red  ochre,  ;  Ijozs.  verdigris,  calcined  till  it  yields 
no  fumes  ;  and  ^oz.  of  -  ca,lcined  borax.  Mix  them  well  together. 
Dissolve  either  of  above  mixtures  in  water,  as  the  color  is  wanted,  and 
use  as  required.  7.  Fine  color  for  Heavy  Gilt  Work. — Alum,  3  ozs. ; 
saltpetre,  6  ozs. ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  3  ozs. ;  common  salt,  3  ozs.  Mix  aU 
into  a  thick  paste,  dip  the  articles  into  it,  and  heat  them  until  nearly 
black  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  over  a  clear  coke  or  charcoal  fire,  then 
plunge  them  into  cold  water.  8.  Fine  Color  For  Light  Plated  loorJc.—- 
Sulphate  of  copper,  2  dwts, ;  l)est  verdigris,  4  dwts,  12  grs. ;  sal-ammc 


310    WATCiniAKKKS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  llECEirTS. 

idac,  4  dwta. ;  paltpctre,  4  clwts. ;  acetic  acid,  1  oz. ;  pulverize  tho  solid 
ftrticles,  add  tho  acetic  acid  gradually,  stirring  all  tho  time.  Dip 
your  articles  into  this  mixturo  and  heat  them  to  a  black  color  on  a 
Hhoetof  copper.  "When  cold,  place  theni  in  a  middling  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  i)ickle,  Avhich  dissolves  the  coloring  salts  and  induces  a 
very  line  gold  color.  1).  EtruHcan  Gold  Coloriiuj. — Alum,  1  oz.  ;  lino 
tabie-salt,  1  oz.  ;  saltjictro  (powdered),  2  oz. ;  'hot  rain-water,  suffi- 
cient to  mal\C  the  solution,  Avhcu  dissolved,  about  the  consistency  of 
thick  ale  ;  then  add  sullicient  muriatic  acid  to  produce  the  color  de- 
gired.  The  degree  of  success  must  always  depend,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  upon  the  skill  or  judgment  of  the  operator.  The  article 
to  be  colored  should  be  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  carats  fine,  of  pure 
gold  and  copper  oulj',  and  be  free  from  coatings  of  tin,  or  silver 
Holder.  The  solution  is  best  used  warm,  and  when  freshly  made  tho 
principle  on  which  it  acts  is  to  cat  out  the  copper  alloy  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  article,  leaving  thereon  pure,  frosted  gold  only.  After 
coloring,  wash  off,  first  in  rain-water,  then  in  alcohol,  and  dry  with- 
,  out  rubbing,  in  lino  clean  sawdust,  fine  Etruscan  jewelry,  that 
'  has  been  defaced  or  tarnished  by  use,  may  be  perfectly  renewed  by 
the  same  process. 

For  Silveksmitits,  Sterlinrj  Silver. — 1.  Fine  silver  11  oz.  2 
dwts.,  fine  copper  18  dwts.  2.  Equal  io  Slerlinr/ — Fine  silver  1 
oz.,  fine  copper  1  dwt.  12  grs.  3.  Another  d  tto — Fine  silver  1  oz., 
fine  copper  5  dwts.  4.  Common  Silver  for  Chains— Fine  silver  G 
dwts.,  fine  copper  4  dwts.  5.  Solder  for  ditto — :  me  silver  IG  dwts., 
fine  copper  12  grs.,  pin  brass,  3  dwts.  12  grs.  G.  Alloy  for  Platin;;. 
— Fine  silver  1  oz.,  fine  copper  10  dwts,  7.  S'^ver  Solder — Fine 
eilver  1  oz.,  pin  brass,  10  dwts.,  pure  spelter,  2  dwts.  8.  Copper 
Solder  for  Plating — Fine  silver,  10  dwts.,  fine  copper  10  dwts. 
9.  Common  Silver  Solder — Fine  silver  10  ozs.,  pin  brass,  6  ozs.  13 
dwts.,  spelter,  12  dwts.  10.  Silver  Solder  for  Enamelling,  $lper  oz. 
— Fine  silver  14  dwts.,  fine  copper,  8  dwts.  11.  Ditto,  for  filling 
Signet  Rings. — Fine  silver,  10  ozs ,  fine  copper,  1  oz,  16  dwts.,  fino 
pin  brass,  G  ozs.  12  dwts.,  spelter,  12  dwts.  12.  Silver  Solder  for 
Gold  Plating — Fine  silver,  1  oz.,  fine  copper,  6  dwts.,  pin  brass,  5 
dwts.  13,  Quick  Silver  Solder — Fine  silver,  1  oz.,  pin  brass,  10 
dwts.,  bar  tin,  2  dwts,  14.  Imitation  Silver  —  Fine  silver,  1  oz., 
nickel,  1  oz,  11  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  9  grs.  15.  Another  ditto — 
Fine  silver,  3  ozs.,  nickel,  1  oz.  11  dwts.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  9  grs., 
spelter,  10  d^^'tg.  16.  Fine  Silver  Solder  for  I'iligree  Work— ¥'n\Q 
eilver,  4  dwts.  G  grs.,  pin  brass,  1  dwt.  17.  Bismuth  Solder — Bismuth, 
S  ozs,,  lead,  3  ozs.  18  dwts.,  tin,  5  ozs.  G  dwts. 

Dead  White  on  Silver  Articles. — Heat  the  article  to  a  cherry 
Tcd,  or  a  dull  red  heat  and  allow  it  to  cool,  then  place  it  in  a  pickle  of 
5  parts  sulphuric  acid  to  100  parts  of  water,  and  alloAv  it  to  remain  for 
an  hour  or  two.  If  the  surface  is  not  right,  rinse  in  cold  water,  and 
repeat  the  heating  and  pickling  operation  as  before.  This  removes 
the  copper  from  the  surface  of  the  article,  leaving  pure  silver  on  tho 
surface.  When  sufficiently  whitened,  remove  from  the  pickle,  well 
rmse  in  pure  hot  water  and  place  in  warm  box  sawdust. 

Pickle,  fob  Frosting  and  Whitening  Silver  Goods. — Sul- 
phuric acid,  1  dr.  ;  water,  4  oz.  ;  heat  the  pickle,  and  immerse  the 
silver  in  it  until  frosted  as  desired  ;  then  wash  off  clean,  and  dry  with 


WATCmiAKERS,  JEWELLEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPIS.  341 

a  Boft  linen  clotli,  or  in  fine  clean  sawdust.  For  -wMtening  only,  a 
Bmaller  proportion  of  acid  may  be  used. 

To  Fkost  Polished  Silver. — Cyanido  of  potassium  1  oz.  ;  dis- 
solved in  ^  pt.  of  water.  Do  not  hold  tlie  silver  in  your  hands,  hut 
Use  pUers  made'  of  lanco  wood  or  box  wood,  and  apply  tho  mixturo 
with  a  brush  to  the  polished  surface. 

SiLVERixG  Hooks  and  Eyes,  &c.— The  small  iron  articles  aro 
suspended  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  until  the  iron  shows  a  bright  clean 
Burface.  After  rinsing  in  pure  water  they  are  i)laced  in  a  bath  of  a 
mixed  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphate  of  copper  and  cyanido 
of  i)otassium,  and  there  remain  until  they  receive  a  bright  coating  of 
brass.  Lastly,  they  are  transferred  to  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  sulphate  of  soda,  iu  -which  they  quickly 
received  a  coating  of  silver. 

Oknaimental  Designs  on  Silver. — Select  a  smooth  part  of  tho 
cilver,  and  sketch  on  it  a  monogram  or  any  other  desim  you  choose, 
with  a  sharp  lead  pencil,  then  place  the  article  in  a  gold  solution  Avith 
the  battery  in  good  working  order,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the  part.) 
not  sketched  with  the  lead  pencil  will  be  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold. 
After  cleansing  the  article,  the  black  lead  is  easily  removed  by  tho 
lingers,  and  the  silver  ornament  disclosed.  A  gold  ornament  may  bo 
produced  by  reversing  the  process. 

To  Extract  Silver  from  waste  Products.— Mix  your  refuse 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  wood  charcoal,  place  in  a  crucible  and  sub- 
mit to  a  bright  red  heat,  and  in  a  short  time  a  silver  button  will  bo 
found  at  the  bottom.    Carbonate  of  soda  is  another  good  flux. 

To  Solder  Tortoise  Shell. — Bring  the  edges  of  the  pieces  of 
shell  to  fit  each  other,  observing  to  give  the  same  mclination  of  grain 
to  each,  then  secure  them  in  a  piece  of  paper,  and  place  them  between 
hot  irons  or  pincers  ;  apply  pressure,  and  let  them  cool.  Tho  heat 
must  not  be  so  great  as  to  burn  the  shell,  therefore  try  it  first  on  a 
"white  piece  of  paper. 

Artificial  Pearls. — ^Are  made  from  beads  of  opaline  glass  filled 
with  gum,  the  polish  of  the  glass  being  reduced  by  the  vapor  if 
hydrofluoric  acid. 

Eeviver  for  Old  Jewelry. — ^Dissolve  sal-ammoniac  in  urine, 
r.nd  put  the  jewelry  in  it  for  a  short  time ;  then  take  it  out,  and 
rub  with  chamois  leather,  and  it  will  appear  equal  to  new. 

To  Eecover  Gold  from  Gilt  Metal. — Take  a  solution  of  borax 
water,  apply  to  the  gilt  surface,  and^  sprinkle  over  it  some  finely 
powdered  sulphur  ;  make  the  article  red  hot,  and  quench  it  in  water; 
then  scrape  off  the  gold,  and  recover  it  by  means  of  lead. 

Polishing  Powder  for  Gold  and  Silver. — Rock  alum  burnt 
and  finely  powdered,  5  parts  ;  levigated  chalk,  1  part.  Mix  ;  apply 
with  a  dry  brush. 

Silver-Plat  iNO  Fluid. — ^Dissolve  1  ounce  of  nitrate  of  silver,  in 
crystals,  in  12  ounces  of  soft  water  ;  then  dissolve  in  the  water  2  oz. 
cyanuret  of  potash  ;  shake  the  whole  together,  and  let  it  stand  till  it 
becomes  clear.  Have  ready  some  half-ounce  vials,  and  fill  half  full 
of  Paris  white,  or  fine  whiting  ;  and  then  fill  up  the  bottles  with  tho 
liquor,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  whiting  does  not  increase 
the  coating  powder  ;  it  only  helps  to  clean  the  articles,  and  save  the 
silver  fluid,  by  half  filling  tho  bottles. 


342     AVATCIIMAKERS,  JEWELLERS,  iSiC,  KECEIPTS. 


To  Reduce  Enolisii  Sovereigns  to  Lower  Finene.ss.— No.  1. 
15  (Jarat  (/old,  Coins,  2  ozs. ;  gold,  8  ozs. ;  silver,  2  ozs.  o  dwts. ;  copper, 
5  ozs.  'ii  dwts.  2.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  4  ozs.;  gold,  Cozs.;  silver,  2 
ozs.  2  dwts. ;  copper,  5  ozs.  2  dwts.  3.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  2  ozs. ; 
gold,  ()  ozs. ;  silver,  1  oz.  14  dwts. ;  copi^cr,  4  ozs. ;  2  dwts.  4.  14  Carat 
(jold.  Coins,  '6  ozs. ;  gold,  5  ozs. ;  silver,  1  oz.  9  dwts.  12  grs. ;  copper,  11 
dwts.  12  grs.  5.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  1  oz. ;  gold,  2  ozs. ;  silver,  I?, 
dwts.;  copper,  1  oz.  11  dwts.  G.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  1  oz. ;  gold,  8 
ozs. ;  silver  2  ozs. ;  coi^per,  4  ozs.  14  dwts. 

Sterling  Value  of  Gold  of  different  Degrees  of  Fineness. 

Value  per.  Valne  per. 

Ciirats  Fine.  oz.  Troy.         Carats  Fine.      oz.  Troy. 

£  £ 
24  4   4  n\  12  2   2  5i 

23  4   1   5  11  1  18  11 

22  British  Standard.      3  17  lOi  10  1  15  4-i 

21  3  14  4  9  1  11  10 

'     20  3  10   9  8  1   8  3 

19  3   7   3  7  1   4  9 

18  (Lowest  Hall  Mark).  3  3  S^r  6  1   1  2i 

17  3   0   2'^  5  0  17  8 

16  2  17   7A  4  0  14  2 

15  2  13   1  3  0  10  7i 

14  2   9   Gi  2  0   7  1 

13  2   6   0  1  0   3  6| 

Note—ThQ  British  Standard  for  gold,  is  go'ld,  22-24  of  a  pound, 
equal  to  11  parts  pure  gold  and  1  of  alloy;  a  pound  is  estimated  to  bo 
divided  into  24  equal  parts  or  carats,  hence  the  proportion  is  rated 
equal  to  22  carats.  Standard  of  Silver  is  222-240  of  a  pound, 

equivalent  to  37  parts  pure  silver  and  3  of  alloy.  A  Troy  ounce  of 
Standard  gold  is  coined  into  £3.17.10.2f.,  and  an  ounce  of  Standard 
silver  into  5s.  M.  A  lb.  Troy  of  gold  yields  46  19-240  sovereigns.  A 
lb.  Troy  of  silver  66  shillings.  £150,000  in  gold  weighs  over  a  ton. 
£75,000,000  weighs  500  tons. 

The  American  Standard  of  Gold  and  Silver  is  900  parts  of  pure 
metal  and  100  of  alloy  in  1,000  parts  of  coin,  the  fineness  being  ex- 
pressive of  the  quantity  of  pure  metal  in  1000  parts.  The  value  of  1 
ounce  of  pure  (/old  is  |>20.67.183^,  as  standard  gold  coin  it  is  worth 
^18.60.465.  The  value  of  1  ounce  of  pure  silver  is  |1.29.29.,  as  stand- 
ard silver  coin  it  is  worth  $1  IS'.  36-36. 

To  Melt  Gold. — Prepare  a  good  fire,  and  heat  the  ingot  in 
which  you  wish  to  cast  the  gold,  a  little  hotter  than  boiling  water; 
next  put  the  alloy  in  the  crucible,  add  a  siniil  quantity  of  pulverized 
borax,  and  leave  on  the  fire  until  melted.  Cast  this  in  a  clean  ingot, 
and  after  breaking  the  bar  into  small  fragments,  return  to  the  pot 
and  remelt  the  gold,  not  adding  borax  this  time,  but  when  the  gold 
looks  clear  and  smooth  on  the  top,  add,  for  every  6  ozs.  gold,  a  piece 
of  saltpetre  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  in  about  a  minute  pour  the 
gold.  Keep  up  the  heat  after  adding  the  saltpetre,  and,  previous  to 
pouring  the  gold,  pour  a  few  drops  of  oil  into  the  iron  ingot.  If  the 
stock  was  clean  when  you  commenced,  tlie  gold  will  roll  well.  Much 
depends  on  the  first  rolling  of  the  stock;  18  carat  should  be  subjected 
to  a  very  heavy  strain;  the  first  and  second  draughts,  which  imparts 
a  grain  to  the  stock ;  light  draughts  stretch  the  gold  on  the  surface, 
and  the  middle  portion"  remaining  as  cast,  causes  the  gold  to  crack  ; 
many  good  bars  having  been  condemned,  when  the  trouble  was  iu 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS,  &C.,  RECEIPTS,  343 

the  rolling.  After  the  18  carat  has  been  rolled  to  about  twice  its 
original  length,  it  must  be  annealed,  then  rolled  to  the  size  you  re- 
quire. Proceed  Avith  melting  14  carat  as  above  described  for  18  carat, 
giving  it  as  heavy  strains  in  the  rolls,  but  not  rolling  so  much  before 
annealing  as  the  18  carat.  The  other  carats  of  cheaper  grade,  do 
not  require  the  use  of  saltpetre  to  toughen;  instead  of  which,  use  a 
little  salammouiac,  and  then  proceed  as  above.  When  you  anneal 
red  gold,  do  not  quench  it  when  red  hot,  but  allow  the  gold  to  blacken 
before  quenching,  otherwise  it  will  slit  or  seam.  Melt  new  alloys  in 
every  case  twice;  treat  solder  the  same  way,  to  ensure  a  thorough 
admixture  of  the  copper  with  the  gold. 

To  Remove  Tin  prom  the  Stock. — Just  previous  to  pouring 
the  gold,  throw  a  small  piece  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  pot,  stir 
well  with  a  long  piece  of  pointed  charcoal,  and  allow  the  pot  to  re- 
main on  the  fire  about  half  a  minute  afterward.  This  Avill  take  tin 
from  the  alloy;  while  the  tin  is  in,  the  gold  will  not  roll  without 
cracking.  To  remove  emery  or  steel  filings  from  gold,  add  a  small 
piece  of  glass-gall,  while  melting ;  it  will  collect  them  in  the  flux. 

Makikg  Brittle  Gold  Strong. — Gold  is  sometimes  so  brittle 
that  the  jeweller  cannot  well  work  it  ;  this  is  probably  due  to  phos- 
phorus, which,  being  no  metal,  is  of  course  not  detected  in  the  assay. 
The  remedy  is  to  pass  chlorine  gas  through  the  molten  gold,  by  Avhieh 
treatment  most  of  the  gold  which  had  otherwise  to  be  set  aside  as 
unfit  for  certain  kinds  of  work,  can  be  redeemed. 

To  Make  Plated  Stock. — Cast  the  bar  you  wish  to  plate  the 
breadth  you  require,  and  roll  to  the  thickness  of  the  8th  of  an  inch. 
If  you  plate  on  silver,  cast  the  silver  the  same  width  as  the  gold,  and 
roll  a  little  longer  than  the  gold.  Generally  the  lower,  cheaper 
grade  metal,  is  2  or  3  times  the  thickness  of  the  dearer,  therefore  use 
as  much  of  each  as  will  make  the  desired  proportions.  Polish  as 
nearly  flat  and  straight  as  possible,  then  file  one  face  of  silver  and 
one  face  of  gold,  until  they  are  bright.  Previous  to  this  you  have 
rolled  a  piece  of  plate  solder  very  thin,  say,  36  in.  round  size  plate, 
and  cut  a  strip  a  little  wider  and  longer  than  your  gold.  Emery 
paper  can  be  used  to  clean  each  side  of  this  from  dirt  and  grease. 
Cover  the  surface  with  ground  borax  from  the  slate,  on  each  side;  do 
the  same  on  the  bright  faces  of  the  gold  and  silver;  place  the  solder 
between  them,  and  have  a  piece  of  iron  wire  about  g  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  3  feet  long,  in  readiness,  place  this  lengthwise  on  the 
gold,  and  squeeze  the  Avhole  tightly  together  in  a  vice,  and  bind  every 
inch  or  so  with  heavy  binding  wire  very  secure.  Next  make  a  good 
charcoal  fire  in  the  forge,  shaped  so  as  to  be  like  an  oven,  and  then 
solder;  when  the  solder  melts  on  each  side  the  whole  length,  all  is 
ready  to  roll  like  any  other  stock.  If  you  make  gold  plating  that  is 
18  carat,  or  16  carat,  or  14  carat,  and  12  carat,  you  must  use  a  gold 
solder  about  5  or  6  carats  less  than  the  inferior  gold.  If  gold  on  sil- 
ver or  composition,  use  copper  solder.  The  clippings  from  the  above, 
when  the  gold  is  on  silver,  may  be  placed  in  an  enamelled  vessel,  and 
covered  with  nitric  acid,  2  parts;  water,  1  part.  The  silver  will  bo 
taken  in  solution,  which  must  be  saved  in  an  earthen  pot.  Precipi- 
tate the  silver  from  the  solution,  or  after  the  solution  has  been  di- 
luted, a,  bar  of  copper  placed  in  it  will  collect  it;  this  sediment  must  be 
well  washed  and  dried,  then  melted .  The  gold  after  being  well 
dried,  can  be  melted  in  a  bar,  a  small  amount  of  copper  being  added, 
so  that  it  will  be  of  the  same  quality  as  before. 


344  watchmakehs,  jewellers",  &c.,  receipts. 

Jewellkrs'  Armenian  Cement.— Isinglass  soaked  in  water  and 
dissolved  in  spirit,  2  oz.  (thick)  ;  dissolve  in  this  10  grs.  of  very  palo 
gum  ammonia  (in  tears)  by  rubbhij^  them  together  ;  tlien  add  (J  largo 
tears  of  gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  the  least  possible  quantity  of  rec- 
tified spirits.  When  carefully  made  this  cement  resists  moisture  and 
dries  colorless.    Keep  in  a  closely  stopped  phial. 

Jewellers'  CEMiiKT. — Put  in  a  bottle  2  ozs.  of  isinglass  and  1  oz.  of 
the  best  gum  arable,  cover  them  with  proof  spirits,  cork  loosely,  and 
place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  boil  it  till  a  thorough  solu- 
tion is  effected  ;  then  strain  it  for  use. 

Gold  is  taken  from  the  surface  of  silver  by  spreading  over  it  a 
paste  made  of  powdered  sal-ammoniac,  with  aquafortis,  and  heating 
it  till  the  matter  smokes,  and  is  nearly  dry  ;  when  the  gold  may  bo 
i;c])arated  by  rubbing  it  with  a  scratch  brush. 

To  Separate  Gold  and  Silver  from  Lace,  &c. — Cut  in  pieces 
the  gold  or  silver  lace,  tie  it  tightly,  and  boil  in  soap  ley  till  the  size 
appears  diminished  ;  take  the  cloth  out  of  the  liquid,  and  after  re- 
peated rinsings  of  cold  water,  beat  it  with  a  mallet  to  draw  out  the 
alkali.  Open  the  linen,  and  the  pure  metal  will  be  found  in  all  its 
beauty. 

Tarnish  on  Electro-Plate  Goods  may  be  removed  by  immers- 
ing the  article  from  one  to  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  or  rmtil  tlie  tarnish 
has  been  removed,  but  no  longer,  in  ths  following  solution  :  Raiu 
water,  2  gals.  ;  cyanuret  potassa,  |  lb.  ;  dissolve  and  put  into  a  stono 
jug  or  jar  and  closely  cork.  After  immersion,  the  articles  must  bo 
taken  out  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in  two  or  three  waters,  then  dried 
■with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  or,  if  frosted  or  chased  work,  with  fine  clean 
sawdust.  Tarnished  jewelry  may  bo  speedily  restored  by  this 
process  ;  but  make  sure  work  of  removing  the  alkali,  otherwise  it 
will  corrode  the  goods. 

A  Bright  Gold  Tinge  may  be  given  to  silver  by  steepmg  it  for 
a  suitable  length  of  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  strongly  impregnated  with  iron-rust. 

To  Kefine  Gold.— If  you  desire  to  refine  gold  from  the  baser 
metals,  swedge  or  roll  it  out  very  thin,  then  cut  into  narrow  strips 
and  curl  up  so  as  to  prevent  its  lying  flatly.  Drop  the  pieces  thus 
l)repared  into  a  vessel  containing  good  nitric  acid,  in  the  proportion 
of  acid,  2  ozs.,  and  pure  rain-water  ^  oz.  Suffer  to  remain  until  thor- 
oughly dissolved,  which  will  be  the  case  in  from  ^  an  hour  to  1  hour. 
Then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully,  and  you  will  find  the  gold,  in  tho 
form  of  yellow  powder,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Wash 
this  with  pure  water  till  it  ceases  to  have  an  acid  taste,  after  which 
you  may  melt  aiid  cast  into  any  form  you  choose.  Gold  treated  in 
this  way  may  be  relied  on  as  perfectly  pure. 

In  melting  gold  use  none  other  than  a  charcoal  fire,  and  during 
the  process  sprinkle  saltpetre  and  potash  into  the  crucible  occasion- 
ally. Do  not  attempt  to  melt  with  stone  coal,  as  it  renders  the  metal 
brittle  and  otherwise  imperfect. 

To  Refine  Silver. — Dissolve  in  nitric  acid  as  in  the  case  of  tho 
gold.  When  the  silver  has  entirely  disappeared,  add  to  the  2^  oz.  of 
solution  nearly  1  quart  of  pure  rain-water.  Sink,  then,  a  sheet  of 
clean  copper  into  it ;  the  silver  will  collect  rapidly  upon  the  copper,  and 
you  can  scrape  it  off  and  melt  into  bulk  at  pleasure. 


■\v-ATcn:MAKErtS,^ jewellers',  &c.,  keceipts.  345 

In  the  event  of  your  refining  gold  in  accordance  •with  the  foregoing 
formula,  and  the  impurity  was  silver,  the  only  steps  necessary  to  savo 
the  latter  would  be  to  add  the  above  named  proportion  of  water  to  tho 
solution  poured  from  the  gold,  and  then  to  proceed  with  your  copper 
plate  as  just  directed. 

To  Refine  Coppek. — ^This  process  differs  from  the  one  employed  to 
refine  silver  in  no  respects  save  the  plate  to  tee  immersed;  you  use  an 
iron  instead  of  a  copper  plate  to  collect  the  metal. 

If  the  impurities  of  gold  refined  were  both  silver  and  copper,  you 
might,  after  saving  the  silver  as  above  directed,  sink  your  iron  plato 
into  tlie  solution  yet  remaining,  and  take  out  the  copjper.  Tlie  parts 
of  alloyed  gold  niay  be  separated  by  these  processes,  and  leave  each 
in  a  perfectly  pure  state. 

Cold  Silveking  of  IMetals.— Mix  1  part  of  chloride  of  silver 
with  3  parts  of  pearlash,  Imparts  common  salt,  and  1  part  whiting; 
and  well  rub  the  mixture  on  the  surface  of  brass  Or  copper  (previously 
well  cleaned),  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  leather,  or  a  cork  moistened 
with  water  and  dipped  in  the  powder.  When  properly  silvered,  tlio 
metal  should  be  well  washed  in  hot  water,  slightly  alkalized;  then 
wiped  dry. 

To  IlAitD  Solder  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Brass,  Iron,  Steel  on 
Platina. — ^The  solders  to  be  used  for  gold,  silver,  copper  and  brass  aro 
given  in  the  precedmg  part.  You  commence  operations  by  reducing 
your  solder  to  small  particles,  and  mixing  it  with  powdered  sal- 
ammoniac  and  powdered  borax  in  equal  parts,  moistened  to  make  it 
hold  together.  Having  fitted  up  the  joint  to  be  soldered,  you  securo 
the  article  upon  a  piece  of  soft  charcoal,  lay  your  soldering  mixturo 
immediately  over  the  joint  and  then  with  your  blow-pipe  turn  tho 
flame  of  your  lamp  upon  it  until  fusion  takes  place.  The  job  is  then 
done,  and  ready  to  be  cooled  and  dressed  up.  Iron  is  usually  soldered 
with  copper  or  brass  in  accordance  with  the  above  X)rocess.  The  best 
solder  for  steel  is  pure  gold  or  pure  silver,  though  gold  or  silver  solders 
are  often  used  successfully.  Platina  can  only  be  soldered  well  with 
gold ;  and  the  expense  of  it,  therefore,  contributes  to  the  hindrance  of  a 
general  use  of  platina  vessels,  even  for  chemical  purposes,  where  they 
are  of  so  much  importance. 

To  Soft  Solder  Articles.— Moisten  the  parts  to  be  united  with 
soldering  fluid;  then,  having  joined  them  together,  lay  a  small  piece 
of  solder  upon  the  joint  and  hold  over  your  lamp,  or  direct  the  blazo 
upon  it  with  your  blow-pipe  until  fusion  is  apparent.  Withdraw  them 
from  the  blaze  immediately,  as  too  much  heat  will  render  the  solder 
brittle  and  unsatisfactory.  When  the  parts  to  be  jomed  can  be  mado 
to  spring  or  press  against  each  other,  it  is  best  to  place  a  thin  piece  of 
solder  between  them  before  exposing  to  the  lamp.  Where  two  smooth 
surfaces  are  to  be  soldered  one  upon  the  other,  you  may  make  an  ex- 
cellent job  by  moistening  them  with  the  fluid,  and  then,  having  placed 
a  sheet  of  tin  foil  between  them,  holding  them  pressed  firmly  together 
over  your  lamp  till  the  foil  melts.  If  the  surfaces  fit  nicely,  a  joint 
may  be  made  in  this  way  so  close  as  to  be  alm.ost  imperceptible.  Tho 
bright  looking  lead  which  comes  as  a  lining  to  tea  boxes  works  better 
in  the  same  way  than  tin  foil. 

To  Cleanse  Gold  Tarnished  in  Soldering.— The  old  English 
mode  was  to  exposo  all  parts  of  the  article  to  a  uniform  heat,  allow  it 


346  -wATcn^iAKERS,  jewellers',  &C.,  Ei-CEirxS. 


to  cool,  and  then  boil  until  Tiright  in  iirino  and  sal-ammoniac.  It  id 
now  usually  cleaned  AVith  diluted  Bulplmric  acid.  The  picklo  is  mado 
iu  about  the  proportion  of  one-eighth  of  auounco  of  acid  to  one  ounco 
of  rain  water. 

To  Clean  Silver  Tarnisiied  in  Solderino.— Somo  expose  to 
a  uniform  beat,  as  in  tho  case  of  gold,  and  then  boil  in  strong  alum 
water.  Others  immerse  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  iu  a  liquid 
made  of  ^  oz.  of  cyauuret  potassa  to  1  pint  rain  water,  and  then  brush 
off  with  prepared  clialk. 

Nickel  Plating. — The  following  is  tho  substance  of  tho  patent 
granted  to  Dr.  Isaac  Adams,  March  23,  1870.  The  process  is  highly 
successful.  "  This  improvement  consists  in  the  use  of  3  new  solutions 
from  Avhich  to  deposit  nickel  by  the  electric  current.  1.  A  solution 
formed  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  alumina,  or  the  sulphato 
of  nickel  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  soda,  potash,  or  ammonia  alum, 
the  three  different  varieties  of  commercial  alum.  2.  A  solution  formed 
of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  magnesia,  with  or  without  an 
excess  of  ammonia.  I  have  found  that  a  good  coating  of  nickel 
can  be  deposited  from  the  solution  before  mentioned,  provided  they 
are  prepared  and  used  in  such  a  mamier  as  to  be  free  from  any  acid 
or  alkaline  reaction.  When  these  solutions  are  used,  great  care  must 
be  taken,  lest  by  tho  use  of  too  high  battery  power,  or  from  the  in- 
troduction of  some  foreign  matters,  the  solution  becomes  acid  or 
alkaline.  I  prefer  to  use  these  solutions  at  a  temperature  above  100° 
Fah.,  but  do  not  limit  my  invention  to  tho  use  of  these  solutions  at 
that  temperature.  I  therefore  claim,  1.  The  electro  deposition  of 
nickel  by  tho  means  of  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and 
alumina,  prepared  and  used  iu  such  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  tho 
presence  of  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  lime  or  nitric  acid  or  from  any 
other  acid,  or  from  any  acid  or  alkaline  reaction.  2.  The  electro 
deposition  of  nickel  by  means  of  a  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of 
nickel  and  potash,  prepared  and  used  m  such  a  maimer  as  to  be  frco 
from  the  presence  of  ammonia,  soda,  alumina,  lime  or  nitric  acid,  or 
from  any  acid  or  alkaline  reaction.  3.  The  electro  deposition  of  nick- 
el by  means  of  a  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  mag- 
nesia, prepared  and  used  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  tho 
presence  of  potash,  soda,  alumina,  lime  or  nitric  acid,  or  from  any 
acid  or  allcaline  reaction. " 

Stalba's  Nickel  Platino  Process.— Consists  in  plating  with 
nickel,  by  the  action  of  zinc  upon  salts  of  nickel,  in  the  presence  of 
chloride  of  zinc  and  the  metal  to  be  plated.  By  this  process,  Stalba 
states  that  he  has  succeeded  in  plating  objects  of  wrought  and  cast 
iron,  steel,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  and  lead.  It  is  only  necessary  tliat 
the  size  of  the  objects  should  permit  them  to  be  covered  entirely  by 
the  plating  liquid,  and  that  their  surfaces  should  be  free  from  dirt. 
The  following  is  the  modus  operandi : — A  quantity  of  concentrated 
chloride  of  zinc  solution  is  placed  in  a  clean  metallic  vessel,  and  to 
this  is  added  an  equal  volume  of  water.  This  is  heated  to  boiling, 
and  hydrochloric  acid  is  added  drop  by  drop,  until  the  precipitate 
which  had  formed  on  adding  the  water  has  disappeared.  A  small 
quantity  of  zinc  powder  is  now  added,  which  produces  a  zinc  coating 
on  the  liietal  as  far  as  the  liquid  extends.  Enough  of  the  nickel  salt 
(the  chloride  or  sulphato  answers  equally  well,  is  now  introduced  to 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS^  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  347 

color  the  liquid  distinctly  green  ;  the  objects  to  bo  plated  are  placed 
in  it  together  with  some  zmc  clippings,  and  the  liquid  is  brought  to 
boiling.  Tlie  nickel  is  precipitated  in  the  course  of  15  minutes,  and 
the  objects  will  be  fomid  to  be  completely  coated.  The  coating  va- 
ries in  lustre  with  the  character  of  the  metallic  surface;  when  this  is 
polished,  the  plating  is  likewise  lustrous  and  vice  versa.  Salt  of  co- 
balt affords  a  cobalt  plating,  which  is  steel  gray  in  color,  not  so  lus- 
trous as  the  nickel,  but  more  liable  to  tarnish. 

To  Make  Silver  Solution  for  Electro-Plating. — ^Put  to- 
gether into  a  glass  vessel  1  oz.  good  silver,  made  thin  and  cut  into 
strips ;  2  oz,  best  nitric  acid,  and  ^  oz.  pure  rain  water.  If  solution 
does  not  begin  at  once,  add  a  little  more  Avater— continue  to  add  a 
very  little  at  a  time  till  it  does.  In  the  event  it  starts  off  well,  but 
stops  before  the  silver  is  fully  dissolved,  you  may  generally  start  ifc 
up  again  all  right  by  adding  a  little  more  water.  When  solution  is 
entirely  effected,  add  1  quart  of  warm  rain  water  and  a  large  table- 
spoonful  of  table  salt.  Shake  well  and  let  settle,  then  proceed  to 
pour  off  and  wash  through  other  waters  as  in  the  case  of  the  gold 
preparation.  When  no  longer  acid  to  the  taste,  put  in  an  ounce  and 
an  eighth  cyanuret potassa  and  a  quart  pure  rain  water:  after  stand- 
ing about  24  hours,  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

To  make  Gold  Solution  for  Electro-Plating.— Dissolve  livo 
pennyweights  gold  coin,  6  grains  pure  copper,  and  4  grains  puro 
silver  in  3  ozs.  nitro-muriatic  acid;  which  is  simply  2  parts  muriatic 
acid  and  1  part  nitric  acid.  The  silver  will  not  be  tjikeu  into  solution 
as  are  the  other  2  metals,  but  will  gather  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
Add  1  oz.  pulverized  sulphate  of  iron,  ^  oz,  pulverized  borax,  25 
grains  pure  table  salt,  and  1  quart  hot  rain  water.  Upon  this  tho 
gold  and  copper  will  be  thrown  to  tho  bottom  of  the  vessel  with  tho 
silver.  Let  stand  till  fully  settled,  then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully, 
and  refill  with  boiling  rain  water  as  before.  Continue  to  repeat  this 
operation  until  the  precipitate  is  thoroughly  washed  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  fill  up,  let  settle,  and  pour  off  so  long  as  tho  accumulation  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  acid  to  the  taste.  You  now  havo  about  an 
18  carat  chloride  of  gold.  Add  to  it  an  ounce  and  an  eighth  cyanuret 
potassa,  and  1  quart  rain  water — tho  latter  heated  to  the  boiling 
point.  Shake  up  well,  then  let  stand  about  24  hours,  and  it  will  bo 
ready  for  use.  Some  use  platina  as  an  alloy  instead  of  silver,  under 
the  impression  that  plating  done  with  it  is  harder,  I  have  used  both, 
but  never  could  see  much  difference.  Solution  for  a  darker  colored 
plate  to  imitate  Guinea  gold  may  be  mado  by  adding  to  the  above  1 
oz,  dragon's  blood  and  5  grs.  iodide  or  iron.  If  you  desire  an  alloyed 
plate,  proceed  as  first  directed,  without  the  silver  or  copper,  and  with 
an  ounce  and  a  half  of  sulphuret  potassa  in  place  of  the  iron,  borax, 
and  salt. 

To  Plaje  with  a  Battery.— If  the  plate  is  to  be  gold,  use  tho 
gold  solution  for  electro-plating ;  if  silver,  use  the  silver  solution.  Pre- 
pare the  article  to  be  plated  by  immersing  it  for  several  minutes  in  a 
strong  ley  made  of  i)otash  and  rain  water,  polishing  off  thoroughly  at 
the  end  of  the  time  with  a  soft  brush  and  prepared  chalk.  Care  sho  iild 
be  taken  not  to  let  the  fingers  come  in  contact  with  the  article  whilo 
polishing,  as  that  has  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  plate  from  adhering; 
it  should  be  held  in  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  tissue  paper.  At- 


348   WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

fcicli  tlio  !\rticlo,  -wlion  thoroughly  cleansed,  to  tho  positive  polo  of 
your  kittcry,  then  allix  ii  pioco  of  gold  or  silver,  as  tlio  case  may  be, 
to  the  negative  pole,  and  immerse  both  into  tho  solution  in  such  a 
way  as  not  to  liang  ijti  contact  with  each  other. 

Alter  the  article  has  been  exposed  to  tho  action  of  the  battery 
about  ten  minutes,  take  it  out  and  wasli  or  polish  over  Avith  a  thick 
mixture  of  water  and  prepared  chalk  or  jewellers'  rouge.  If,  hi  tlie 
operation,  you  find  places  where  the  plating  seems  inclined  to  ])ccl 
off,  or  where  it  has  not  taken  Avell,  mix  a  little  of  tlic  pkitijig  solution 
witli  prepared  chalk  or  rouge,  and  rub  the  defective  part  thoroughly 
with  it.    This  will  be  likely  to  set  all  rig]  it. 

Govern  your  time  of  exposmg  the  article  to  tho  battery  by  the  de- 
sired thickness  of  the  plate.  l)uring  the  time,  it  should  be  taken  out 
and  polished  up  as  just  directed  about  every  ten  minutes,  or  as  often 
at  least  as  there  is  an  indication  of  a  growing  darkness  on  any  part  of 
its  surface.  When  done,  finish  with  the  burnisher  or  prepared  chalk 
and  chamois  skin,  as  best  suits  your  taste  and  convenience.  In  case 
the  article  to  be  plated  is  iron,  steel,  lead,  pewter,  or  block  tin,  yon 
must,  after  first  cleaning  with  the  ley  and  chalk,  prepare  it  by  ap- 
ply mg  with  a  soft  brush — a  camels' -hair  pencil  is  best  suited — a. 
solution  made  of  the  following  articles  in  the  proportion  named  : — 
Kitric  acid,  ^  oz. ;  muriatic  acid,  ^  oz. ;  suli)huric  acid,  l-9th  oz. ; 
muriate  of  potash,  l-7th  oz. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  -J  oz. ;  sulpliuric  ether, 
1-oth  oz. ;  and  as  much  sheet  zmo  as  it  will  dissolve.  This  prepare?- 
a  foundation,  without  which  the  plate  would  fail  to  take  well,  if  aS 

To  MAKE  Gold  Amai^gahi. — ^Eight  parts  of  gold  and  one  of  mer- 
cury are  formed  into  an  amalgam  for  plating,  by  rendermg  the  gold 
into  thin  plates,  making  it  red  hot  and  then  putting  it  into  tlie  mercury 
while  the  latter  is  also  heated  to  ebulUtion.  The  gold  immediately 
disappears  in  combination  with  the  mercury,  after  which  the  mixture 
may  be  turned  into  water  to  cool.   It  is  then  ready  for  use. 

To  Plate  with  Gold  Amalgam, — Gold  amalgam  is  chiefly  used 
as  a  plating  for  silver,  copper  or  brass.  The  article  to  be  plated  is 
washed  over  with  diluted  nitric  acid  or  potash  lye  and  prepared  chalk, 
to  remove  any  tarnish  or  rust  that  might  prevent  the  amalgam  from 
adhering.  After  having  been  polished  perfectly  bright,  the  amal- 
gam is  applied  as  evenly  as  possible,  usually  with  a  fine  scratch, 
brush.  It  is  then  set  upon  a  grate  over  a  charcoal  fire,  or  placed  into 
an  oven  and  heated  to  that  degree  at  which  mercury  exhales.  Tho 
gold,  when  the  mercury  has  evaporated,  presents  a  dull  yellow  color. 
Cover  it  with  a  coating  of  pulverized  nitre  and  alum  in  equal  parts, 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  water,  and  heat  again  till  it  is  thoroughly 
melted,  then  plunge  into  water.  Burnish  up  with  a  steel  or  blood- 
stone burnisher. 

To  Make  akd  Apply  Gold-Platdtg  SoLurioisr.— Dissolve  ^  oz.. 
of  gold  amalgam  in  1  oz.  of  nitro-muriatic  acid.  Add  2  oz.\f  alcohol, 
and  then,  having  brightened  the  article  in  the  usual  way,  apply  the 
solution  with  a  soft  brush.  Rinse  and  dry  in  sawdust,  or  with  tissue 
paper,  and  polish  up  with  chamois  skin. 

To  Make  ant>  Apply  Gold-Plating  Powdek.— Prepare  a 
chloride  of  gold  the  same  as  for  plating  with  a  battery.  Add  to  it, 
wrhen  thoroughly  washed  out,  cyauurct  potassa  in  a  x)roportion  of  2 


WATCHilAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  ^^19 

oz.  to  5  penii  jweiglits  of  gold.  Pour  in  a  pint  of  clean  rain  water, 
shake  up  -well  and  then  let  stand  till  the  chloride  is  dissolved.  Add 
then  1  lb.  of  prepared  Spanish  whiting  and  let  it  evaporate  in  the  open 
air  till  dry,  after  which  put  away  in  a  tight  vessel  for  use.  To  apply 
it  you  prepare  the  article  in  the  usual  way,  and  having  made  tho 
liowder  into  a  paste  with  water,  rub  it  upon  the  surface  with  a  pieco 
^f  chamois  sliin  or  cotton  flannel. 

An  old  mode  of  making  a  gold-plating  powder  was  to  dip  clean 
linen  rags  into  solution  prepared  as  in  the  second  article  prc- 
cedmg  this,  and  having  dried,  to  fire  and  burn  them  into  ashes. 
The  ashes  formed  the  powder,  and  were  to  be  applied  as  above. 

To  Make  and  Apply  Sllver-Plating  Solution. — Put  together 
in  a  glass  vessel  1  oz.  nitrate  of  silver,  2  ozs.  cyanuret  potassa,  4  ozs, 
prepared  Spanish  whiting,  and  10  ozs.  pure  rain  water.  Cleanse  tho 
article  to  be  plated  as  per  preceding  directions,  and  apply  with  a  soft 
brush.    Finish  with  the  chamois  skin  or  burnisher. 

To  Make  and  Apply  Silver-Plating  Powder. — Dissolve  sil- 
ver in  nitric  acid  by  the  aid  of  heat;  put  some  pieces  of  copper  into 
the  solution  to  precipitate  the  silver;  wash  the  acid  out  in  the  usual 
way;  then,  with  15  grains  of  it  mix  2  drams  of  tartar,  2  drams  of 
table  salt,  and  ^  dram  of  pulverized  alum.  Brighten  tho  article  to 
be  plated  with  ley  and  prepared  chalk,  and  rub  on  the  mixture. 
When  it  has-  assumed  a  white  appearance,  expose  to  heat  as  in  tho 
case  of  plating  with  gold  amalgam,  then  polish  up  with  tho  burnisher 
or  soft  leather. 

To  Destroy  the  Effects  of  Acid  on  Clothes. — Dampen  as 
Boon  as  possible,  after  exposure  to  the  acid,  with  spirits  ammonia.  It 
will  destroy  the  effect  immediately. 

To  Wash  Silverware. — Never  use  a  particle  of  soap  on  your 
silverware,  as  it  dulls  the  lustre,  giving  tho  article  more  the  appear- 
ance of  pewter  than  silver.  When  it  wants  cleaning,  rub  it  with  a 
piece  of  soft  leather  and  prepared  chalk,  the  latter  made  into  a  kind 
of  paste  with  pure  water,  for  tho  reason  that  water  not  pure  might 
contain  gritty  particles. 

To  Cleanse  Brushes. — Tho  best  method  of  cleansing  watch- 
makers' and  jewellers'  brushes  is  to  wash  them  out  in  a  strong 
soda  water.  AVhen  the  backs  are  wood,  you  must  favor  that 
part  as  much  as  possible  ;  for  being  glued,  the  water  may  injuro 
them. 

To  Cut  Glass  Round  or  Oval  without  a  Diamond.— Scratch 
the  glass  around  the  shape  you  desire  with  the  corner  of  a  filo 
or  graver  ;  then,  having  bent  a  piece  of  wire  in  the  same  shape, 
heat  it  red  hot  and  lay  it  upon  the  scratch,  sink  the  glass  into  cold 
Avater  just  deep  enough  for  the  water  to  come  almost  on  a  level 
with  its  upper  surface.  It  will  rarely  ever  fail  to  break  perfectly 
true. 

To  Re-Black  Clock  Hands.— Use  asphaltum  varnish.  One  coat 
will  make  old  rusty  hands  look  as  good  as  new,  and  it  dries  in  a  few 
minutes. 

To  Gild  Steel. — Pour  some  of  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold  into  a 
wineglass,  and  dip  into  it  the  blade  of  a  new  penknife,  razor,  lancet, 
&c.  ;  withilraw  the  instrument  and  allow  the  ether  to  evaporate. 
The  blade  will  then  bo  found  covered  with  a  beautiful  coat  of  gold. 


350    WATCnJIAKERS,  asWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

The  Wade  may  bo  moistened  with  a  clean  rag,  or  a  small  piece  of 
very  dry  sponge  dipped  in  the  ether,  and  the  eamo  effects  wiil  bo 
produced. 

Silvering  Shells. — Silver  leaf  and  gum  -water,  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity ;  grind  to  a  proi^er  tliickness,  and  cover  the  inside  of  the  shells. 
For  a  Gold  Color,  grind  up  gold-leaf  with  gum  Avater,  and  apply  to 
the  inside  of  the  shells. 

Liquid  Foil  for  SiLVERma  Glass  Glores,  &c.— Lead,  1  part; 
tin,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  jiart;  melt,  and,  just  before  it  sets,  add  mer- 
cury, 10  parts.  Pour  this  into  the  globe,  and  turn  it  rapidly 
round. 

Silver-Platers'  Strippino  Liquid.— Sulphuric  acid,  8  parts; 
nitre,  1  part.    Used  to  recover  silver  from  old  plated  ware. 

To  Silver  Clock  Faces,  &c. — Old  silver  lace,  ^  oz. ;  nitric  acid, 
1  oz.  Boil  them  over  a  gentle  fire  for  about  5  minutes  in  an  earthen 
l)ot.  After  the  silver  is  dissolved,  take  the  mixture  off,  and  mix  it  in 
a  pint  of  clean  water,  then  pour  it  into  another  vessel  free  from  sedi- 
ment; then  add  a  tablespoonf  ul  of  common  salt,  and  the  silver  will  bo 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  of  curd ;  ijour  off  the  acid, 
and  mix  the  curd  with  2  oz.  salt  of  tartar,  and  ^  oz.  whiting,  all  to- 
gether, and  it  is  ready  for  use.  To  Use. — Clean'j-our  brass  or  copper 
plate  with  rotten-stone  and  a  piece  of  old  hat ;  rub  it  with  salt  and 
water  with  your  hand.  Then  take  a  little  of  the  composition  on  your 
finger,  and  rub  it  over  your  plate,  and  it  will  firmly  adhere  and  com- 
pletely silver  it.  Wash  it  well  with  water.  When  dry,  rub  it  with  a 
clean  rag,  and  varnish  with  this  varnish  for  clock  faces.  Spirits 
of  wine,  1  pt. ;  divide  in  three  parts,  mix  one  part  Avith  gum-mastic  in 
a  bottle  by  itself;  1  part  spirits  and  ^  oz,  sandarac  iu  another  bottle; 
and  1  part  spirits  and  ^  oz.  of  whitest  gum  benjamin,  in  another  bot- 
tle ;  nix  and  temper  to  your  mind.  If  too  thin,  some  mastic ;  if  too 
soft,  some  sandarac  or  benjamin.  When  you  use  it,  warm  the 
silvered  plate  before  the  fire,  and,  with  a  flat  camels' -hair  pencil, 
Btroke  it  over  till  no  white  streaks  appear,  and  this  will  i^reservo  tho 
eilvering  for  many  years. 

Refining  Gold  and  Silver. — The  art  of  assaying  gold  and  sil- 
ver is  founded  upon  the  feeble  affinity  which  these  have  for  oxygen 
in  comparison  with  copper,  tin,  and  other  cheap  metals,  and  on  the 
tendency  which  the  latter  metals  have  to  oxidize  rapidly  in  contact 
Avith  lead  at  a  high  temperature,  and  sink  with  it  into  any  porous, 
earthy  vessel  in  a  thin,  glassy,  vitrified  mass.  The  precious  metal 
having  previously  been  accurately  weighed  and  prepared,  the  first 
process  is  Cupellation.  The  muffle,  with  cupel  properly  arranged 
on  the  "  miiffleplate,"  is  placed  in  the  furnace,  and  the  charcoal  ad- 
ded, and  lighted  at  the  top  by  means  of  a  few  ignited  pieces  throwii 
on  last.  After  the  cupels  have  been  e'xposed  to  a  strong  white  heat 
for  about  half  an  hour,  and  have  become  white  hot,  the  lead  is  put 
into  them  by  means  of  tongs.  As  soon  as  this  becomes  bright  red 
and  "  ciraiilating,"  as  it  is  called,  the  specimen  for  assay,  Avrapped 
in  a  small  piece  of  paper  or  lead-foil,  is  added  ;  the  fire  is  now  kept 
up  strongly  until  the  metal  enters  the  lead  and  "  circulates  "  well, 
when  the  heat,  slightly  diminished,  is  so  regulated  that  the  assay 
appears  convex  and  more  glowing  than  the  cuxdcI  itself,  whilst  tho 
"^undulations"  circulate  in  all  directions,  and  the  middle  of  tha 


"WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  351 

metal  appears  smooth,  -u-ith  a  margin  of  litharge,  which  is  freely  ab- 
sorbed by  the  cupel.  When  the  metal  becomes  bright  and  shining, 
or,  in  technical  language,  begins  to  ^^lir/hten,"  and  prismatic  hues 
suddenly  flash  across  the  globules,  and  undulate  and  cross  each  otlier, 
followed  by  the  metal  becoming  y cry  brilliant  and  clear,  and  at 
length  bright  and  solid  (called  the  hrighteninr/),  the  separation  is  end- 
ed, and  the  process  complete.  The  cupels  are  then  drawn  to  tlic 
mouth  of  the  "muffle,"  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  When  quite 
cold,  the  resulting  ^^biiiion,"  if  of  silyee,  is  removed  by  tho 
"pliers"  or  "tongs"  from  the  cupels,  and,  after  being  flattened  on 
a  small  anvil  of  polished  steel,  with  a  polished  steel  hammer,  to  de- 
tach adhering  oxide  of  lead,  and  cleaned  with  a  small,  hard  brush,  ia 
Tery  accurately  weighed.  The  weight  is  that  otpure  silver,  and  the  dif- 
ference between  the  weight  before  cupellation  and  that  of  the  pure  metal 
represents  the  proportion  of  alloy  in  the  sample  examined.  In  tho 
case  of  GOLD,  the  metal  has  next  to  undergo  the  operations  of  quae- 
TATiOK.  The  cupelled  sample  is  fused  with  3  times  its  weight  of 
pure  silver  (called  the  "  i(;iYness  "),  by  which  the  gold  is  reduced  to 
one-fourth  of  the  mass  less,  and  in  this  state  may  easily  be  removed 
by  TAETiNG,  The  alloy,  after  quartation,  is  hammered  or  rolled  out 
into  a  thin  strip  or  leaf,  curled  into  a  spiral  J.orm,  and  boiled  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  with  about  2 J  to  3  ozs.  of  nitric  acid  (specific 
gravity,  1.3) ;  and  the  fluid  being^poured  off,  it  is  again  boiled  in  a 
similar  manner,  with  to  2  ozs.  more  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.2);  after 
which  the  gold  is  carefully  collected,  washed  in  pure  water,  and  dried. 
When  the  operation  of  partmg  is  skilfully  conducted,  the  acid  not  too 
strong,  the  metal  preserves  its  spiral  form ;  otherwise  it  falls  into 
flakes  or  powder.  The  second  boiling  is  termed  the  "  reprise."  Tho 
loss  of  weight  by  parting  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  silver  orig- 
inally in  the  specimen. 

FoK  Alloys  Containtn-q  Platinum,  which  nsnally  consist  of 
copper,  silver,  platinum,  and  gold,  the  method  of  assaying  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  alloy  is  cupelled  in  the  usual  way,  the  loss  of  weight  ex- 
presses the  amount  of  copper,  and  the  "  button,"  made  into  a  riband 
and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  mdicates  by  the  portion  dissolved 
that  also  of  the  silver  present.  By  submitting  the  residuum  to  quarta- 
tion, thQ platinum  becomes  soluble  in  nitric  acid.  The  loss  after  di- 
gestion m  this  menstruum  expresses  the  weight  of  that  metal,  and  tho 
weight  of  the  portion  now  remaining  is  that  of  pure  gold.  Gold  con- 
taining PALLADIUM  may  be  assayed  in  the  same  manner.  Anneal- 
ing.— ^This  consists  in  putting  the  pure  gold  into  a  small,  porous 
crucible,  or  cupel,  and  heating  it  to  redness  in  the  muffle.  Weighing 
must  be  done  -with  the  utmost  accuracy.-  The  weight  in  grains  Troy, 
doubled  or  quadrupled,  as  the  case  may  be,  gives  the  number  of 
carats  fine  of  the  alloy  examined,  without  calculation.  According  to 
the  old  French  method  of  assaying  gold,  the  following  quantities 
were  taken  ;  For  the  assay  pound,  12  gr. ;  fine  silver,  30  grs. ;  lead, 
108  gr.  These  having  been  cupelled  together,  the  perfect,  button  is 
roUed  into  a  leaf  (1|  X  5  inches),  twisted  on  a  quill  and  submitted 
to  parting  with  2^  oz.  and  1^  oz.  of  nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.,  1.16  (20<^ 
Baumd. )  The  remainder  of  the  process  is  similar  to  that  above  de- 
cribed.  Tne  usual  weight  of  silver  taken  for  the  assay  pound,  when 
tb©  fineness  is  reckoned  id  lOOOths,  is  20  grs.,  every  rcjjl  grain  of 


352   "NYATCIIMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEirTS. 

which  represents  50-lOOOths  of  fineness,  and  bo  on  of  Rmaller  divi- 
sions. 

Enametxino  on  Gold  on  Copper.— The  "basis  of  all  enamels  is 
a  highly  transparent  and  fusible  glass,  called  nirr,  flux,  or  pastk, 
wliich  readily  receives  a  color  on  the  addition  of  the  metallic  oxides. 
Preparation. — Red  lead,  IG  parts;  calcined  borax,  3  parts;  ponnded 
flint  glass,  12  parts;  flmts,  4  ixirts.  Fuse  in  a  Hessian  crucible  for  12 
hours,  then  pour  it  out  into  water,  and  reduce  it  to  poAvder  in  a  bis- 
cuit-Avare  mortar.  The  following  directions  will  servo  to  show  how 
the  coloring  preparations  are  made  :  Blach  enamels  are  made  with 
peroxide  of  manganese,  or  protoxide  of  iron,  to  which  more  depth  of 
color  is  given  with  a  little  cobalt.  Violet  enamel  of  a  very  fhie  hue  is 
made  from  peroxide  of  manganese,  in  small  quantity,  with  saline  or 
alkaline  fluxes.  Red  enamel  is  made  from  the  protoxide  of  copper. 
Boil  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  sugar  and  acetate  of  copper  in  four 
parts  of  water.  The  sugar  takes  possession  of  a  portion  of  the  cupre- 
ous oxide,  and  reduces  it  to  the  protoxide;  when  it  may  he  precipi- 
tated in  the  form  of  a  granular  poAvder  of  a  brilliant  red.  After  about 
two  hours  of  moderate  boiling,  the  liquid  is  set  aside  to  settle,  de- 
canted off  the  precipitate,  which  is  washed  and  dried.  By  this  puro 
oxide  any  tint  may  b?)  obtained  from  red  to  orange  by  adding  a 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  peroxide  of  iron.  "The  oxide  and 
purple  of  Cassias  are  likewise  employed  to  color  red  enamel.  This 
composition  resists  a  strong  fire  very  well.  Green  enamel  can  bo 
produced  by  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue,  but  is  generally  obtained 
direct  from  the  oxide  of  copper,  or,  better  still,  with  the  oxide  of 
chrome,  which  last  Avill  resist  a  strong  heat.  Yelloio. — Take  one  part 
of  white  oxide  of  antimony,  with  from  one  to  three  parts  of  wliite 
lead,  one  of  alum,  and  one  of  sal-ammoniac.  Each  of  these  sub- 
stances is  to  be  pulverized,  then  ali,are  to  be  exactly  mixed,  and  ex- 
posed to  a  heat  adequate  to  decompose  the  sal-ammoniac.  This  oper- 
ation is  judged  to  be  finished  when  the  yellow  color  is  well  brought 
out.  Blue. — This  color  is  obtained  from  the  oxide  of  cobalt,  or  somo 
of  its  combinations,  and  it  produces  it  with  such  intensity  that  only  a 
very  little  can  be  used  lest  the  shade  should  pass  into  black,  A 
tohite  enamel  may  be  ]>repared  with  a  calcine  formed  of  2  parts  of  tin 
and  1  of  lead,  calcined  together  :  of  this  combined  oxide,  1  part  is 
melted  with  two  parts  of  fine  crystal  and  a  very  little  manganese,  all 
previously  ground  together.  When  the  fusion  is  complete,  the  vitreous 
matter  is  to  be  jioured  into  clear  water,  and  the  frit  is  then  dried  and 
melted  anew.  Repeat  the  pouring  into  water  three  or  four  times,  to 
insure  a  perfect  combination.  Screen  the  crucible  from  smoke  and 
flame.  The  smallest  portions  of  oxide  of  iron  or  copper  admitted  in- 
to this  enamel  will  destroy  its  value.  The  artist  prepares  his  enamel 
colors  by  pounding  them  in  an  agate  mortar,  with  an  agate  pestle, 
and  grinding  them  on  an  agate  slab,  with  oil  or  lavender  rendered 
viscid  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  in  a  shallow  vessel,  loosely  covered 
with  gauze  or  glass.  He  should  have  alongside  of  liim  a  stove,  in 
which  a  moderate  fire  is  kept  up,  for  drying  his  work  Whenever  the 
figures  are  finished.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  muffle. 
Black  Enamel  on  Gold  or  SiLVER.-^Take  ^  pennyweight  of 
*  silver,  2J  pennyweights  of  copper,  3^  pennyAveights  of  lead,  and  2^ 
pennyweights  of  muriate  of  ammonia.   Melt  together,  and  pour  into  a 


TTATCn^IAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &C.,  RECEirTS.  353 

crucible  with  twice  as  much  pulverized  sulphur;  the  crucible  is  then 
to  be  immediately  covered  that  the  sulphur  may  not  take  fire,  andtho 
mixture  is  to  be  calcined  over  a  smelting  fire  until  the  superfluoiTS 
sulphur  is  burned  away.  The  compound  is  then  to  be  coarsely 
pounded,  and,  with  a  solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia,  to  be  formed 
into  a  paste  which  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  article  it  is  designed  to 
enamel.  The  article  must  then  bo  held  over  a  spirit  lamp  till  tho 
compound  upon  it  melts  and  flows.  After  this  it  may  be  smoothed 
and  polished  up  in  safety. 

Silvek-PijAtixg. — File  tho  ]-)arts  which  are  to  receive  the  plato 
very  smooth ;  then  apply  over  the  surface  the  muriate  of  zinc,  which 
is  made  by  dissolving  -zinc  in  muriatic  acid ;  now  hold  this  part  over 
a  dish  containing  hot  soft  solder,  and  with  a  swab  apply  the  solder  to 
the  part  to  Avhich  it  will  adhere,  brush  off  all  superfluous  solder,  so 
as  to  leave  the  surface  smooth ;  you  will  now  take  No.  2  fair  silver 
plate,  of  tho  right  size  to  cover  the  ]:)repared  surface,  and  lay  tho 
plate  upon  it,  and  rub  down  smooth  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  oil; 
then,  with  a  tinned  soldering  iron,  pass  slowly  over  all  the  surface  of 
the  plate,  Avhich  melts  the  solder  undenicath  it,  causing  the  plate  to 
adhere  as  firmly  as  the  solder  does  to  the  iron ;  then  x^olish  the  sur- 
face, and  finish  with  buckskin. 

Plating  with  Nickel  may  be  effected  by  placing  tho  object  to  bo 
plated,  either  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  bronze,  zinc  or  lead  in  a 
boiling  neutral  solution  of  zinc  chloride  containing  a  salt  of  nickel 
and  granulated  zinc.  If  the  zinc  solution  is  acid,  the  coating  of 
nickel  is  dull.  A  plating  of  cobalt  may  be  made  in  the  samo 
manner, 

Elkingtoh's  Patent  Gilding.— Fine  gold,  5  oz.  (troy);  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  52  oz.  (avoirdupois) ;  dissolve  by  heat,  and  continue  tho 
heat  imtil  red  or  yellow  vapors  cease  to  bo  evolved;  decant  the  clear 
liquor  into  a  suitable  vessel;  add  distilled  water,  4  gals.;  pure  bi- 
carbonate of  potassa,  20  lb. ;  and  boil  for  2  hours.  N.  B. — The  nitro- 
mnriatic  acid  is  made  with  imre  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.45)  21  oz. ;  puro 
muriatic  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.15),  17  oz. ;  and  distilled  water,  14  oz.  Tho 
articles,  after  being  perfectly  cleaned  from  scale  or  grease,  and 
receiving  a  proper  face,  are  to  be  suspended  on  wires,  dipped  into  tho 
liquid  hbiling  hot,  and  moved  about  therein,  when,  in  from  a  few 
seconds  to  a  minute,  depending  on  the  newness  and  strength  of  tho 
liquid,  the  requisite  coating  of  gold  will  be  deposited  on  them.  By  a 
little  practice  the  time  to  withdraw  the  articles  is  readily  known ;  tho 
duration  of  the  immersion  required  to  produce  any  given  effect 
gradually  increases  as  the  liquid  weakens  by  use.  When  properly 
gilded,  the  articles  are  withdrawn  from  the  solution  of  gold,  washed 
in  clean  water  and  dried ;  after  which  they  undergo  the  usual  opera- 
tion of  coloring,  &c. 

A  dead  gold"  appeamnce  is  produced  by  the  application  to  tho 
articles  of  a  toeah  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercunj  previously  to  tho 
immersion  in  the  gilding  liquor,  or  the  deadening  may  be  given  by 
applying  a  solution  of  the  nitrate  to  the  newly  gilded  surface,  and 
then  expelling  the  mercury  by  heat. 

Spot  Gilding,  or  gilding  in  spots,  producing  a  very  fine  appear- 
ance, is  done  by  putting  a  thin  coat  of  oil  on  those  parts  of  the  metal 
where  you  do  not  wish  tho  gilding  to  appear,  the  gold  will  then  bo 
23      *  ■ 


354       MACITINISTSj  ENGINEErwS',  c'bC,  nCCEIPTS. 

flopositod  in  those  spots  only  whore  there  ii?  no  oil,  r.ncl  the  oil  ia  easily 
a-cmovod  when  tlio  job  is  liiiislicd. 

WAT(niiMAKEK.s'  Oil. — Put  thin  sheet  lead  into  olive  oil  in  a  bottle, 
expose  it  to  tlic  sun  for  a  few  weeks,  and  pour  olf  the  clear. 

SoTiUTioN  FOii  DirriNO  Stkel,  Articlks,  I'JiEviousLY  TO  Elf.c- 
rrKO-PLrATiKG. — Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part;  nitrate  of  mercury,  1  part; 
nitric  acid  _(sp.  gr.,  l.;}8i),  4parts;  water,  r20])arts.  For  copper  article:-. 
— Sulphuric  acid,  Gi  parts;  water,  G4  parts;  nitric  acid,  32  parts; 
muriatic  acid,  1  part;  mix.  The  article,  free  from  grease,  is  dipped  i:i 
the  pickle  for  a  second  or  two. 

Arrangement  of  Lapidaries  Cutting  Plates. — 1.  Soft  iron 
!(very  thin)  with  diamond  dust  in  oil.  2.  Pcv/tcr,  Avith  coarse  emery 
find  water.  3.  Pewter,  with  fine  emery  and  water.  4.  "Wood  Avith 
sand  and  water.  5.  Pewter  witli  rotten-stone  and  water.  (3.  Leather 
with  putty  powder  slightly  wet. 

Polishing  Diamonds. — The  plan  in  use  at  all  the  largo  diamond 
cutters  is  simply  a  cast  iron  disc  of  good  metal,  with  a  vertical  spindlo 
■  Tun  through  its  centre,  balanced,  and  turned,  and  faced  true  in  a 
'  lathe.  The  disc  revolves  at  about  1000  revolutions  per  minute.  With 
n  little  diamond  dust  and  oil,  the  stone  is  set  in  a  small  brass  cup  filled 
with  common  soft  solder;  it  is  then  screwed  up  in  the  ciampa  and 
aX)plied  to  the  gkiyc  till  the  facets  ia  formed. 


RECEIPTS  FOE  MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS, 
MILLOWNERS,  BLACKSMITHS,  LOCOMO- 
TIVE BUILDERS  AND  METAL  WORKERS 
OF  EVERY  KIND. 


rN-STRTJCTiONS  TO  Enginjeers— (7e«in,7  up  Steam.— "Beiove  light- 
ung  the  fire  in  the  morning,  raise  your  safety  valve,  brushing  away 
all  the  ashes  and  dust  which  may  impair  its  free  action,  and  if  it 
leaks  steam  grind  it  on  its  seat  with  fine  emery  or  grindstone  grit. 
Talves  with  vibratory  stems  are  safer  than  those  with  rigid  stems,  as 
they  are  not  so  liable  to  bind  by  the  lever  and  weight  getting  out  of 
true.   To  guard  against  loss  by  leakage  and  evaporation,  leave  tho 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  355 

■water  np  to  the  third  gnago  at  night  and  keep  it  np  to  the  second 
gauge  during  worliing  hours.  Clean  all  ashes  and  cuiders  from  tho 
furnace  and  ash  pit,  and  spread  a  layer  of  two  or  three  inches  of 
Coal  over  the  grate  bars  ;  pile  ou  plenty  of  shavings  over  the  coal, 
with  dry  sawdust,  split  wood,  &c.,  then  start  your  fire.  Keep  tho 
fire  even  and  regular  over  the  grate  bars,  about  5  inches  thick  with 
soft  coal,  and  about  3  inches  with  anthracite,  and  always  avoid  ex- 
cessive firing.  Moderate  charges  or  firings  at  intervals  of  15  to  20 
minutes  give  the  best  results.  In  gettmg  up  steam  from  cold  water 
the  fire  should  be  raised  gradually,  to  avoid  damaging  the  boiler  by 
unequal  expansion  of  the  iron.  Do  not  keep  the  damper  and  fur- 
nace door  open  at  the  same  time,  as  the  extreme  draught  expels  the 
heat  from  the  furnace  into  the  chimney,  and  the  cold  air  entermg- 
through  the  door  induces  a  damaging  contraction  of  the  boiler  plates 
wherever  it  strikes.  The  current  of  air  enters  the  ash  pit  with  a 
velocity  of  12  feet  per  second,  and  every  100  lbs.  coal  requires  about 
15.524  cubic  feet  for  its  combustion.  With  looocl  for  fuel,  the  area  of 
grate  surface  should  be  1.25  to  1.4  that  for  coal.  Volume  of  furnace 
for  coal  burning  should  be  from  2.75,  to  3  cubic  feet  for  every  square 
foot  of  its  grate  surface,  for  loood  4.6  to  5  cubic  feet.  The  use  of  the 
pyrometer  has  satisfactorily  established  the  following  facts.  1st. 
That  the  admission  of  a  certain  quantity  of  air  behind  the  bridge 
developes  a  greater  amount  of  heat  for  raising  steam  by  assisting 
•combustion  and  consuming  the  smoke,  the  existence  of  smoke  being 
always  a  sure  sign  of  waste.  2.  A  regular  and  continuous  supply  of  air 
to  the  furnace  increases  its  heatmg  powers  33^  per  cent.  3.  The  supply 
of  air  may  enter  behind  the  bridge,  through  the  bars,  or  through  tho 
furnace  doors,  as  long  as  it  is  properly  regulated.  4.  The  supply  of 
air  may  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  fuel ;  light  burning  coal  requir- 
ing less  air  than  caking  coal,  because  the  latter  becomes  a  compact 
mass  in  the  furnaco,  excluding  the  air  from  the  bars,  while  the  latter 
is  the  reverse.  5.  For  perfect  combustion  a  high  temperature  is 
necessary.  In  all  cases  see  that  the  bars  are  well  covered  and  the 
fuel  kept  from  caking.  Knock  away  the  clinlcers  as  soon  as  formed^ 
keeping  the  spaces  open  between  the  bars.  Regulate  the  supply  of 
air  either  by  the  dampers,  ashpit,  furnace  doors,  or  by  an  orifice 
l»ehind  the  bridge.  A  jet  of  steam  from  a  pipe  placed  across  the  top 
of,  and  inside  the  door,  will  greatly  assist  in  consuming  the  smoko 
ajid  intensifying  the  heat,  by  yielding  up  its  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

If  steiim  commences  to  blow  off  at  tho  safety  valve  while  the 
engine  is  at  rest,  start  your  pump  or  injector  to  create  a  circulation, 
cover  or  bank  your  fire  with  a  charge  of  ashes  or  fresh  coal  to  absorb 
the  heat,  and  allow  the  steam  to  have  free  egress  through  the  safety 
valve.  If  by  neglect  the  water  gets  very  low,  and  the  boiler  dan- 
gerously hot,  the  fire  should  either  be  draW,  or  drenched  with  water. 
Should  the  fire  be  very  hot  and  the  water  supply  temporarily  cut  off, 
stop  the  engine  and  cover  the  fire  quite  thickly  with  fresh  fuel  to 
absorb  the  heat,  keeping  the  usual  allowance  of  water  in  tlie  boiler 
until  the  sujiply  is  renewed.  Boilers  should  be  blown  out  every  2  or 
3  weeks,  or  as  often  as  mud  appears  in  the  water,  but  never  untU. 
after  the  fire  has  been  drawn  at  least  one  hour,  and  tho  damper 
closed,  otherwise  the  empty  boiler  might  be  damaged  by  tlie  heat. 
Never  fill  a  hot  boiler  with  cold  watcr^  as  the  sudden  contraction 


35G  MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

many  times  repeated  will  cvontually  cause  it  to  leak.  Never  blow 
out  a  boiler  with  a  higher  pressure  than  50  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  aa 
eteam  at  a  high  pressure  indicates  a  high  temperature  in  the  iron, 
which  under  careful  management  should  bo  always  let  down  gradu- 
ally. Previous  to  filling  a  boiler  raise  the  valve  to  permit  the  free 
egress  of  the  air  which  might  otherwise  do  manifold  damage. 

Use  every  possible  precaution  against  using  foul  water  as  it  in- 
duces foaming  in  the  boiler  ;  soapy  or  oily  substances  and  au  insuffi- 
ciency of  steam  room  have  a  like  effect,  causing  the  boiler  to  bum 
on  the  spots  where  the  water  is  lifted  from  ifc,  and  the  glass  gauges  to 
indicate  falsely,  besides  damaging  the  cylinder  by  priming,  carrying 
mud,  grit,  water  and  slush  into  it  through  the  pipe,  and  rendering 
the  cylinder  heads  liable  to  be  knocked  out.  Steam  from  pure  water 
at  212°  Fahr.  supports  a  30  inch  column  of  mercury.  Steam  from 
sea,  or  impure  water  at  the  same  temperature,  will  support  only 
23  inches. 

Pure  soft  water  derived  from,  lakes  and  large  streams,  rain  water 
from  cisterns,  reservoirs,  &c.,  and  springs  outside  of  limestone  dis- 
tricts, is  the  best  for  steam  purposes.  Water  from  wells  and  springs 
in  limestone  districts  and  small  streams,  hold  in  solution  large 
quantities  of  chloride  of  sodium,  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of 
lime,  &c.,  besides  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  in  suspension.  The 
carbonic  acid  in  the  water,  which  holds  the  carbonate  of  lime,  &c.,  in 
solution,  being  driven  off  by  boiling,  the  latter  is  precipitated  and 
forms  an  incrustation  which,  adheres  with  obstinate  tenacity  to  the 
boiler  plates.  By  continual  accretion  the  deposit  of  scale  becomes 
thicker  and  thicker,  and  being  a  non-conductor  of  heat  it  requires 
CO  per  cent,  more  fuel  to  raise  the  water  to  any  given  temperature 
when  the  scale  is  of  an  inch  thick  ;  the  conducting  power  of  scale 
compared  with  that  of  iron  being  as  1  to  37.  The  red  scale  formed 
from  water  impregnated  with  salts  of  iron,  derived  from  percolation 
through  iron  ore,  is  still  more  destructive  to  Bteam  boilers,  and  in  no 
way  can  the  evil  be  completely  averted  except  by  the'use  of  chemicals, 
which  will  neutralize  the  different  corrosive  impurities  in  the  water. 
/See  article  on.  Incrustation,  page  368. 

In  tubular  boilers,  the  hand  hole  should  be  opened  frequently  and 
all  sediment  removed  from  over  the  fire ;  keep  the  sheets,  flues, 
tubes,  gauge  cocks,  glass  gauges  and  connections  well  swept  and 
perfectly  clean,  and  the  boiler  and  engine-room  in  neat  condition. 
Keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  leaks,  and  repair  them  if  possible  without 
delay,  and  allow  no  water  to  come  in  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the 
boiler  under  any  circumstances.  Examine  and  repair  every  blister 
as  soon  as  it  appears,  and  make  frequent  and  thorough  examinationa 
of  the  boiler  with  a  small  steel  hammer. 

In  case  of  foaming,  close  the  throttle,  and  keep  closed  long  enough 
to  show  true  level  of  water.  If  the  water  level  is  right,  feeding  and 
blowing  will  generally  stop  the  trouble.  With  muddy  water  it  is  a 
safe  rule  to  blow  out  6  or  8  inches  every  day.  If  foaming  is  violent 
from  dirty  water,  or  change  from  salt  to  fresh,  or  from  fresh  to  salt, 
in  addition  to  following  the  above  directions,  check,  draught,  and 
cover  the  fire  with  ashes  or  fresh  fuel. 

■  Great  watchfulness  is  necessary  when  steam  is  raised,  the  safety 


MACniKISTS,  ENGINEERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  357 

valve  fixed,  the  fire  strong,  and  the  engine  at  rest.  In  every  case 
there  is  a  rapid  and  dangerous  absorption  of  heat,  the  temperature, 
latent  and  sensible  heat  included,  often  rising  to  1200°  Fahr. 
Frequently  it  is  but  the  work  of  an  instant  to  convert  the  latent  into 
sensible  heat,  thus  generating  an  irresistible  force  which  bursts  tho 
boiler  and  destroys  life  and  property.  The  destruction  generally 
coming  at  the  moment  of  starting  the  engine,  the  opening  of  tho 
valve  inducing  a  commotion  in  the  water,  which  flashes  mto  steam  tho 
instant  it  touches  the  heated  plates.  Steam  has  been  known  to  riso 
from  a  pressure  of  32  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  to  90  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch,  in  the  short  space  of  seven  minutes,  with  the  engine  at  rest.  It 
ought  to  quicken  the  vigilance  of  every  engineer  to  know  thnt  tho 
explosive  energy  in  each  and  every  cubic  foot  of  water  in  his  boiler 
at  GO  lbs.  pressure,  is  equal  to  that  contained  in  1  lb.  of  gunpowder. 

From  avaricious  motives  it  has  become  quite  common  to  discharge, 
or  to  decline  to  employ,  qualified  and  careful  engineers.  Incompe- 
tent men  are  employed  because  their  labor  costs  a  few  dollars  less 
than  that  of  the  former.  This  is  too  much  of  a  bad  thing  to  pass 
over  without  notico.  Employ  good  sldlf  ul  men  in  the  management 
of  steam  power,  or  employ  none  at  all,  and  pay  them  decent  wages. 
If  an  oversight  takes  place,  and  the  best  and  most  careful  men  are 
liable  to  make  mistakes,  never  scold,  reprimand,  or  exact  servico 
during  dangerous  emergencies,  as  in  the  event  of  lost  water  in  tho 
boiler.  In  no  case  risk  life,  limb,  or  property,  and  do  not  let  the 
consideration  of  saving  a  few  dollars  debar  you  from  securing  intelli- 
gent assistants.  The  Turkish  mode  of  driving  business  on  a  lato 
occasion  was  to  discharge  the  English  engineers  who  brought  out 
the  war  vessels  which  were  built  in  England,  and  supply  tho 
vacancies  by  installing  cheap  green  hands.  After  getting  up  steam 
the  new  "Chief"  proceeded  to  start  the  engines.  A  lift  at  a  crank 
produced  no  results,  a  pull  at  a  lever  was  equally  useless.  At  length 
the  illustrious  official  espied  a  bright  brass  cock,  and  thinliiug  ho  had 
got  hold  of  a  sure  thing  this  time,  proceeded  to  give  it  a  twist,  when 
he  was  suddenly  saluted  with  a  jet  of  steam  full  in  the  face,  which 
swept  the  "engineer"  and  his  assistants  out  of  the  engine  room, 
into  the  fire  room  down  stairs.  So  much  for  cheap  labor  and  tho 
consequent  results. 

Duties  to  the  Enrjine  when  under  steamJ—HQiovQ  starting  tho 
engine,  warm  the  cylinder  by  admitting  steam  so  as  to  slowly  movo 
the  piston  back  and  forth,  letting  the  condensed  water  flow  from  tho 
drip-cocks,  which  should  be  left  open  all  night  for  this  purpose ; 
especially  should  this  be  done  during  cold  and  frosty  weather,  during 
which  time  all  pipes  and  connections  should  have  extra  protection. 
The  minimum  speed  of  tho  piston  should  be  240  ft.  per  minute,  and 
the  maximum  speed  700  ft.  in  any  engine.  The  most  economical 
steam  pressure  is  from  80  to  90  lbs.  to  tho  square  inch,  on  the  piston 
of  any  high  i^ressure  steam  engine.  To  attain  this  it  is  necessary 
that  the  boiler  pressure  should  be  considerably  higher,  for  there  is  a 
loss  of  at  least  30  per  cent.,  arising  from  the  irregularity  of  the  steam 
pipes  and  steam  ports,  by  radiation  of  heat,  by  improper  packing,  by 
friction  of  valve,  by  the  effect  of  the  governor  and  by  atmospheric 
pressure,  which  of  itself  entails  a  loss  of  15  lbs.  per  square  inch  on 
the  Diston.   Tho  lower  the  steam  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the 


358        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  EXCEirTS. 

piston,  tlie  greater  the  losf?  of  power  from  the  atmospheric  pressure  ; 
for  iiistjmco,  u  stcaiu  pressure  of  'SO  lbs.  per  square  inch  on  the  piston, 
leaves  only  15  lbs  per  square  inch  cflcctivc  i^ressure  for  actual  work, 
the  other  15  lbs.  being  required  to  overcome  atmospheric  iDressure. 

In  tightening  piston  rod  packing,  screw  no  tighter  tlian  merely  to 
prevent  leakage;  any  more  consumes  power  by  friction,  and  will  des- 
troy the  packing.  Spring  packing  in  the  cylinder  should  be  adjusted 
with  great  care,  always  kept  up  to  its  place,  and  never  allowed  to 
become  loose,  or  leakage  will  ensue,  causing  loss  of  power.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  it  is  set  too  tight  it  will  cut  the  cylinder,  and  loss  will 
result  from  friction.  Keep  your  packing  free  from  grit,  sand,  filings, 
&c.,  as  such  substances  will  cut  the  cylinder  and  flute  the  rod. 
Remove  all  old  packing  before  inserting  new,  observing  to  cut  the 
packing  into  proper  lengths,  and  breaking  joints  by  placing  each 
joint  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stuffing  box.  Keep  the  governor  clean, 
easy  in  its  movements,  and  avoid  excessive  tight  packing  around  the 
spindle.  Use  good  oils.  Avoid  waste  in  the  use  of  oil,  as  too  great 
profusion  generates  gum  and  dirt.  Use  it  with  judgment  in  combi- 
nation with  concentrated  ley  when  it  is  required  to  remove  gum  or 
dirt  from  these  or  other  parts  of  the  machinery.  Do  not  lubricate 
the  cylinder  imtil  after  starting  the  engine,  and  closing  the  drip  cocks. 
If  you  have  occasion  to  separate  a  rust  joint,  or  any  cranlc  from  a 
shaft  on  which  it  has  been  shrunk,  the  simplest  plan  is  to  apply  heat, 
when  the  bodies  being  of  different  dimensions  will  expand  imequally 
and  separate.  Iron  when  heated  expands  with  irresistible  force. 
Railway  contractors  know  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  on  a  warm  day 
will  cause  such  an  extension  of  the  iron,  that  the  rails,  if  laid  with 
close  joints,  will  rise  with  the  sleepers  from  the  ballast,  and  form 
arches  4  or  5  feet  high  and  50  or  60  feet  in  length.  In  accommoda- 
tion to  this  law  of  expansion,  spaces  are  left  between  the  rails  on  rail- 
way tracks. 

The  contraction  of  iron  by  cold  is  equally  powerful,  and  has  been 
put  to  good  use  in  trueing  up  large  bulgmg  buildings  by  fitting  iron 
girders  across  them  with  strong  Avail  plates  at  each  end.  Then,  by 
applying  gas  jets  all  along  the  girders  they  will  expand  ;  the  screws 
ra-e  then  tightened  np,  and  the  girders  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  strain 
of  these  contractions  several  times  repeated  is  sufficient  to  bring  the 
walls  to  the  perpendicular.  Again,  in  hoisting  heavy  machinery,  &c. 
by  means  of  pulley-blocks,  if  the  ropes  stretch  and  the  blocks  como 
together  too  soon,  wet  the  rope,  and^the  object  will  be  elevated  by 
its  contraction  without  any  other  force.  These  hints  wiU  be  found 
useful  when  occasion  offers. 

In  drivuig  the  kegs  on  the  crank-pin  and  cross-head,  use  a  leaden 
mallet,  or  interpose  a  piece  of  leather,  or  a  sheet  of  soft  metal  for 
l)rotection,  if  a  steel  hammer  is  used. 

The  piston  should  be  removed  every  G  months,  and  the  parts  in- 
jured by  friction,  &c.  carefully  ground,  fitted,  and  if  need  be  turned, 
trued,  and  made  steam  tight.  If  knocking  occurs  in  the  engine  it 
may  arise  by  the  crank  being  ahead  of  the  steam  ;  if  so,  move  the 
eccentric  forAvard  to  give  more  lead  on  the  valve,  if  caused  by  too  much 
lead  move  the  eccentric  further  back,  if  caused  by  the  exhaust  closing 
tod  soon,  enlarge  the  exhaust  chamber  in  the  valve  ;  if  caused  by  the 
engine  being  out  of  line,  or  by  hard  or  tight  piston  rod  packing,  these 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  IlECEirTS  359 

faults  must  be  corrected  ;  if  caused  by  lost  motion  in  the  jam  nuts  on 
the  valve,  uncover  the  steam  chest  and  adj  ust  them  correctly.  It  may 
be  that  Imocldng  is  caused  by  lost  motion  in  the  crank-pin,  pillow- 
blocks,  key  of  the  piston  in  the  cross-head,  or  boxes  on  the  cross- 
liead,  if  so,  tighten  the  key,  or  file  off  the  edges  of  the  boxes  if  they 
Jire  too  tight.  Sliould  knocking  arise  from  shoulders  becoming  worn 
on  tlie  ends  of  the  guides  ttom  any  cause,  replace  the  guides. 
Knocking  may  be  caused  by  insufficient  counterbormg  in  the  cylin- 
der, causing  derangement  m  tlie  movements  of  the  piston.  Tlio 
remedy  for  this  is  to  re-counterhore  the  cylinder  to  the  proper  deptli. 

Keep  a  close  watch  over  the  journals  of  the  crank  and  cross-head, 
if  they  are  loose  ui  the  boxes,  or  too  tiglit,  they  will  run  badly,  if 
tightened  too  much,  they  will  heat  and  wear  out  the  brass  shoes,  if 
3iot  tight  enough  there  is  danger  of  the  keys  flying  out  and  breaking 
the  engine. 

Be  sure  that  3'our  steam  gauge  indicates  truthfully.  It  onght  to 
tell  accurately  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  when  the  water  is 
hotter  than  212°  Fahr.,  and  indicate  the  variation  in  the  pressure  of 
steam  from  time  to  time;  but  many  gauges  are  much  worse  than  tho 
contrivance  used  by  the  colored  engineer,  who,  disdainfully  dispens- 
ing with  a  gauge  altogether,  used  to  ascertain  the  critical  moment 
wlien  steam  was  up,  or  danger  at  hand,  by  clapping  his  open  hand 
on  the  outside  of  the  boUer. 

Steam  Packing. — Many  varieties  of  packing  are  used,  such  as 
metallic  packing,  packing  composed  of  a  mixture  of  duck,  paper 
and  tallow  m  proper  proportions,  soapstone  nud  loose  twisted  cotton 
coils,  asbestos,  jute,  &;c.  An  excellent  packing  is  composed  of  hemp 
in  long  loosely  twisted  coils,  well  saturated  with  melted  grease  or 
tallow,  with  as  much  pulverized  black  lead  as  it  will  absorb.  Pack- 
ing is  always  applied  with  the  best  effect  when  tho  parts  of  the  engmo 
are  cold,  and  its  efficiency  is  promoted  by  soaking  it  in  beeswax  and 
tallow  previous  to  use. 

To  Work  Steam  Expansively.— Tho  volume  of  steam  at  15  lbs. 
pressure  to  the  square  inch  or  atmospheric  pressure  is  1700  times 
greater  than  that  of  any  given  quantity  of  water  from  which  it  may 
be  derived.  When  confined  under  pressure,  as  in  the  cylinder  of  a 
steam  engine,  it  is  always  in  the  effort  to  expand  itself  to  the  fullest 
extent,  and  a  vast  saving  of  fuel  is  effected  by  cutting  off  the  supply 
of  steam  from  the  piston  by  means  of  the  main  valve,  before  it 
reaches  the  end  of  its  stroke,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  flow  during 
the  full  length  of  its  stroke. 

The  most  available  points  at  which  to  cut  off  steam  is  ^,  \  and  |  of 
the  full  travel  or  stroke  of  the  piston.  If  steam  at  75  IbsT  pressure 
to  the  square  inch  is  applied  to  the  piston  and  cut  off  at  half  stroke, 
the  average  pressure,  during  the  whole  stroke,  owing  to  the  expan- 
sive quality  of  the  steam,  would  be  G3^  lbs.,  or  only  11 J  lbs.  less  than 
the  full  pressure,  although  but  half  the  quantity  of  steam  is  used, 
requiring  fully  4  less  fuel. 

Imagine  the  diagram  to  be  a  cylinder  of  3  ft.  in  length,  with  steam 
at  GO  lbs.  pressure,  entering  the  open  port.  During  the  first  4  inches 
of  the  travel  of  the  piston  the  steam  port  is  open,  permitting  tho 
fall  pressure  of  the  steam  to  operate  on  the  piston  ;  but  at  the  twelfth 
inch  marked  C,  the  steam,  lap  on  the  valve  V  closes  the  port.  The 


360     MAcniNisTS,  engineehs',  &c.,  receipts. 

imprisoned  steam  will  now  propel  the  piston  to  the  end  of  tho 
Btroke,  driving  out  the  liberated  steam  through  the  port  A  into  tho 
exhaust  cavity  ]3,  but  by  the  time  tho  piston  reaches  D,  12  inchca 


from  C,  the  original  pressure  of  GO  lbs.  per  square  inch  will  have 
decreased  one-half,  or  to  30  lbs.,  and  when  it  reaches  E,  24  inches 
from  C,  it  will  have  still  further  decreased  to  20  lbs.  Average  pres- 
sure 39  lbs.  Two-thirds  of  the  stroke  have  thus  been  made  without 
any  supply  of  steam  from  the  boiler,  and  forms  the  saving  due  to 
Tvorking  the  steam  expansively.  The  lack  of  this  contrivance  is  tho 
true  reason  why  some  engines  use  more  fuel  and  steam,  than  others 
of  the  same  cajDacity  and  power.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  economy 
of  the  Corliss  cut-off  is  such  that  it  requires  only  2  tons  of  coal 
instead  of  6f  tons  used  by  other  engines  of  the  same  power,  but  tho 
great  trouble  with  that' engine  is  the  liability  of  the  complex  and 
costly  valve-gear  to  get  out  of  order,  entailing  difficult  and  expensive 
xepairs. 

TABJjE.—Shoioinr/  the  average  Pressure  of  Steam  on  the  cylinder 
tchen  cut  off  at  ^,  \  and  |  of  the  stroke  or  travel  of  the  Piston,  com- 
mencing with  25  lbs,  advancing  by  5  lbs.  and  ending  at  100  lbs. 


25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70^ 

75' 

80 

85 

90 

95 

15 

171 

231 

26f 

291 

32| 

3o| 

38| 

44| 

47f 
67| 
77| 

50 

|53| 

56| 

59| 

21 

25| 

331 
38| 

38 

42| 

46| 

50| 

55 

1 

63| 

72 

76| 

24 

28-1 

43i 

48| 

63 

571 

62i 

72| 

82 

87 

911 

To  realize  the  best  results  from  steam,  keep  the  cylinders,  pipes, 
&c. ,  well  covered  with  good  non-conductors.  Various  materials  aro 
used,  such  as  common  felting,  asbestos  felting,  hair,  old  wool,  tow  or 
hemp  carpets  cut  up  into  strips  of  the  proper  size  and  smeared  over 
with  a  substantial  composition  of  mortar,  teased  hair,  &c.  beforo 
applying  to  the  pipes.   Cover  the  ■whole  "with  coarse  caavas,  finish- 


MACniXISTS,  ENGINEEES',  &C.5  RECEIPTS.  361 

Ing  -with  several  coats  of  white  lead  over  the  canvas.  Some  cover 
boilers  with  a  thickish  composition  of  clay,  intermixed  with  grey  or 
brown  paper  for  a  bind,  to  prevent  cracking,  &c.,  the  paper  being 
worked  up  into  shreds  along  with  the  water  and  clay.  Others  use  a 
mixture  of  mortar,  teased  hair,  &c.  Some  use  asbestos,  wood  ashes, 
&c.,  see  "composition  for  covering  boilers."  Cylinders  should  bo 
well  clothed  and  jacketed,  and  cashed  with  wood  or  polished  metal, 
the  latter  when  kept  constantly  bright  being  a  most  powerful  protec- 
tion against  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  Among  metals,  silver  is  tho 
best  absorbent  and  conductor  of  heat.  If  we  call  its  poAver  of  con- 
duction 100,  tnat  of  copper  is  74,  gold  53,  iron  12,  lead  9,  bismuth  2. 

To  Set  the  valve  of  an  Engine. — Place  tlie  crank  at  the  end 
of  its  stroke,  and  give  the  valve  the  proper  amount  of  lead  ;  reverse 
the  crank  to  the  other  end  of  its  stroke,  and  if  the  valve  has  the  cor- 
responding amouni;  of  lead  it  is  correctly  set.  Tlie  preponderance  at 
either  end,  if  any  exists,  must  be  equally  divided.  Be  careful  in  ad- 
justing the  nuts  attaching  the  valve  to  the  rod,  that  they  do  not 
impinge  against  the  valves,  prevcntmg  it  from  seating  true.  In  ad- 
justing the  slide  valve  to  cut  off  at  any  point  of  the  travel  of  tho 
piston,  the  eccentric  should  be  moved  forward  in  proportion  to  tho 
amount  of  lap  given  to  the  valve,  without  any  reference  to  the  ex- 
pansive Avorkmg  of  steam,  the  valve  must  open  at  the  same  pomt  of 
travel  of  the  piston. 

To  FIND  THE  Stroke  of  the  Valve.— Place  tho  crank  on  tho 
dead  centre,  and  make  a  mark  on  the  valve-rod,  then  reverse  tho 
movement  to  the  opposite  end  and  make  another  mark.  The  distance 
between  the  two  marks  constitutes  the  stroke  of  the  valve.  Tho 
stroke  of  the  valve  maybe  increased  as  the  bearing  in  tho  rocker-arm 
that  carries  the  eccentric  hook  is  lengthened  ;  shorten  the  same  and 
the  stroke  is  lessened. 

To  find  the  Throw  of  the  Eccentric. — ^IVIeasuro  the  eccen- 
tric on  the  heaviest  side,  then  measure  on  tho  opposite  or  light  side. 
The  difference  between  tho  two  measurements  will  bo  tho  throw  of 
the  eccentric. 

Lead  on  the  Slide  Valve.— Tho  lead  of  a  valve*  13  the  width 
of  opening  which  the  valve  allows  to  the  steam  port  Avhen  the  piston 
is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  as  shown  on  the  diagram  at  A,  which  re- 
presents outside  lead,  inside  lead,  bemg  sho-svn  into  the  exliaust  at  B, 
which  ought  to  be  double  the  amount  of  outside  lead  in  order  to  liberate 
the  exhaust  easily,  and  thus  reduce  or  prevent  back  pressure.  Caro 
should  be  taken  not  to  liberate  the  exhaust  too  soon,  as  it  will  greatly 
curtail  the  power  of  the  engine,  especially  if  the  labor  is  heavy  and 
the  speed  slow,  as  in  engines  with  heavy  trains  on  up  grades,  &c.  To 
ascertain  whether  the  exhaust  opens  at  the  right  time  or  not,  uncover 
the  steam  chest ;  then  uncouple  the  valve  from  the  valve  rod,  place  a 
short  batten  of  wood  le'hgthways  on  tho  exhaust  port ;  then  with  a 
scratch  awl  layoff  lines  on  the  valve  seat,  on  each  side  of  the  exhaust 
port,  that  will  appear  above  the  valve.  Next  lay  the  batten  on  tho 
face  of  the  valve  and  lay  off  corresponding  lines  on  the  exhaust 
chamber  that  wUl  show  on  the  edges  of  the  valve,  now  replace  tho 
valve  on  its  seat,  and  give  1-32  of  an  inch  lead,  and  if  the  lines  do- 
scribed  on  the  face  of  the  valve  arc  past  tho  Imcs  described  on  tlio 
valve  seat  1-lG  of  an  inch,  tho  esJiaust  opens  at  tho  proper  time,  if  it 


3G2        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  !^C.,  nECEIPTS. 


docs  not  the  exhaust  chamber  in  the  valve  should  bo  enlarged  to  the 
right  size. 


Lead  is  given  to  a  valve  to  enable  the  steam  to  act  as  a  cvshion  on 
the  piston,  by  admitting  the  steam  to  it  ]Drevious  to  the  end  of  it;i 
ttroke,  in  order  to  cause  it  to  reverse  its  motion  easily,  without  jar  or 
noise,  for  it  is  not  allowed  to  touch  the  top  and  bottom  of  cylinder  for 
fear  of  knocking  them  out.  The  space  between  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  cylinder  and  the  piston,  when  the  latter  is  at  the  end  of  it3 
stroke,  is  called  the  clearance,  shown  at  C  C  on  diagram.  The  term 
clearance  is  also  used  to  designate  the  capacity  of  the  connecting 
steam  ports  and  j^assages.  It  is  necessary  to  guard  against  too  much 
cushion  as  it  greatly  imjiairs  the  powers  of  the  engine,  causing  violent 
thumping  or  knocking,  and  sometimes  a  serious  breakdown.  One- 
eighth  of  an  inch  lead  is  sufficient  for  an  ordinary  freight  and  1-16  is 
sufficient  for  passenger  locomotives,  the  difference  being  on  account 
of  the  greater  speed  of  the  latter. 

Lap  on  the  Slide  Valve.— The  steam  lap  on  the  slide  valve  i3 
the  amount  by  which  it  extends  over  tlie  extreme  width  of  tho 


cylinder  ports,  as  illustrated  in  the  diagram,  the  distance  between  the 
dotted  lines  B  B  LL,  and  the  sides  of  the  ports  P  P,  being  in  each 
case  the  lap,  the  lines  B  B  indicating  the  outside  lap,  and  L  L  denot- 
ing the  inside  lap,  E  P  exliaust  port,  E  exhaust  cavity  in  valve.  V  S 
•s  alvo  seat;  C  C  valve  face.    The  emission  of  steam  into  the  cylindci" 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  363 

is  regulated  by  the  outer  and  inner  edges  of  the  valve  and  of  the 
steam  ports.  When  the  valve  is  so  contrived  that  at  ^  stroke  tho 
faces  of  the  valve  do  not  cover  the  steam  ports  internally,  the  spaco 
by  which  each  face  comes  short  of  the  inner  edges  of  the  ports  m 
known  as  inside  clearance.  By  means  of  the  steam  lap  given  to  tho 
\alve  the  engine  is  enabled  to  use  its  steam  expansively,  as  elsewhere 
explained. 

Table. — Showhig  the  amount  of  Lap  on  the  Slide  valve  at 
various  points  of  cut  off;  also,  the  travel  of  the  valve  in  inches. 

Travel  or  stroke  of  the  Piston  where  steam  is  cut  off. 


Travel 
of  the 
Valve  in 
inches. 


The  correct  amount  of  Lap. 


2 

:3 

Si- 
4 
5i 
5 

5^1 
G 

7 

7i 

8 

8i 
9 

10 

101 

11 

m 

12 


It 

91 


21 

It 

3f 

^16 

4 

% 

,16 

4li 

5" 


1 

113 

rio 


9_9_ 

f 

3-3- 

„16 


4i 


11 
i° 

1-3- 

^« 

4 

10 

p 

4* 


5 
8 

n 
i-Q- 

3-3- 

31 

4 


IG 
1  1 

il 
if 

It 


1 

11 

0  ?5 

w 


^6 

34 


1^ 


if 

1^ 
li 

li 

It 

2^ 

4 
I-- 

21 


Giffard's  Injector,  as  made  by  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co.,  is  a  novel 
and  reliable  invention  for  feeding  boilers,  economizing  the  heat  and 
dispensing  with  pumps.  By  a  simple  and  well  known  combination 
of  2  pipes,  the  one  conveying  steam,  the  other  water,  both  terminat- 
ing in  a  third  pipe  or  tube,  a  jet  of  steam  from  the  boiler  escapmg 
through  an  orifice,  of  say,  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  60  lbs.  pressure, 


3G1       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C..  RECEIPTS 

is  condensed  in  perhaps  12  times  its  wciglit  of  water,  wliich  it  drives 
Ihrough  tho  third  tuhc,  causing  it  to  enter  tho  boiler  througli  an 
orifice  much  smaller  than  tho  one  by  which  it  escaped.  The  momen- 
tum of  tho  steam  impels  the  water  with  great  forco  and  imparts  all 
its  heat  to  tho  water  during  transmission.  Tho  following  table  show."? 
the  maximum  temperaturo  of  tho  feed-water  admissible  during 
different  i^ressurcs  of  steam. 
Prcssuro  per  square  incli.  10  20  30  40  CO  100 
Temperaturo  of  feed,  Fuhr.    148°   130°    130°  124°   120°  110° 

On  thk  Form,  Strength  &c.  of  Steahi  Boilers.— Regard- 
ing the/on7i  of  boilers,  it  is  now  an  ascertained  fact  that  the  n^axi- 
mum  strength  is  obtauied  by  adopting  tho  cylindrical  or  circular  form, 
the  haycock,  hemispherical,  and  wagon-sliaped  boilers,  bo  general  at 
one  time,  liavo  now  deservedly  gone  almost  out  of  use.  Good  boiler 
plate  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  tensilo  strain  of  50,000  lbs.  or 
(jOjOOO  lbs.  on  every  square  inch  of  section  :  but  it  will  only  bear  a 
third  of  this  strain  without  permanent  derangement  of  structure, 
and  40,000  lbs.,  or  30,000  lbs.  even,  upon  the  square  inch,  is  a  prefer- 
able proportion.  It  has  been  found  that  tho  tenacity  of  boiler-plato 
increases  with  the  temperature  up  to  670°,  at  which  point  the  ten- 
acity commences  to  diminish.  At  32°  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch 
of  section  was  66,000  lbs.  ;  at  670°  it  was  66,500  lbs. :  at  720°,  65,000 
lbs.  ;  at  1050°,  32,000  lbs.  ;  at  1240°,  22,000  lbs.  ;  and  at  1317°,  9,000 
lbs.  Strips  of  iron,  when  cut  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  were  found 
by  experiment  to  bo  G  per  cent,  stronger  than  when  cut  across  tho 
grain.  The  strength  of  riveted  joints  has  also  been  demonstrated  by 
tearing  them  directly  asunder.  In  two  different  kinds  of  joints, 
double  and  single  riveted,  tho  strength  was  found  to  be,  in  the  ratio 
of  the  plate,  as  the  numbers  100,  70,  and  56. 

Assuming  the  strength  of  tho  plato  to  be   100 

The  strength  of  a  double  riveted  joint  would  be,  after 

allowing  for  the  adhesion  of  tho  surfaces  of  tho  plate   70 

And  the  strength  of  a  single  riveted  joint   50 

These  figures,  representing  the  relative  strengths  of  plates  and 
joints  in  vessels  required  to  be  steam  and  water  tight,  may  be  safely 
relied  on  as  perfectly  correct.  Tho  accidental  overheating  of  a  boiler 
lias  been  found  to  reduce  the  ultimp.to  or  maximum  strength  of  tho 
plates  from  65,000  to  45,000  lbs.  per  square  inch  of  section.  Every 
description  of  boiler  used  in  manufactories  or  on  board  of  steamers 
should  be  constructed  to  a  bursting  pressure  of  400  to  500  lbs.  on  tho 
square  inch  ;  and  locomotive  engine  boilers,  which  are  subject  to 
much  harder  duty,  to  a  bursting  pressure  of  GOO  to  700  lbs.  Such 
boUers  are  usually  worked  at  90  to  110  lbs.  on  the  inch,  but  are  fre- 
quently worked  up  to  a  pressure  of  120,  and,  when  rising  steep  grades 
sometimes  even  as  high  as  200  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  In  a  boiler 
subject  to  such  an  enormous  working  pressure,  it  requires  the  utmost 
care  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  engineer  to  satisfy  himself  that 
the  flat  surfaces  of  the  fire  box  are  capable  of  resisting  that  pressure, 
and  that  every  part  of  the  boUer  is  so  nearly  balanced  in  its  powers 
of  resistance  as  that,  when  one  part  is  at  the  point  of  rupture,  every 
other  part  is  at  the  point  of  yielding  to  the  same  uniform  force  :  for 
we  find  that,  taking  a  Jocomotivo  boiler  of  tho  usual  size,  even  with 


MAcniNiSTSj  engineers',  &c.,  eeceipts.  365 

n  pressure  of  100  lbs.  on  the  square  incli,  it  retains  an  expanding 
force  within  its  interior  of  nearly  00,000  tons,  "which  is  rather  in- 
creased than  diminished  at  a  high  speed.  To  show  the  strain  upon 
n  high-pressure  boiler,  30  feet  long,  6  feet  diameter,  having  2  centra 
flues,  each  2  feet  3  inches  diameter,  working  at  a  pressure  of  50  lbs. 
on  the  square  inch,  we  have  only  to  multiply  tho  number  of  the 
square  feet  of  surface,  1030,  exposed  to  pressure,  by  321,  and  wo 
have  the  force  of  3319  tons,  which  such  a  boiler  has  to  sustain.  To 
go  farther,  and  estimate  the  pressure  at  450  lbs.  on  the  square  inch, 
which  a  well-constructed  boiler  of  this  size  will  bear  before  it  bursts, 
rmd  we  have  the  enormous  force  of  29,871,  or  nearly  30,000  tons,  bot 
tied  up  within  a  cylinder  SO  feet  long  and  6  feet  diameter.  Boilers  in 
nctual  use  should  be  tested  at  least  once  a  year,  by  forcing  water  into 
them  by  the  hand  feed-pump,  mitil  the  safety-valve  is  lifted,  which 
should  be  loaded  with  at  least  twice  the  working  pressure  for  the  occa- 
sion. If  a  boiler  will  not  stand  this  pressure  it  is  not  safe,  and  either 
its  strength  should  be  increased  or  tho  working  pressure  should  be  di- 
minished. Internal  flues,  Guch  as  contain  the  furnace  in  tho  interior 
of  tho  boiler,  should  be  kept  as  near  as  i)ossiblo  to  the  cylindrical 
form  ;  and,  as  wrought  iron  will  yield  to  a  force  tending  to  crush  it 
jibout  one-half  of  what  would  tear  it  asunder,  the  flues  should  in  no 
case  exceed  one-half  tho  diajaeter  of  the  boiler,  with  tho  same  thick- 
ness of  plates  they  may  be  con:  Her ed  equally  safe  with  the  other  parts. 
The  force  of  compression  being  so  different  from  that  of  tension, 
greater  safety  would  be  ensured  if  tho  diameter  of  the  internal  fluea 
Avere  in  the  ratio  1  to  2^  instead  of  1  to  3  of  the  diameter  of  the  boiler. 
As  regards  the  relative  size  and  strength  of  flues,  it  may  be  stated 
that  a  circular  flue  18  inches  in  diameter  will  resist  double  the  pres- 
sure of  one  3  feet  in  diameter.  Mill  owners,  with  plenty  of  room 
and  a  limited  experience  with  steam  power,  would  do  well  to  dispense 
with  boilers  containing  many  flaes,  the  expense  is  greater  and  tho 
durability  less  than  where  there  is  ono  or  two  only.  The  foam 
caused  by  a  large  number  of  flues  is  apt  to  deceive  an  inexperienced 
engineer,  causing  him  to  believe  that  .tliere  is  plenty  of  water  in  tho 
Loiler  when  he  tries  the  gauge  cock  when  there  is  but  very  little, 
often  causmg  an  explosion.  Some  miU-owners  insert  a  fusible  plug 
in  the  crown  of  the  furnace  to  indicate  danger  from  low  water.  As 
common  lead  melts  at  020°,  a  rivet  of  this  metal,  1  inch  in  diameter, 
inserted  immediately  over  the  fire  place,  will  give  due  notice,  so  that 
relief  may  be  obtained  before  the  internal  pressure  of  the  steam  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  resisting  power  of  tlie  heated  plates.  In  France,  an 
extensive  use  is  made  of  fusible  metal  plates,  generally  covered  by  a 
perforated  metallic  disc,  which  protects  the  alloy  of  which  the  plate 
is  composed,  and  allows  it  to  ooze  through  as  soon  as  the  steam  has, 
attained  the  temperature  necessary  to  insure  the  fusion  of  the  plate, 
which  varies  from  280°-to  350°.  The  reader  wUl  find  a  number  of 
such  alloys  under  the  tabular  view  of  alloys  and  their  melting  heats, 
further  on.  Another  method  is  the  burstmg  plate,  fixed  in  a  frame  and 
attached  to  some  convenient  part  of  the  upper  side  of  the  boiler,  of 
such  thickness  and  ductility  as  to  cause  rupture  when  the  pressure 
exceeds  that  on  the  safety  valve.  But,  beyond  all  question,  constant 
use  should  be  made  on  all  boilers  of  a  good  and  reliable  system  of 
gteam  gauges,  glass  tubes,  gauge  cocks,  safety  valves,  &c.  By  meana 


8GG      MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  IlECEirxS 

of  tlio  glass  tubes  affixed  to  the  front;?  of  the  boilers,  the  height  of  the 
"water  witliintlio  boiler  is  indicated  at  onco,  for  the  water  will  stand  at 
the  same  lieif;lit  in  the  tube  that  it  stands  intlie  boiler,  comnmnication 
being  established  Avith  the  water  below  and  the  Bteam  above,  by 
means  of  stop  cocks. 

When  dry  steam  is  an  object,  the  nso  of  the  steam  dome  on  boilers 
is  strongly  recommended ;  opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  real  value  of 
mud  drums,  some  reason  strongly  in  their  favor  while  others  discard 
them  entirely;  but  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  true  economy  of 
heating  the  feed  water  previous  to  emission  into  the  boiler  ;  it  should 
always  be  done  when  practicable  to  do  so,  by  meaiis  of  some  one  of 
the  many  contrivances  for  that  jmrpose  which  are  now  in  tlio  market, 
liegarding  the  power  of  boilers,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  boiler  oO  feet 
long  and  3  feet  in  diameter,  will  afford  30x3x3.14x2 — 141.30  squaro 
feet  of  surface,  or  steam  for  14  horse-power,  if  10  feet  are  assumed 
for  one  horse-power.  Two  short  boilers  are  preferable  to  one  long 
one,  on  account  of  having  more  fire  surface, — it  being  always  necessa- 
ry to  have  as  much  fire  surface  as  possible  to  make  the  best  use  of  the 
fuel — as  the  hotter  the  surface  is  kept,  the  less  fuel  it  takes  to  do  the 
game  amount  of  work.  When  there  is  a  large  furnace  it  gives  the 
fireman  a  better  chance  to  keep  the  steam  regular,  for  when  clearing 
out  one  part  of  the  furnace,  he  can  keep  a  hot  fire  in  the  other.  For 
each  horse-power  of  the  engine  there  ought  to  be  at  least  one  squaro 
foot  of  grate,  and  three  feet  would  bo  better.  In  setting  a  boiler, 
arrangement  should  be  made  to  carry  on  combustion  with  the  great- 
est possible  heat.  This  requires  good  non-conductors  of  heat,  such  as 
brick,  with  which  to  surround  the  fire.  If  these  bricks  are  of  a  white 
color,  the  combustion  is  more  perfect  than  if  of  a  dark  color.  The  roof, 
as  well  as  the  sides,  of  the  furnace  should  be  of  white  fire-brick.  The 
bars  of  the  furnace  should  be  18  or  20  inches  below  the  boiler  or 
crown  of  the  furnace.  They  should  slope  downward  toward  the  bade 
part,  about  half  an  inch  to  the  foot.  A  crack  in  a  boiler  plate  may 
be  closed  by  boring  holes  in  the  direction  of  the  crack  and  inserting 
rivets  with  large  heads,  so  as  to  cover  np  the  imperfection.  If  the  top 
of  the  furnace  be  bent  down,  from  the  boiler  having  been  accidentally- 
allowed  to  get  short  of  water,  it  may  be  set  np  again  by  a  screw-jack, 
a  fire  of  wood  having  been  previously  made  beneath  the  injured 
plate  ;  but  it  will  in  general  bo  nearly  as  expeditious  a  course  to 
remove  the  plate  and  introduce  a  new  one,  and  the  result  will  be  mora 
satisfactory.  There  is  one  object  that  requires  very  particular  atten- 
tion, and  which  must  be  of  a  certam  size  to  produce  the  best  effect, 
and  that  is  the  flue  leading  from  the  boiler  to  the  chimney,  as  well  as 
the  size  and  elevation  of  the  chimney  itself.  Every  chimney  should 
l)o  built  several  feet  above  the  mill  house,  so  that  there  is  no  obstruc- 
tion to  break  the  air  from  the  top  of  the  chimney.  In  England  a 
factory  chimney  suitable  for  a  20  horse-power  boiler  is  commonly 
made  about  20  inches  square  inside,  and  80  feet  high,  and  these  di- 
mensions are  correct  for  consumption  of  15  lbs.  coal  per  horse-power 
lier  hour,  a  common  consumption  for  factory  engines.  In  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  and  the  United ,  States,  chimneys  of  sheet  iron, 
from  30  to  50  feet  high,  are  in  quite  common  use  by  owners  of  saw, 
and  other  mills,  and  they  seem  to  answer  every  requirement. 
,   Pbopokxio:;^  of  Steam  BoiLErvS,— C?/rincZer  Boilers.   The  length 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  367 

should  never  exceed  7  times  its  diameter  ;  the  unit  for  it  is  12  sq.  ft 
of  heating  surface,  and  |  of  a  square  foot  of  grate  surface  for  each 
horse-power  ;  a  fair  evaporation  is  6  lbs.  of  water  for  1  lb  of  coal. 

Tubular  Eoiler. 


Cylinder  Boiler, 

Very  long  cylinder  boilers  should  have  a  central  support.  All  boilers 
should  have  an  inclination  of  1  incli  in  every  20  ft.  towards  the  blow- 
of£  end.    Tubular  Boilers— hmgth.  4  times  tho  diameter.  Evapora- 


lancasMre  Boiler.  Cornish  loiler. 

tion  about  9  lbs.  of  water  to  1  lb.  of  coal.  Heating  surface  15  square 
ft.  and  grate  surface,  ^  square  ft.  per  horse-power.  Flue  Boilers 
require  from  14  to  15  square  ft.  of  heating  surface,  and  ^  square  ft. 
of  grate  per  horse-power.   Evaporation  7  lbs.  water  to  every  lb.  of 


368       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

coal.  Length  of  flue  boilers  should  not  exceed  5  times  their  diameter, 
diameter  of  Hues  not  moi'c  tlian  12  to  14  in. ;  i£  made  larger,  use  heavier 
iron  than  tlia't  used  in  the  shell  of  boiler,  and  construct  with  butt 
joints.  Cornish  and  Lancashire  Boilers.  In  England,  Cornish  boilers 
are  known  as  those  furnished  witli  one  internal  flue,  and  arc  usually 
of  great  capacity  and  power,  having  plenty  of  steam  room.  Lanca- 
shire boilers  have  2  flues.  Return  Flue  Boiler.  When  a  boiler  is 
fitted  with  a  fluo  curving  round  at  the  rear,  and  retumhig  to  tho 
front,  it  is  called  a  return  Hue  boiler.    See  diagrams  of  boilers. 

Boiler  Shells.— For  a  boiler  of  48  in.  in  diameter,  to  carry  90  lbs. 
per  square  in.  pressure,  nse  ^  in.  to  §  in,  good  plates.  Wrought  iron 
heads  for  ditto,  |  to  |^  inch.  Tube  Sheets  and  Crown  Sheets  for  ditto. 
§  to  g  mch.  Eioets  on  boilers  up  to  42  iu.  diam.  and  §  in.  iron, 
Bhould  be  §  in.  for  curvihnear,  and  §  in.  for  longituduial  rivets 
for  single  riveted  ivork.  On  double  riveted  work,  §  in.  rivets 
will  answer  for  both  kinds  of  seams.  For  5-lG  iron  dovni  to  3-lG 
iu.  smaller  rivets  will  answer.  Drilled  rivet  holes  are  preferablo 
to  punched.  It  is  highly  beneficial  to  heat  the  boiler  plates  beforo 
rolling  to  form  the  shell  of  tho  boiler.  The  fibre  of  the  iron  should 
always  run  around  the  boiler,  never  across  it.  A  steel  shell  boiler 
4  ft.  in  diam.  and  5  in.  thick,  is  as  strong  as  an  iron  boiler  of  same 
diam.  and  §  in.  thick,  and  Avill  evaporate  25  per  cent,  more  water, 
besides  being  more  free  from  incrustation  and  corrosion.  Tho  work- 
ing pressure  pf  boilers  should  be  5  times  less  than  the  bursting 
pressure. 

Composition  for  Cotertkg  Boilers,  &c.— "Road  scrapings,  freo 
from  stones,  2  parts ;  cow  manure,  gathered  from  the  pasture,  1 
part ;  mix  thorouglJy,  and  add  to  each  barrowf ul  of  the  mixture 
6  lbs  of  fire  clay  ;  ^  lb.  of  flax  shoves  or  chopped  hay,  and  4  ozs. 
teased  hair.  It  must  be  weU  mixed  and  chopped  ;  then  add  as 
much  water  as  will  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of  mortar, — the  more 
it  is  worked  the  tougher  it  is.  It  may  either  be  put  on  with  tho 
trowel  or  daubed  on  with  the  hand,  the  first  coat  about  1  inch 
thick.  When  thoroughly  dry,  another  the  same  thiclaiess,  and  so 
on,  tliree  inches  is  quite  enough,  but  the  more  the  better.  Let  each 
coat  be  scored  like  plaster,  to  prevent  cracks,  tho  last  coat  light 
and  smooth,  so  as  to  receive  paint,  whitewash,  &c.  The  boiler,  or 
pipes,  must  first  be  brushed  with  a  thin  wash  of  the  mixtui-e  to 
insure  a  catch. 

On  the  Prevention  op  Scale  in  Steam  Boilers. — It  is  v/ell 
known  that  all  natural  waters  contain  more  or  less  impurities,  and 
also  that  these  impurities  work  to  disadvantage  in  steam  boilers.  But 
there  are  very  few  steam  users  who  fully  realize  how  far  the  disad- 
vantages of  these  impurities  extend. 

We  find  that  170  boiler  explosions  are  on  record  for  the  year  1880, 
by  which  259  persons  were  killed  and  555  were  injured,  and  we  think 
the  following  reports,  given  by  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection 
and  Insurance  Co.  for  the  same  year,  will  show  that  80  per  cent,  of 
these  explosions  were  caused  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  impurities 
in  the  water.    The  following  is  the  report :  — 

Furnaces  defective,  1105.  Fractured  plates,  2075.  Burned  plates, 
1165,   Blistered  plates,  3441.    Cases  o£  sediment  and  de^Qsit,  275y« 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  369 

Incrustation  and  scale,  3891.  Cases  of  corrosion,  3188.  Internal 
grooving,  234.  Water-guages  defective,  525.  Blow-out*  defective, 
208.  Safety  valves  overloaded,  258.  Defective  bracing  a>.d  staying, 
403.    Boilers  condemned,  377. 

The  above  report  shows  the  necessity  of  care  and  experience  in  the 
management  of  the  steam  boiler,  and  the  following  figures  will  show 
what  is  lost  by  deposits  of  sediment. 

Mr.  Ham,  Master  Mechanic  of  the  New  York  Central  B.R.,  states 
in  a  report,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Associa- 
tion, held  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1871,  that  the  extra  expense  in  one 
year  from  impure  water  and  incrustation,  on  his  road,  would  amount 
to  $75,000  for  every  hundred  locomotives. 

Many  solvents  have  been  introduced  for  the  removal  and  preven- 
tion of  boiler  scale,  but  from  a  scientific  investigation  recently  made 
of  the  merits  of  articles  sold  for  the  removal  and  prevention  of  boiler 
scale,  we  have  a  report  showing  that  most  of  these  articles  are  made 
up  of  refuse  matter,  the  bulk  being  no  more  or  less  than  water;  the 
strength  or  so-called  virtue  consisting  of  powerful  refuse  acids, 
which  are  damaging  and  destructive  to  the  boiler. 

But  an  article  known  as  Lord's  Boiler  Compound,  manufactured 
by  Geo.  W.  Lord,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  highly  indorsed.  We  find 
also  in  several  different  works  on  Steam  Engineering  Lord's  Com- 
pound highly  recommended. 

Roper,  in  his  Hand-book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engineering,  in  an 
article  on  Corrosion,  page  450,  gays  that  Lord's  Compound  appears 
to  be  the  only  known  remedy  that  affords  any  protection  to  boilers 
against  its  fearful  effects. 

The  article  seems  to  possess  the  necessary  ingredients  io  produce 
satisfactory  results  under  all  circumstances.  It  is  found  to  have  no 
injurious  action  upon  the  iron  of  boilers,  but  on  the  contrary  to  have 
a  tendency  to  protect  the  iron  against  grooving,  pitting,  or  wasting 
of  the  plates  by  corrosion. 

A  close  investigation  of  the  Hartford  Inspector's  Reports  for  the 
year  1880,  given  in  this  article,  will  show  that  the  true  value  of  such 
a  remedy  can  hardly  be  estimated. 

Average  Pkoportioit  of  various  Parts  of  'Ej^gikes.— Steam 
]Pipe  should  be  i  the  diameter  of  cylinder,  but  varies  on  large  engines. 
Exhaust  Pipe  should  be  ^  the  diameter  of  cylinder.  Piston  Rod 
ghoiild  be  ^  the  diameter  of  cylinder,  if  of  iron,  and  smaller,  if  of 
Eteel.  For  high  speeds,  steel  piston  rods  are  the  best.  Steam  Ports 
vary  according  to  speed,  fro  1-16  to  1-10  the  area  of  piston.  Safety 
Valves  should  possess  an  area  of  \  square  in.  of  surface  for  every 
foot  of  grate  surface,  and  should  be  constructed  with  loose  vibratory 
ptems,  for  the  reason  that  they  arc  not  so  liable  to  get  out  of  order  as 
those  with  rigid  stems. 

EuLB  FOR  Size  of  Cyltxder. — The  requisite  diameter  of  cylindci 
for  a  25-liorse  beam  engine  is  28  inches,  and  about  5  feet  stroke. 
The  nominal  horse-power  of  any  sized  cylinder  can  be  found  by 
the  foUowmg  formulai : — For  low  pressure  or  beam  engines, 
divide  the  area  of  cylinder  by  25,  which  wiU  give  the  number  of 
horse-power.  For  high  pressure  horizontal  engines,  divide  tho 
24 


S70     MACinxrsTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

nrca  of  cylinder's  diameter  by  12-5,  'wliiclnvill  give  tho  number  of 
horse-power,  including  all  i'iction. 

Stroke  of  Engines. — The  stroke  of  an  engine  varies  according 
to  circumstances,  which  tho  designer  must  take  into  consideration; 
but  the  general  rule  is  to  make  the  stroke  about  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  cyhnder.  The  diameter  of  tho  fly-wheel  should  bo  about  4 
times  the  stroke  of  the  engine,  and  tho  rim  should  weigh  about 
i3  cwt.  per  horse-power. 

KULE  TO  FIND  THE  HORSE-PoWER  OF  STATIONARY  ENGINES,— 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  by  the  average  pressure  in  lbs.  per 
fjquare  inch.  ]\Iultiply  this  product  by  the  travel  of  the  piston  in  feet 
per  minute;  divide  by  33,000,  this  will  give  the  horse-power.— Jio^Jer. 

EXASIPLE : 

Diameter  of  cylinder  .   ,   .   .   .  12 

12 

144 


Area  of  piston   .  113,0970 
Pressure,  70  ;  Average  pressure,  50  50 


5G54.880 

Travel  of  piston  in  feet  per  min.  300 


33,000)1G964G4.000 


51.  liorso-powcr. 

Balance  TVnEELS.— Every  balance  wheel  should  be  speeded  up 
so  as  to  run  twice  or  three  times  as  fast  as  the  crank  shaft  it  is  in- 
tended to  balance.  When  a  balance  wheel  is  applied  in  this  way  it 
makes  the  machine  run  a  great  deal  more  steadily,  for,  when  tho 
balance  wheel  is  geared  into  the  crank  shaft,  and  runs  two  ox  threo 
times  faster  than  the  crank  shaft,  it  forms  a  power  of  itself 
when  going  over  the  centre,  which  propels  the  crank  shaft  until  it 
reaches  the  quarter,  where  it  again  takes  its  power  from  tlie 
machme.  Although  it  takes  an  additional  shaft  and  gears  to  apply 
a  balance  wheel  in  this  way,  the  saving  of  metal  in  the  balanco 
wheel  fully  compensates  for  the  extra  labor;  for,  when  a  balanco 
wheel  is  speeded  three  times  as  fast  as  the  crank  shaft,  it  needs 
only  one  third  of  the  metal  in  it  that  it  would  were  it  not  speeded 
up  at  all,  and  if  bala,nce  wheels  were  applied  in  this  way  generally 
it  would  make  all  engines  run  far  more  steadily. 

To  Reverse  an  Engine. — Make  a  legible  mark  on  the  eccentric 
near  the  shaft,  make  a  simUar  mark  on  the  shaft  at  the  same  place. 
Now  place  one  point  of  the  callipers  on  the  mark  made  on  the  shaft, 
and  with  the  other  point  ascertain  the  centre  of  the  shaft  on  the  op- 
posite side,  making  another  mark  there  also.  Next  unscrew  tho 
eccentric  and  move  it  in  the  direction  iii  which  you  wish  the  engine  to 
run,  until  the  mark  on  the  eccentric  comes  into  line  with  the  second 
mark  on  the  shaft,  then  screw  tho  ecceatrie  fast  and  the  engine  will 
run  the  reverse  way.  — 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.  371 


Marine  Beam  Engike. — The  above  cut  represents  a  marine  beam 
engine,  being  the  kind  so  frequently  seen  on  river,  lake,  and  coasting 
steamers.  The  Working-beam,  W,  is  a  massive  casting  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  surrounded,  strengthened,  and  stayed,  in  every  direction 
by  a  powerful  wrought-iron  strap,  forged  in  one  piece,  and  shaped  to 
conform  to  the  casting,  wliich  contains  sockets  at  each  extremity  fit- 
ted to  receive  the  end  journals,  besides  containing  intermediate  sock- 
ets for  the  main  centre  and  air  pum^j  journal,  &c.,  the  whole  mass 
resting  on  the  frame  composed  of  4  stout  beams  of  wood,  forming  2 


372      MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEEIIS'  DEPARTMENT. 


triaiislos  ;is  shown  at  I)D  in  cnt.  These  again  rest  on  massive  hcams 
styled  keelsons,  shown  at  KK,  and  are  braced  and  rigidly  secured  to 
the  vessel  and  machinery  by  other  powerful  timbers,  knees,  straps, 
and  iron  fastenings.    The  guides  are  shown  at  B. 

The  main  link  is  shown  at  A,  tlie  connectiuf/  rod  at  C,  the  valve 
stem  at  V,  and  the  cylinder  at  F,  in  a  vertical  position  over  the  con- 
denser. 

The  steam  cylinder  F,  is  usually  a  massive  casting,  annular  in 
form,  bored  and  fniished  very  true  for  the  easy  movements  of  the 
piston.  It  rests  on  a  round  flanged  casting  containing  the  lower  steam 
port,  called  the  cylinder  bottom,  which  intervenes  between  it  and  the 
condenser  S,  and  is  securely  attached  to  each,  by  bolts  and  steam 
tight  rust  joints.  The  elevated  end  of  the  cylinder  is  iramcjval^ly 
braced  to  the  framing  above.  The  valve  chest  is  shown  at  EE,  the 
air  pump  at  I,  the  hot  well  at  G,  the  boiler  feed  pump  at  R,  and  the 
delivery  pipe  at  P. 

The  condenser  S,  in  which  the  exhaust  steam  is  reduced  to  a  liquid 
form,  is  of  the  same  shape  and  diameter  as  the  cylinder,  flanged  at 
botl;i  ends,  and  its  contents  should  be  13-30ths  of  the  space  through 
which  the  piston  moves  during  one  stroke.  The  wooden  frame 
■which  sustains  the  main  beam  is  attached  by  stout  bolts  and  keys  to 
strong  flanges  Avhich  project  from  the  condenser,  the  upper  part  is 
cast  close  and  the  lower  end  is  open  and  fitted  accurately  on  the  bed 
plate  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  rust  joint  and  bolts. 

In  the  method  known  as  "surface  condensing"  the  process  is  ef- 
fected by  causing  the  steam  to  pass  through  an  arrangement  of  tubes 
submerged  in  running  cold  water  ;  the  other  method,  known  as  "  jet 
condensing,"  and  by  far  the  cheapest  arrangement,  consists  in  bring- 
ing the  steam  in  contact  with  a  jet  of  cold  water  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing diagram,  where  J  represents  the  jet;  E,  the  exhaust  pipe,  P, 


the  injection  pipe;  H,  air-pump  cylinder;  AA,  air-pump  valves,  V, 
air-pump  rod ;  D,  delivery  valve ;  H,  hot  well. 

The  next  cut  represents  Sewall's  surface  condenser,  in  which  the 
exhaust  steam  enters  at  B  and  is  liquefied  by  contact  Avith  the  exterior 
surfaces  of  the  tubes  ;  the  injection  water  is  admitted  at  the  opening 
K,  passes  through  the  foot  valves  L  L  L  and  is  driven  through  the  de- 
livery valves  S.  The  water  of  condensation  passes  through  the  delivery- 
valves  N,  O,  P,  and  is  driven  through  the  delivery  valves  I  and 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  373 

the  outboard  J,  into  a  cistern  from  which  the  boilers  are  supplied 
by  the  feed  pumps  with  their  water.  The  apertures  D  F,  are  the 
ends  of  a  pipe  connecting  the  fresh  and  salt  water  cisterns,  so  that 
any  shortage  in  the  feed  water  may  be  furnished  from  the  latter 
cistern.  H  represents  the  end  of  a  pipe  throvgh  which  the  auxiliary 
pump  draws  water,  and  A  is  an  air  chamber  for  the  salt  water 
Uistern.  The  jet  condenser  is  the  lightest,  simplest  and  cheapest  of 
the  two,  only  it  has  the  fault  of  supplying  salt  water  to  the  boilers,  as 
the  condensed  steam,  and  the  sea  water  jet  intermingle ;  on  the  con- 


trary,  the  surface  condenser  preserves  the  water  of  condensation  so 
that  it  may  be  used  in  the  boilers  many  times  in  succession,  and  in 
this  way  maintains  its  freshness,  dispensing  with  the  necessity  of 
frequent  blowing  off  m  order  to  avert  the  danger  of  salt  deposits  on 
the  plates  of  the  boilers.  Care  should  be  used  to  keep  the  steam  and 
exhaust  valves  steam  tight  in  order  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  steam 
into  the  condenser  while  the  engine  is  at  rest,  thereby  heating  the 
former  to  such  an  extent  that  the  injection  water  cannot  find  admit- 
tance owing  to  the  pressure.  In  such  cases  the  trouble  may  be  recti- 
fied by  applying  cold  water  to  the  exterior  of  the  condenser,  or  by 
starting  the  engine  and  moving  it  a  few  strokes. 

The  piston  of  the  marine  engine  possesses  the  usual  form  of  spring 
packing,  and  is  powerfully  braced  by  diverging  arms  cast  on  the  up- 
per and  lower  flanges,  the  cylinder  head  is  similarly  strengthened 


374     MACHINISTS  AND   ENGINEKUS'  DErART31KNT. 


Internally,  wliilc  tho  exterior  or  outside  is  turned  and  usually  kept 
highly  ]K)lished.  Tlio  steam  chests  contain  tl)o  usual  appliances  of 
tho  receiving  and  exhaust  steam  ])assages,  valves  and  valve  seats  ; 
the  lower  chest  contains  the  outlet  or  exhaust  port  communicating 
with  the  condenser,  while  the  higher  clicst  embraces  the  throttle 
valve  pipe  connected  with  the  supply  pipe,  conmumicatijig  with  the 
boilers.  The  steam  chests  are  very  accurately  fitted  and  strongly, 
Kccured  to  the  cylinder,  and  the  valve  bonnets  and  i)iston  rod  glands 
are  turned  and  kept  bright.  The  valves  which  control  the  flow  of  the 
t;tcam  are  of  the  description  styled  double-balance  valves,  because 
the  downward  pressure  on  one  valve  is  almost  balanced  by  an  oppo- 
site pressure  on  the  other,  the  two  being  connected  in  pairs,  and 
being  retained  in  their  seats,  by  the  highest  valve  in  the  pairs  oh  the 
induction  side  and  the  lowest  valve  of  each  pair  on  the  exhaust  side 
being  somewhat  larger  than  the  others,  thus  inducing  a  very  slight 
unbalanced  pressure.  The  valve  gear  embraces  the  lifter  rods,  and 
lifters,  the  rock-shafts  and  their  levers.  The  lifter  rods,  four  in  num- 
ber, have  a  vertical  movement  up  and  down  on  guides  attached  to  the 
steam  chests  and  side  pipes,  and  to  these  rods,  eight  projecting  arms, 
called  lifters,  are  attached  by  keys,  four  of  the  lifters  connect  with 
the  extremities  of  the  valve  spindles,  screwed,  and  fitted  with  double 
jam  nuts,  the  other  four  are  set  vertically  over  the  levers  on  the  rock- 
shaft,  which  imparts  their  motion  to  them.  The  rock-shafts,  two  in 
number,  one  for  the  induction  and  the  other  for  the  exhaust  valves, 
are  operated  by  distinct  eccentrics.  There  are  four  levers  on  the 
.shafts,  operating  and  raising  the  rods  and  lifters,  and  to  induce  a 
smooth  movement,  they  are  bent  or  inflected  on  their  working  faces. 
Cast  iron  side  pipes  polished,  turned,  and  ornamented,  connect  the 
steam  chests,  and  are  fitted  with  expansion  rings  of  sheet  copper  to 
accommodate  or  compensate  for  the  unequal  expansion  or  contraction 
of  the  metal. 

The  lifter  rods  with  the  valves,  are  alternately  elevated  and  de- 
pressed, by  the  rocking  or  reciprocating  movement  of  the  shafts. 
The  length  of  the  exJiaust  levers  is  so  adjusted  as  to  impart  the  exact 
amount  of  lift  and  lead,  and  are  so  regulated  on  their  rock-shaft  that 
the  elevation  of  one  rod  commences  at  the  very  Instant  the  other  is 
completely  depressed.  The  induction  or  steam  levers  are  longer  than 
the  last  noted,  and  are  placed  on  thin  rock-shafts  so  as  to  incline  to 
each  other,  so  that  a  space  intervenes  between  the  elevation  of  one 
rod  and  the  depression  of  the  other,  during  which  time  both  valves 
are  down,  and  the  steam  connection  stopped.  This  mechanism  forms 
the  expansive  cut  off  gear,  and  may  be  partially  changed  by  varying 
the  fixture  or  iDOsition  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  shaft,  the  pin  in  the 
eccentric  lever,  and  the  levers  on  the  rock-shaft ;  the  required  lift  of 
the  valves  may  be  adjusted  by  changing  the  position  of  the  eccentric 
pin. 

The  trip,  or  rock-shaft  is  a  wrought  iron  shaft  moving  in  solid  bear- 
ings on  the  lower  steam  chest,  and  is  fitted  with  substantial  projec- 
tions commensurate  with  similar  ones  on  the  lifter  rods,  which  when 
in  motion  elevate  and  depress  the  valves,  operating  in  the  same  way 
as  the  large  rock-shafts.  The  rock-shaft  is  fitted  with  apertures  for 
the  insertion  of  the  starting  bar,  which  in  starting  has  to  overcome 
the  weight  of  the  valves,  lifter-rods  and  their  connections. 

Duties  to  Marine  and  othee  Engines. — Among  the  varied 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  375 


tasks  that  devolve  on  the  engineer,  none  of  them  are  of  more  impor- 
tance than  the  imperative  watclifubiess  required  to  see  that  all  the 
parts  of  the  engine  are  properly  adjusted,  fitted,  and  regulated;  that 
everj'thing  is  kept  in  efficient  order ;  that  there  is  neither  dangerous 
looseness  or  extreme  tightness  about  the  keys,  nuts,  bearings,  etc.  In 
the  event  of  the  crank-pin  heating,  apply  a  mixture  of  tallow,  lead- 
fiUngs,  and  black  lead,  or  sulphur,  black  lead,  and  oil,  In  steam 
vessels,  the  crank-pin  and  the  pillow-blocks  are  the  points  most  liable 
to  heat.  The  latter  may  be  treated  with  the  cooling  compound  else- 
where mentioned,  or  water  mixed  with  Bath  brick  dust,  or  pulverized 
pumice  stome,  may  be  poured  in  througJi  the  holes  in  the  bearings. 
In  trouble  caused  by  grit,  the  application  of  concentrated  potash  lye, 
and  subsequent  lubrication,  has  good  effect. 

If  delayed  in  port,  t\\e  piston  should  be  removed  and  examined,  and 
the  faces  of  the  rings,  where  they  compose  the  joints  with  the  flange 
of  the  piston-head  and  follower-plate,  tried,  and  accurately  fitted, 
by  regrinding,  etc.,  and  the  spring-packing  properly  adjusted.  The 
tightness  of  the  repairs  may  be  tested  by  the  admission  of  steam,  the 
use  of  the  indicator,  and  a  few  turns  of  the  engine.  The  steam  chest 
should  be  uncovered,  the  valves,  seats,  etc.,  examined,  and  any  varia- 
tions from  truth  corrected  by  careful  fitting  and  scraping,  and  the 
proper  amount  of  lead  imparted  to  the  valves,  by  placing  the  crank 
on  the  top  and  bottom  centres,  adjusting  the  go-ahead  gear  in  proper 
place,  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  valves  open  and  close 
at  the  proper  time. 

The  link-motion  should  be  inspected  and  all  derangements  adjusted, 
repaired  and  corrected.  The  valves  of  the  air-pump  should  be  exam- 
ined as  opportunity  offers,  and  all  necessary  repairs  effected;  the 
cover  must  be  taken  off  and  the  bucket  elevated  for  this  express  pur- 
pose. The  screio-shaft  should  be  kept  true,  and  great  care  taken  to 
guard  against  the  glands  or  any  other  parts  becoming  damaged  or 
seriously  deranged  in  any  way.  Close  and  frequent  inspection  should 
be  made  of  the  condenser,  v>'hich  should  be  tested  by  removing  the 
openings  and  pouring  in  cold  water;  and  should  any  ooze  out,  the  de- 
ficient tubes  should  be  either  repaired  or  renewed.  The  condition  of 
the  vacuum  may  be  ascertamed  by  the  vacuum  guage  connected  with 
the  condenser.  If  derangement  exists,  search  out  and  rectify  the 
cause.  If  the  temperature  of  the  hot-well  exceeds  100°,  add  more  in- 
jection water.  Test  the  joinings  of  the  parts  connected  with  the  con- 
denser with  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle ;  if  the  union  is  imperfect,  the 
flame  will  be  inhaled  by  the  internal  suction.  Make  thorough  work 
in  searching  out  leaks,  and  repair  them  well  whenever  they  are  dis- 
covered. The  entrance  of  air  into  the  condenser  and  its  connections, 
can,  when  ascertained,  be  stopped  for  a  while,  by  entering  in  thin 
wedges,  or  using  some  of  the  numerous  impervious  compositions 
noted  in  this  work.  In  the  event  of  leakage  into  the  condenser,  it  is 
useful  occasionaUy  to  admit  water  through  the  aperture.  Instances 
have  happened  where  water-tight  tanks  have  been  fabricated  (during 
long  voyages  at  sea)  between  the  side  keelsons,  in  cases  where  the 
condenser  had  become  inadequate  to  perform  its  use  through  corro- 
sion, or  otherwise,  thereby  submerging  the  air-pumps  and  condenser 
in  a  reservoir  of  water  supplied  by  the  ocean,  excluding  the  air,  and 
finding  its  way  into  the  leaks,  assisting  the  injection  water  in  condens- 
ing the  steam,  the  aperture  of  the  injectiou-cock  being  partly  shut,  to 


876    MAcniNisTs  and  engineers'  department. 


conform  to  tlio  amoniit  of  interna,!  lo.alca;^c.  In  the  event  of  a  violent 
fitorm  imparting  a  rolling  motion  to  the  vessel,  and  consequent  irregu- 
larity in  the  ni(jveinent  of  the  engines,  owing  to  the  alternate  elevation 
and  depression  of  tiio  wheels  or  propeller,  the  machinery  is  liable  to 
■bestoi)ped  by  a  surplus  of  water  in  the  condenser,  and  in  all  such 
cases  the  supply  of  injection  water  should  be  curtailed.  As  oppor- 
tunity offers  during  occasional  detentions,  search  out  and  close  all 
leaks  connected  with  tlie  injection-cock  or  air-pump,  which  may  causo 
tlie  condenser  to  fill  with  water,  causing  much  delay  and  annoyance 
in  starting  the  engine.  Whenever  this  is  anticipated,  the  sea-cock 
should  be  shut  at  the  same  time  the  injection-cock  is  closed.  When 
the  indications  of  the  steam  gauge  exhibit  any  excess  of  pressure  over 
the  atmosphere,  raise  the  valves  and  permit  the  steam  to  flow  through 
the  pipes  into  the  cylinder,  to  expel  the  air,  heat  the  cylinder,  and 
prevent  the  liquefaction  of  the  steam  on  the  starting  of  the  engine. 
During  temporary  stoppage,  the  cylinder  drip-cocks  on  stationary  en- 
gines should  be  instantly  opened,  in  order  to  permit  the  water  of  con- 
densation to  flow  out,  and  they  should  not  be  closed  until  after  starting 
tip, '  Previous  to  starting  an  engine  which  has  been  stopped  for  some 
time,  you  should,  as  a  precaution  against  danger,  work  the  engine  a 
few  turns  with  the  starting  bar,  and  warm  the  cylinder  by  letting  in 
Bteam.  Lubricants  should  not  be  applied  to  the  cylinder  or  valves 
until  after  the  engine  is  started  up  and  the  drip-cocks  closed,  other- 
wise waste  is  sure  to  result  from  the  exp  ulsion  of  a  portion  of  the  oil  or  tal- 
low through  the  drip-cocks.  On  the  production  of  steam  equivalent  to 
produce  a  vacuum,  and  work  the  air-pumps,  the  injection-cock  should 
1)6  slightly  opened,  the  eccentric-hook  disconnected,  and  the  valves 
moved  alternately  hither  and  thither,  with  the  starting-bar,  or  the 
link,  as  either  is  convenient,  in  order  to  effect  an  interchanging  move- 
ment in  the  piston.  The  engine  should  then  be  finally  tested  by 
"  turning  over"  three  or  four  times  for  the  purpose  of  making  sure 
that  all  is  right,  and  everythmg  trim  for  the  anticipated  voyage;  after 
which,  if  everything  is  correct,  the  engine  is  brought  to  a  stand,  and 
all  the  parts  lubricated  in  readiness  for  the  start. 

Previous  to  getting  under  way,  the  boilers  should  be  filled  with 
water  to  the  upper  gauge-cock.  This  can  be  easily  effected,  when  the 
l)oilers  are  in  the  hold,  by  simply  opening  the  blow-cock,  and  the 
water  will  flow  into  the  boilers  by  gravitation,  through  the  vessel's 
bottom,  from  the  sea.  In  boilers  otherwise  situated,  the  filling  may 
be  performed  by  the  hand-force  pump,  or  a  pump  worked  by  a  donkey- 
engine,  etc.  On  starting  the  fires,  sUghth/  elevate  the  safety  valve,  in 
order  to  permit  the  air  to  escape  from  the  boilers ;  but  on  the  emission 
of  steam, which  indicates  the  complete  expulsion  of  the  air,  close  them 
at  once.  In  stopping  an  engine,  shut  off  the  steam,  open  the  furnace 
doors,  close  the  damper  in  the  chimney,  curtail  the  supply  of  injec- 
tion-water, work  the  valves  by  hand,  and  unship  the  eccentric.  To 
hack  or  reverse  an  engine  fitted  with  the  link-motion,  all  that  is  requisite 
is  to  change  it  to  the  reverse-motion;  but  where  only  one  eccentric  is 
available,  shut  off  the  steam,  throw  the  eccentric  hook  out  of  gear, 
and,  with  the  starting-bar,  apply  the  steam  to  the  other  end  of  the 
piston. 

On  Makine  and  other  Boilers.— In  steam  vessels,  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  maintain  a  proper  equilibrium,  that  the  boilers 
fihould  be  placed  equidistant  from  the  keelsons  on  either  side  ;  any 


378     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DErARTMENT. 


deflection  from  perfect  truth  in  tliis  arrangement  entails  much  trou- 
Tole  in  adjusting  the  proper  balance  oi:  the  ,slii]).  To  this  end  they 
ought  to  bo  secured  by  rigid  fastenings  to  the  hull,  with  the  lower 
face  of  the  boilers  and  the  extension  of  the  flues  ranging  or  conform- 
ing with  the  load  line  in  each  direction.  In  some  places  it  is  usual  to 
place  them  on  a  substantial  platform  composed  of  3  inch  plank  over 
the  keelsons,  on  Avhich  the  boilers  are  placed,  the  planks  being  pre- 
viously coated  to  a  depth  of  inches  or  more,  with  a  tenacious  mixture 
composed  of  drying  oil  and  whiting,  which  affords  a  hard  impervious 
protection  to  the  boiler  against  water  and  rust.  Another  way,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  presenting  an  o])portunity  for  making  incidental 
repairs,  consists  in  placing  the  boilers  on  cast  iron  saddles  attached  to 
the  boiler  supporters.  Boilers  should  be  properly  protected  by  a 
proper  clothing  of  non  conductors,  such  as  asbestos,  hair  felt,  &c.,  cov- 
ered with  a  lagging  of  wood  ;  or  some  of  the  other  materials  elsewhere 
noted  in  this  work,  may  be  used  instead.  Marine  boilers  demand  the 
greatest  attention  and  care  in  repairing,  testing,  cleaning,  blowing  off, 


GANG  OF  STEAM  BOILERS  PROPERLY  SET. 

and  water  supply.  Especial  care  should  be  nsed  at  all  times  to  keep 
the  brine  at  a  low  degree  of  strength  when  sea  water  is  used,  by  blow- 
ing off  every  two  hours  at  least,  frequently  testing  the  strength  of 
the  brine  by  the  saline  hydrometer,  an  instrument  constructed  to 
Indicate  by  gradations  the  number  of  ounces  of  salt  held  in  solution  in 
each  gallon  of  water.  Sea  water  contains  3.03  parts  of  its  weight  in 
saline  matter,  or  nearly  1  lb.  in  every  33  lbs.  of  water,  and  saturation 
is  complete  when  it  contains  36.37  parts.  When  by  evaporation  the 
proportion  of  salt  increases  to  4  lbs.  in  33  lbs.  of  Avater,  the  formation 
of  scale  is  imminent,  and  should  be  guarded  against  by  blowing  off, 
and  the  repletion  of  the  supply  by  additional  fresher  water.  While  in 
port,  as  opportunity  offers,  tile  hand-hole  plates  above  the  furnaces 
ought  to  be  removed  in  order  to  permit  the  removal  of  any  saline 
deposits  on  the  crown  sheet,  and  as  dajupness  is  inimical  to  the  inte- 
rior of  tlie  boiler,  the  bottom  hand  hole  plates  should  also  be  removed 
when  a  long  detention  is  anticipated,  in  order  to  permit  the  water  to 
drain  off,  and  air  to  circulate,  so  as  to  dissipate  any  dampness,  whir h 
otherwise  might  result  in  the  rapid  oxidation  of  the  boiler  plates.  If 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DErARTMENT.  379 


this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  better  to  keep  the  boilers  full,  rather  than 
have  them  partially  so. 

Scale  is  not  the  only  danger  to  be  guarded  against,  for  it  is  attested 
by  the  reports  of  the  Hartford  Steani  Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance 
Company  that  almost  half  of  the  sum  total  of  imperfect  boilers 
became  such  by  reason  of  the  deposit  of  sediment,  there  being  no  less 
than  40  per  cent,  more  hazardous  cases  resulting  from  the  deposit  of 
sediment  causing  the  plates  to  be  burned,  or  overheated,  than  from 
scale  when  hard  water  is  used,  the  lime,  etc.,  held  in  solution  is  pre- 
cipitated, and  the  deposit  becomes  concreted,  forming  a  terrible 
obstacle  to  the  transmission  of  the  heat  to  the  water,  and  rendering 
the  i)lates  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  fire  liable  to  be  burnt  through 
or  seriously  weakened. 

In  setting  stationary  boilers,  it  would  be  well  to  have  an  air  space 
of  2  or  3  inches  intervene  between  the  boiler  and  the  surrounding 
brick  work,  and  fire-clay  is  every  way  preferable  to  mortar  for  the 
entire  surroundings.  Arrangements  should  be  made  to  have  con- 
venient apertures  at  suitable  places  in  order  to  permit  access  for  the 
removal  of  dust,  soot,  ashes,  and  other  impediments  interfering  with 
the  effective  action  of  the  fire  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  boiler.  A 
good  way  of  setting  long  stationary  boilers  is  to  attach  cast-iron  knees 
to  tneir  middle  and  at  each  end,  having  them  about  12  feet  apart,  and 
placed  on  brick  foundations;  these  knees,  if  placed  on  substantial  rolls 
on  a  solid  seat,  would  ensure  ample  provision  for  the  contraction  and 
expansion  of  the  boilers,  as  well  as  prevent  all  strains  resulting  from 
unequal  settling. 

As  to  the  attachments  called  mud  drums,  past  experieuca  has 
shown,  when  their  great  cost  and  short  duration  are  taken  into  account, 
that  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  their  use,  are,  to  say  the  least, 
very  equivocal,  as  they  impart  but  a  slight  amount  of  heat  to  the  feed 
water,  retain  none  of  the  ruinous  carbonates  which  induce  scale  on 
the  boiler,  but  only  the  muddy  matter  held  in  suspension  in  the  water, 
while  the,  cost  of  renewal  consequent  on  their  rapid  decay,  is  very 
heavy. 

Cleaning  Boiler  Tctbes. — Weinlig  recommends  a  copper  pipe,  5 
millimetres  in  diameter,  tapering  at  one  end,  and  fitted  at  the  other 
with  a  flexible  india-rubber  tube,  by  which  it  can  be  connected  with 
the  steam-cock  of  the  boiler  when  required.  The  pipe  is  mounted  on 
a  3ft.  wooden  handl,e,  and  should  be  long  enough  to  reach  through 
the  fire-box.  In  use,  the  wooden  handle  is  held  firmly  under  the 
right  arm,  and  the  nozzle  of  the  pipe  introduced  an  inch  or  so  within 
the  tube  to  be  cleaned.  Steam  is  then  turned  on  through  the  india- 
rubber  tubing. 

Steam-Pipe  JACKETiNa.— The  Stettin  Vulcan  Works  make  use  of 
wool  for  clothing  steam-pipes.  A  lead  cylinder  is  laid  around  tho 
pipe,  and  the  space  between,  which  is  about  llj  inches,  is  filled  up 
firmly  with  wool.  The  lead  cylinder  being  drawn  back,  the  wool  as 
exposed  is  tied  down  with  wire,  and  finally  linen  is  sewed  over  the 
whole. 

Cement. — Sifted  peroxide  of  manganese  and  zinc-white,  equal  parts ; 
and  sufficient  soluble  glass  (commercial)  to  form  a  thin  paste.  Apply 
immediately.    This  cement  will  resist  a  red-heat,  water,  and  oils. 

Flanges  to  Stand  Brazing. — Copper  1  lb.,  zinc  ^  oz.,  lead  |  oz. 

Gedge's  Metal.— Copper  go,  zinc  38.2,  iron  1.8. 


380     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT, 


Engineers'  Tools. — The  mechanical  appliances  represented  above, 
should  be  kept  within  easy  reach,  and,  if  arranged  on  a  vertical  table 
of  thick  plank,  fitted  with  recesses  conformed  and  adapted  for  the  re- 
ception of  each  tool,  it  would  not  only  prove  a  great  convenience,  but 
also  a  striking  ornament  to  the  engine  room. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  881 


Fire  and  Waterproof  Cement. — Pulverized  litharge  5  lbs.,  fine 
Paris  white  2  lbs.,  yellow  ochre  4  ozs.,  hemp  cut  into  shreds  ^oz., 
mix  to  the  deusity  of  thick  putty  with  boiled  Imseed  oil,  and  it  la 
ready  for  use. 


Marine  Engine  Counter,  Clock,  Vacuum  Gauge,  and  Steam 
Gauges.— The  Gauge  A,  B,  represents  an  adaptation  applica- 
ble TO  Locomotives  . — A,  shows  the  point  of  connection  with 
BoiLER,'B,  THE  Spiral  Spring  and  Graduated  Scale.— The  above 
cuts,  together  with  the  following  ones,  represent  a  Marine  engine 
counter  and  clock,  together  with  steam  and  vacuum  gauges  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  The  counter,  inclosed  in  an  annular  box  of  cast-iron,  con- 
tains a  mechanism  connected  by  suitable  attachments  to  the  engine, 
which  impart  such  a  correct  mechanical  movement  to  a  regular  series 
of  figures  or  numbers  displayed  through  the  narrow  apertures  in  the 
dial,  as  to  exhibit  at  a  -glance  the  exact  number  of  revolutions  per- 
formed by  the  engine.  The  steam  gauges  used  to  determine  the 
pressure  of  steam,  operate  either  by  the  use  of  mercury,  thin  metallic 
tubes,  or  springs,  and  several  of  these  adaptations  are  shown  in  the 
cuts  we  present.  As  used  on  stationary  boilers,  for  it  cannot  be  used 
on  locomotives,  the  mercurial  gauge  is  formed  of  an  upright  glass 
tube  connected  with  a  cistern  of  mercury,  resting  on  a  round  piece  of 
steel  or  guttapercha;  on  marine  engines  it  consists  of  an  inverted  si- 
phon or  tube  bent  in  the  form  of  a  U,  with  one  end  exposed  to  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  and  the  other  open  to  the  atmosphere.  When 
not  pressed  by  steam,  the  mercury  will  remain  level  in  both  arms  of 


S82     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS*  DEPATITMENT. 


the  syphon,  but  as  the  pressure  rises,  it  will  act  with  increasing  force 
on  the'mercnry  exposed  to  the  action  oi  the  steam,  and  forces  it  to 
rise  in  tlie  limb  exposed  to  the  air,  and  will  determine  the  amount  of 
the  steam  pressure  over  and  above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  the  indi- 
cations being  exhibited  on  the  gauge,  the  gradations  on  which  are  one 
inch  in  length,  consequently  every  inch  that  the  mercury  rises  in  the 
tube  shows  a  change  of  2  inches  in  tlie  level  of  the  mercury  contained 
in  the  tube,  and  each  inch  of  mercury  ou  the  scale  represents  1  lb. 
pressure  of  steam. 


Many  excellent  gauges,  nearly  thirty  in  all,  arein  nse  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  among  others,  that  of  the  American  Steam  Gauge 
Co.  and  Bourdon's,  or,  as  it  is  better  known  in  the  United  States, 
Ashcroft's  gauge,  from  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer,  the  interior  of  which  is 
shown  in  the  cut.  It  is  composed  of  a 
thin  circular  metallic  tube,  a,  closed  at  one 
end ;  the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  intro- 
duced at  b.  The  result  of  the  steam  pres- 
sure on  the  interior  of  the  circular  tube  is  | 
to  enlarge  the  circle  more  or  less  in  jiro- 
portion  to  the  pressure,  the  elastic  proper- 
ties of  tlie  metal  operating  to  contract  the 
circle  to  its  original  position  on  the  re- 
moval of  the  pressure.  The  sealed  or 
closed  end  of  the  tube  is  united  by  the  link 
c,  to  the  lever  d,  which  operates  a  sej 
mental  gear  or  rack  placed  at  the  upper 
end  in  gear  with  a  pinion,  ^vhich  imparts 
movement  to  a  hand  on  a  graduated  circular  scale  as  shown  in  the 
cuts  above. 

The  same  invention,  when  fitted  to  a  condenser  by  the  pipe  A,  see 
cut  above,  will  indicate  the  state  of  the  vacuum  in  a  condensing  en- 


Intekior  of  Ashckoft's 
Gauge. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  383 


gine.  In  this  case  the  indications  are  caused  by  exterior  atmospheric 
j)ressure,  the  gauge  is  graduated  to  extend  only  from  1  lb.  up  to  15 
lbs.,  and  the  entire  action  is  reverse  from  that  of  steam,  as  described 
above.  On  the  opening  of  the  tap  C,  as  the  vacuum  enlarges,  the 
band  will  be  flattened  and  the  hand  on  the  dial  will  move  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  from  that  caused  by  the  action  of  steam. 

Cake  of  Steam  Gauges. — A  little  glycerine,  or  sulphuric  acid, 
placed  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury  will  keep  a  mercurial  steam 
gauge  in  good  order,  by  lubricating  both  glass  and  metals,  preventing 
their  adhesion. 

Steam  Pipes. — Ruptured  steam  pipes  may  be  repaired  by  heating 
and  then  soldering  them.  The  condensation  of  steam  in  suhierranean 
pipes  may  be  prevented  by  enclosing  the  pipe  iuside  a  larger  one,  aud 
filling  the  vacant  space  between  the  two  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and 
teased  hair,  or  plaster-of-Paris. 

Substitute  for  Fire  Clay  for  Boiler  Furnaces. — To  common 
earth  well  mixed  with  water,  add  a  small  quantity  of  rock  salt  and 
allow  it  to  stand  until  the  salt  dissolves,  then  use  as  tire  clay.  It  an- 
swers very  well. 

Watch  the  Leaks. — Engineers  should  keep  a  vigilant  eye  for 
leaks,  weak  spots,  &c.,  and  apply  a  prompt  remedy  by  repairiug  all 
defects  without  delay.  See  that  all  the  seams  and  rivets  are  tight, 
and  the  tubes  and  tube  sheets  in  good  order.  Leaky  tubes  should  bo 
replaced  or  stopped,  by  driving  a  "tightly  fitting  wooden  plug  at  each 
end  and  binding  them  by  means  of  an'iron-rod  passing  through  the 
tube  fitted  with  broad  washers  at  each  end,  and  screwed  up  tight  with 
t\).e '■^  Strong  cement  for  Steam  Joints  '  [see  page  422)  plentifully 
Bmeared  on  under  each  washer.  A  mirror  or  bright  tin  plate  may  be 
used  advantageously  to  reflect  light  into  obscure  places  while  repair- 
ing boilers.  To  apply  a  hard  patch,  describe  the  proper  size  on  the 
plate  to  be  patched,  allowing  from  to  ins.  of  good  iron  beyond 
the  weak  part  or  flaw.  Kow  drill  the  rivet-holes  through  the  patch, 
and  chip  its  edges.  Next,  apply  the  patch  to  the  boiler,  and  mark 
the  places  for  corresponding  holes  by  means  of  a  small  brush  with 
white  paint,  drill  the  holes  in  the  shell  with  a  brace  and  ratchet  drill, 
remove  the  deficient  part  of  the  shell,  rivet  on  the  patch,  or  secure 
well  with  tap  bolts.  A  soft  patch,  is  applied  over  the  weak  part  of  the 
shell  (after  being  previously  coated  with  an  intermediate  layer  of 
good  cement),  being  fitted  in  the  same  manner  as  above  described, 
and  secured  to  its  place  by  means  of  nuts,  bolts,  and  washers,  with  a 
twistofhempnnderthe  washers  and  bolt  heads  to  ensure  security, 
and  prevent  leakage.  The  first  method  is  decidedly  the  best  for  parts 
of  the  boiler  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire. 

Dimensions  and  Capacity  of  First  Class  Amoskeag  Steam 
Fire-engine.  {See ^  Cut.)  Height  from  floor  to  top  of  smoke 
stack,  8  ft.  10  ins.  Length  over  all,  inchiding  tongue,  23  it.  8ins. 
Biameter  of  boiler,  2  ft.  8  ins.  Diameter  of  immps,  4^  ins.  Stroke  of 
same,  8  ins.  Diameter  of  steam  cylinders  7§ins.  Number  oj  dis- 
charge gates,  2.  CajMcky  in  gals,  per  minute,  900  gals,  n  eight, 
6,500  lbs.  The  boiler  is  an  upright  tubular,  very  simple  m  its  com- 
bination, and  for  strength,  safety,  durability,  and  capacity  for  genera- 
tmg  steam, 'unsurpassed.  Starting  .with  cold  water  m  the  boiler,  a 
working  head  of  steam  can  be  generated  in  less  than  five  minutes 
from  the  time  of  kindling  the  fire.   The  engine  "  Amoskeag,  owned 


384     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS*  DEPARTMENT. 


by  tho  city  of  iNfanchcster,  has  played  two  Btreams  in  three  minutes 
and  forty  seconds  after  touching  the  match  ;  at  the  same  time  draw- 
ing her  own  water.  Tho  following  instructions  to  engineers,  given 
by  tlio  Amoskeag  Co.,  for  running  their  engine,  may  be  easily  adapted 
to  oflicient  use  in  the  case  of  steam  fire-engines  constructed  by  other 
builders. 

1.  In  laying  your  fuel  in  tho  fire-box,  first  lay  plenty  of  shavings, 
then  light,  dry  kindling  wood ;  filling  your  furnace  full,  which  in 
most  cases  will  give  you  steam  enough,  by  the  time  you  arrive  at  a 
fire  to  commence  work,  provided  you  light  your  fire  when  you  leave 
the  house,  which,  as  a  general  rule,  is  advisable.  2.  If  you  use  coal, 
be  careful  to  keep  a  thin  fire,  and  not  clog  it.  Use  the  coal  in  as 
large  lumps  as  possible,  and  do  not  break  it  up  unnecessarily  in  tho 
furnace.  The  best  coal  for  this  purpose  is  a  clean  Cannel,  in  lumps, 
free  from  dirt  and  dust.  3.  Be  careful  not  to  let  so  much  fire  collect 
under  your  engine  as  to  burn  the  wheels  ;— Avhen  working  for  a  long 
time  at  fires  there  is  a  danger  of  doing  so.  4.  The  Amoskeag  boiler 
is  an  upright  tubular  body,  Avith  a  submerged  smoke-box  and  fire-box 
r.urrounded  with  water.  When  the  engine  is  running,  the  water  in 
the  boiler  should  be  carried  so  as  to  stand  at  the  third  gauge-cock, 
which  is  placed  near  the  top  of  the  tubes,  and  it  should  never  be  car- 
ried below  the  centre  of  the  tubes  at  which  point  the  first  gauge-cock 
is  located.  5.  Avoid  using  an  unnecessary  amount  of  steam.  The 
tendency  is  to  use  more  than  is  required.  From  sixty  to  eighty 
pounds  is  as  much  as  you  will  generally  require  to  do  good  fire  duty. 
C  Tho  engnie  nas  two  suitable  feed  pumps  for  supplying  the  boiler 
T/ith  water.  One  of  these  ptimps  should  be  worked  nearly  all  the 
time,  in  order  to  keep  the  water  in  the  boiler  at  the  proper  height, 
and  to  preserve  an  even  pressure  of  steam.  7.  If  brackish  water  is 
used  for  supplying  the  boiler,  or  if  the  boiler  becomes  foul  from  long 
use  without  being  blown  off,  it  is  likely  to  foam  or  prime.  If  foam- 
ing occurs  while  the  engine  is  working  at  a  fire,  it  may  be  prevented 
or  diminished  by  opening  the  surface  blow-off  cock,  which  is  located 
between  the  third  and  fourth  gauge-cocks,  and  blowing  off  from  the 
eurface  of  the  water  the  scum  and  oily  matter  which  usually  causes 
foaming.  In  this  way  the  difficulty  can  generally  be  prevented  with- 
out any  serious  interruption  in  the  working  of  the  engine.  While 
doing  this  the  water  in  the  boiler  should  be  carried  as  high  as  tho 
surface  bloAv-ofC  cock.  After  the  engine  is  returned  to  the  house,  the 
water  should  be  blown  entirely  out  of  the  boiler  through  the  blow-off 
cock  near  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  with  a  steam  pressure  of  about 
twenty  pounds,  and  the  boiler  refilled  with  fres>i  water.  This  pro- 
cess may  be  repeated  until  the  boiler  becomes  clean.  8.  The  pump 
upon  the  Amoskeag  Engine  is  a  vertical  double-acting  pump,  with  the 
cylinder  surrounded  by  a  circular  chamber,  divided  vertically  outside 
the  cylinder,  so  as  to  answer  both  for  the  suction  and  discharge  cham- 
bers of  the  pump.  It  has  a  separate  valve-plate  at  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  i)ump,  carrying  both  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  ;  the  suc- 
tion valve  upon  one  side  of  the  plate,  and  the  discharge  valve  upon 
the  other.  Each  of  these  valve  i^lates  can  be  reached  by  taking  off 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pump,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  bo 
readily  removed.  The  discharge  and  suction  parts  of  the  water- 
cha,mber,  surrounding  the  cylinder,  are  connected  by  a  valve  in  the 
vertical  partition,  which  is  called  a  relief  valve.    1).  With  a  single 


38G      MACIimiST3  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


long  lino  of  lioso,  it  may  ho  nccogsary  to  opon  your  rcliof-valvo  a  little, 
but  at  all  other  times  bo  particular  to  liavo  it  closed,  cx(;ept  wlien 
you  want  to  feed  your  boiler  without  forcing  any  water  through  tha 
hose.  10.  In  the  smoke-pipe,  directly  over  the  upper  llue-sheet,  a 
valve  is  placed,  which  is  called  the  variable  exhaust-valve.  By  oper- 
ating tliis  valve  the  size  of  the  aperture  for  the  escape  of  the  steam 
from  the  steam -cylinder  ir,  increased  or  diminished,  thus  regulating 
the  draft  of  the  chimney  and  the  heat  of  the  fire.  This  valve  should  bo 
closed,  when  the  engine  is  started,  until  a  fair  working  pressure  of  steam 
is  obtained,  after  which  it  may  be  opeiied.  11.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
liave  the  suction  hose  and  its  connections  air-tight.  12.  Open  your 
tli«charge-gate  and  cylinder  drain-cock  before  starting  your  engine. 
13.  Don't  let  the  flues  of  your  engine  get  filled  up.  14.  Be  particular 
to  take  your  engine  off  the  springs  before  you  work  it,  and  to  place  ifc 
on  the  springs  again  when  done  working.  15.  With  a  long  line  of 
hose  on,  be  particular  to  open  your  throttle  gradually.  If  you  open 
it  too  suddenly  you  are  liable  to  burst  your  hose.  1(5.  The  pumps  of 
the  engine  should  be  examined  at  least  once  in  six  months,  to  see  that 
all  the  valves  and  parts  are  in  good  condition.  17.  The  pump-valves 
should  have  a  lift  of  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  the  suction 
valves  the  same  lift.  18.  The  inside  of  the  steam-cylinders  and  tlio 
steam-valves  should  be  oiled  or  tallowed  always  after  the  engine  has 
Avorked  at  a  fire,  and  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  them  well 
lubricated  ;  and  all  the  parts  of  the  engine,  where  liable  to  friction,' 
should  be  kept  well  oiled.  Be  particular  to  use  an  abundance  of  oil 
on  the  "  link-block,"  where  there  is  more  friction  than  in  any  other 
part.  18.  The  running-gear  and  every  part  of  the  engine  liable  to  dis- 
arrangement or  accident,  should  be  thoroughly  examined  every  time 
after  the  engine  has  been  out  of  the  house,  whether  it  has  been 
worked  at  a  fire  or  not.  19.  Whenever  your  engine  is  repaired,  try 
to  help  to  do  it  yourself,  as  by  so  doing  you  get  a  familiarity  with  it 
that  you  can  in  no  other  way  obtain. 


Besides  the  above  noted,  the  Amoskeag  Co.  manufacture  self  pro- 
pelling steam  fire  engines  capable  of  attaining  a  continuous  speed  of 
IG  miles  per  hour.  Steam  fire  engines  of  perfect  workmanship  and 
immense  power,  are  also  made  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. ,  Portland,  Maine, 
Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  Boston,  Mass.  and  many  other  places  throughout 
the  United  States. 

A  Fibeman's  Respirator,— Consisting  of  an  iron  cylinder  attached 
to  a  mask,  and  packed  with  cotton  wool,  glycerine,  and  charcoal, 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DKPARTMENT.  387 


has  been  exhibited  in  London,  by  Prof.  Tyndall;  the  wearer  is  enabled 
to  remain  in  an  atmospl\ere  of  smoke,  which  he  could  not  otherwise 
bear,  for  a  quarter  or  half  an  hour. 

An  Improved  Fire  Escape, — called  the  Jenks-Richard's  fire- 
ladder  has  been  adopted  in  many  places.  It  is  a  permanent  fixture  to 
the  building,  and  is  attached  to  the  cornice  of  the  house,  and  comes 
down  when  the  alarm  is  sounded,  giving  the  inmates  a  chance  to 
escape  when  other  exits  are  cut  off,  and  the  firemen  a  plan  to  ascend 
with  the  hose,  and  fight  the  fire  at  the  greatest  possible  advantage. 

Cast  Iron  for  Steam  Cylinders— yer?/  haixl. — Scrap  iron,  300  lbs. 
Scotch  pig,  40  lbs.,  charcoal  pig,  No.  5,  40  lbs.  Another,  very  strong 
and  close  grained.  Scrap  iron,  100  lbs.,  Scotch  j)ig,  100  lbs.,  charcoal  pig 
No.  5,  80  lbs. 

Cylinders  should  be  bored  in  a  vertical  position  whenever  possible, 
removing  a  heavy  cut  at  first  and  gradually  cutting  to  within  1-32  of 
an  inch  of  the  finished  size,  and  finally  brought  down  to  the  proper 
dimensions  by  removing  the  balance  with  a  cutter  embodying  in  its 
form  a  combination  of  the  circular  and  diamond  pointed  shapes. 
Some  manufacturers  used  a  mass  of  lead  (cast  in  the  cylinder  to  give 
it  the  proper  shape)  together  with  emery  and  oil  between  the  abrading 
surfaces,  for  finishing  their  cylinders,  the  latter  revolving  slowly,  while 
the  operation  continues. 

Rule  for  Thickness  of  STEAMCrLiNDER.— Divide  the  diameter 
of  cylinder  plus  2  by  16,  and  deduct  a  1-100  part  of  the  diameter  from 
the  quotient ;  the  remainder  will  be  the  proper  thickness.  The  depth 
of  the  piston  rings  should  be  equal  to  ^  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder, 
and  the  follower  plate  should  be  equal  in  thickness  to  the  cylinder. 
The  following  table  gives  very  good  results. 


Diameter  of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

Diameter  of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

G 

5-8 

14 

1 

8 

11-lG 

15 

1 1-16 

9 

3-4 

17 

1 1-8 

10 

13-16 

18 

13-16  . 

11 

7-8 

19 

1  1-4 

12 

15-16 

21 

13-8 

Add  to  the  foregoing  dimensions  1-16  of  an  inch,  -^vhen  the  piston 
speed  exceeds  300  feet  per  minute. 

Piston  Rings. — To  prevent  rapid  wear  in  the  cylinder,  the  pistion 
rings  should  be  formed  of  some  material  softer  than  the  latter  ;  cast 
iron  is  much  used  for  this  purpose,  as  it  soon  attains  a  fine  smooth 
surface,  has  great  endurance,  and  generates  little  friction.  T&ey 
should  be  fitted  with  judgment  so  as  to  move  easily  between  the  flange 
of  the  piston-head  and  the  follower  plate,  in  order  that  they  may 
adjust  or  conform  themselves  to  any  slight  unevenness  in  the  cylinder. 
To  open  piston  vinfis,  hammer  them  lightly  with  a  round  pene  ham- 
mer all  round  their  inside  faces,  and,  as  they  become  leaky  and 
corrode  around  the  edges,  remove  them  from  the  cylinder  and  true 
them  up  in  a  lathe,  grind,  and  refit  them  to  the  flange  and  follower 
plate.   Piston  springs  are  iu  the  great  majority  of  cases,  too  stiff  and 


388      MACHINISTS  AND  KNGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT 


rigid  to  roiulor  them  in  every  way  satisfactory,  na  in  many  instances 
tlioy  entail  great  loss  of  power  hy  unnecessary  pressure  against  the 
cylind(!r.  Slmm  instons  possess  the  merit  of  Vm  first  cost,  vei-y  little 
friction,  simplicity,  and  after  a  proper  adjustment  by  a  competent 
person,  give  very  little  trouble.  JSolid  joistons  ])roduce  scarcely  any 
friction,  and  when  the  cylinder  is  bored  perfectly  true  through  its 
whole  length,  produce  excellent  results,  if  they  are  properly  fitted,  but 
lire  irreparable  when  they  become  worn  out,  as  they  camiot  be  re-ad- 
justed. The  piston  sjyeed  of  small  stationary  cnf/incs  ranges  from  200 
to  250  feet  per  minute;  average  speed  225  feet,  tliatof  km/e  stationary 
amines,  275  toooO  feet;  average  speed  312  feet;  that  of  C'oVZiss  Engines 
400  to  500  feet  per  minute ;  average  speed  400  feet;  that  of  locomotives 
and  Allen  engines  GOO  to  800  feet  per  minute,  average  700  ;  that  of 
engines  of  river  steamers  400  to  500  feet,  average  450  feet;  that  of 
ocean  steamers  400  to  GOO  feet,  average  600  feet.  If  the  piston  rod 
(/lands  become  tight,  ease  by  revolving  and  sliding  the  gland  back  and 
forth  on  the  rod,  applying  a  little  oil  to  the  rod  at  the  same  time.  In 
trueing  up  a  gland,  it  should  be  chucked  in  the  lathe  by  the  flange,  to 
ensure  the  turning  of  the  bore  and  outside  diameter  at  one  chucking, 
without  depending  on  the  accuracy  of  a  niandreh  Piston  rods  should 
be  secured  to  the  cross  head  by  means  of  a,  ytll  fitted  key  instead  of 
by  the  screw  and  jam  nut  arrangement  iis^'d  in  many  cases.  Piston 
rods  are  usually  made  of  wrought  iron,  btit  steel  is  to  be  preferred  on 
account  of  its  great  endurance,  small  friclion,  and  extreme  hardness, 
which  render  it  less  liable  to  be  flutedby  grit  in  the  packing,  &c.  The 
cross-heads  should,  in  every  case,  possess  the  esselitial  element  of 
strength,  to  resist  strains  of  every  kind,  and  also  capacious  anti- 
friction bearings  on  the  guides,  to  resist  the  wear  and  tear  of  protracted 
running. 

The  guides  should  be  powerful  enough  to  withstand  any  degree  of 
speed  without  springing  or  flinching  from  duty  in  the  slightest  degree, 
and,  on  horizontal  engines  they  should  be  made  moveable,  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  replaced  by  others  when  they  become  worn  out. 

Crank  pins  are  usually  made  of  wrought  iron,  although  for  obvi- 
ous reasons,  steel  is  the  best  material.  Owing  to  excessive  friction  the 
crank  pins  are  liable  to  become  hot,  and  for  this  reason  they  should 
receive  close  attention  from  the  engineer.  A  mixture  of  a  little  sul- 
phur in  oil,  or  plumbago  and  oil,  forms  a  good  cooling  lubricant  in 
such  emergencies.  The  diameter  of  the  crank  pin  should  be  from  .2 
to  .25  that  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  length  from  .275  to  .35  the  diameter 
of  the  cylinder,  or  for  a  cylinder  12  ins.  in  diameter  and  30  ins.  stroke, 
the  length  of  crank  pin  should  bo  3.3  to  4  ins.,  and  the  diameter  2.4 
to  3  ins. 

The  Steam  chest  should  be  capacious  enough  to  furnish  sufficient 
room  for  the  valve  gear  arrangement,  the  transmission  of  steam  to 
the  piston,  &c.,  but  not  unnecessarily  large  to  induce  weakness  in  the 
parts,  loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  &c. 

Valve  rods  should  be  constructed  of  substantial  material  to  with- 
stand the  varied  .strains  to  which  they  are  liable  ;  they  are  usually  of 
wrought  iron,  but  steel  is  to  be  preferred  for  various  reasons.  The 
length  of  valve  rods  may  be  correctly  ascertainecl  by  placing  the  valve 
in  a  central  position  over  the  steam  ports,  and  the  rocker  or  interme- 
diate bearings  in  a  vertical  position,  and  measuring  from  the  centre 
of  the  rocker  stud  to  the  centre  of  the  valve. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  389 


The  dimensions  of  the  rock  shaft-bearing,  should  be,  if  subjected  to 
a  twisting  movement,  or  torsion,  ^  or  \  the  diameter  of  the  engine 
shaft,  if  not  so  subjected,  \  the  diaineter  of  the  engine  sliaft  will  an- 
swer. The  diameter  of  the  rock  shaft  pin  ought  to  be  no  less  than 
the  valve  stem;  but  if  it  is  an  overhanging  pin,  it  ought  to  be  from  ^ 
to  1^  the  diameter  of  valve  stem. 

Eccentric  rods  should  be  substantially  made  of  good  stock,  and  suf- 
ficiently stiff  and  rigid  to  withstand  the  mt-inifold  strains  to  which 
they  are  liable,  without  being  subjected  to  extreme  vibration,  so  that 
a  steady  movement  may  be  imparted  by  the  eccentric  to  the  valve, 
und  they  are  all  the  better  for  being  long. 

To  adjust  an  eccentric  rod,  place  the  crank  at  the  end  of  its  stroke, 
and  the  eccentric  at  right  angles  with  the  crank.  Now  regulate  the 
eccentric-straps  and  adjust  the  rocker  in  a  vertical  position.  The 
proper  length  of  the  eccentric  may  now  be  determined  if  the  eccen- 
tric-catch conforms  itself  to  the  rocker  pin,  without  moving  the  latter 
to  either  side.  The  length  of  the  eccentric  rod  is  the  space  between 
the  centre  of  the  crank  shaft  and  that  of  the  rocker  pin,  when  the  lat- 
ter is  vertical. 

The  eccentric  rod  may  hi  attached  by  turning  the  end  of  the  rod  ta- 
iloring, to  adapt  it  to  a  suitable  hole  in  a  sleeve  cast  on  the  forward 
titraps  of  the  eccentric,  to  which  it  may  be  secured  by  a  proper  key  ; 
another  way  is  to  insert  the  rod  into  the  sleeve  and  fasten  Avith  jam 
nuts.  The  diameter  of  the  eccentric  rod,  should,  at  the  neck,  equal 
that  of  the  valve  rod,  and  should  increase  ^  inch  to  the  foot  of  the 
eccentric. 

The  pillow  blocks  or  main  bearings  of  an  engine  should  be  the  ob- 
jects of  close  attention  on  the  part  of  the  engineer,  as,  owing  to  the 
excessive  friction  and  wear  and  tear  at  this  vital  point,  they  are  liable 
to  become  hot  and  cause  Inuch  trouble.  In  such  emergencies  mako 
nse  of  the  following 

Cooling  Compound  for  Heavy  Bearings. — Tallow,  2  lbs  ; 
plumbago,  G  ozs  ;  sugar  of  lead,  4  ozi^  ;  melt  the  tallow  Avith  gentle 
heat,  and  add  the  other  ingredient.^,  stirring  until  cold.  For  lubricat- 
ing gearing,  wooden  cogs,  «S;c. ,  nothing  better  need  bo  used  than  a 
thin  mixture  of  soft  soap  and  black  lead.  Tiie  following  processes 
will  prove  useful  to  engineers  and  machinists  in  many  cases  : 

To  Prevent  Sperm  Oil  Gumming.— The  addition  of  kerosene  oil 
will  greatly  assist  in  preventing  gumming  ;  rummage  100  imrts  oil 
with  4  parts  chloride  of  lime,  and  12  of  Avater  ;  now  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  decoction  of  oak-baric  to  destroy  all  traces  of  gelatinous  mat- 
ter still  remaining,  and  allow  the  impurities  to  settle.  Next,  agitate  the 
clear  part  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  settle  once  more,  and'Avash  to 
remove  the  acid,  which  should  never  be  permitted  to  exist  in  any  oil 
used  on  machinery.  If  oil  becomes  rancid,  boil  it  along  Avith  Avater 
and  a  little  bi-carljonate  of  magnesia  for  15  minutes  or  so,  until  it 
loses  its  power  to  redden  litmus  paper. 

M.\CHiNERv  Lubricants.— A  patent  has  been  taken  out  in  Franco 
for  lubricants  compounded  as  foUoAvs  :  First,  graphite,  35  parts  ; 
talc,  25  ;  sulphur,  20  ;  Avax  or  paraffin,  20.  graphite  CO  parts ; 

bone-glue,  15  ;  water,  32  ;  sulphur,  12  ;  Avax  or  paraffin,  11. 

Tiie  Crank  shaft  being  the  primary  agent  for  the  transmi^ision  of 
power,  should,  in  all  cases  be  Avell  proportioned  in  order  to  perform 
effective  duty  and  resist  the  shearing  and  Us  isitiiig  straina  to  whicli 


390      MACHINISTS  AND  KNGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


it  is  fliibjeetod.  Thoy  aro  often  inado  of  cast  iron  smoothly  turned, 
and  should  bo  5-10  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  for  elBcient  use,  o* 
the  diameter  of  the  shaft  may  bo  4-10  that  of  the  cylinder  when 
wrouglit  iron  is  used,  and  the  leuf/thoi  the  a-ank  shaft  heurinfi  should 
1)0  equal  to  1^  times  its  diameter,  or,  lor  massive  machinery,  twico 
the  diameter  will  be  required. 

Tlie  area  of  the  crank  at  the  central  part  should  bo  exactly  that  of 
the  shaft  ;  the  ihickness  should  be  equivalent  to  that  of  the  shalt 
journal  multiplied  by  G  :  the  thickness  of  tho  web  of  the  crank 
should  be  equivalent  to  3  times  the  diameter  of  shaft  journal.  Tho 
boss  of  the  crank,  if  of  wrou^i;ht  iron,  should  bo  equivalent  to  tho  di- 
ameter of  the  shaft  journal  or  pin  multiplied  by  4,  and  if  of  cast  iron, 
should  equal  double  that  of  tho  shaft  journal,  and  the  depth  shoul4 
equal  that  of  the  crank  journal  multiplied  by  7.  Tho  diameter  of 
crank  at  the  X)in  .should  equal  twice  the  diameter  of  pin,  and  its  depth 
at  the  same  part  should  be  equivalent  to  the  diameter  of  the  pin  mul- 
tiplied by  12. 

The  Governor  should  bo  Icept  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  all 
gummy  deposits,  or  old  dry  packing  which  may  retard,  or  impede  it.<j 
movements  in  any  way  whatever.  The  best  of  oil  only  should  be  used, 
and  thorough  duty  should  be  performed  when  the  governor  spindle 
works  through  stufiing  boxes,  to  have  the  boxes  carefully  packed  at 
regular  intervals. 

To  FIND  THE  Diameter  of  GovERNOR-SnAFT  Pulley.— Multi- 
ply tho  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  by  the  diameter  of  tho 
engine  shaft  pulley  and  divide  tho  product  by  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  governor. 

To  FIND  the  Diameter  of  the  Engine  Shaft  Pullet. — Multi- 
ply the  revolutions  of  the  governor  by  tho  diameter  of  the  governor 
shaft  pulley,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  the  revolutions 
of  the  engine. 

Facts  for  Steam  Users. — A  fair  horse-power  ia  a  steam  boiler 
is  an  evaporation  of  30  lbs.  of  water  per  hour,  from  a  temperature  of 
212°.  Ten  pounds  of  water,  evaporated  from  a  temperature  of  212° 
for  each  pound  of  coal,  is  high  economy.  Six  pounds  is  fair  Avork, 
and  above  the  average.  I'^uder  tho  best  conditions,  a  horse-power  can 
be  had  from  an  evaporation  of  less  than  20  lbs.  of  water.  Every 
owner  of  steam  power  should  weigh  tho  water  evaporated  in  his 
boiler,  and  also  tho  coal  nsed  to  produce  such  evaporation.  A  meas- 
ure of  some  kind  that  will  show  tho  weight  of  feed  water,  passing 
into  a  boiler  v/ith  accuracy,  should  bo  used  with  all  boilers  when 
economy  is  an  object.  It  should  bo  the  duty  of  a  fireman  to  know 
the  weight  of  tho  fuel  used  as  well  as  tho  vv^eight  of  v.'ater.  No  man 
has  any  right  to  find  fault  with  the  economy  of  lug  boiler  until  ho 
knows  the  amount  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  and  tho  amount  of 
coal  fequired  to  produce  the  same.  In  getting  the  evaporative  power 
of  a  steam  boiler,  it  is  necessary  that  tho  steam  should  be  dry  to  get 
a  fair  result.  A  boiler  that  carries  out  water  with  its  steam  may  show 
a  large  apparent  evaporation,  but  the  steam,being  wet,  is  of  less  valud 
in  the  engine.  A  boiler  should  give  dry  steam  in  all  cases.  Super- 
heating is  beneficial.  Boilers  that  are  overworked,  necessarily  wasta 
fuel.  A  boiler  taxed  to  its  full  evaporative  power,  evaporates,  say, 
5  lbs.  of  water  to  1  lb.  of  coal :  double  the  size  of  the  boiler,  and  you 
will  jjct  tlic  same  amount  of  steam,  with  probably  30  to  CO  per  cent 


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15-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


16-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


18-inch, 
6  drivers. 
Freight. 


18-inch, 
6  drivers. 
Anthracite. 


j8-inch, 
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Anthracite. 

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392     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEKRS'  DEPARTMENT. 


less  fuel.  A  boilor  may  gonorato  stoam  with  groat  economy,  and, 
owing  to  the  steam  being  wasted  hy  improper  application  to  the  work, 
tlirougli  tlie  engine,  tlie  result  in  work  be  very  unsatisfactory,  and 
the  boiler  blamed  unjustly.  When  steam  is  used  exi)ansively,  wndcr 
the  best  conditions,  it  will  give  double  the  power  for  the  same  amount 
of  steam  that  can  begot  from  it  worked  at  full  stroke,  or  witliout 
expansion.  When  steam  is  used  in  non-condensing  engines  at  low 
pressure,  the  loss  is  great,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
(15  lbs.)  being  a  greater  percentage  of  a  l<nv  than  of  a  liigh  pressure. 
Tlie  loss  ior  piston — not  boiler — pressures  is  as  follows  : — 
Atmosphere.    Pressure  steam.      Total  pressure  on  piston.  Loss. 

15   5  20   ;3-l 

15   10   25   C-5 

15   15   30   1-2 

15   20   35   3-7 

15   25   40   3-3 

15   30   45   3-9 

15   35   50  3-10 

15   45   GO   1-4 

15   GO   75   1-5 

15   75   90   l-(i 

15   90  105   1-7 

The  steam,  made  from  a  certain  weight  of  water,  used  through  a 
non-eondensing  engine,  at  10  lbs,  per  square  inch  pressure  above  tho 
atmosphere,  without  expansion,  would  give  only  about  one  quarter 
the  power  that  would  be  got  from  the  same  steam  if  used  at  75  above 
the  atmosphere,  and  with  the  best  expansion.  Boilers  can  scarcely 
be  too  large  ;  20-horse  power  can  be  obtained  in  a  40-horse  power 
boiler  more  economically  than  in  a  20-horse  power.  John  B.  Root. 

A  prominent  authority  verifies  the  astounding  statement,  that  a 
record  of  Boiler  Explosions  that  have  occurred  in  the  United  States 
extending  over  about  five  years,  shows  the  appalling  results  of  nearly 
GOO  explosions,  about  3,000  killed,  over  1,000  wounded,  besides  an  im- 
mense loss  of  property.  Fire  insurance  does  not  cover  the  loss  by 
explosion,  unless  fire  occurs,  and,  even  then,  litigation  often  ensues." 
The  infliction  of  this  terrible  aggregation  of  suffering,  loss  of  life  and 
property,  might  have  been  averted  by  the  exercise  of  common  sense 
in  the  selection  of  boilers  which  possess  tho  elements  of  strength  and 
endurance  in  such  a  degree  as  to  put  the  question  of  safety  beyond  a 
peradventara.  Setting  aside  the  beclouded  theories  of  self-styled  ex- 
perts, regarding  certain  explosive  gases,  mysterious  chemical  changes, 
electricity,  etc.,  in  the  boiler,  the  simple  truth  is  reached  Avhen  wo 
come  down  to  the  solid  basis  of  cause  and  effect;  and  in  every  case 
of  boiler  explosion  we  will  find  that  the  true  cause  is  simply  imperfect 
strength  in  the  boiler.  The  deficiency  may  arise  from  defective 
material,  or  faulty  workmanship,  overheating,  overjiressure,  o^  er- 
iiring,  burning  of  the  boiler-plates,  caused  by  shortness  of  water,  or 
the  tolerance  of  scale  or  deposits  in  the  boiler,  or  by  criminal  negli- 
gence.^ These  are  only  different  forms  or  phases  of  expressing  the 
truth  just  noted,  and  whoever  constructs  a  boiler  absolutely  free  from 
liability  to  destructive  explosion,  has  achieved  an  engineering  triumph 
which  entitles  him  to  recognition  as  a  i^ublic  benefactor.  As  one  who 
is  cognizant  of  much  suffering  arising  from  the  causes  enumerated 
above,  the  writer  can  truthfully  aver  that  he  is  moved  by  no  motives 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  393 
otlier  than  those  of  liumauity  in  making  favorable  mention  of 


The  Root  Wrought  Iron  Safety  Boiler. 


Those  boilers,  made  by  the  Abendroth  &  Root  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany of  New  York,  are  constructed  on  correct  scientific  principles,  on 
what  is  Icjiown  as  the  sectional  system,  being  composed  entirely  of 
wrought  iron  lap-welded  tubes,  which  are  tested  to  a  pressure  of  500 
lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  are  said  to  be  capable  of  withstanding  two 
or  three  times  that  pressure.  These  tubes,  4  inches  in  diameter,  and 
10  feet  in  length,  are  lap-welded,  consequently  they  have  no  rivetted 
joints,  thereby  enhancing  their  strength.  The  boiler  is  constructed 
entirely  of  these  uniform  and  interchangeable  parts,  perfectly  free 
from  explosion,  easily  enlarged  or  diminished  in  size,  all  parts  being 
easily  accessible  for  cleaning,  repairs,  or  removal;  also  economical, 
durable,  and  a  rapid  generator  of  steam.  Of  these  boilers,  nearly 
50,000  horse-power  have  been  sold,  and  are  giving  good  satisfaction  to 
the  purchasers. 

The  next  cut  represe,nts  the  Renshaw  Cant  Iron  Sectional  Boiler, 
constructed  by  Dougherty  &  Broome,  New  York,  which  embodies  the 
possession  of  a  perfect  constellation  of  most  excellent  requirements 
as  £1  generator  of  steam  power,  among  others,  complete  immunity 
from  explosion.  As  to  the  capacity,  etc.,  of  this  boiler,  limited  space 
will  only  permit  the  insertion  of  the  following  valuable  testimony,  by 
Dr.  P.  H.  Van  der  Weyde,  the  able  editor  of  the  Manufacturer  and 
Builder  :  "  We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  witnessing  the  rapidity 
with  which  steam  may  be  raised  in  a  boiler  of  this  kind,  in  one  rated 
at  25  horse-power,  at  the  establishment  of  Messrs.  Dougherty  & 
Broome,  143-147  Bank  street,  New  York.   The  fire  was  started  while 


S94     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


cold,  a,nd  in  half  an  lionr  there  was  a  pressure  of  70  iwunds,  and  the 
enftine  .started.  As  tlie  water  used  was  lor  the  purpose  of  measure 
ment  inclosed  in  a  tank  of  2  by  4  feet,  and  3  feet  nif^fi,\ve  could  easily 
measure  tlie  evaporating  capacity,  and  found  it  to  be  600  pouuds  per 
liour,  for  which  duty  the  furnace  consumed  50  pounds  of  coal.  Tliia 


The  Renshaw  Cast  Ikon  Sectional  Boiler. 


agreed  witli  the  testimony  of  the  engineer,  that  ^  ton  of  coal  was  used 
per  day  of  ten  hours,  while  it  showed  the  capacity  of  the  boiler  and 
furnace  to  be  the  evaporation  of  12  pounds  of  water  with  1  pound  of 
coal.  Tills  is  a  very  high  ratio,  when  we  consider  that  theoretical 
maximum,  when  no  heat  whatsoever  is  lost,  is  14  pounds  of  water  for 
1  of  coal,  (see  "Theory  of  Steam -Engineering,"  on  page  26  of  our 
February  number  for  this  year)." 

Proportion  of  Land  Boilers — For  each  nominal  horse  power  a 
laud  boiler  requires  :  1  cubic  foot  of  Avater  per  hour;  1  square  yard  of 
heating  surface  ;  1  square  foot  of  fire  grate  surface  ;  1  cubic  yard 
capacity;  28  square  Inches  of  flue  area;  18  square  inches  of  area  over 
bridge  wall. 

For  Cylindrical  Double-flued  5oi7ers— Length  multiplied  by  diam- 
eter divided  by  6  ==  nominal  horse  power. 

Tubular  Boilers  require  for  each  Horse  Poioer — 1  cubic  foot  of 
water  per  hour;  10  square  feet  of  heating  surface;  ^  square  foot  firo 
grate;  10  square  inches  sectional  area  of  tube;  13  square  inches  fluo 
area;  7  square  inches  chimney  area;  8  cubic  feet  total  boiler  capa- 
city; 2  cubic  feet  of  steam  room.  Diameter  of-  tubes  l-30th  of  their 
length. 

The  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  or  flue  surface  required  to 
evaporate  a  cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  an 
actual  horse  power,  is  in  different  boilers  as  follows :  Cornish  Boilers, 
70  square  feet;  Land  and  Marine  Boilers,  8  to  11  square  feet;  ioco- 
Tnotive  Boilers,  5  to  6  square  feet. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS  ,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


395 


llnXE  TO  FIND  THE  "WEIGHT  NECESSARY  TO  PUT  0:J  A  LeVEK 
TTHEN  THE  AREA  OF  VALVB,  LeVER,  &C.  ARE  KNOWN. — Multiply 

the  area  of  valve  by  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch;  multiply 
this  product  by  the  distance  of  the  lever  from  the  fulcrum  ;  multiply 
the  weight  of  lever  by  one-half  its  length  (or  its  centre  of  gravity) ; 
then  multiply  the  weight  of  valve  and  stem  by  their  distance  from 
the  fulcrum  ;  add  these  last  two  products  together,  aiid  subtract  their 
Bum  from  the  first  product,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  the  length, 
of  lever  ;  the  quotient  will  bo  the  weight  of  the  ball. — Roper. 


Example  : 

Area  of  valve  7  sq.  in. 
Pressure  .    .   GO  lbs. 


60  lbs. 
7  in. 


9  lbs. 
12  in. 


6  lbs. 
Sin. 


Fulcrum  3  in. 


420  lbs.       108  lbs.       13  lbs. 
3  in.         18  lbs. 


1260  12Glb3. 
Length  of  lever  24  i:i.    .     1^6  lbs. 

24)  1134  lbs. 

Weight  of  lever  0  Ibn. 

47.25  lbs.  weight  of  ball. 
Weight  of  valve  and  c:tcin  C  lbs. 


Marine  Engines. — Duties  to  machinery  when  in  Harbor  before 
getting  tmder  Steam,  hy  a  Practical  Engineer.  When  an  engineer 
takes  charge  of  the  machinery  of  a  boat  his  first  attention  ought  to  bo 
directed  to  his  boilers;  for,  being  the  source  of  power,  they  may  be- 
come the  source  of  great  danger  if  not  properly  looked  after.  In  in- 
specting the  boilers,  three  things  require  special  attention.  1.  The 
thickness  of  the  plates  above  the  fires  and  other  places  of  importance. 
2.  The  state  of  the  stays.  3.  The  position  of  the  gauges,  viz. :  the 
water  gauge,  cocks,  and  glass  water  gauges.  Respecting  the  first,  a 
general  plan  is  to  drill  a  small  hole  through  the  plate,  and  thus  find 
Its  real  thickness,  for  it  is  often  the  case  that  a  boiler  plate  may  be 
far  thicker  at  the  seams  than  in  the  middle.  At  the  seams  the  proper 
thickness  cannot  always  be  correctly  ascertained  on  account  of  the 
way  in  which  they  arc  caulked,  by  which  a  plate  may  appear  con- 


sue       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  ctC,  liECEIPTS. 

r>i(lcral)ly  thicker  tli.in  it  really  is.  After  tlio  hole  has  served  its  i)ur- 
l)Oso,  it  IS  tapped  and  plugged  tightly  up  again. 

As  regards  the  stays,  they  require  a  great  amount  of  attention;  fo  r 
they  aro  very  apt  to  get  eaten  through,  near  the  ])h\to»  by  oxidation. 
The  gauge  cocks  aro  often  placed  just  above  the  highest  row  of  tubes. 
Now  this  is  a  very  dangerous  practice,  for  it  is  possible  for  an  engujccr 
to  lose  his  water,  let  him  be  ever  so  careful,  when  great  danger  fol- 
lows ;  while  if  the  cocks  "sverc  placed  a  little  higher,  the  loss  of  water 
would  not  bo  attended  by  so  much  danger. 

Duties  to  Machinery  when  Steam  is  {letting  vp.  The  water  in  tho 
boiler  when  the  fires  aro  lighted  ouglit  to  be  just  above  the  bottom  of 
the  glass.  In  a  large  or  even  moderate  sized  boiler,  tho  water  will 
expand,  and  there  is  also  not  so  much  water  to  heat  at  first;  and  wo 
know,  by  reason  of  conduction  and  radiation,  that  small  bodies  of 
water  arc  heated  comparatively  more  rapidly  than  larger.  On  first 
lighting  the  fires  they  should  not  be  kept  too  large,  but  just  suflicient 
to  cover  the  bars.  A  large  thin  surface  of  fire  is  found  to  be  the  most 
effective  in  getting  under  way.  When  the  fires  are  lighted,  and  tho 
ftteamer  is  going  on  a  long  voyage,  it  is  the  practice  to  rub  the  polished 
parts  of  the  engine  over  with  a  composition  of  tallow  and  white  lead. 
This  prevents  any  rust  forming  on  tho  rods,  etc.,  from  water  dropping 
on  them  which  may  li.ave  been  used  for  keeping  the  bearings  cool. 

The  discharge  valve  is  also  opened  now,  or  else  on  starting  tho 
engine  something  will  give  way.  Several  accidents  have  occurred  by 
neglecting  to  do  this. 

The  safety  valves  aro  now  to  be  inspected  to  find  whether  they  aro 
fast  or  corroded  to  their  seatings.  If  so,  they  must  be  freed  and  mado 
ready  to  act  before  starting. 

It  is  a  good  plan  and  one  much  practised,  to  give  the  engines  a  good 
blowing  through  whilst  tho  steam  is  getting  up.  This  warms  tho 
cylinder  and  tries  any  joints  that  may  have  been  made  since  tho 
engines  were  worked  last.  It  also  saves  tho  steam,  for  if  not  done  now 
(when  the  engine  is  starting)  a  great  amount  of  steam  is  wasted  in 
heating  the  cylinder,  instead  of  imparting  ita  elastic  force  to  tho 
piston. 

Startinei  the  Enf/ines. — All  steamships  arc  now  fitted  with  tho 
double  eccentrics  or  "Stephenson's  Linlc  Motion,"  by  which  tho 
engines  are  started,  or  rather  by  this  tho  slide  valves  are  under  tho 
control  of  the  engineer,  and  can  bo  worked  back  or  forward  a.^ 
command  is  given,  by  cither  a  bar,  lever,  or  generaUy,  in  largo 
engines,  by  a  wheel. 

The  handles,  by  which  steam  is  turned  on  and  off,  with  the  injec- 
tion cock  handles,  are  placed  beside  the  wheel,  so  that  one  man  can 
now  generally  start  the  engine. 

Some  large  ships  have  a  steam  piston  so  fitted  that  it  rises  and  falls 
by  steam  admitted  above  or  below,  thus  raising  or  lowering  the  link  iu 
its  motion.  This  is  what  is  called  steam  starting  gear,  and  is  very 
handy  when  the  link  is  of  great  weight.  There  is  always  hand  gear 
fitted  as  weU,  which  can  be  used  in  cases  of  emergency.  In  giving  in- 
jection to  a  common  condenser,  it  should  be  opened  just  after  tho 
fcteam  is  turned  on  to  the  cylinders,  or  else  if  going  slowly  the  con- 
denser may  become  too  full  of  water,  and  tho  air  pump  not  able  to 
perform  its  "work  properly. 


MAcnixiSTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts.  397 

In  starting  an  engine  that  is  fitted  ivitli  surface  condensers,  the  only 
tiling  requiring  attention  before  going  on,  is  to  open  both  valves 
communicating  witli  tlie  sea  above  or  below  the  condenser,  viz.; 
Euction  to  the  circulating  pumps  and  delivery  from  them. 

Duties  token  under  Steam. — Always  keep  looking  at  the  water 
level.  This  is  sometimes  a  source  of  great  anxiety,  for  some  boilers 
require  the  water  to  be  kept  at  a  certain  fixed  level.  If  water  be  too 
high  they  will  not  keep  steam,  and  if  too  low  the  steam  will  generate 
too  fast.  Some  boilers  require  a  hi^h  water  level :  nothing  but  practice 
can  determine  it.  A  safe  rule  is  to  keej)  the  glass  gauge  about 
two  thirds  full.  Blowing  out  marine  boilers  should  be  practised  every 
two  or  three  hours.  Practice  has  proved  this  to  be  a  good  rule,  on 
account  of  not  so  much  water  being  required  to  be  blown  out  at  a  time, 
and  therefore  the  steam  pressure  is  not  reduced  to  a  very  great 
extent. 

In  steamers  fitted  with  surface  condensers,  a  little  sea  water  is 
supplied  to  the  boiler  to  make  up  for  the  loss  in  the  steam  pipes, 
jackets,  caps,  in  the  condensers,  etc.  This  in  time  may  injure  the 
boiler  if  not  counterbalanced  some  way  or  otlier.  The  general  rule  is 
to  blow  out  about  two  or  three  inches  every  twelve  hours.  The  water 
in  these  boilers  is  never  allowed  to  reach  more  than  2-30  of  saltness. 

Tlie  fires  require  much  consideration.  A  furnace  is  best  worked 
with  a  heavy  fire,  but  not  too  heavy,  thicker  towards  the  back  than 
front.  The  fresh  fuel  should  be  j)laced  in  front,  and  then  pushed 
back  after  being  thoroughly  heated.  Every  four  hours  (at  the  least) 
the  fires  should  be  cleaned  out,  as  large  clinkers  or  refuse  of  the  coals 
adhere  to  the  fire  bars  and  prevent  the  draught,  making  the  fires 
burn  dead,  especially  towards  the  back  of  the  furnace.  Sometimc.j 
the  slag  will  stick  fast  to  a  furnace  bar,  and  cannot  be  removed  from 
it.  This  causes  a  great  amount  of  trouble,  as  in  trying  to  remove  it, 
the  fire  bars  are  occasionally  pulled  out  of  their  places,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  fire  falls  through  causing  much  waste  and  often 
clanger. 

The  principal  thing  to  pay  attention  to  when  the  engines  are  under 
nteam,  is  to  keep  the  bearings  cool  and  the  glands  steam  tight.  Oil 
is  generally  used  for  keeping  bearings  cool,  but  when  larger  ones  aro 
working  hard,  a  jet  of  water  is  kept  playing  on  them.  This  is 
found  to  answer  very  well  when  the  water  iiijunied  on  before  they 
have  had  time  to  heat.  It  should  not  be  used  after  they  have  been 
alloAved  to  get  heated,  for  it  may  crack  them  by  too  sudden  contraction. 
A  good  stream  of  water  should  be  kept  running  on  the  thrust  block 
from  the  time  of  starting,  this  with  the  tallow,  which  is  always  put 
into  it  before  starting,  keeps  this  all  important  bearing  cool.  The  Cap 
of  the  thrust  block  reqiiires  great  care  in  adjusting.  If  screwed  on  too 
lightly  it  is  almost  sure  to  heat,  or  fire  as  it  is  termed,  and  if  not 
screwed  down  sufficiently  tight  the  unpleasant  jumping  shake  so  often 
experienced  in  onr  screw  ships  is  sure  to  follow.  The  packing  of  the 
gland  at  the  stem  tube  should  be  well  looked  after,  and  kept  quite 
tight  and  well  tallowed. 

In  paddle-wheel  steamers  there  is  frequently  not  sufficient  caro 
taken  about  the  outer  bearings  of  the  shafts.  In  very  few  ships  aro 
proper  means  provided  for  lubricating  these  important  parts.  At  the 
commencement  of  a  voyage,  the  outer  bearings  are  well  tallowed,  and 


398       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

often  put  down,  screwed  np,  .ind  left  to  look  after  themselves  as  best 
they  may.  Very  few  ships,  indeed,  being  provided  with  tubes  lead- 
ing down  from  the  paddle  boxes  to  the  oil  holes  of  the  blocks,  or  in 
which  means  are  provided  for  their  lubrication. 

The  coals  in  the  bunkers  must  bo  carefully  watched,  to  prevent 
ppontaneous  combustion.  The  stoppers  over  the  holes  should  bo 
kept  open  as  much  as  possible,  and  care  taken  not  to  keep  damp  coals 
longer  in  the  bunkers  than  can  be  avoided;  for  it  is  only  damp  coal 
that  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

In  new  fast  running  engines,  castor  oil  is  a  very  good  thing  to  use  on 
first  starting.  When  new  brasses  have  been  fitted  into  the  bearings, 
till  they  form  a  good  bearing  for  themselves,  the  same  should  bo 
used.  It  appears  to  have  a  much  finer  body  in  it  to  lubricate  than 
other  oils  have.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  .'le  oil  is  not  very  much, 
coarse  castor  oH  being.very  little  dearer  than  good  machine  oil. 

Duties  to  Machinery  when  the  Ship  has  arrived  in  Port. — The  whito 
lead  and  tallow  should  be  rubbed  off  with  a  piece  of  oily  waste,  and 
then  the  bright  work  of  the  engines  will  give  no  trouble  by  rusting. 
The  engines  should  have  a  good  blowuig  through  to  drive  out  all 
water  in  the  condensers,  then  the  Kingston's  valves  communicating 
with  the  sea,  should  be  shut,  next  open  the  condenser  dram  cocks, 
which  let  out  all  water  left  in  them.  This  is  allowed  to  run  into  tho 
bilges,  which  can  be  pumped  out  by  tho  donkey  pump,  or  tho  hand 
pump  if  no  steam  is  left  in  the  boilers. 

Some  engineers  always  blow  out  their  boilers  after  steaming,  otliers 
io  not,  the  latter  only  let  tho  fires  out  and  shut  the  valves  in  tho 
steam  pipes;  both  plans  have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
I'crhaps  the  majority  keeps  the  Avatcr  in  tho  boilers,  only  blowing  out 
when  repairs  or  an  examination  of  tho  boiler  is  required.  An  engineer 
should  always  examine  for  himseK,  whether  all  the  fires  are  properly 
out,  and  not  take  tho  word  of  the  stokers  for  it.  A  great  amount  of 
damage  may  bo  done  by  the  fire  not  being  properly  put  out  in'  tho 
ash  pits.  A  frequent  practice  is  to  get  a  heap  of  hot  ashes  together 
and  dash  some  water  over  it.  Tliis  makes  it  black  outside  and  leaves 
it  burning  inside.  The  ashes  should  rather  bo  spread  out  evenly,  and 
the  water  thrown  over  gradually  and  gently,  to  put  out  tho  firo 
effectually,  and  to  create  as  little  dirt  and  dust  as  possible. 

To  find  the  amount  of  Lap  on  the  Slide  Valves  (before  setting  tho 
slides).  Take  a  batten  of  wood,  and  place  it  on  the  cylinder  slido 
face  at  right  angles  to  and  over  the  ports.  Mark  off  on  it  the  edges 
of  the  steam  and  exhaust  ports  with  a  square  and  scriber.  By  placing 
this  on  the  face  of  the  slide  valve,  tlie  amount  of  laj)  can  at  onco  bo 
found. 

To  Set  the  Slides.— Vnt  the  piston  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  its  stroke. 
If  the  eccentric  is  rightly  fijced  on  the  shaft,  simply  fasten  the  slide 
valve  on  the  spindle  with  the  required  amount  of  lead.  Then  turn 
the  engine  to  tho  other  end  of  its  stroke,  and  see  if  the  lead  is  tho 
same ;  or  in  some  engines  more  lead  is  given  at  the  bottom  than  at  tho 
top  (as  in  vertical  engines).  If  tho  engine  is  fitted  with  the  link 
motion,  the  reversing  eccentric  is  then  connected  and  the  valve  tested 
in  like  maimer.  Also  with  the  link  motion,  the  slide  rod  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  link;  and  although  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  on 
the  shaft  ought  to  destroy  any  motion  of  tho  valve,  yet  there  is  a  little 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS*  DEPARTMENT.  399 


with  a  short  link.  This  is  tested  to  see  that  the  steam  ports  are  always 
closed  and  thus  the  engines  can  be  stopped,  even  if  the  full  pressure 
of  steam  be  admitted  to  the  back  of  the  slide  by  the  stop  or  throttle 
valves. 


PORTABLE  CONDENSma  STEAM  ENGINE. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  portable  condensing  steam  engine  of  a 
pattern  quite  common  in  Europe.  A,  Working-beam ;  b,  Steam  pis- 
ton; C,  Cylinder;  e,  Upper  Steam  port;  d,  Lower  Steam  port;  E, 
Throttle  valve;  F,  Fly-wheel;  i,  Crank;  K,  k,  Eccentric  and  eccentric 
rod  for  working  the  steam  valves;  I,  Steam  valve  and  valve  casing;  n, 
Condenser;  o,  Injection  cock;  q.  Hot  well;  r,  Shifting  valve  to  cause 
a  vacuum  in  the  condenser  previous  to  starting  the  engine;  S.  S,  Feed 
pump;  t,  Cold  water  pump  for  supplying  the  condenser  cistern;  ii, 
Governor;  V,  Connectmg  rod;  lo,  Air  pump;  X.  X,  The  parallel  mo- 
tion; y,  Condenser, 

Sterro  Metal.— Copper,  55  to  60  parts,  zinc,  34 to  Mparts,  iron  3 
to  4  parts,  tin,  2  to  4  parts.  Sterro  Metal  is  used  for  the  pumps  of 
hydraulic  presses,  &c.  It  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  pressure  of 
from  43,000  to  85,000  per  square  inch. 

Steam  Fire  Engines  are  or  should  be  constructed  with  steel 
boilers  and  blast  tubes,  copper  tubes  and  large  water  spaces,  together 
with  a  good  lit  out  of  gauges,  safety  valves,  injectors,  &c.,  with  facility 
of  getting  up  steam  in  from  G  to  iO  minutes  from  cold  water,  and  in 


400       MACniNTSTS,  KXGINEERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

about  5  minntos  from  -^.aterat  130°.  Tlicso  Tnachinos  ns  now  con- 
Btructed  arc  of  great  elegance  and  power,  some  of  them  liaving  pro- 
jected a  coutinuous,  solid  stream  of  water  over  300  feet,  through  100 
I'cet  of  liosc,  fitted  with  1^  inch  nozzle.  Steam  pressure  about  80  lbs. 
per  square  inch.  The  principle  is  that  of  a  steam  pump,  being 
iitted  with  the  usual  air  chaniDer  to  iuduce  a  continual  steam,  Seo 
diagram  of  fire  engine  Avith  horses  attached. 

PoRTABi.E  Engines  arc  constructed  as  light  as  possible,  consistent 
with  proper  strength  of  parts,  in  order  to  render  tliem  available  for 
easy  transportation.  Sometimes  they;  are  mounted  on  wheels,  and 
are  in  quite  extensive  use  for  driving  light  saw-mills,  threshing, 
brick-making,  i)umpin^,  chaff-cutting,  &c. 

CoENiSH  ENGiNES.-Are  usually  single  acting  beam  engines  which  use 
the  steam  at  a  very  early  "cut  off,"  and  only  on  one  side  of  the  pis- 
ton, making  great  use  of  its  expansivQ  property,  and  are  used  entirely 
for  pumping  water  in  mines  and  cities.  Steam  is  used  in  effecting 
the  downward  movement  of  tlic  ijistou,  being  the  stroke  which  liitj 
the  water,  the  upward  movement  is  caused  by  the  weight  of  the  plun- 
gers, rods  &c.,  at  the  pump  end  of  the  beam.  Cornish  engines  arc 
usually  very  massive  and  j)owerful,  but  the  first  cost  is  enormous, 
and  there  is  quite  an  outcry  against  them  in  some  i)laces. 

In  the  line  of  pumping  machinery,  possibly  the  largest  engines  in 
the  world  are  those  doing  duty  at  llaarlem  Lake,  Holland.  The  en- 
gines, three  in  number,  drain  a  surface  of  45.230  acres,  an  average 
lift  of  the  water,  dependmg  on  the  state  of  the  tides,  being  IG  feet. 
Each  engine  lifts  GG  tons  of  Avater  per  stroke  to  a  height  of  10  feet ; 
"when  pressed,  each  lifts  109  tons  to  that  height.  Running  economic- 
ally, each  lifts  75,000,000  lbs.  of  Avater  1  foot  high  for  94  lbs.  of  Welsh 
coal.  Diameter  of  cylinders  (annular  in  form),  13  feet,  Avith  inner 
cylinders  7  ft.  diameter. 

Instructions  to  Engineers  and  Firejien  on  Locomotia'es.— 
Keep  the  fire  evenly  and  uniformly  spread  over  the  grate  Avithout 
elevations  or  depressions.  Eire  from  large  coal,  as  it  leaves  Avider 
openings  between  the  lumps  for  the  admission  of  air,  may  be  deeper 
than  when  the  coal  is  small  and  lies  dose  together.  Kemovc  all 
incombustible  material  and  clinkers  from  the  furnace  as  soon  as  pos- 
fcible,  they  prevent  the  draught  from  producing  proper  results.  Tho 
l)ulk  of  fuel  on  the  grate  should  always  be  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  fuel  consumed.  The  dampers  in  the  front  and  rear  of 
the  ash-pan  regulate  the  draught  admitted  to  the  furnace,  and  requiro 
very  careful  attention,  as  the  stream  of  air  issues  Avith  a  velocity  of 
72  ft.  per  second  Avhen  the  dampers  are  open  and  train  under  full 
lieadway.  At  a  speed  of  GO  miles  per  hour  the  pressure  of  the  cur- 
rent of  air  amounts  to  9  lbs.  on  every  square  foot.  One  ton  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  requires  300,000  cubic  feet  of  air  for  its  combustion,  of 
which  100,000  is  required  to  consume  the  gases  evolved  from  it. 
Anthracite  coal  requires  310.480  cubic  feet  of  air  per  ton  for  its  com- 
bustion. It  burns  without  smoke,  requires  a  good  supply  of  oxygen 
and  intense  heat  to  burn  it,  but  makes  a  very  fierce  fire.  Good 
l)ractice  requires  complete  combustion  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
available  in  the  fuel  ;  insufflcent  air  causes  a  dense  black  smoke  to 
issue  from  the  chimney,  and  the  loss  of  heating  effect,  and  too  much 
air,  lowers  tho  temperature  of  the  flame  and  dissipates  the  heat  01 


MAcnixisTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts.  401 

good  coal,  G2.2  per  ceiit.  go  to  form  stoam,  and  1  lb.  will  in  good 
practice  evaporate  7^  lbs.  of  water.  In  practice  tlie  greatest  evapora- 
tive power  of  1  lb.  of  coke  is  9^  lbs.  of  water,  in  common  practice  ifc 
is  8^  lbs.  and  78  per  cent,  of  its  products  go  to  form  steam,  22  per  cent, 
being  lost  by  products  of  combustion,  ashes,  etc.  The  lieating  power 
of  coke  as  compared  with  that  of  coal  is  in  the  proportion  of  about 
14  : 12.  Tlie  temperature  produced  by  the  combustion  of  coke  in  tho 
hottest  part  of  the  fire  box,  may  be  estimated  at  16GG°  Centigrade. 
The  temperature  produced  by  wood  is  usually  less  than  1111°  Centi- 
grade, (100°  Centigrade  is  equivalent  to  212°  Fahr).  The  proper  com- 
"bustion  of  coal  requires  the  admission  of  air  both  through  and  abovo 
the  grate,  the  right  proportion  depending  upon  the  percentage  of  tho 
gaseous  components  in  the  coal :  In  the  combustion  of  colvo  the  air 
may  be  admitted  through  the  grate  only,  1  lb.  of  coke  requiring  about 
200  cubic  feet  of  air.  For  receiving  the  best  effects  from  the  fuel, 
the  emission  of  the  gases  from  the  furnace  shoiild  be  retarded,  iu 
order  to  promote  complete  combustion  under  liigh  temperature,  for 
this  reason  the  grate  surface  should  be  as  large  as  possible  to  induco 
n  slower  current,  and  the  weight  of  the  steam  exhausted  and  the  air 
inhaled  should  be  in  every  case,  tho  same.  For  tho  prevention  of 
emoke,  engineers  usually  rely  on  the  damper,  tho  ash  pan  and  tho 
fire  door,  with  careful  stoking.  They  endeavor  to  prevent  tho 
formation  of  smoke  by  controlling  the  admission  of  air  tlirough  tho 
grate,  adjusting  it  exactly  to  the  demands  of  the  fuel,  also  by  the  firo 
door  for  the  admission  of  air  abovo  tho  fuel,  by  firing  with  largo 
pieces  of  coal,  and  deep  fires  for  heavy  duty,  and  smaller  coals  witli 
shallow  fires  for  lighter  duty,  by  firuig  more  frequently  to  lighten 
tlie  duty,  and  at  all  times  by  keeping  the  bars  covered  with  fuel  to 
l^rcvent  excessive  local  draughts  through  the  grate.  Fresh  coal  should 
be  thrown  on  under  the  fire  door  directly  inside,  and,  when  partly 
burned,  pushed  forward  towards  tho  tubes ;  but  when  the  grates  are 
inclined,  it  will  work  downwards  by  gravitation.  Never  fill  a  hot 
boiler  Avith  cold  water,  and  always  allow  it  to  cool  off  before  running 
the  water  out;  never  blow  out  a  boiler  while  hot,  under  any  circum- 
Btancos,  as  tho  heated  plates  will  be  sure  to  bake  the  deposits  of  mud 
into  a  compact  scale  of  great  tenacity  ;  if  allowed  to  cool,  these 
deposits  will  settle  down  in  a  soft  mass  easily  swept  out  with  a  hoso 
and  water.  Frequent  duty  should  be  made  of  washing  out  all 
deposits  of  foreign  matter  from  the  barrel  of  tho  boiler,  the  tubes, 
and  from  the  crown  sheets  between  the  crown  bars,  especially  whilo 
using  bad  water,  and  after  heavy  rains  ;  and  screw-plugs,  made  of 
liard  brass,  should  be  fitted  to  every  boiler  near  the  sides  of  tho  firo 
box,  to  permit  the  use  of  a  hose  with  water  for  this  purpose. 

To  avert  danger  from  intense  heat,  to  save  fuel,  and  keep  up  a 
free  circulation,  engineers  should  adjust  the  injector  so  that  tho 
boiler  will  lose  a  little  water  while  running  between-  stations,  if  tho 
injector  is  kept  at  work  during  stoppages,  this  loss  will  be  compen- 
sated, and  a  full  supply  always  kept  up,  absorbing  the  surplus  lieat 
and»preventmg  explosion,  incessant  watchfulness  is  necessary  to 
look  out  for  impending  danger  in  every  possible  direction,  and  no 
engine  driver,  while  on  duty,  should  relax  his  energy,  care,  caution, 
watchfulness,  decision,  and  presence  of  mind  for  a  single  moment.  If 
vigilance  and  endurance  were  ever  necessary  in  any  business  or  call- 


402       MACITTNISTS,   ENGINEERS',  ScC.,  nECEIPTS. 


ln<?,  most  oerfciinly  they  are  of  paramount  importance  in  this  above  all 
others.    See  that  the  safety  valves  arc  properly  acting,  and  that 

rt  el  ©     ffr^  - 


II  •  -Sol 

.ti'^.g     a?  o  rt 


OH     !zi  --g 


«  fl  H  O  <»  -'^ 
^  ^'^  -^"^  l-i 

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s  « "1  2  5 
1::^  S  W 1-^  . 


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^  A  P<  ;h  <N  V  « 


the  indications  of  the  steam  gauge  are  correct.  In  experiments  mado 
with  a  locomotiYe  boiler,  the  fire  being  kept  regular,  and  the  engme 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  403 

at  rcKt,  in  9  minutes  the  pressure  increased  from  32  lbs.  to  74-|  lbs.  per 
equare  inch,  bein^  much  more  than  double,  a  most  surprising  increase, 
■  and  one  Avhich  will  enable  us  to  account  for  many  explosions  which 
have  happened  while  engines  were  at  rest. 

Pay  the  closest  attention  to  the  cylinder  and  piston  rod  packing, 
and  exercise  judgment  and  care  in  selecting  the  best  kinds  and  also 
in  applying  them  when  selected.  Use  due  precaution  agaiust  making 
mistakes  either  in  packing  too  tight  or  too  loose,  as  each  extreme  iii 
its  degree  is  productive  of  much  mischief,  waste,  and  loss  of  power. 
It  requires  the  exercise  of  considerable  intelligence  and  care  to  mako 
the  best  possible  adjustment  of  either  spring  or  steam  packing. 

Equal  vigilance  is  necess^iry  in  guarding  against  incrustation  and 
ccale  in  boilers.  In  order  to  raise  steam  to  a  pressure  of  120  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch,  a  very  common  pressure  in  locomotive  boilers,  tho 
water  must  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  345°.  This  involves  a 
high  temperature  in  the  furnace  plates  and  other  parts  of  the  boiler, 
imposing  a  very  severe  duty  at  any  time,  but  doubly  destructive  in 
the  event  of  the  existence  of  incrustation  or  scale. 

The  annexed  figures  are  inserted  with  a  view  to  render  assistance  in 
adjusting  the  valves  of  locomotives.   Tho  first  diagram  represents  tho 


position  of  the  valve  as  it  should  be  when  at  half  stroke,  The  second 
figure  indicates  the  proper  position  of  the  valve  when  at  the  end  of  its 
stroke  with  the  crank  at  the  dead  centre.  A  represents  exhaust  cavity 


in  valve.  F  ditto  in  valve  seat.  P  P  steam  ports.  E  lead.  The  third 
cut  represents  the  position  of  the  valve  when  the  link  is  exactly  under 
the  saddle-pin  and  the  reverse  latch  in  the  outer  notch  in  the  quadrant' 
or  sector.  V  V  chows  the  lap.  Full  steam  is  the  position  of  the  valvo 
when  fully  open,  and  the  engine  in  motion.  Cut-off  is  the  position  of 
the  valve  when  it  has  just  closed  the  port  against  the  admission  of 
eteam.   Angular  AdvancG  is  the  angular  measurement  of  the  arc  de- 


404     MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

r.cribcdlwtlic  centre  of  the  eccentric  ■while  passing,'  from  the  place  it  oc- 
cupies wiieiitiio  valve  is  at  half  stroke,  to  that  which  it  occuinesJit  tho 
comnienceinent  of  the  stroke  of  the  i)iston.  Linear  Advance  is  tlie  dirs- 
tance  which  the  valve  moves  while  the  centre  of  the  cccentri*;  in  (U',scril>- 
in<^  the  above  angle.  {See  diagram  of  Eccentric,  Link  and  vulvz  motion 


A  majority  of  railways  allow  for  the  travel  of  valves,  on  Express  Pas- 
senqer  Engines,  5  inches,  for  outside  lap,  §  inches,  for  inside  ~  lap,  \ 
incii.  for  lead  in  full  gear  1-10  inch.  On  Express  Accommodation 
Engines,  for  travel  of  value,  5  inches,  for  outside  Lap,  f  inch,  for  in- 
side lap,  J  inch,  for  lead  in  full  gear,  1-10  inch.  On  Heavy  Freigjit 
Engines,  for  travel  of  valve,  6  inches,  for  outside  lap,  g  inch,  for  in- 
cide  lap  1-16  inch,  for  lead  in  full  gear  1-16  inch. 

Power  of  Engines. — Horse-power  in  steam  enginco  is  calculated 
r.s  the  power  which  would  raiso  33,000  lbs.  a  foot  high  in  a  minute, 
or  90  lbs.  at  the  rate  of  4  miles'  an  hour.  One-horse  power  is  equal 
to  the  lifting,  by  a  pump,  of  250  hogsheads  of  water  ten  feet  in  an 
hour.  Or  ft  would  drive  100  spindles  of  cotton  yarn  twist,  or  600 
rpindles  of  No.  48  mule  yarn,  or  1000  of  JSTo.  110,  or  13  power  looms. 
One  horse  power  is  produced  by  19  lbs.  of  Nev/castlo  coals,  GO  Ibn. 
of  wood,  or  34  lbs.  of  culm.  Coals  1,  wood  3,  and  culm  2,  givo 
equal  heats  in  the  production  of  steam. 

Sixteen  lbs.  of  Newcastle  coal  converts  100  lbs.  of  water  into  steam. 
A  bushel  of  coal  per  hour  raises  steam  to  15  lbs.  the  square  inch, 
whose  velocity  is  1350  feet  per  eccond,  and  2  bushels  raise  it  to  120 
lbs.,  or  velocity  of  3800  feet  per  second.  A  horse-power  requires 
from  5  to  7  gallons  of  water  per  minute  for  condensation  of  steam. 
A  steam  engine  whose  cylinder  is  31  inches,  with  17  double  strokes 
per  minute,  performs  the  constant  work  of  40  horses  with  5  tons  of 
coal  per  day.  One  of  19.  inches  and  25  strokes,  of  12  horses,  with  1^ 
tons  per  day.  They  raise  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  24  feet  for  every 
hundred  weight  of  coals.  One  bushel  of  good  coals  raised  from  24 
to  32,000,000  lbs.  one  foot  per  minute.  Four  bushels  of  coal  per  hour 
with  pylinder  of  31-^  inches  and  17^  strokes  of  7  feet  per  minute,  is  a, 
force  equal  to  40  horses  constantly!  A  rotative  double  engine,  with  a 
cylinder  of  23.75  inches,  making  21.5  strokes  of  5  feet  per  minute,  ici 
a  20  horse-power  ;  and  a  cylinder  of  17.5,  making  25  strokes  of  4  feet, 
is  a  10  horse-power  ;  the  consumption  of  coals  being  proportional. 

Pkopobtion  of  Locomotive  Boit.ebs,  &c. — Boiler  sheets,  best  cold 
blast  charcoal  iron  f  in.  thick,  or  best  cast  steel  5-16  in.,  double  riveta 
along  horizontal  seams  and  junction  of  jSro  box  to  be  double  riveted. 
Waist  formed  of  2  sheets  rolled  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre  of  tho 
iron  or  steel.    On©  longitudinal  seam  in  each,  above  the  water  lin© 


\ 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  403 

to  be  double  riveted.  All  iron  sheets  §  in,  thick,  riveted  with  |  inch 
rivets  placed  2  inches  from  centre  to  centre.  Steel  plates  5-16  in.  thick 
riveted  with  §  inch  rivets,  placed  1|  inch,  from  centre  to  centre. 
Extra  welt  pieces,  riveted  to  side  of  side  sheets,  giving  double  thick- 


406       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  IIECEIPT8. 

nosB  of  metal  for  stud  bolts  .and  expansion  braces.  Fnmace  PlateSt 
if  of  iron,  5-lG  inch,  if  of  copper  ^  in.,  if  of  steel,  crown  sheets,  §  in., 
pide  and  back  sheets  (steel)  5-lG  in.,  Hue  sheets  (steel)  ^in.,  water  space 
a  ins.  J  sides  and  back,  4  ins.  front.  Stai/  JioUSy  §  in.  diara.  screwed 
and  nvetcd  to  sheets,  4^  in.  from  centre  to  centre.  Crown  Bars,  made 
of  2  pieces  of  wrought  iron  4^  in.  by  g  in.  set  1^  in.  from  centre  to 
centre,  and  secured  by  bolts  fitted  to  taper  holes  in  crown-sheets,  with 
head  on  under  side  of  bolt  and  nut  ou  top,  bearing  on  crown  bar. 
Crown  Sheets  braced  to  dome,  and  outside  shell.  Furnace  Door 
openuig  formed  by  hanging  and  riveting  together  the  outer  and  inner 
sheets.  Tubes,  11  feet  long,  and  2  in.  diam.  set  in  vertical  rows  i  of 
an  uich  apart,  give  the  best  results.  Grate  Bars,  for  burning  wood 
or  soft  coal,  should  have  ^  in.  openings.  Smoke  Stack  for  wood 
burning  engmes  should  have  the  *'  boimet  stack,"  from  6  to  5^  ft. 
diam.  at  top,  with  wire  netting  ;  for  engines  burning  soft  coal,  a  much 
smaller  area  of  cone  is  required;  but  for  engines  burning  anthracite 
coal,  use  a  plam  open  stack  without  cone  or  netting.  Safety  Valves. 
Every  locomotive  should  be  provided  with  two  safety  valves  fitted  to 
birass  seats,  and  secured  by  springs  of  sufficient  elasticity  to  allow  a 
lift  of  the  valve  adequate  to  permit  the  emission  of  all  the  steam  tlio 
boiler  will  generate  after  it  exceeds  the  maximum  pressure.  The 
bearing  or  mitre  on  the  valve  face  should  not  exceed  §  in.  ilud  Plugs 
should  be  provided  on  the  side  of  the  shell  on  a  level  with  the  crown 
sheet.  To  avoid  weakening  the  boiler,  rivet  a  welt  on  the  inside  of 
the  shell  in  the  line  of  the  holes.  Steam  Room,  6  to  7  cubic  feet  per 
square  ft.  of  growth  surface.  Good  work  has  been  obtained  from 
boilers  possessing  1  cubic  foot  of  steam  room  to  1  square  foot  of  water 
surface,  and  a  water  surface  1-13  that  of  heating  surface. 

Average  Proportion  of  the  Various  Parts  of  Locomo- 
tives.— Cylinders  of  locomotives  vary  in  size,  ranging  all  the  way 
from  8  in.  up  to  20  in.  diam.  Crank  Pin  shoiild  be  |  the  diam.  of 
cylinder.  Valve  Stems  should  be  1-10  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Piston 
Hods  should  be  ^the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Pump  Plunger  should  bo  1-9 
the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Main  Steam  Pix>e.  Area  should  be  from  i 
to  ^  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Steam  Ports.  Area  should  be  1-12  the  area 
of  cyluider.  Exhaust  Port.  Area  should  be  equal  to  J  the  area 
of  cylinder.  The  loidth  of  bridges  for  different  sized  cylinders  of 
locomotives  vary  from  f  to  IJ  inches.  Chimney.  Height  should  not 
exceed  14  ft,  diameter  a  little  less  than  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Diam. 
of  Boilers  vary  from  3  ft.  to  4  ft.  3  in.  Tubes  vary  in  number  fsom 
100  to  220,  top  row  should  be  8  inches  under  water.  Heating  surface. 
Total  should  be  from  1000  to  1500  square  ft.  Fire  Grate  Surface  ranges 
from  12  to  30  sq.  ft.,  usual  rule  15  sq.  ft.,  with  about  90  sq.  ft.  of 
heating  surface  in  fire  box.  Evaporative  Power  should  range  from 
100  to  200  cubic  ft.  of  water  per  hour.  Proportion  of  heating  surface, 
to  each  sq.  foot  of  grate,  should  be  from  68  to  80  feet.  Petticoat  Pipe, 
should  be  §  the  diam.  of  the  inside  pipe  of  the  stack.  Ash  Pans, 
should  be  9  inches  below  bottom  of  grate  for  wood  burning  engines. 
10  in.  for  soft  coal,  and  12  to  14  in.  for  anthracite  coal  burners,  ana 
should  be  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible  when  dampers  are  shut. 
Dampers,  should  when  shut  stand  at  an  angle  of  35°  from  perpendicu- 
lar. Smoke  Box,  diam.  should  equal  diam.  of  boiler,  length  from  fluo 
rfieet  to  inside  of  front  door  IJ  times  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  the 


MACUINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEirTS.  407 

engine.  Tires,  wlien  new  2^  to  2p  in.  thick,  must  not  "be  -svorn  doAvn 
to  less  than  IJ  to  1^  in.  Wrought  iron  tires  wear  about  1-12  of  an  inch 
per  annum.   (For  further  details  see  page  413. ) 

Rule  to  find  the  Hokse-Power  of  a  Locomotive.— Multiply 
tlie  area  of  the  piston  by  the  pressure  per  square  inch,  which  should 
be  taken  as  §  of  the  boiler  pressure  ;  multiply  this  product  by  tho 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  Multiply  this  by  twice  the  length 
of  the  stroke  in  feet  or  mches  ;  if  in  inches  they  must  be  divided  by 
12),  multiply  this  product  by  2  and  divide  by  33,000  ;  tho  result  will 
be  the  power  of  the  locomotive. — Roper. 

Example : 

Cylinder  19  inches 

Stroke  24  „ 

Diameter  of  Drivers   ...   64  „ 
Kunning  Speed,  20  miles  per  hour.  * 
Area  of  piston,  283.5  square  inches. 
Boiler  pressure,  130  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
Maximum  pressure  in  cylinders,  80  lbs. 
283.5  X  80  X  4X124X2  ^  gsi.g  horsc-powcr. 
33,000 

STErnEXS02f's  "Eocket."— Tho  annexed  figure  represents  tho 
"liocket"  as  it  appeared  when  it  ran  in  the  memorable  Rainhill 
competition,  in  1829,  and  gamed  the  prize  of  £500  offered  bytlie 
directors  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  The  stipulations 
were:  (1.)  That  the  engine  should  consume  its  own  smoke;  (2.)  If  the 
engine  weigh  6  tons,  it  must  draw  after  it  20  tons,  10  miles  an  hour; 
the  pressure  on  the  gauge  not  to  exceed  50  lbs. ;  (3. )  There  must  be  2 
safety  valves,  the  engine  and  boiler  must  be  supported  on  springs  and 
rest  on  G  wheels,  the  height  of  tho  whole  not  to  exceed  15  ft.  to  tho 
top  of  the  chimney;  (4.)  It  must  not  weigh  more  than  6  tons,  Icsa 
weight  preferred,  which  may  draw  a  less  weight  behind  it,  then  it 
may  have  4  wheels;  (5.)  The  price  not  to  exceed  £550. 

Dimensions — Boiler.  Cylindrical  m  form,  length,  G  ft.,  diam.  3  ft. 
4  in.  Cylinders,  two,  diam.  8  in,,  stroke  IG^ in.  Weight  of  Engine, 
4  tons,  6  cwt,  with  water  in  the  boiler,  with  loaded  tender  7  tons,  9 
cwt.  Chimney,  diam.  12  in.  Heating  surface,  117|  square  ft.  Tho 
boiler  contained  25  copper  tubes,  3  inches  iu  diameter ;  the  use  of  thoso 
tubes  with  coke  for  fuel,  gained  Stephenson  his  victory,  and  estabhshed 
his  fame.  The  cylinders  were  set  inclining  to  the  rails  at  an  angle  of 
45°,  this  proved  a  poor  arrangement,  as  the  jolting  motion  slightly 
lifted  the  boiler  up  and  do-syn  on  the  springs.  Driving  Wheels,  diam. 
4  ft.  8  in.  Highest  Speed  during  trial,  24  miles  per  hour,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  IJ  miles.  The  "  Rocket"  -with  all  its  defects,  was  a  great  im- 
provement on  Stephenson's  first  engine  constructed  at  KiUingworth, 
in  1814,  and  used  to  '"^  lead  coals "  from  the  pit,  the  motion  being 
transmitted  to  the  wheels  by  the  intervention  of  cranks  and  toothed 
gearuig. 

There  is  a  vast  contrast  between  the  "  Rocket"  and  locomotives  of 
recent  construction.  Some  freight  engines  are  now  in  use,  which 
weigh  GG  tons,  having  4  cylinders  and  12  coupled  driving  wheels. 
Some  have  cylinders  20  ni.  diam.,  with  2G  mches  stroke,  others  have 
driving  wheels  9  ft.  diam.,  cylinders  18  in.  diam.,  and  2* inches  stroke. 


408 


^lACTirxrSTS,   rNOTT^KF.IlS  ,   c'^^C,  nr-CETPTS. 


EiiRlish  oxprpss  engines  liave  .attained  a  epccd  of  73  miles  'jicr  hour, 
betwoeu  lloIylicaU  aud  Loadou, 


The  innstrioiis  Stephenson  is  well  deservingr  of  double  honor  as  the 
worthy  champion  of  the  loftiest  description  of  mechanical  progre^ii, 
at  a  time  when  it  might  truly  be  said  that  he  was  opposed  by  almoct 
the  entire  nation.  In  interference  with  the  old  state  of  affairs  nearly 
every  one,  high  and  low,  seemed  to  see  Tisions  of  bankrupt  coach 
companies,  deserted  hotels,  ruined  landlords,  roads  overgrown  with 
grass,  buildings  and  mansions  burned  to  the  ground  by  flying  sparks 
from  the  engine,  commerce  ruined,  and  man  and  beast  everywhere 
run  over  and  crushed  under  the  car  wheels.  During  Stephenson's 
memorable  examination  before  the  committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, one  of  the  questions  put  to  him  was — "Would  it  not  be  an 
awkward  thing  for  an  engine  to  run  oyer  a  cow?"  The  honej;t 
Northumbrian's  reply  is  well  known,  "  Yes,  it  would  be  awkward  for 
the  coo." 

Fire  Cement.— "Fire  clay,  wet,  100  parts,  white  lead,  3  parts,  pow- 
dered asbestos,  ^  part,  mix  all  together  and  use  as  mortar. 

Railway  Train  Speed  Taf-lb. — A  train  going  1  mile  an  hour 
travels  one  and  seven-fifteenths— say  one  and  a  half  foot  per  sec- 
ond. To  form  a  table  of  speed  from  these  data  is  a  mere  matter  of 
multiplication.  Example:— A  train  going  70  miles  an  hour  travels 
per  Becoud  ^  and  7-15  ft.  multiplied  by  70=102  and  two  thirds  leet 


MACniNISTS  AND  E!TGINEE11S'  DEPAllTMENT.  409 

Till!  Stephenson  Link  and  Valve  Geak  of  1833,  shown  in  the 
out,  differs  but  little  from  the  arrangement  of  the  present  day,  as 
exhibited  on  page  40'3.  In  the  sketch,  A  A  represents  the  eccentrics 
keyed  on  the  driving-shaft  B,  0  is  the  link,  and  D  the  "strap-link" 
connected  with  the  eccentrics  by  the  rods  E  E,  as  shown  in  cut,  F  is 
the  valve  and  G  the  valve-rod  working  slide-valve  and  connected  with 
link-block.  The  elevation  or  depression  of  the  link,  necessary  to  in- 
duce a  backward  or  forward  movemeat  of  the  engine,  was  effected  by 
a  lever  handle  H,  fitted  with  a  catch  which  could  be  dropped  into  a 
series  o^  notches  in  the  sector  I ;  this  lever-handle  operating  by  means 
of  the  reaching-rod  K,  and  the  counter-weighted  bell-crauk  L,  had 


the  cfTect  of  bringing  the  pin  on  the  link-block  connecting  with  the 
valve-stem  into  operation  with  either  eccentric  as  the  forward  or 
reverse  movement  of  the  engine  might  require.  The  lever  as  shown 
at  H,  shows  the  link  in  full  gear  for  reversing ;  v.t  I  (mid-gear)  steam 
would  be  shut  off,  as  the  valve  would  cover  both  steam-ports ;  at  M 
the  lever  would  be  in  full-gear  for  running  forward,  and  in  inter- 
mediate positions  between  mid-gear  and  full- gear  the  effect  would  bo 
more  or  less  expansion  of  the  steam,  but  never  the  full  power. 

The  locomotive,  with  its  entire  connections  and  surroundings, 
should,  while  on  the  road,  be  the  object  of  a  care  and  vigilance  which 
knows  no  weariness.  Before  starting  from  a  station,  the  engine 
should  be  closely  inspected  to  be  sure  that  all  is  right ;  the  boiler 
should  be  well  replenished  with  water,  and  a  good  surplus  stored  in 
the  tank.  The  injector  should  be  closed  before  starting,  and  while 
ascending  grades,  but  should  be  opened  to  admit  feed  water  during 
stoppage,  or  while  descending  a  down  grade  if  required,  and  fuel  may 
be  added  at  the  same  time.  In  descending  down  grades,  the  steam 
should  be  either  partially  or  entirely  shut  off,  and  the  engineer  should, 
like  a  trusty  sentinel,  be  always  at  his  post,  with  his  hand  on  the 
lever,  and  with  all  the  'faculties  of  his  body  and  mind  on  the  alert, 
ready  to  act  in  response  to  signals,  or  on  the  first  intimation  of  danger 
in  any  of  its  varied  forms.  Modern  improvements  have  rendered  it 
an  easy  matter  to  stop  an  engine  at  very  short  notice,  although  it 
sometimes  happens,  on  critical  occasions,  that  some  of  the  most  power- 
ful patent  brakes  have  proved  inoperative,  owing  to  complicated  or 
inaperfect  mechanical  adjustment.  Broken  rails,  mq^e  especially  during 
winter,  in  cold  climates,  like  that  of  Canada '  and  Russia,  are  a  fertile 
cause  of  numerous  disasters,  severe  loss,  and  much  soncitude  and 
anxiety  to  the  engineer.  The  frequency  of  these  breakages  always 
increases  in  proportion  with  the  rigor  of  the  climate. 


410     BIACIIINISTS  AND   KNCINKEKS'  DEPARTMENT. 


The  valve  gear  and  eccentrics  should  be  frequently  examined,  and 
if  found  defective  in  any  way,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  adjusting 
them  by  following  the  directions  given  elsewhere.  Use  clean  water  ; 
by  so  doing  much  trouble  and  danger  will  be  averted.  Keep  the 
tubes  well  Bwept,  and  if  one  should  burst,  plug  both  ends  of  it  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible  ;  if  impeded  by  the  emission  of  steam  or 
water,  an  ample  supply  of  cold  feed  water  will  decrease  the  pressuro 
and  permit  work.  If  the  leak  is  very  serious,  it  would  be  the  best 
plan  to  quench  the  fire  in  order  to  secure  proper  access  to  repair  tho 
defective  tube.  Every  engineer  should  make  a  point  of  having  on 
liand  all  those  appliances  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  neccG- 
sary  for  use  during  possible  emergencies,  such  as  plugs  for  the  tubes, 
Bcrcw  jack,  wrecking  tools,  wrenches,  hammers,  signals,  wedges, 
files,  rope,  buckets,  chisels,  waste,  oil,  tallow,  &c. 

Railway  Signals. — A  red  flag  by  day,  or  red  light  by  night,  is  a 
eignal  of  danger.  Hoisted  at  a  station  it  is  a  signal  for  a  train  "  to 
stop."  Hoisted  by  the  road  side,  it  is  a  signal  of  danger  on  the  train 
ahead.  Carried  unfurled  on  an  engine,  it  is  a  warning  that  another 
engine  or  train  is  on  its  way.  One  short  sound  of  the  Avhistle  is  tho 
gignal  to  apply  brakes;  two,  to  let  them  go;  three,  to  back  up; 
four,  to  call  in  the  flagmen ;  five,  for  road  crossings. 

A  sweeping  parting  of  the  hands  on  a  level  with  the  eye  is  a  signal 
to  go  ahead.  A  downward  motion  of  one  hand,  Avith  extended  arm, 
to  stop.   A  beckoning  motion  of  one  hand,  to  back. 

A  lantern  raised  and  lowered  vertically,  is  a  signal  for  starting; 
when  swung  at  right  angles,  or  across  the  track,  to  eto]);  when  swung 
in  a  circle,  to  back  the  train. 

One  strQjce  of  the  alarm-bell  signifies  stop;  two,  to  go  ahead;  three, 
to  back. 

Speed  of  Passenger  Trains. — In  tho  United  States,  tho  News- 
paper Express  train,  between  New  Yorlc  and  Philadelphia  makes  tho 
daily  trip  of  93  miles  in  l!l  hours,  inclusive  of  four  ctopjoaget;. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  411 


The  most  remarkable  feat  of  railway  travel  on  record,  was  accom- 
plished June  4,  1876,  by  a  fast  special  train,  which  made  the  journey 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  a  distance  of  2900  miles  in  26  min- 
utes less  than  84  hours,  being  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  per  hour. 

Regarding-  English  railways,  the  following  table  embraces  an  enu- 
meration of  trains  which  riiu  over  60  miles  without  stopping,  shows 
the  distance  run,  and  the  average  speed  per  hour.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  London  and  Northwestern  run  the  longest  distance  without 
stopping,  as  their  engines  suck  up  water  on  the  way  while  running  at 
full  speed.  The  fastest  is  the  11.45  a.  m.  from  Paddington  over  the 
Great  Western,  which  runs  from  London  to  Exeter,  194  miles  in  4:^ 
hours  on  the  "broad  gauge."  The  Great  Northern,  though  running  ou 
the  "narrow gauge,"  maintains  an  average  speed  of  more  than  50  miles 
per  hour,  and  the  10  a.  m.  Express  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  called 
by  some  of  the  country  people  the  *'  Flying  Scotchman,"  travels  188^ 
miles  in  4J  hours,  from  London  to  York.  The  Great  Northern  R^l 
with  their  new  engines,  having  8  ft.  driving  wheels,  sometimes  at- 
tains 51  miles  per  hour. 


London  to  Swindon  (Broad  Gauge  Express) 

London  to  Peterborough  

York  to  Newcastle  

Grantham  to  York  

Newcastle  to  Berwick  

New  Cross  to  Canterbury  

Carstairs  to  Carlisle  

Oxford  to  London  

London  to  Dover   

Rugby  to  Crewe  

London  to  Rugby   

Kentish  Tn.  to  Wellingboro'  

Holyhead  to  Chester  

Wigston  to  Luton  

Carlisle  to  Preston  


d 
o 

0  h 

rt 

K  O)  0 

^  ^» 

Q' 

G.  W. 

77i 

Vj.  N. 

76^ 

N.  E. 

87 

G.  N. 

83 

47i 

N.  E. 

66| 

47 

S.  E. 

77 

46f 

Caledonian 

741 

45A 

G.  W. 

44| 

S  E 

78" 

44| 

L.  &N.*W. 

44 

L.  &  N.  W. 

82I 

433 

M. 

62 

433 

L  &  N.  W. 

85 

40| 

M. 

61^ 

L.  &  N.  W. 

89 

88^ 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  well  attested  cases  of  passenger  trains 
running  78  miles  per  hour  with  16  coaches  attached,  and  even  as  high 
as  84  miles  per  hour  have  been  attained. 


THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  EXHIBITS  THE  EFFECTIVE  ADHESION  OF 
LOCOMOTIVES  PER  TON  DURING  DIFFERENT  WEATHERS,  ON  THE 
BAILS  : 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

During  frost  or  snow  200  During  damp  weather  400 

During  misty  weather  350   During  fine  dry  weather  760 

During  wet  ramy  weather.  .600 

The  adhesion  of  a  locomotive  with  4  wheels,  compared  with  ono 
having  6  wheels,  is  iu  the  proportiou  of  5  to  8. 


412    MACniNISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


Experiments  have  demonstnited  that  trains  (properly  fitted  with 
good  brakes),  movin<!;  at  the  rate  of  miles  i)cr  hour,  can  be  stopped 
within  a  distance  of  57  yards,  and  within  27.'i  yards  if  moving  at  tho 
rate  of  (iO  miles  an  hour,  tlie  resisting  power  of  brakes  being  about 
12!)  lbs.  per  ton  of  train.  Resistance  caused  by  defects  of  roads  vary 
from  5  to  40  per  cent.,  and  strong  side  winds  resist  to  the  extent  of 
20  per  cent.  Resistance  increases  with  the  speed  in  about  the  follow- 
ing ratios  :— 

Speed  of  Trains  in  miles  per  hour. ...     10      1.5      20      30  j  40  |  rjO 

Ilesistaiice  on  level  railway  in  lbs.  per  I  I 

_    ton   83/4     01/2   IQi/o   1.31/4  I  171/0  I  22% 

Hesistance  on  irregular  or  curved  road 

ami  high  winds   131/4   141/4   15%   201/4  1  2CV4  |  341/4 

Effective  Pressure  of  Steam  on  Piston,  Avith  dififcront  de- 
grees of  expansion,  boiler  pressure  being  assumed  at  100  lbs.  per 
square  inch. 

Steam  cut  off  at  f  of  stroke  ^  90  effective  pressure. 


In  experiments  with  Locomotive  No.  47,  North  London  Railway,  it 
was  found  that  in  two  17  inch  cylinders,  24  ins.  stroke,  lap  of  valve, 
§  in.,  lead,  ^  in.,  position  of  gear,  4th  notch  from  middle  gear,  drivers, 
5  ft.  G  ins.  dlam.,  with  boiler  pressure  160  lbs.  per  square  inch,  the 
actual  horse-power  of  both  cylinders  was   840.552 

That  the  friction  of  both  valves  was   54.952 

"  "  "   eccentrics   74.32G 


Total  friction  of  valves  and  eccentrics   129.251 

or  15  per  cent,  of  the  power  of  the  engine  required  to  move  them . 


Diam. 
in  ins. 

Rev.  per  mile. 

Diam, 
in  ins. 

Rev.  -per  mile. 

Diam. 
in  ins. 

Rev.  per  mile. 

42 

480.4 

54 

373.5 

66 

306 

43 

409 

55 

367 

72 

280 

4G 

439 

60 

330 

78 

258.G 

48 

420 

62 

325.4 

81 

249 

50 

403.5 

63 

320 

84 

240 

The  average  life  of  a  car  wheel  under  a  load  of  3-^-  tons,  is  45,000 
miles.  The  weight  of  iron  rails  per  mile  varies  from  78  tons,  11  cwt., 
48  lbs.,  to  157  tons,  3  cwt.,  84  lbs.,  according  as  the  rails  range  from 
50  lbs.  to  100  lbs.  weight  to  the  yard. 

No.  of  15  ft.  rails  per  mile,  704  |  No,-  of  18  ft,  rails  per  mile,  587 
"         16  ft.    "  "         660     "        20  ft,    "  "  528 


A  rise  of  60**  in  the  temperature  of  a  25  ft.  rail  lengthens  it  to  25  ft 
J  in.   Tho  last  table  refers  to  No.  of  rails  required  for  single  track. 


4!t    r.rACiiiNiSTs'  axd  enotnkers  1)i:pai;t.mi;nt. 


GEORGE  STEPHENSON, 

THE  FIKST  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER, 

Born  June  9,  1781.    Died  August  12,  1848. 


The  iron  energy,  indomitable  perseverance,  sterling  integrity,  and 
thorough  practical  sagacity  for  which  this  Father  of  Railways  was 
jioted,  have  indelibly  enrolled  his  honored  name  among  the  benefac- 
tors of  the  race.  Of  the  first  railway,  that  between  Stockton  and 
Darlington,  George  Stephenson  was  iDoth  surveyor  and  contractor, 
laying  out  every  foot  of  the  road,  and  taking  the  sights  through  the 
spirit  level  with  his  own  hands  and  eyes.  On  his  persistent  recom- 
mendations, the  intended  plan  of  a  wooden  tramway  was  set  asido 
and  iron  rails  substituted,  and  reluctant  permission  given  him  to 
place  upon  the  road,  which  had  been  intended  only  for  horse-draught, 
a  steam  locomotive.  The  trial  day  was  fixed  for  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1825,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  natal  day  of  railway  travel. 
A  great  throng  of  people  was  present  to  witness  the  new-fangled  and 
much  ridiculed  affair,  the  multitude  being  ready  to  applaud  the  sue- 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  415 


ENGINE  NO.  1.— STOCKTON  &  DARLINGTON  R.  R.— 1825. 

cess  or  deride  the  failure  of  the  man  whom  they  were  equally  ready 
to  canonize  as  the  wisest,  or  condemn  as  the  craziest  man  in  Eugland. 
The  veteran  was  fully  prepared  to  withstand  the  ordeal.  A  long  pro- 
cession of  vehicles  was  formed,  consisting  of  G  Avagons,  loaded  with 
flour  ;  a  covered  coach,  containing  directors  and  passengers  ;  21  coal 
wagons,  fitted  up  for  and  crowded  with  passengers.  Locomotive  en- 
gine No.  1,  represented  in  the  cut,  driven  by  our  hero,  headed  tho 
procession,  which  was  preceded  hy  a  precursor  on  horseback,  who 
rode  before  to  herald  the  coming  of  the  train,  the  velocity  of  which 
was  not  expected  to  exceed  4  or  5  miles  an  hour.  But  different  re- 
sults followed.  An  immense  multitude  of  people,  both  on  horseback 
and  on  foot,  accompanied  tho  train,  but  not  long  ;  they  were  socu 
distanced,  the  man  on  'horseback  who  heralded  was  compelled  to 
leave  the  track,  and  the  first  train  that  ever  carried  i^assengers  fin- 
ished its  journey  at  tho  rate  of  12  to  15  miles  an  hour.  The  load 
carried  amounted  to  90  tons,  including  450  passengers.  The  railway 
passenger  coach  which  formed  part  of  the  procession  was  totally 
unlike  anything  now  in  use,  and  was  drawn  by  horse  power.  It  Avan 
several  years  before  passengers  were  drawn  over  the  road  by  steam 
(the  traffic  being  confined  to  freight  only),  as  the  terror  inspired  by 
the  locomotive  was  such  that  the  Liverpool  &  Manchester  R.  R. 
Committee  pledged  themselves  not  to  require  any  clause  empower- 
ing its  use,  and  as  late  as  1829  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Act  was 
conceded  on  the  express  condition  that  it  should  not  be  worked  by 
locomotives,  but  by  horses  only. 

The  plans  of  the  Liverpool  &  Manche^;ter  R.  R.  were  fought 
through  Parliament  by  the  indefatigable  Stephenson  in  the  face  of 
difficulties  which  would  have  appalled  any  common  man  ;  and  when 
at  last  the  charter  was  obtained,  and  the  work  begun,  he  ])ersonally 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  417 


supervised  it  from  begiuning  to  end,  getting  his  breakfast  of  oatmeal 
with  his  own  hands,  living  on  horseback,  personally  inspecting  the 
progress  of  the  worlf,  supervising  the  pay-rolls  of  the  men,  and  per- 
fecting with  his  own  hands  the  working  drawings.  In  1829,  we  find 
Robert,  the  younger  Stephenson,  at  a  later  day  engineer  of  the  famous 
Victoria  Bridge,  Montreal,  treading  in  his  father's  footsteps,  and 
coming  off  the  victor  at  the  noted  contest  at  Rainhill,  when  the 
Rocket,  as  shown  on  a  previous  page,  eclipsed  the  performance  of 
the  Novelty,  Sanspareil,  and  Perseverance.  Soon  the  Liverpool  & 
Manchester  R.  R.  was  opened  with  the  Rocket,  altered  and  im- 
proved, as  locomotive,  running  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  honr.  The 
illustration  exhibits  tlie  Rocket,  as  remodelled  after  the  trial  and 
as  now  to  be  seen  iu  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


Sparks  from:  the  Locomotive.— Cent  R.)  Fuel,  cic, 
Arerage  number  of  miles  run  to  1  cord  of  wood,  43.98.  Ditto  to  1 
ton  of  coal,  39.87.  Ditto,  to  1  pint  of  oil,  13.83.  Cost  of  Repairs, 
Mechanics'  wages,  62  ]ier  cent.  Materials — iron,  steel,  brass,  etc.,  31 
per  cent.  Superintendence,  paints,  tools,  etc.,  7  ]ier  cent.  Average 
cost  per  mile,  in  cents,  for  passenger  engines,  20.10,  for  freight,  do, 
35.42. 

French  Locomotives. — Average  actual  power  exerted,  450  horses  ; 
speed  of  passenger  trains  with  15  vehicles,  is  24  miles  per  hour  ; 
freight  trains,  18  miles,  mixed  engines,  20  to  30  miles  per  hour. 

American  Locomotive.-^ A  10  wheeled  engine,  18  x  22  cylinder, 
tottil  weight,  30  tons  9  cwt. ;  weight  on  drivers,  22  tons,  on  Readijjg 
27 


418        31AClIlNiaTS  AiSID   ENGINICKUS'   D KrAKTMLNT. 


EDSON'S  TIME,  PRESSUEE,  SPEED  RECORDING,  AND 
ALARM  GAUGE. 


M.  B.  EDSON,  91  LIBERTY  ST.,    NEW  YORIC,  INVENTOR  AND  PATENTEE, 
ACCORDED  EXCLUSIVE  MENTION  AT  THE  CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION 

OF  187G. 

RR. ;  -will  haul  130  loaded  cars  ;  weight  of  coal,  676  tons  ;  of  cars,  S80 
tons  ;  total  load,  1,085  tons  ;  on  a  down  grade,  maximum,  13-5  It.  pei! 
mile  ;  minimum,  0.65  per  mile.  Same  Engine  will  haul  70  loaded  cars, 
or  561  tons,  over  an  ascending  grade  35.3  ft.  per  mile. 

New  York  City  Street  Dummy  Engines.  — Cylinders,  6  ins.  by  10 
ins.  stroke  ;  can  haul  2  cars,  containing  100  passengers  each,  up  a  grade 
100  ft.  per  mile,  at  5  miles  per  hour  ;  on  a  level  and  low  grade,  at  10 
miles  per  hour,  runs  125  miles  per  -day,  hurns  1,200  lbs.  of  coal  ;  steam 
IDressure,  130  lbs. 

A  Crampton  locomotive,  drawing  12  carriages,  consumes  35  Ibp. 
of  coke  per  mile  in  summer,  and  37  lbs.  in  Avinter  ;  the  weight  with 
tender  is.  flO,000  lbs.  ;  the  cost  of  running  a  trip  per  mile,  all  itemr; 
included/  ia  33  cents  (gold).    Au  ejagiue  ia  generally  worn  out  y\  hen 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  419 


it  has  travelled  180,000  miles,  although  some  have  run  more  than 
twice  that  distance  ;  the  usual  performance  is  from  15, GOO  to  23,000 
miles  per  annum.  The  lifetime  of  an  engine  may  he  taken  at  10  years  ; 
tlxe  cost,  in  England,  1^9,600  (gold),  tender,  $'2,200,  and  the  annual 
earnings  ahout  $25,000. 


GIFFAED'S  INJECTOR. 
A,  steam-pipe  connecting  with  boiler,  B,  tube  or  cylinder, 
through  AThich  steam  passes  into  the  space  h.  C,  screwed  rod  for 
regulating  the  passage  of  steam  through  circular  conical  space  c,  and 
worked  by  the  handle  shown  above.  E,  water  supply  pipe  connect- 
ing the  reservoir  or  hot-well  with  the  small  chamber  in.  C,  I,  circular 
conical  opening  or  discharge  pipe,  the  dimensions  of  which  is  ad- 
justed by  the  movement  of  the  tube  or  cylinder  C.  G,  haiad  wheel 
for  operating  the  cylinder  C.  H,  o]:)ening,  in  connection  with  the  at- 
mosphere, intervening  between  discharge  pipe  and  the  receiving 
Xjipe  through  which  the  water  is  forced.  "l,  tube  through  wliich  the 


420     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


water  is  passed  to  the  boiler.  K,  valve  for  preventin;;  the  return  of 
tlie  water  from  boiler  when  the  injector  is  closed.  L,  overflow  or 
waste-pipe. 

Method  of  Operation.— Turn  the  wheel  so  as  to  allow  a  little 
water  to  flow  into  the  injector.  Open  the  tap  connecting  the  instru- 
ment with  the  boiler  ;  tlio  admission  of  the  steam  will  create  a  par- 
tial vacuum,  into  wliich  the  water  will  flow  with  rapidity.  The  steam 
condenses  as  it  mingles  with  the  water,  and  as  it  rushes  forward  it 
carries  the  water  along  in  its  course,  driving  it  into  the  boiler  with 
great  force.  The  quantity  may  be  increased  or  dimini.«ihed  by  means 
of  taps  fitted  to  the  steam  and  water  supply-pipes,  and  any  surplus 
water  will  escape  at  the  overflow  or  waste-pipe.  This  invention 
effects  great  economy  in  the  transmission  of  hot  water  to  the  boiler, 
for  not  the  slightest  particle  of  heat  is  lost. 

Samuel  Rue's  injector,  a  most  valuable  invention,  is  well  adapted 
to  operate  as  a  boiler  feeder  on  land  or  water ;  but  may  be  considered 
as  indispensable  on  marine  boilers,  as  from  its  peculiar  construction, 
with  steam  of  from  40  to  50  lbs.  pressure,  it  is  capable  of  forcing 
water  against  a  pressure  of  over  200  lbs.  per  square  hich. 

In  40  years  the  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States  have  increased 
from  3  miles  to  60,000  miles. 
Railway  Cross  Ties,  No.  per  mile,  2  ft.  centre  to  centre,  2.641 
u  u  u  a       2i        "  "  2.348 

a  u  u  u         2|         "  "  2.113 

((  «  n  n        2i        "  "        1  921 

«  «  u       3         u  u 

The  usual  dimensions  of  railway  ties  are  9  feet  long,  10  ins .  wide 
><5ins,,  average  life  time,  7  years;  best  material,  seasoned  white 
oak.   If  ties  are  preserved  by  Burnettizing  they  will  last  15  years. 

The  test  for  new  steel  car  axles,  is  5  blows  of  a  ram,  weighing 
1,050  lbs.,  falling  30  ft.  on  axle  placed  on  supports  3  ft.  apart.  The 
test  for  new  iron  axles,  is  5  blows  of  a  ram,  Aveighing  1,650  lbs.,  fall- 
ing 20  ft.,  on  axle  placed  on  supports  3  ft.  apart. 

NON-CoNDUCTOR  FOR  StEAM  PiPES  AND  CYLINDERS.— -Good  Clay, 

50  lbs.,  finely  sifted  coal  ashes  50 lbs.,  hair  for  a  bind  12  ozs.,  mix  all 
thoroughly  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  mortar,  and  allow  it  to 
rest  for  a  few  hours,  but  just  previous  to  use,  add  50  lbs.  plaster  of 
Paris,  working  it  in  well.  Now  apply  it  to  the  pipes,  &e. ,  while  warm, 
in  a  thin  coat,  and  when  dry,  add  another,  continuing  until  the  prop- 
er thickness  is  secured,  whitewashing  or  painting  over  all. 
Evaporative  Powers  of  Fuel,  etc. — 

1  lb.  of  coal  evaporates  9  lbs  of  water. 

1    "   coke        "  7^  to  9  " 

1    "   wood       "      4^  " 

1    "   turf  (peat)"     6  " 
Stationary  engines  use  from  3  to  7  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse  power  per 
hour. 

Locomotive  passenger  engines  25  to  30  lbs.  coal  per  mile. 

freight  "     45  to  55 

Wood-burning  "      1  cord  of  wood  to  42  miles. 

I5ulk  of  coal  is  6  times  less  than  its  equivalent  in  wood. 

00  bush.  Newcastle  coal  will  make  92  bush,  of  coke. 

1  bush,  anthracite  coal  weighs  86  lbs. ;  bituminous  coal  =  80  lbs. ; 

charcoal  (hardwood)  =  32  lbs.  j  coke  =  32  lbs. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DErARTMENT.  421 


THE  FIRST  RAILWAY  PASSENGER  COACH. 
The  magnificent  caravan  represented  by  the  cut  conveys  a  good 
idea  of  railway  passenger  travel  and  accommodations  previous  to 
tlie  use  of  steam  power  for  that  purpose. 


M.      BALDWIN'S  LOCOMOTIVE  "  IRONSIDES"  — 1B32- 


M.  TV.  BALDWIN'S  LOCOMOTIVE  "  IKONSIDES "— 1852. 

The  engine  represented  above,  constructed  by  M.  W.  Baldwin, 
founder  of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U.  S. 
A.,  was  first  run  on  the  Philadelphia  &  Norristown  R.  R.,  in  1832, 
and  proved  to  be  the  pioneer  of  successful  railway  locomotion  in  tho 
United  States. 

The  average  life  of  an  iron  rail  is  15,000,000  of  tons,  or  equal  to 
100,000  trains  of  150  tons  eacli.  On  the  Great  Northern  Railway  at 
Barnet,  the  life  of  an  iron  rail  was  5  years,  with  13,484,601  tons  of 
fast  trains,  and  38,303,028  tons  of  slow  traffic.  Steel  rails  were  only 
half  Avorn  out  with  95,577,240  tons  traffic. 


422        MACHINISTS,  KNGINEKr.S',  &C.,  KKCEirXS. 

Latent  TTeat  op-  Steam. — T;ilco  2  small  vcssols  connected  at  their 
tops  by  a  tube.  Let  one  contain  1  lb.  of  water  at  32"  Falir.,  the  other 
n.^  lbs.  at  the  .same  tcrapcraturo.  Apply  a  spirit  lamp  below  the  veg- 
.sel  containingtho  1  lb.  of  water  until  it  is  all  boiled  away  and  its  vapor 
condensed  by  passing  through  the  tube  and  mingling  with  the  5;^  Ibn. 
of  water  in  the  other  vessel.  At  thi.s  point  the  heat  absorbed  by  the 
5^  lbs  of  water  will  raise  tho  tcmperaturo  to  212°  Fahr.  or  boiling 
heat,  and  tho  combined  weight  will  bo  Gi^  lbs.  instead  of  5.^1bH.,ar4 
placed  in  tho  vessel  at  first.  Tho  whole  of  this  heat  has  been  trans- 
ferred from  the  1  lb.  of  water  held  over  tho  spirit  lamp,  althongli  at 
no  time  has  its  heat  exceeded  212°.  Inasmuch  as  this  heat  cannot  bo 
measured  by  any  known  instrument,  it  is  called  latent  heat.  The  1 
lb.  of  water  made  tho  5^  lbs.  to  boil,  and  from  this  we  know  by  cal- 
culation that  the  combined  latent  and  sensible  beat  of  steam  is  about 
1200°. 

The  pressure  of  cteam  is  measured  by  atmospheres.  Steam  of  15 
lbs.  pressure  is  steam  of  one  atmosphere,  of  '60  lbs.  pressure,  of  3 
atmospheres,  &C.  It  is  frequently  used  as  high  as  G  or  7  atmospheres. 
Steam  below  2  atmospheres  is  called  low  pressure  steam,  and  all  prcs- 
Bure  above,  high  pressure  steam.  Heat,  by  expanding  Vt^atcr, 
imparts  motion  to  the  gulf  stream,  when  transformed  into  stcaia 
it  evolves  sufficient  power  to  drive  the  rolling  mill,  cotton  and  other 
mills,  the  machine  shop,  the  locomotive,  and  impel  the  steamship 
over  the  trackless  ocean.  As  the  temperature  of  water  falls  belo  w , 
100°  Centigrade  (212o.)  the  boiling  point,  it  will  contract  or  occupy  a 
smaller  space  until  it  descends  to "3°.  8  Centrigrade,  when  it  will  con- 
tract no  more,  as  its  greatest  density  is  then  reached.  From  5°.  8,  as 
the  water  becomes  colder,  it  expands,  till  it  reaches  the  frcezin;>c 
point  0°.  Centigrade,  so  that  is  specifically  ligliter  than  water,  and 
floats  on  the  surface,  being  about  10  per  cent,  lighter.  Were  it  not 
for  the  interposition  of  this  merciful  law,  and  were  ice  to  sink  in 
water,  many  of  the  lakes,  rivers  and  streams  within  tlie  temperate 
zones  would  be  rendered  incapable  of  navigation  during  the  greater 
jpart  of  the  year  by  reason  of  the  ice  at  the  bottom. 

Application  for  Burns  anb  Scalds.  The  following  has  been 
tested  in  the  severest  cases  of  burning  and  scalding  from  railway  and 
steamboat  accidents.  Glycerine,  5  ozs. ;  white  of  egg,  4  ozs. ;  tinct,  of 
arnica  3  ozs. ;  mix  the  glycerine  and  white  of  egg  thoroughly  in  a 
mortar  and  gradually  add  the  arnica.  Apj)ly  freely  on  linen  rags 
night  and  morning,  previously  washing  with  warm  castile  soap  suds. 
In  urgent  cases,  if  nothing  better  can  be  had,  clap  on  a  mud  poultice, 
a  favorite  and  very  effectual  remedy  with  school  boys  who  are  stung . 
while  making  war  on  hornets'  nests. 

Cement  to  mend  Leaky  Boilers. — Powdered  litharge,  2  parte, 
very  fine  sand,  2  parts,  slaked  quick  lime,  1  part.  Mix  all  together. 
To  use,  mix  the  proper  quantity  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  apply, 
quick.   It  gets  hard  very  soon. 

Strong  Cement  for  Steam  Joints. — ^Wliite  lead  ground  in  oil, 
10  parts,  black  oxide  of  manganese,  3  parts,  litharge,  1  part.  Eeduce 
to  the  proper  consistency  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  apply. 

Cement  For  Holes  or  Cracks, — ^Red  lead  ground  in  oil,  G  parts, 
white  lead,  3  parts,  oxide  of  manganese,  2  parts,  silicate  of  soda,  1 
part,  litharge,  ^  part.  aU  mixed  and  used  as  putty. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEirTS.  423 

Rust  Joint,  Quick  Setting — Sal ammoni.ac pulverized,  lib.,  flour 
of  sulp-hur,  2  lbs. ;  iron  boriugs,  80  lbs. ;  mix  to  a  paste  with  water  iu 
quantities  as  required  for  immediate  use. 

Quick  Setting  Joint  better  than  thf,  i.ast,  r.uT  requires 
MORE  teme  to  Set. — Sal  ammonia,  2  lbs.,  sulphur  lib.,  iron  filings 
20Glbs. 

Air  and  Water  tight  Cejient  for  Casks  and  Cisterns.-- 
l\lelted  glue,  8  parts,  linseed  oil,  4  parts,  boiled  into  a  varnish  witli 
litharge;  hardens  in  48  hours. 

IMarine  Glue.—  India  rubber  1  part,  coal  tar  12  parts,  heat  gcntl.y 
mix,  and  add  20  parts  of  powdered  shellac,  pour  out  to  cool,  when  used 
heat  to  about  250°. 

Another  Ditto. — Glue  12  parts,  water  sufficient  to  dissolve,  add 
yellow  rosin  3  parts;  melt  then  add  turi:)entitto  4  parts,  mix  thor- 
oiTghly  together. 

Cejient  fob  External  Use. — Ashes  2  partS}  <:lay  3  parts,  sand 
1  part;  mix  with  a  little  oil,  very  durable. 

Cement  to  Resist  Red  Heat  and  Boiling  "Water. — To  4  or  5 
]\arts  of  clay,  thoroughly  dried  and  pulverized,  add  2  parts  of  fime  iron 
lilings  free  from  oxide,  1  part  of  peroxyde  of  manganese,  1  part  of 
common  salt,  and  ^  part  of  borax.  INIingle  thoroughly,  render  as  fine 
as  possible,  then  reduce  to  thick  paste  with  the  necessary  quantity  of 
water,  mixing  well ;  use  immediately,  and  apply  heat,  gradually  in- 
creasing almost  to  a  white  heat. 

Cement  to  Join  Sections  of  Cast-Iron  Wheels,  &c.— ISIaho 
a  paste  of  pure  oxide  of  lead,  litharge,  and  concentrated  glycerine. 
Unrivalled  for  fastening  stone  to  stone  or  iron  to  iron. 

Varnish  for  Boilers. — Asphaltum  dissolved  in  turpentine. 

Soft  Cement  for  Steam-boilers,  Steam-pipes,  &c. — ^Red  or 
white  lead,  in  oil,  4  parts ;  iron  borings,  2  to  3  parts. 

Hard  Cement. — Iron  borings  and  salt  water,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  Fal-ammoniac,  with  fresh  water. 

Gasfitters'  Cement. — Mix  together  resin,  4|  parts  ;  wax,  1  part ; 
and  Venetian  red,  3  parts. 

Plumbers'  Cement.— Black  resin,  1  part;  brick  dust,  2  parts, 
well  incorporated  by  a  melting  heat, 

CoppERSMTHs'  Cement.— Boiled  linseed  oil  and  red  lead  mixed 
together  into  a  putty,  are  often  used  by  coppersmiths  and  engineers 
to  secure  joints  ;  the  washers  of  leather  or  cloth  are  smeared  with 
th^s  mixture  in  a  pasty  state, 

CoaiPOSiTiONS  TO  Fill  Holes  in  Casting^.-^MIx  1  part  of  borax 
in  solution  with  4  parts  dry  clay. — Another  :  Pulverized  binoxido  of 
manganese,  mixed  with  a  strong  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  (water 
clay)  to  form  a  thick  paste. 

Cast  Iron  Cement. — Clean  borings,  or  turnings  of  cast  iron,  13 
parts  ;  sal-ammouiae,  2  parts  ;  flour  of  sulphur,  1  part  ;  mix  thein 
Avell  together  in  a  mortar,  and  keep  them  dry.  When  required  for 
use,  take  of  the  mixture,  1  part;  clean  borings,  20  parts  ;  mix  thor- 
oughly, and  add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wa^or.  A  little  grind-stono 
dust  added  improves  the  cement. 

Cement  for  Steam-pipe  Joints,  etc.,  with  Faced  Flanges. — 
White  lead,  mixed,  2  parts  ;  red  lead,  dry,  1  jmrt ;  grind,  or  other- 
wise mix  them  to  a  consistence  of  thiu  putt^  ;  apply  interposed  lay  era 


42'1       MACHINISTS,  KNOINEETIS',  AC,  KECEirTS. 

■witli  1  or  2  Ihiclmcsscs  of  canvas,  or  gauzo  -wire,  as  the  necessity  of 
the  case  may  bo, 

CicsiicNT  roil  JoixTS  OF  Iron  Pipes  or  Holes  in  Castings.— 
Tako  of  iron  Tjorin^s,  coarsely  powdered,  5  lbs.  ;  of  powdered  sal- 
ammoniac,  2oz, ;  or  sulphur,  loz.:  and  water  sufficient  to  moisten 
it.  This  composition  hardens  rapidly,  but,  if  time  can  be  allowed  it 
sets  more  firmly  without  the  sulphur.  Use  as  soon  as  mixed,  and 
ram  tightly  into  the  joints  or  holes. 

Best  Cement  tor  Aqu.vria.— Ono  part,  by  measure,  say  a  gill  of 
litharge  ;  1  gill  of  plaster  of  I'aris  ;  1  gill  of  dry,  white  gaud  ;  ^  a  gill 
of  finely  powdered  resin.  Sift,  and  keep  corked  tight  until  recjuired 
for  use,  when  it  is  to  be  made  into  a  putty  by  mixing  in  .boiled  oil 
(linseed)  with  a  little  patent  drier  added.  Never  use  it  after  it  has 
been  mixed  (that  is,  with  the  oil)  over  fifteen  hours.  This  cement 
can  bo  used  for  marine  as  well  as  fresh  water  aquaria,  as  it  resists 
the  action  of  salt  water.  The  tank  can  bo  used  immediately,  but  it 
is  best  to  give  it  three  or  four  hours  to  dry. 

Another. — Mix  equal  quantities  of  any  white  lead  and  red  lead  to 
a  paste  with  mastic  varnish  and  use  as  soon  as  mixed. 

Cement  for  Belting.  TFaierproo/,— Dissolve  gutta  percha  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon  to  the  consistence  of  molasses,  slice  down  and 
thin  the  ends  to  be  united,  warm  the  parts,  and  api^ly  the  cement, 
then  hammer  lightly  on  a  smooth  anvil,  or  submit  the  parts  to  hca\'y 
pressure. 

To  Repair  Le^vkages  in  Fire  Engine  IIose.— Pass  a  round  bar 
of  iron  into  the  hose  under  the  leak,  then  rivet  on  a  patch  of  leather, 
previously  coated  with  marine  glue. 

To  Eepair  Rubber  Hose. — Cut  the  hose  apart  where  it  is  defec- 
tive ;  obtain  from  any  gasfitter  a  piece  of  iron  pipe  2  or  3  inches  long, 
twist  the  hose  over  it  until  the  ends  meet,  wrap  with  strong  twine,  well 
waxed,  and  it  will  last  a  long  time. 

Portable  Glue  for  Draughtsmen. — Glue  5  ozs. ;  sugar  2  ozs. ; 
water  8  ozs. ;  melt  in  a  water  bath,  cast  it  in  molds.  For  use  dissolvo 
in  warm  water. 

Cementing  Emery  to  "Wood. — Melt  together  equal  parts  of 
shellac,  white  resin  and  carbolic  acid  in  crystals  ;  add  the  last  after 
the  others  are  melted. 

To  Coat  Iron  with  Emert.— Give  the  iron  a  good  coat  of  oil 
and  white  lead,  when  this  gets  hard  and  dry,  apply  a  mixture 
of  glue  and  emery. 

To  Clean  Cotton  "Waste.— Pack  the  waste  in  a  tin  cylinder 
•with  a  perforated  false  bottom  and  tube  with  stop-cock  at  bottom. 
Pour  on  the  waste  bisulphide  of  carbon  sufficient  to  cover,  and 
allow  to  soak  a  few  minutes,  then  add  more  bisulphide,  and  so  on 
for  a  time  or  two,  and  then  squeeze  out.  By  simple  distiUation 
the  whole  of  the  bisulphide,  or  nearly  all,  can  easily  be  recovered 
and  BO  be  used  over  again.  This  will  free  the  cotton  completely 
from  grease. 

French  Putty, — Seven  pounds  linseed  oil  and  4  lbs.  brown 
nmber  are  boiled  for  two  hours,  and  02  grammes  wax  stirred  in. 
After  removal  from  the  fire  5i  lbs.  fine  chalk  and  11  lbs.  white  lead 
are  added  and  thoroughly  incorporated  ;  said  to  be  very  hard  and 
permanent. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  42i) 

To  Mexd  Cracked  Cast-Irojt  Vessei^s. — Drill  a  hole  at  each  ex- 
treme end  of  the  crack,  to  prevent  its  further  extension,  plug  rivet 
the  holes  with  copper,  and,  with  fine  iron  filings  saturated  with 
urine,  caulk  the  crack.  Four  parts  of  pulverized  clay  and  ono 
part  of  iron  filings  made  into  a  paste  with  boiling  linseed  oil  and 
applied  hot  is  a  good  cement  for  the  same  purpose. 

To  Prevent  Iron  Rusting. — Give  it  a  coat  of  linseed  oil  and 
Vi^hitiug,  mixed  together  in  the  form  of  a  paste.  It  is  easily  removed 
and  will  preserve  iron  from  rusting  for  years. 

Glue  for  Labelling  on  Metals. — Boiling  water,  1  qt. ;  pulver- 
ized borax,  2  ozs. ;  gum  shellac,  4  ozs.  Boil  till  dissolved.  Used  for 
attaching  Labels  to  metals,  or  it  will  do  to  write  inscriptions  with, 
and  dust  or  dab  on  a  little  bronze  powder  over  it,  varuisliing  over 
the  bronze. 

Cement  for  Petroleum  Lamts. — Boil  3  jiaxts  of  resin  with  1 
part  of  caustic  soda  and  5  of  water.  The  composition  is  then  mixcil 
with  half  its  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  sets  firmly  in  ^  to  f  of  an 
hour.  It  is  of  great  adhesive  power,  not  permeable  to  petroleum,  a  low 
conductor  of  heat,  and  but  superficially  attacked  by  hot  water. 

For  Lute,  or  cement  for  closing  joints  of  apparatus,  mix  Pari:( 
plaster  with  water  to  a  soft  paste,  and  apply  it  at  once.  It  bears  near  1  y 
a  red  heat.   To  render  it  impervious,  rub  it  over  with  wax  and  oil. 

Roman  Cement. — Slaked  lime,  1  bush.,  green  copperas,  3^  lbs., 
fine  gravel  sand,  ^  bush.  Dissolve  the  copperas  in  hot  water,  and  mix 
all  together  to  the  proper  consistency  for  use  ;  use  the  day  it  is  mixed 
end  keep  stirring  it  with  a  stick  while  in  use. 

Vicat's  Hydraulic  Cement  is  prepared  by  stirring  into  water 
n  mixture  of  4  parts  chalk  and  1  part  clay  ;  mix  with  a  vertical  wheel 
in  a  circular  trough,  letting  it  run  out  in  a  largo  receiver.  A  deposit 
soon  takes  place  wliich  is  formed  into  small  bricks,  which  after  be- 
ing dried  m  the  sun,  are  moderately  calcined.  It  enlarges  about  § 
when  mixed  with  water. 

Glue  to  Resist  Moisture. — Glue,  5  parts,  resin,  4  parts,  rod 
ochre,  2  parts,  mix  with  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water. 

Cement  to  Fasten  Leather  on  Top  Rollers. — Gum  arable,  2^ 
ozs.,  isinglass  2|  ozs.,  dissolve  each  separately  in  water  and  mix.^ 

Parchment  Glue. — Parchment  shavings,  1  lb.,  water,  6  qts. 
Boil  till  dissolved,  strain  and  envaporate  to  right  consistence. 

To  attach  Glass  or  Metal  Letters  to  Plate  Glass. — Copal 
varnish,  15  parts;  drying  oil,  5  parts;  turpentine,  3  parts;  oil  of  tur- 
lientine,  2  parts;  liquefied  glue,  5  parts.  Melt  in  a  water  bath  and 
add  10  parts  of  slaked  lime. 

Turners'  Cement.— Beeswax,  1  oz.;  resm,  ^  oz.;  pitch,  ^  oz.; 
melt,  and  stir  in  fine  brick  dust. 

Banic  Note  Glue.— Dissolve  1  lb.  of  fine  glue  or  gelatine  in  water; 
evaporate  it  till  most  of  the  water  is  expelled;  add  h  lb.  of  brown 
BU^ar,  and  pour  it  into  moulds. 

Cement  for  Electrical  Machines  and  Galvanic  Troughs.— 
Melt  together  5  lbs.  of  resin  and  1  lb.  of  beeswax,  and  stir  in  1  lb.  of 
red  ochre  (highly  dried  and  still  warm)  and  4  oz.  of  plaster  of  Pari.';, 
continuing  the  heat  a  little  above  212°,  and  stirring  constantly  till  all 
frothing  ceases,  or  (for  troughs)  rosm,  G  lbs. ;  dried  red  ochre,  1  lb., 
CiUcined  plaster  of  Paris,  ^  lb. ;  linseed  oil,  ^  lb. 


420      MACnJ-NTSTB  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPATITMENT. 


AROiiiTicf'TURAn  CraiKNT — 1.  Rodnco  paprr  to  a  smooth  ]iastc"l)y  boil- 
in^  it  ill  water;  then  add  an  equal  wei^jlit  of  silted  wliitiii;,'  and  ^;ood  size; 
l)oil  to  a  proper  consistence.  2.  Paper  paste  and  size,  equal  parts;  finely 
powdered  plaster  of  Paris  to  make  it  of  a  proper  consistence.  Use  it  as 
soon  as  mixed.  Can  be  used  in  making  arcliitectural  busts,  statues, 
columns,  &c.  It  is  light,  receives  a  good  polish,  but  will  not  stand  water. 

AiiAHAHTEii  Ckment. — 1.  Finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris,  made  into 
a  paste  with  Avatcr.  2.  Melt  yellow  rosin,  or  equal  ])art,s  yellow  rosin 
and  beeswax,  then  stir  in  half  as  much  finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris. 
The  first  is  used  to  join  and  fit  together  pieces  of  alabaster  or  inarble, 
or  to  mend  broken  plaster  figures.  The  second  is  to  join  alabaster, 
inarble,  and  other  similar  substances  that  Avill  bear  Ijeing  heated. 

Pkench  Cement  roii  Kooms. — A  coat  of  oxide  of  zinc,  mixed  with 
size,  made  up  like  a  wash ,  is  first  laid  on  the  wall,  ceiling,  or  wainscot,  and 
over  that  a  coat  of  chloride  of  zinc  applied,  prepared  in  the  same  way  an 
the  first  wash.  The  oxide  and  chloride  effect  an  immediate  combina- 
tion, and  form  a  kind  of  cement,  smooth  and  polished  as  glass,  and  said 
to  bo  superior  to  plaster  of  Paris  for  coating  the  walls  of  rooms. 

Cemekt  fok  Cloth  or  Leather. — Take  ale,l  pt. ;  best  Russia  isin- 
glass, 2  ozs. ;  put  them  into  a  common  glue  kettle  and  boil  until  the  isin- 
glass is  dissolved;  then  add  4  ozs.  of  the  best  common  glue,  and  dissolve 
it  Aviththe  other  ;  then  slowly  add  ozs.  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  stirring  all 
the  time  Avhile  adding,  and  until  well  mixed.  When  cold  it  appears  like 
India  rubber.  To  use,  dissolve  what  you  need  in  a  suitable  quantity  of 
ale  to  have  the  consistence  of  thick  glue.  It  is  applicable  for  earth en- 
Avarc,  china,  glass,  or  leather  ;  for  harness,  belts  for  machinery,  cloth 
belts  for  cracker  machines  for  bakers,  &c.  If  for  leather,  shave  off  as  if 
for  sewing,  apply  the  cement  Avith  a  brush  while  hot,  laying  a  weight  to 
keep  the  joint  firmly  pressed  for  6  to  10  hours,  or  OA^er  night. 

Cutlers'  Cement. — Black  losin,  4  lbs. ;  beeswax,  1  lb. ;  melt  together 
and  add  1  lb.  finely  powdered  and  dried  brick-dust.  Used  for  fastening 
knives  and  forks  in  their  handles  Avhen  they  become  loosened  by  use. 

Cement  for  Fastening  Fibrous  Materials  to  Metals. — This 
can  be  effected  by  dissolving  glue  in  vinegar  by  heat  and  adding  one- 
third  of  its  volume  of  Avhite  pine  pitch,  also  liot. 

Good  Paste  that  will  Keep  a  Year.— Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of 
alum  in  a  quart  of  warm  Avater.  When  cold,  stir  in  as  much  flour  as  will 
bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  being  particular  to  break  up  all  the 
lumps  ;  next,  place  it  on  the  fire  and  alioAv  it  to  cook  gently  for  a  few. 
minutes,  stirring  Avell  meanwhile  ;  add  2  teaspoonf  uls  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  rose- 
mary, or  cloves,  or  laA^ender,  or  any  other  essential  oil,  stirring  in  Avell. 
This  paste  Avill  keep  for  any  length  of  time  in  prime  condition. 

Mucilage. — Put  3  ozs.  of  gum  arable  in  an  earthen-ware  vessel  con- 
taining ^  pt.  of  cold  water.  If  the  liquid  is  occasionally  stirred,  the 
gum  in  24  hours  will  be  dissolved  and  ready  for  use. 

Cement  to  Fasten  Rubber  to  Wood  or  Metal. — Soak  pulverized 
gum  shellac  in  10  times  its  Aveight  of  ammonia  ;  in  3  or  4  Aveeks  a  slimy 
mass  is  obtained  Avhicli  Avill  become  liquid  without  the  use  of  hot  water  ; 
this  softens  the  rubber,  and  becomes,  after  A'^olatilization  of  the  ammonia, 
hard  and  impermeable  to  gases  and  fluids  whenever  it  is  used  on  rubber 
connected  to  wood  or  metal,  as  in  steam,  or  other  apparatus. 

Imperishable  Putty. — Linseed  oil,  7  lbs.  ;  brown  umber,  4  lbs.  ; 
boil  together  tAVO  hours  ;  stir  in  2  oz.  beeswax,  remove  from  the  fire, 
juid  mix  in  5^  lbs  chalk  and  11  lbs.  white  lead,  mixing  thoroughly. 

Cheap  Gold  Varnish  for  Ornamental  Tin-Ware. — Turpentine 
varnish,  2  gals.  ;  turpentine,  1  gal.  ;  asphaltum,  1  gill ;  umber,  8  oz.  ; 
yellow  aniline,  4  oz.  ;  gamboge,  1  lb.   Boil  and  mix  for  10  hours. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT  427 


Temporary  Repairs  isi  LoconaolSve  Brealc-dowais 
on  tlie  HosicL 

That  the  locomotive,  in  its  long  and  rapid  trips,  with  continual  oscilla- 
tion, jars,  and  heavj'-  shocks,  over  uneven  rails,  passing  around  curves 
and  siuuosities,  twisting  first  one  way  and  then  another,  should  meet 
with  frequent-  break-downs,  is  a  matter  of  small  wonder.  The  real 
wonder  is  that  they  do  not  occur  more  frequently.  Much  of  this  im- 
munity from  accident  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  watchful  care  of  the 
men  to  whom  they  are  intrusted,  whose  perceptions  and  intuitions  are 
quickened  to  a  wonderful  degree  of  activity  by  the  peculiar  dangers 
Avhich  beset  them  in  their  calling.  Among  the  emergencies  in  which  the 
locomotive  engineer  may  be  called  to  act,  the  following  may  be  noted  : 

1.  Bursting' of  the  Tubes  or  Flues. — The  temporary  remedy  for  this  is 
to  drive  a  tapering  plug  of  pine  wood  into  the  ruptured  tube  by  ram- 
ming it  with  the  end  of  an  iron  bar.  "When  a  simple  leak  exists,  the 
plug  should  be  driven  into  the  tube  so  as  to  cover  the  fractured  part, 
Avhere  the  action  of  the  steam  will  swell  the  plug,  causing  it  to  fit  tight 
and  correct  the  trouble.  The  timber  used  should  be  Avell  seasoned,  and 
the  plugs  formed  a  trifle  too  small  for  the  tube  ;  the  expansion  due  to 
tlie  moisture  will  do  the  rest,  "With  bursted  tubes  the  wooden  plugs 
should  be  followed  up  by  tapering  iron  plugs  driven  tight  into  the  flues. 
To  do  this  comfortably  it  will  be  necessary  to  repress  the  heat  in  the 
furnace  by  covering  the  fire  with  fresh  fuel  from  the  tender. 

2.  Throiving  off  a  Driving  Wheel. — When  the  break  occurs,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  just  outside  the  driving-axle  box,  remove  the  driving- 
box  and  substitute  in  its  place  a  substantial  piece  of  timber  fitted  to  use 
as  a  journal  bearing  for  the  axle.  Adjust  this  timber  on  the  pedestal  cap 
so  as  to  sustain  the  axle  in  the  centre  of  the  pedestal.  By  cautious 
management,  disconnecting  the  valve  gearing,  securing  the  piston,  and 
openhig  the  cylinder  cocks  as  before,  the  engine  may  be  run  slowly  to- 
wards its  destination. 

3.  Where  a  Wheel  Tire  is  Thrown  Of,  the  best  way  is  to  elevate  the 
dismantled  wheel  from  the  track  by  fittiug  a  block  of  timber  into,  the 
oil  cistern  of  the  driving-box;  when  this  is  done  connect  with  another 
engine  and  tow  the  disabled  machine  to  the  repair  shop  without  allow- 
ing the  tireless  wheel  to  toucli  the  rails. 

'  4.  Heated  Axle-Boxes. — This  trouble  is  frequently  detected  by  the 
odor  of  burning  oil.  In  tliis  case  the  speed  should,  if  possible,  be  re- 
duced, and  the  box  freely  lubricated;  but  if  this  proves  of  no  avail,  a 
brisk  jet  of  cold  water  from  the  tank  should  be  directed  on  the  hot  box 
by  means  of  a  small  rubber  hose,  which  should  always  be  kept  on  hand 
for  such  emergencies.  To  avert  all  danger  from  the  fused  lining  metal 
of  the  brasses  becoming  Brazed  to  the  journal  of  the  axle  the  engine 
should  be  kept  moving  very  slowly,  and  not  allowed  to  come  to  a  full 
stop  until  the  trouble  is  ])ast. 

5.  When  the  Piston-Iiod  becomes  Heated,  the  remedy  is  to  loosen  the 
gland  sufficiently  to  permit  the  free  emission  of  steam  from  the  engine  cyl- 
inder through  the  packing.  Lubricate  freely  and  apply  water  with  the 
hose  as  above  noted,  while  running  slowly. 

6.  Broken  Crank  Pin. — Where  only  one  crank-pin  is  broken  remove 
the  parallel  or  coupling  rods  on  both  sides  of  tlie  engine,  and  if  the 
broken  crank-ioin  belongs  to  the  driving-wheels,  remove  the  connecting 
rod  at  the  same  time,  open  tlie  cylinder  waste-water  cocks,  and  se- 
curely block  the  cross-head.  If  the  parallel  rods  on  both  sides  of  the 
engine  are  not  removed,  there  is  imminent  danger,  Avliile  running,  of 
breaking  the  remaining  crank-pins  on  the  opposite  side. 


4'28       MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS''  DEPARTMENT. 


7.  Drtvuif/  out  thn  Front  Cylinder-head. — Rcmovo  tlio  coniicctiup;-rod 
on  tho  dis.aV)lc(l  .side  of  tlio  engine,  and  detiicli  tlie  valve  motion,  either 
l)y  tiiking  down  tho  eccentric  rod  straps  or  at  tho  rock-shaft  arm.  Next, 
set  tho  valve  in  the  centre  of  its  travel,  so  as  to  overlap  and  cover  both 
of  tlic  cylinder  steam  ports,  hut  with  tlie  exhaust  port  open.  Then 
crowd  the  back  toAvards  tho  tender  as  far  as  it  will  go  and  i^roceed  with 
tho  sound  cylinder. 

8.  Breaicinri  of  the  Piston-rod.--T\\(i  provisional  remedy  for  thif, 
wlicro  the  cylinder-head  is  not  driven  out,  is  to  proceed  as  directed  in  tlio 
last  noted  emergency.  Open  the  waste-water  cocks  of  tho  disabled  cyl- 
inder to  check  any  leakage  of  steam  past  tlio  slide  valve  from  gaining 
admission  to  the  cylinder  and  forcing  the  piston  against  tho  cylinder- 
head  and  driving  it  out.  Block  tho  piston  securely  by  means  of  pieces 
of  timber  fitted  between  the  guide-bars,  so  as  to  extend  between  the 
guide-yoke  and  cross-head. 

9.  Broken  Spring  or  Spring-IIa7iger.—A\^i>\j  tho  jacks  and  raise  tho 
engine  until  the  axle-box  of  the  driving-wheel  is  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  i)cdestal,  then  place  a  suitable  piece  of  iron  crosswise  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  driving-axle  box,  but  between  it  and  tho  engine  frame,  so 
as  to  rest  the  weight  of  the  engine  on  the  frame  and  relievo  the  spring. 
To  prevent  the  movement  of  the  equalizing  bar,  and  to  permit  the  opera- 
tion of  the  spring  at  the  other  end  of  the  said  bar  without  moving  it,  a 
piece  of  iron  should  be  placed  between  the  bar  and  the  top  of  the  engine 
frame. 

10.  Breaking  of  Piston-Rod  from  the  Cross-Head. — ^In  this  case  tho 
piston  maybe  removed  from  the  cylinder,  or  immovably  braced  againrt 
the  front  cylinder-head,  as  may  be  most  convenient  It  matters  not  if  it 
does  leak  a  little  steam. 

11.  Breaking  a  Lifting  Link  or  the  Saddle  Pin  Connecting  the  Ite- 
verse  Shaft  to  the  Slot-Link. — The  temporary  remedy  for  this  accident  is 
to  fit  a  piece  of  wood  and  fasten  it  with  stout  twine  on  the  top  of  the  dio 
ojr  link-block.  It  should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  keep  tho  link  in  proper 
position  for  duty  in  running  tho  train.  Next,  secure  another  piece  of 
wood  (by  the  same  means  as  the  last  noted)  in  tho  link-slot  below  tho 
die  or  sliding-block,  to  fasten  that  block  in  the  right  position  to  allow 
the  engine  to  run.  As  the  engine  cannot  be  reversed  on  the  disabled, 
side,  the  driver  must  exercise  double  caution  in  stopping. 

12.  Slipping  of  the  Eceentrics. — The  provisional  remedy  for  this  ac- 
cident is  as  follows :  Place  the  reverse  lever  in  the  end  notch  of  the  sector 
forward  and  place  the  driving  crank-pin  or  engine-crank  as  nearly  on  a, 
dead  centre  as  possible,  opening  the  waste-water  cocks  at  both  ends  of 
the  cylinder.  Now  detach  the  rocker-arm  from  the  slide-valve  spindle,  and 
move  the  latter  until  the  opening  of  the  cylinder  steam-port,  corresponding 
to  the  end  of  the  cylinder  at  which  the  piston  stands,  will  be  shown  by 
the  emission  of  steam  through  the  waste-water  cock  at  that  end  of  tho 
cylinder  ;  the  throttle-valve  being  slightly  opened  to  admit  a  small  quau- , 
tity  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  and  steam-chest,  for  if  a  large  supply  en- 
tered it  would  be  liable  to  pass  through  leaks  in  the  piston  and  thenco 
through  both  of  the  waste-water  cylinder-cocks.  The  position  of  tho 
valre  being  now  ascertained,  the  eccentric  is  next  moved  upon  tho 
driving-axle,  and  adjusted  so  that  the  valve-spindle  will  connect  with  tho 
rocker-arm  without  being  moved,  or  moving  the  valve  at  all.  Still  an- 
other temporary  remedy  is  this  :  Set  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forward 
notch,  place  the  crank  on  its  forward  dead  centre,  and  slacken  the  set- 
screw  of  the  eccentric  which  connects  to  the  upper  end  of  tlio 
Jink;  the  forward  eccentric.  This  eccentric  must  now  be  moved  round 
upon  the  axle  until  the  slide-valve  causes  the  steam-port  at  the  front  end 
of  the  cylinder  to  open  sufficiently  to  aSord  tlie  required  amount  of 


MACHINISTS  AJfD  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


429 


valve  lead.  To  accomplish  the  desired  results,  the  eccentric  must  be 
moved  as  it  operates  vihen  the  engine  is  going  ahead.  The  eccentric 
being  thus  properly  adjusted  iu  position,  it  should  be  firmly  secured  by 
means  of  its  set-screw.  If  the  rear  eccentric  becomes  loose,  place  the  re- 
verse lever  in  the  backward  notch,  and  elevate  the  link  so  that  the  ec- 
centric connected  to  the  lower  end  of  the  link  may  be  properly  adjusted, 
moving  it  around  on  the  axle  as  it  operates  when  the  engine  is  running 
backwards,  until  the  rear  cylinder-cock  is  open  to  the  required  amount 
of  valve  lead,  when  it  must  be  secured  as  above  noted. 

How  TO  Shape  a  Saucing  Vessel  or  Steamek.— The  model  of  a  tcsscI 
is  iu  every  case  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  traffic  for  which  she  is  des- 
tined, the  motive  power  by  "which  she  will  be  impelled,  and  the  character  of 
the  waters  she  is  intended  to  navigate.  For  shallow  ports  and  rivers,  she 
must  be  flat-bottomed  and  of  light  draught.  If  she  is  to  navigate  northern 
seas,  she  must  be  constructed  to  encounter  and  outride  the  fearful  gales  and 
tremendous  storms  of  frequent  occurrence.  If  she  is  to  visit  tropical  climates 
and  follow  the  great  marine  highways  of  commerce  in  deep  water  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  she  must  be  equally  adapted  for  conflict  with  the  tropical 
hurricane  and  the  freezing  gales  of  the  north.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  first-class 
iron  steamers  which  ply  between  New  York  and  the  various  European  ports 
have  proved  themselves  abundantly  capable,  where  no  serious  derangement 
is  sustained  by  the  machinery,  of  coming  safely  into  port  through  the  worst 
possible  kind  of  Aveather.  Even  contrary  winds  have  the  beneficial  effect  oi 
quickening  the  draught  of  the  furnaces,  and  thus  increasing  the  speed  of  tlio 
vessel.  This  wonderful  endurance  and  nice  adaptation  to  duty  is  no  chance 
work  ;  it  is  the  result  of  design— the  careful  adjustment  of  forces,  and  tho 
closest  calculation  on  the  part  of  the  designer. 

If  a  vessel  is  to  be  impelled  by  the  wind,  she  Vvill  have  one  shape  ;  if  by 
Rteam,  and  with  paddles,  quite  another  ;  and  still  another  if  a  propeller. 
There  is  a  vast  discrepancy  between  tho  graceful  curves  and  swelling  lines 
of  a  first-class  excursion  steamer  and  the  iinwieldy,  cumbrous  form  of  the 
collier,  yet  each  vessel  is  specially  designed  for  its  particular  vocation. 

The  character,  cost,  length,  width,  depth,  and  capacity  of  the  vessel  being 
determined,  the  first  step  is  to  make  the  model.  To  do  this  a  number  of 
pieces  of  well-seasoned,  select  j)ieces  of  wood,  of  a  uniform  thickness,  are 
chosen.  The  size  may  be  from  4  to  7  ins.  wide,  and  fiom  18  ins.  to  3  ft.  iu 
length.  An  equal  number  of  pieces  of  veneer,  of  a  corresponding  size,  are 
next  selected,  of  a  color  contrasting  with  that  of  the  boards  previously 
chosen.  The  boards  are  now  carefully  adjusted  over  each  other,  with  a 
veneer  between  each,  and  the  Avhole  are  glued  together,  and  submitted  to 
pressure,  so  as  to  make  a  solid,  comj)act  block  of  the  whole.  From  this  block 
the  designer  forms  the  model  of  one  side  of  the  hull  of  the  projected  vessel, 
for  as  both  sides  Avill  be  exactly  alike,  there  is  no  use  for  representing  more 
than  one-half  of  the  hull.  The  greatest  care  and  the  nicest  calculation  must 
be  used  in  order  to  render  the  form  of  the  block  an  exact  counterpart  of  tho 
hull  of  the  future  ship,  as  in  buildiug  the  latter  every  part  must  be  con- 
structed to  conform,  iu  the  minutest  particulars,  to  the  model.  It  will  be 
seen  from  this  that  every  thing  relating  to  the  ship's  capacity,  speed,  draught, 
safety,  &c.,  depends  upon  the  ability,  forethought,  and  prescience  of  the  de- 
signer in  calculating  every  possible  contingency  relating  to  the  displacement 
of  water,  draught,  buoyancy,  the  force  of  the  wind  and  waves,  &c.  If  tho 
future  vessel  be  intended  for  a  steamer,  the  designer  must  be  able  to  calcu- 
late the  proper  degree  of  immersion  for  the  paddles  or  submersion  for  tho 
propeller,  as  either  of  the  two  may  be  used  iox  propulsiou,  with  Bumerous 
other  minor  details. 


430 


MACHINISTS  AND   ENGINEERS'  DErAIlTMEM'I'. 


Among  the  benefactors  of  humanity,  whoso  labors  have  concTuced  to  render 
the  latent  forces  of  natnre  subservient  to  the  uses  of  mankind,  the  name  of 
James  Watt  holds  preeminent  rank.  The  following  epitaph  is  inscribed  ou  the 
pedestal  of  Chantry's  statue  of  Watt  in  Westminster  Abbey : 

Not  to  perpetuate  a  name,  which  must  enduee  "while  the  peaceful 
alits  flourish,  b^t  to  show  that  mankikd  have  learnt  to  honor  those 
who  best  deserve  their  gratitude,  the  king,  his  ministers,  and 
many  of  the  nobles  and  commoners  of  the  realm,  raised  this  monu- 
MENT TO  JAMES  WATT,  who  directing  the  force  of  an  original  genius, 

EARLY  exercised  IN  PHILOSOPHIC  RESEARCH,  TO  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE 

STEAM  ENG-INB,  enlarged  the  resources  of  his  country,  increased 

THE  POWER  OF  MAN,  AND  ROSE  TO  AN  EMINENT  PLACE  AMONG  THE  ILLUSTRIOUS 
FOLLOWERS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  THE  REAL  BENEFACTORS  OF  THE  WORLD.  BORN 
AT  G-REENOCK,  1736.     DiED  AT  HEAIHFIELD,  IN  STAFFORDSHIRE,  1819. 

In  1764,  Watt  coustrncted  the  first  steaTO  engine  of  real  practical  value  ever 
made  in  England,  and  in  1786  he  patented  and  introduced  the  first  non-condens- 
ing engine.  This  improvement  consisted  in  his  discovery  of  the  power  of  cold 
water  to  condense  steam,  and  he  applied  this  means  in  a  separate  vessel. 
Pour  ounces  of  water  will,  in  a  second,  condense  200  feet  of  steam,  and  reduce 
their  expansive  force  to  one-fifth. 

The  Waterous  Engine  Works  Co.'s  High  PEESstmE  Engine,  repre- 
sented in  the  cut,  is  in  very  extensive  use  in  Canada,  and  is  credited  with  first- 
class  performances.  The  improved  Governor  used  on  this  engine  is  superior  to 
most  of  the  best  kinds  now  manufactured  in  its  controlling  and  regulating 
action,  combined  with  easy  adjustm.ent.  Outer  bearings  are  added  to  the  valve 
spindles,  and  brass  glands  to  the  stuffing  boxes,  which  are  held  to  place  with  a 
cap  screwed  on,  thus  obviating  any  liability  to  get  out  of  line.    The  piston 


JIACIIINIGTS'AIID  ENGIKEEKS'  DEPARTMENT.  431 


432     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEEKS'  DEPATITMENT. 


rods  and  crank-pins  arc  of  steel,  and  all  valve  Hpindles  and  cn!;ino 
T)f)lts  am  made  of  l^owinoor  iron. 

Tlio  above  noted  engine  must  not  l)o  confounded  with  the  20  and 
25-horse  power  direct  action  portable  engines  manufactured  by  the 
same  company,  so  well  Icnown  and  so  extensively  used  in  driving  saw 
mills,  and  performing  work  connected  with  ship  building  in  the 
Maratime  Provinces,  and  other  parts  of  the  Dominion  of  Canadiu 
These  engines  and  mills  are  considered  by  many  who  use  them  as 
marvels  of  perfection,  several  parties  having  sent  in  attestations  of 
having  performed  nearly  double  the  work  guaranteed  by  the  com- 
pany. 


RICHARD^  S  INDICATOR,  BY  ELLIOT  BROTHERS,  LONDON. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  Richards  Steam  Engine  Indicfitor, 
consisting  of  a  cylinder  containing  an  accurately  adjusted  piston,  the 
upper  side  of  which  is  always  exposed  to  the  downward  pressure  of 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  4.33 


the  atmospliere,  and  fitted  with  a  stiff  spiral  spring  of  known  strength 
to  resist  the  upward  movement  of  the  steam  when  it  operates  from 
■beneath.  Tlie  indications  of  the  instrument  are  exliibited  by  means 
of  a  pencil  connected  with  tlie  piston  and  operated  by  the  fluctuating 
pressure  of  the  steam,  whereby  the  pencil  is  compelled  to  move  up  or 
down  in  a  vertical  direction,  and  describe  a  line  on  a  piece  of  paper 
placed  on  the  card  barrel  or  drum  shown  m  the  cut,  with  the  gradu- 
ated scale,  the  drum  in  the  meantime  being  compelled  to  move  hither 
and  thither  on  its  axis  by  means  of  a  cord  connecting  it  with  a  suit- 
able part  of  the  engine  operating  to  draw  it  one  way  against  the  ten- 
sion of  a  spring  during  the  forward  stroke  of  the  engine,  the  back- 
ward movement  of  the  drum  towards  its  original  position  being 
effected  by  the  operation  of  the  spring  while  the  cord  is  relaxed  dur- 
ing the  return  stroke  of  the  engine.  The  piston  to  whicli  the  pencil 
is  attached,  is  very  light,  has  very  little  friction,  small  momentum, 
and  very  limited  motion,  the  spring  on  the  upper  part  being  quite 
stiff  and  rigid,  and  so  graduated  in  strength  that  a  variation  in  the 
pressure  of  1  lb.  to  the  square  inch  will  force  the  pencil  up  or  down  a 
definite  part  of  an  inch.  The  indicator  is  intended  to  exhibit  the 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  cylinder  at  every  j)art  of  the  piston's  travel, 
and  thus  show  the  actual  or  indicated  horse-power.  In  applying  the 
indicator  to  horizontal  cylinders,  the  proper  place  for  insertion  is  on 
the  upper  side,  near  the  ends,  but  averted  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  steam  ports,  as  the  rushing  steam  has  a  tendency  to  derange  the/ 
indications.  Vertical  cylinders  should  be  tapped  at  the  upper  end, 
and  the  indicator  cock  screwed  in,  or  the  aperture  in  which  the  oil 
cup  is  inserted  maybe  used  for  that  purpose;  for  the  lower  end,  drill 
through  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  insert  a  tube  with  the  end  bent 
upwards  for  the  reception  of  the  indicator  cock.  The  indicator  be- 
ing in  position,  a  cord  (fine  wire  is  preferable),  from  the  paper  barrel 
is  attached  to  a  "  reducing  wheel,"  which  is  secured  to  some  part  of 
the  engine  frame;  another  cord  connects  the  reducing  wheel  with  the 
piston liead  ;  the  intervention  of  this  wheel  is  necessary  in  order  to 
diminish  or  reduce  the  long  movement  of  the  piston  to  a  sufficient 
extent  to  conform  to  the  small  size  of  the  instrument  used.  Tl.c 
connection  being  complete,  and  the  engmc  m  motion,  the  paper  bar- 
rel will  commence  to  revolve  with  the  forward  movement  of  the 
piston,  in  anta-onism  to  the  tension  of  the  coiled  spring  above  noted, 
when  the  cord  is  relaxed  by  the  return  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  paper 
barrel,  operated  by  the  spring,  will  resume  its  original  po«ticn,  and 
this  motion  will  cbntinue  as  long  as  may  be  desirable.  The  pencil, 
if  now  allowed  to  press  upon  the  moving  paper,  will  describe  a 
straight  horizontal  line,  called  the  atmospheric  fine.  On  the  admis- 
sion "of  steam  bv  turning  the  tap  of  the  indicator,  this  liorizontal 
motion  will  suddenly  xhange  into  an  upward  or  downward  move- 
ment, just  as  the  piston  in  the  indicator  is  driven  upwards  by  the 
steam  or  downwards  by  the  atmosphere,  as  either  gains  the  ascend- 
ancy; and  the  pencil  will  describe,  on  the  moving  paper,  a  space  or 
outline,  compounded  of  the  two  motions,  called  an  indicator  diagram, 
each  point  in  the  course  of  which  will  determine,  by  its  elevation  or 
depression  above  the  atmospheric  line,  the  exact  amount  of  pressure 
in  that  part  of  the  cylinder  during  each  part  of  the  forward  and  re- 
turn stroke.  Many  prefer  to  trace  the  indicator  diagram  previous  to 
tracing  the  atmospheric  line. 

28 


434    MACITTN13T3  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


In  (liacfrnin  E,  the  .itmosphoric  line  A  T<,  dcscribod  hy  the  pencil/ 
■witlioiit  stoiiin,  is  cqiiivjilcnt  to  tlu;  stroke  o£  tlie  ])istoii,  which  may 
1)0  divided  into  ns  maiiv  aliquot  pn-i'ts  as  tlicre  arc  inehcs  in  tl)e  stroke, 
i)^  tlio  piston.    rcri)endi(!ulars  raiscid  on  this  lino  will  cut  tlio  diagram, 
at  points  indicating  tlio  corresponding  pressure.    Tlie  curved  line- 
A  B,  traced  hy  the  pencil,  oxiiibits  the  varying  pressure  of  tlie  steam 
daring  the  steam  stroke,  in  the  direction  A  B,  and  during  the  return 
fitroke  B  A;  the  continuation  BCA  represents  similarly  the  hack 
pressure  due  to  incomplete  exhaust.    The  curve  is  thus  arranged  to 
hegin  and  end  in  itself,  and  it  plainly  represents  the  pressure  oi'  the 
steam  on  one  side  of  the  piston  during  a  double  stroke.    Divide  the 
base  lino  into  inches  of  stroke,  say  20,  and  at  each  division  draw 
vertical  lines ;  similarly  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  atmospheric  line 
at  equal  distances,  of  say  10  lbs.  pressure  by  the  indicator  scale  ;  the 
force  of  steam  at  all  points  of  the  stroke  will  be  obvious. 


E 


Corner  earn  Stroke:  ^~  Corner 


'Mductiori/ 
Ijr;  Cvrner; 


"Vhcu-UTnlyine  Corner 


Meturn  Btroke. 


To  Compvte  the  Power  of  the  Diagram— ^et  down  the  length  of. 
the  spaces  formed  by  the  vertical  lines  from  the  base,  in  measure- 
ments of  a  scale  accompanying  the  indicator,  and  on  which  a  10th  of  ^ 
an  inch  usually  represents  a  pound  of  pressure;  add  up  the  total 
length  of  all  the  spaces,  and  divide  by  the  number  of  spaces,  which 
will  give  the  mean  length,  or  the  mean  pressure  upon  the  piston  in 
pounds  per  square  inch ;  multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square 
inches  by  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  by  the  speed 
of  the  piston,  in  feet,  per  minute,  and  divide  by  33,000,  Avhich  gives 
the  actual  number  of  horses'  power. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  435 


At  such  times  a  register  should  be  used  to  count  the  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute.  Note  the  size  of  the  ports,  the  form  and 
kind  of  engine,  the  lap  and  lead  of  the  valve,  the  exhaust  lead,  the 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler,  diameter  of  cylinder,  number  of 
strokes  per  minute,  the  diameter  and  length  of  steam  pipe,  the  point 
of  cut-off,  the  height  of  the  barometer  and  temperature  of  the  engine 
room ;  and  the  vacuum  by  gauge,  the  temperature  of  the  hot-well, 
and  that  of  the  injection  water,  if  the  operation  has  been  performed 
on  a  condensing  engine.  To  take  a  diagram  with  absolute  truth  it 
is  necessary  to  operate  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 
Power  Required  for  Various  Purposes. — 

To  drive  a  20  to  30  inch  circular  saw,  4  to  0  horse  power. 
32  to  40        "        "  12 
"        48  to  50        "        "        15      "  " 
"       60toG2        "        "        25      "  " 


POWER  T7ECESSARY  TO  GRIND  GRAEST  WITH  PORTABLE  MILLS. 


Horse 
Power. 

Size  of 
Stones. 

Revolutions 
per 
Minute. 

Bushels  Corn 
Ground 
per  Hour. 

Bushels  of 
Wheat  Ground 
per  Hour. 

2  to  4 

12-incli. 

800  to  900 

Ito  4 

1  to  3 

4  to  6 

20  " 

650  to  700 

5  to  8 

4  to  G 

6  to  8 

30  " 

550  to  600 

10  to  15 

7  to  10 

8  to  12 

36  " 

450  to  500 

IB  to  25 

12  to  15 

12  to  15 

48  " 

350  to  400 

25  to  35 

15  to  18 

Saw  Machine  for  Stones.— .S'o/i  Sand  Stone :  Breadth  of  saw- 
cut,  J  inch;  time  required  to  saw  10  square  feet, 5 minutes  26  secondn; 
power  expended,  4.54  horses,  Hard  Sand  Stone:  breadth  of  cut, 
I  inch ;  time  employed  to  cut  10  square  feet,  1  hour  37  minutes ;  poAvI 
er  required,  2  horses.  In  sawing  stone  the  labor  on  calcareous  stones 
is  as  45  to  50;  on  granite,  as  500  to  700;  on  porphyry  1,200.  A  mar. 
ble  saw  requires  half  a  horse  power. 

Water  Woukh. —(3folestvort7i.)—l  gal.  of  water  =  0  16  cubic  ft.  ap 
proximately;  1  cubic  foot  of  water  =  614  gallons  approximately. 

Consumption  of  loater  in  ioivns.—U  gallons  per  head  per  day  in  noT-> 
manufactunng  towns;  20  gallons  per  day  in  manufacturing  towns.  The 
mam  sliould  he  large  enough  for  double  the  usual  quantity.  Impounding 
reservoirs  to  contain  about  120  days'  supply  in  the  less  rainy  districts  in 
Sif  r  VA+-^®^'^i^^t^'®^®.^o^^^  ^'^  contain  3  dkys'  supply.  On  the  average, 
about  6-lOths.  of  the  ramf all  is  available  for  storage .  Loss  from  overflow 
flof^^™;^ +1^^'  ^^^^^  per  cent.  Evaporation  is  50  per  cent,  less  on 
rlfi^l        than  on  an  undulating  rocky  country. 

Infiltration,  m  England,  in  winter  S."?  per  cent. 

«  „   ^     in  spring  35  " 

'        m  summer   2   "  " 

-  -„  "        in  autumn  48   "  *' 

Average  of  the  year    42  " 

Water  Works.— 1  square  vard"  of  filter  for  every  700 
gallons  in  24  hours;  formed  of  2  ft.  6  ins.  of  fine  sand,  6  in.  of  com- 
mon sand,  61ns.  of  shells,  2  ft.  6  ins.  of  gravel. 

Perforated  pipes  to  he  laid  in  the  lowest  stratum. 
10  Unite  Water  Pipes.— An  excellent  material  for  uniting 
water  pipes  is  prepared  by  combining  4  parts  of  Portland  cement  and 
1  part  of  unslacked  lime,  mixed  together  in  small  portions  in  a  stout 
mortar,  adding  enough  water  to  permit  it  to  be  reduced  to  a  soft  paste. 


43G     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DErAIlTMENT. 


THE  ALLEN  HIGH  PRESSURE  CUT-OFF  ENGINE. 


The  en.fjine  represented  above  is  construct erl  in  the  best  manner,  and 
valuable  improvements  have  been  introduced  with  a  view  to  attain  a 
very  high  speed  and  thus  ensure  immense  power  in  a  limited  sijace. 
The  travel  of  the  piston  is  from  600  to  800  ft.  per  minute,  and  the 
engine  is  constructed  of  the  best  material,  and  is  of  excellent  design 
throughout . 

HaMPSON    and    "WniTEHILIi'S   HlGH    PRESSURE  ENGINE.— This 

massive  and  powerful  engine  (see  cut)  is  in  quite  extensive  use,  and 
is  noted  for  its  substantial  construction,  its  excellent  valve  arrange- 
ment, powerful  governor,  economical  expansion  gear,  and  many  other 
valuable  points. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  Dimensions,  Power,  "Weight, 
&c.,  of  different  kinds  of  Portable  Steah  Engine3  ano 
Boilers.— Haswell, 


Power. 

Cylinder. 

Driving  or  Fly 
Wheels. 

Weight  of 
Engine  and 
Boiler. 

Nom- 
inal. 

Act- 
ual.* 

Diam. 

Stroke. 

a 

Revolu- 
tions. 

4 
5 
7 
8 
12 
15 
20 
25 
30 
40 

4.7 
7.3 
10.5 
14.3 
19.2 
24.3 
30.9 
36.3 
43.2 
58.8 

4  X  10 

5  X  10 

6  X  10 

7  X  10 

8  X  12 

9  X  12 

10  X  16 

11  X  18 

12  X  18 
14  X  18 

ins. 

21/2  X  6 
3X7 
3V2X'  7 
3%X  8 
4X8 
5X9 
6    X  10 

6  X  10 
6,  X  12 

7  X  li 

175 
175 
175 
175 
150 
150 
116 
100 
100 
100 

lbs. 
2,800 
3,200 
4,200 
4,900 
6,100 
6,900 
11,200 
12,.30O 
13,800 
16,700 

*  Computed  at  60  lbs.  pressure.  All  the  Portable  Engines  have  two  flf 
wheels,  or  Driving  pulleys. 


MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  437 


408      MACHINISTS  AND   KNCINKKKS'  DEI'AllTMKNT. 


The  Baxtku  PonTAr.LE  Steam  Engine,  as  iTianufacturcd  by 
the  Colt  Arms  Co.  of  llai  tfoi  d,  Conn.,  is  made  of  live  sizes,  embracing 
two  four,  six,  eight,  and  ten-horse  power,  respectively,  is  certainly 
onc'of  the  most  complete,  unique,  simple,  and  economical  poiUiblo 
en^nnes  ever  constructed.  It  is  too  well  known  t(^  require  a  detailed 
descri  on;  but  two  illustrations  are  presented  herewith,  the  lin;t 
«howi  K  a  front  view  of  the  exterior  part,  and  the  other  exhibiting  a 
bcctioual  view  of  the  plain  boiler  for  the  two-horse  power  engine. 


The  largest  size  has  a  bursting  strength  corresponding  to  500  lbs. 
to  the  square  inch,  whereas  the  working  pressure  is  about  70  lbs. ;  tho 
smallest  size  a  bursting  strength  of  1000  lbs.,  and  a  working  pressure 
of  about  90  lbs.  All  the  heating  surfaces  are  below  the  water  line, 
which  ensures  safety  to  the  boiler.  The  circulation  of  the  water  within 
the  boiler  is  perfect,  thus  holding  the  sediment  in.  suspension,  so  that 
it  may  be  expelled  by  blowing  out.  The  cylinder  and  its  parts  are 
kept  hot  by  immersion  in  the  steam,  so  that  no  caloric  is  lost,  and  tho 
piston  has  ^  vertical  movement,     that  there  is  but  little  wear  and 


MACHINISTS   A.ND  ENGINEERS'  DEPAKTMENT,  439 

tear  resulting  from  friction.  It  if!  hardly  ])ossible  to  explodo  tho 
boiler  in  any  contingency,  and  100  lbs.  of  coal  will  run  a  four-horse 
engine  for  10  hours.  The  whole  machine  is  composed  of  about  130 
component  parts,  all  interchangeable,  so  that  each  article  can  be  fur- 
nished by  the  manufacturer,  as  it  may  be  required  to  effect  repairs 
rendered  necessary  by  wear  or  breakage.  The  engine  has  a  piston 
speed  of  about  200  feet  per  minute,  the  diameter  of  the  piston  is  about 
the  same  as  the  length  of  the  stroke,  and  the  valve  arrangement  is 
most  complete. 

Gkiffith  and  Wedge' 13  Yeetical  Poet  able  Engine.— The 
engine  represented  below  presents  a  combination  of  many  valuable 
features,  among  others-  the  mini- 
mum of  friction,  o\  t  tl  o 
vertical  position  of  t 
an  improvement  which  |  utc 
novelty  on  engines  ^  L  t  d( 
scription,  and  effe  i 
vents  the  unequal  v  )f  t 
cylinder  and  piston  1  1  1 
-horizontal     engines  I  1  1 

The  whole  mechanic  1 

ments  are  most  compl  to      i  '  l|f 

efficient  that  it  can  be  di  \      1     i  ■  ij 

275  revolutions,  tho  ]    i  i    i     I  j 


GRIFFITH  AND  WEDGE'S  VERTICAL  PORTABLE  ENGINE. 


for  saw  mills,  to  460  revolutions  per  minute,  without  overtasking  tho 
boiler. 


440      MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEEIIS'  DKPARTMENT. 


ROBERT  FULTON, 


THE  PIONEER  OF  STEAM  NAVIGATIOIST  IN  AMERICA. 

While  Robert  Fulton  was  in  England,  convertinj?  a  speculation  into 
ft  reality,  he  was  on  friendly  intercourse  with  Sir  R.  Phillips,  to  whom 
lie  wrote  a  triumphant  letter  on  the  evening  of  his  first  voyage  on  the 
Hudson.  This  letter  was  shown  to  Earl  Stanhope  and  four  or  five 
eminent  engineers,  but  treated  with  scorn  as  descriptive  of  an  impos 
sibility.  Sir  R.  Phillips  then  advertised  for  a  company  to  rejjeat  on 
the  Thames  what  had  been  done  on  the  Hudson,  but  he  obtained 
onlj'^  two  ten-pound  conditional  subscribers,  after  expending  some 
pounds  in  advertising!  He  then  printed,  with  commendation,  Fui.- 
ton's  letter  in  the  Monthly  Magazine  and  his  credulity  was  general- 
ly reprobated.  Then,  for  several  years,  the  American  "accounts  were 
treated  as  falsehoods,  till  a  man  ruined  himself  by  launcJiiug  a  vessel 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  441 


on  the  Clyde,  Three  Scotchmen  afterwards  made  experiments.  It 
•was,  however,  a  mere  speculation  until  taken  up  by  Fulton  in  1806-7, 
and  introduced  on  the  American  rivers.  Thence  Bell  introduced  it  to 
the  Clyde.  At  first  every  one  derided  the  inventor  as  well  as  the  in- 
vention, being  afraid  to  trust  themselves  on  the  boat.  The  ignoble 
treatment  accorded  by  America  to  the  memory  of  her  noble  son,  the 
generous  Fulton,  is  a  blot  most  foul  upon  her  banner.  Hundreds  of 
thousands  now  avail  themselves  of  the  great  invention  which  his 
genius  brought  to  light,  on  the  waters  and  wharves  where  70  years 
ago,  during  his  life  time,  the  name  of  the  poor  unrequited  inventor 
was  a  laughing  stock  and  a  bye-word.  It  is  but  a  few  days  ago  that 
a  relation  appeared  in  the  Nexo  York  Sun,  giving  an  account  of  the 
accidental  discovery  of  his  bones  in  a  vault,  where,  as  we  now  learn, 
they  had  been  granted  a  temporary  resting  place  by  the  favor  of  the 
owner,  and  finally  forgotten. 

Sugar  Mill  for  Canes.  —A  S-cylinder  mill,  with  rollers  5|  ft. 
long,  30  ins.  diam.,  and  making  2^  turns  per  minute,  driven  by  an 
engine  of  25  to  30  horse  power,  will  express  the  juice  out  of  100  tons 
of  canes  in  12  to  15  hours.  An  acre  of  land  produces  from  10  to  20 
tons  of  canes,  according  to  the  age  and  locality  of  the  canes.  Tho 
juice  stands  from  8  to  12  of  the  sacchrometer,  according  to  the  locality. 
The  product  in  sugar  varies  from  G  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  canes,  according  to  the  locality  and  mode  of  manufacture.  Well 
constructed  mills  give  in  juice  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  canes,  and  one  main  condition  of  efficiency  is,  that  the  rollers 
shall  travel  slowly,  as  with  too  great  a  speed  the  juice  has  not  time 
to  separate  itself  from  the  woody  refuse  of  the  cane,  and  much  of  it 
is  reabsorbed.  To  defecate  830  gals,  of  juice,  6  boiling  pans  or  caul- 
drons are  required,  4  scum  presses,  and  10  filters,  and  to  granulate 
the  sugar,  2  vacuum  pans,  6J  feet  diam.,  are  required,  with  two  con- 
densers, and  it  is  better  also  to  have  two  air  pumps.  The  steam  for 
boiling  the  liquor  in  the  vacuum  pans  is  generated  in  3  cylindrical 
boilers,  each  6  ft.  in  diam.  To  whiten  the  sugar,  there  are  10  centri- 
fugal machines,  driven  by  a  12  h.  p.  engine,  which  also  drives  a  pair 
of  crushing  rollers. — Bourne. 

Oil  Mill.— Weight  of  edge  runners,  6,000  lbs. ;  number  of  turns 
of  the  vertical  spindie  per  minute,  6;  weight  of  seed  introduced  every 
10  minutes,  55  lbs. ;  weight  of  seed  crushed  daily,  3,300  lbs. ;  product 
in  oil  in  12  hours,  1,320  lbs. ;  power  expended,  272  horses. 

Hydrostatic  Press.— 30  hales  of  cotton  per  hour.  Engine  {high 
pressure  cylinder),  10  ins.  diam. ;  stroke  of  piston,  3  ft. ;  Press7n-e  of 
steam,  50  lbs.  per  square  inch;  full  stroke;  Revolutions,  45  to  60  per 
minute;  Presses,  2,  Avith  12-inch  rams;  stroke,  4-5  ft.;  Pumps,  2; 
diam.,  2  ins. ;  stroke,  6  ins. — Haswell. 

Fulling  Mill.— In,  fulling  the  cloth  called  "  Beauchamps," 
each  piece  being  220  yds.  long  and  .66  wide,  and  weighuig  from  121  to 
127  lbs.,  the  fuller  makes  lOO  to  120  strokes  per  minute;  each  piece 
requires  2  hours  to  full  it,  and  the  expenditure  of  2  horse  power 
during  that  time.— Bourne. 

Indelible  Red  Ink  for  Cotton  and  Woollen  Mills.— Use 
equal  parts  of  copperas  and  cumabar,  both  in  fine  powder,  sift,  and  rub 
up  with  linseed  oil  with  a  inuller;  then  squeeze  through  cloth. 
Used  for  writing  or  stamping  on  cotton  or  woollen  goods,  it  cannot  be 
bleached  out. 


4  12     ]\IACinNIST3  AND  KNGINI^EIIS'  DKPAJlTMENT, 


Wind  Milt.s, — The  Iciistli  of  an  arm  (whip)  is  divided  into  Kcvon 
parts,  the  sails  extending  over  six  parts.  The  Ibrco  of  wind  at  10  miles 
an  lionr,  is  half  a  pound  per  square  foot ;  at  14  miles  is  a  pound  ;  at 
20  miles  2  lbs. ;  at  25  miles  3  lbs. ;  at  ;')5  miles  G  lbs. ;  at  45  miles  10 
lbs. ;  at  GO  miles  17.^  lbs. ;  and  at  100  miles  is  nearly  50  lbs.  The  driv- 
ing shaft  of  a  wind  mill  should  bo  set  at  an  elevated  angle  Avith  tho 
horizon  when  sot  in  low  localities,  and  at  a  depressed  angle  when  set 
on  elevations.  Those  angles  may  range  from  3°  to  C5°.  To  give  tlie 
fullest  effect  to  the  force  of  the  wind,  the  sails  are  inclined  to  tlic  axis 
from  72°  to  75°.  The  tips  of  the  sails  often  move  cO  miles  per  hour, 
or  44  feet  per  second.  From  tip  to  tip  is  about  70  feet,  and  the 
breadth  from  5  to  G  feet.  The  performance  of  such  a  mill  is  equiva- 
lent to  tlie  power  of  34  men. 

Experiments  prove,  1st,  That  in  a  vertical  wind  mill  employed  to 
grind  corn,  the  mill  stone  usually  makes  5  revolutions  to  1  of  the  sail. 
2ud,  When  the  wind  is  19  feet  per  second,  the  sails  will  make  from  11 
to  12  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  mill  will  grind  880  to  990  lbs.  in 
an  hour,  or  about  22,000  lbs.  in  24  hours.  3d,  With  the  wind  at  30 
feet  per  second,  a  mill  will  carry  all  sail,  and  make  22  revolutions  per 
minute,  grinding  1984  lbs.  of  flour  in  an  hour,  or  47,690  lbs.  in  24  hours. 

From  the  experiments  of  Smeaton,  it  appears  that  the  following 
positions  are  the  be.st.  Suppose  the  radius  to  be  divided  into  6  equal 
parts,  and  call  the  first  part,  beginning  with  the  centre,  1,  the  second 
2,  and  so  on,  the  extreme  part  being  G : — 


ANGLE  WITH  THE 

NO.  ANGLE  WITH  AZIS  TLAKE  OF  MOTION. 

1  72  dog.  18  deg. 

2  71    "  19  " 

3  72    "  18  " 

4  74    "  IG  " 

5  77i  "  12i-  " 
G  83  7  " 


French  Flour  Mill. — Diameter  of  millstones,  70  inches;  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per  minute,  70;  quantity  of  corn  ground  and  sifted 
per  hour,  260.7  lbs.;  power  consumed,  3.34  horses,  as  tested  by  the 
dynamometer. 

English  Flour  Mill. — Diameter  of  millstones 51.18  inches;  rev- 
olutions per  minute,  110;  corn  ground  per  hour  by  each  revolving 
millstone,  220  lbs. ;  power  required  for  two  revolving  stones,  5.64 
horses.  Power  consumed  by  one  winnowing  machine  and  two  bolt- 
ing machines,  with  brushes  sifting  1,650  lbs.  of  flour  per  hour  was  6^ 
liorses.  In  another  mill  the  number  of  turns  of  the  millstone  was  486 
per  minute,  the  quantity  of  corn  ground  by  each  horse  power  was  120 
lbs.,  of  which  72.7  per  cent,  was  flour,  7.8  per  cent,  was  meal,  and 
19.5  per  cent,  was  bran.  In  a  portable  flour  mill,  with  machinery  for 
cleaning  and  sifting,  the  total  weight  was  1000  lbs. — Bourne. 

English  Flour  Mill  near  'Metz. — Diameter  of  stones,  51.18 
inches;  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  110;  weight  of  millstone, 
1  ton ;  com  ground  per  hour  by  each  pair,  220  lbs.  with  two  pairs  of 
millstones  acting,  1  bolting  and  1  winnowing  machine;  the  power  con- 
sumed was  8^  horse  power. — Bourne.  5  bushels  of  Northern,  and  4^ 
bushels  of  Southern  Avheat,  are  required  to  make  1  barrel  of  flour;  2 
lbs.  of  wheat  make  about  3  lbs  of  bread. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  443 


The  LiEFFEL  Impeoyed  Double  Ttjrbin-e  Water  Wheel..^ 
This  celebrated  wheel  (see  cut),  manufactared  by  Jas.  Leifel  &  Co., 
-of  Springfield,  Ohio,  and  IsTew  Haven,  Conn.,  of  which  there  are  now 
about  8,000  in  use,  corabines  two  independent  sets  and  kinds  of  buck- 
ets, one  a  vertical,  and  the  other  a  central  discharge,  differing  entirely 
from  each  other  in  the  principle  of  action  upon  the  water.  The  two 
sets  of  buckets  are  so  combined  as  to  make  really  but  one  wheel,  and 
by  their  arrangement  admit  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  water 
consistent  with  economical  use  to  any  given  wheel  of  whatever  size, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  greatest  area  for  the  escape  of  the  water  is 
cecuredo  Thus,  the  surface  of  the  wheel  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
as  compared  with  the  quantity  of  water  used,  and  a  very  great  loss 
of  power  by  friction  is  avoided.  In  connection  with  these  wheels  the 
Globe  cast-iron  casing  is  coming  to  be  almost  u.niversally  used,  espe- 
cially for  the  smaller  wheels.  Many  of  them  are  placed  under  heads 
of  water,  varying  from  80  to  240  feet,  and  the  tremendous  pressure 
is  withstood  in  the  most  admirable  manner.  The  severest  test,  that 
of  taking  the  place  of  an  over-shot  wheel  under  a  very  high  fall,  and 
with  an  extremely  limited  supply  of  water,  is  repeatedly  applied,  and 
in  evei-y  instance  with  the  most  complete  success.    For  over  12  years 


444     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPART^IENT. 


this  Avhccl  lias  .stood  the  .soverest  practical  tests,  dcvclo])iiig  the  in- 
most power  from  u  given  quantity  of  water,  ia  all  places  and  undeir 
all  circunistiinccs,  from  tlie  magnificent  cottou  mill  down  to  tho 
humble  frontier  saw  and  grist  mill. 

Table  of  Spouting  Velocitv  and  Discharge  of  "Water  for 
Gate  Orifices. 


It  1  -E 

1  F 

I  15 

E 

1    F    n  B  1 

E 

F  1 

B  1 

E 

F 

1 

17.64 

0.62 

11 

58.51 

2.03 

21 

80.84 

2.81 

31 

98.22 

3.41 

2 

24.95 

0.86 

12 

Gl.ll 

2.12 

22 

82.75 

287 

32 

99.80 

3.46 
3.52 

3 

30.55 

1.16 

13 

C3.G1 

2.21 

23 

84.61 

2.93 

33 

101.34 

4 

35.28 

1.22 

14 

66.01 

2.29 

21 

86.43 

3.00 

34 

102.67 

3.57 

5 

39.45 

1.37 

15 

68.33 

2.37 

25 

88.21 

3.06 

35 

104.37 

3.63 

6 

43.21 

1.50 

16 

70.57 

2.45 

26 

89.96 

3.12 

36 

105.85 

3.67 

7 

46.68 

1.G2 

17 

72.74 

2.53 

27 

91.67 

3.18 

37 

107.31 

3.72 

8 

49.90 

1.73 

18 

74.85 

2.60 

28 

93.35 

3.24 

38 

108.75 

3.77 

9 

52.92 

1.84 

19 

76.90 

2.G7 

29 

95.00 

3.30 

39 

110.17 

3.82 

10 

55.79 

1.94 

20 

78.90 

2.75 

30 

96.63 

3.56 

40 

111.58 

3.87 

The  above  table  gives  depth  in  inches  from  1  to  40,  as  noted  under 
columns  B.  Columns  E  represent  the  velocity  per  second,  in  inches 
and  decimals  of  an  inch.  Columns  F  represent  the  number  of  cubio 
feet  per  minute  for  each  square  inch  of  orifice. 

Illustration.— Suppose  the  opening  imder  a  forebay  gate,  r&r. 
quired  to  pass  the  Avater  of  a  stream,  is  48  inches  wide  and  3  inches 
deep,  with  a  head  of  water  (B)  in  forebay  of  28  ins. ;  to  find  the  water 
discliarged,  run  down  the  columns  marked  B  until  you  come  to  28  ins. 
(head  given  in  this  example);  then  run  across  to  column  F,  and  you 
will  find  3.24,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  discharged  by  an 
orifice  1  in.  square,  under  28  ins.  head.  The  area  of  the  opening 
given,  48  ins.  by  3  ins.  is  144  square  inches;  this  multiplied  by  3.24 
gives  460.56  cubic  feet  that  the  above  opening  will  discharge  per  min- 
ute.  Tliis  table  gives  the  actual  and  not  the  theoretical  discharge* 

In  the  measurement  of  large  open  streams,  first  ascertain  the  mean 
velocity  in  feet  per  minute,  and  also  the  area  of  cross  section  of  the 
stream  in  square  feet,  when  the  product  of  these  two  quantities  will 
give  the  required  quantity  of  water  afforded  by  the  "stream.  The 
velocity  of  sucli  stream  can  be  estimated  by  throwing  floating  bodies 
on  the  surface  of  near  the  specific  gravity  of  tlie  Avater,  and  rating  the 
time  accurately  required  in  passing  a  given  distance.  It  is  generally 
best  to  ascertain  the  velocity  at  the  centre,  and  from  this  ascertain 
the  mean  velocity,  which  has  been  found  by  accurate  and  reliable  ex- 
periments to  be  83  per  cent,  or  about  four-fifths  of  the  velocity  of  the 
surface  of  the  stream.  The  cross  section  may  be  estimated  by  measur- 
ing the  depth  of  the  stream  at  a  number  of  points,  at  equal  distances 
apart  (these  points  being  in  a  line  across  the  stream),  adding  the 
depths  together,  and  multiplying  their  sum  by  the  distance  apart  in: 
feet  of  any  two  points.  This  will  give  the  result  required  in  square 
feet  of  cross  section,  when  the  product  of  mean  velocity  in  feet  per 
minute  and  cross  section  in  square  feet,  obtains  the  quantity  of  water 
that  the  stream  affords  in  cubic  feet  per  minute.  LeffelVs  Wheel 
Book. 

Saw  and  Grist  Mill.— A  Waterous  40-horse-power  engine  will 
drive  a  60  inch  circular  saw,  capable  of  cutting  20,000  feet  of  ship 
plank  in  12  hours,  edger,  trimmer,  shingle  machines,  lath  machine, 
and  bolter,  and  2  run  of  stone.s  in  grist  mill. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  445 


Pitch  of  Wheels,  being  a  Table  of  Radii  of  Wheels  ik 
Inches,  having  from  7  to  22G  teeth,  the  Pitch  being  2  inches, 

SHOWING  how  to  COMPUTE  THE  PiTCH  FOK  A  DESIGNATED  DIAM- 
ETER, OR  THE  Diameter  for  a  Designated  Pitch. 


Teeth. 

Kadius. 

Teeth. 

Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radius 

7 

2.29 

51 

10  24 

OK 

vo 

139 

44.25 

- 

183 

68.25 

8 

2.61 

52 

16.56 

96 

30.56 

140 

44.57 

184 

58.57 

9 

2 .93 

n't 

16.88 

30  88 

141 

44.88 

185 

58.89 

10 

3.24 

17  on 

98 

31.20 

142 

45.20 

186 

59  21 

11 

3.55 

55 

J.i  .0^ 

99 

31.52 

143 

45.52 

187 

59.53 

12 

3.86 

00 

17.83 

100 

31 . 84 

144 

45.84 

188 

59.84 

13 

4. 18 

57 

18  15 

101 

32.15 

145 

46.16 

189 

60.16 

i-t 

4.49 

Oo 

18.47 

102 

32.47 

146 

46.48 

190 

60.48 

15 

4.81 

oy 

18.79 

103 

32.79 

147 

46.79 

191 

60.80 

16 

5.12 

19  11 

104 

33.11 

148 

47.11 

192 

61.13 

17 

5.44 

r.l 
bi 

19.42 

105 

33.43 

149 

47.43 

193 

61.44 

1  a 

K  IR 
O.  (0 

ly.  it 

106 

33.74 

150 

47.75 

194 

61.76 

19 

6.39 

C3 

20.06 

107 

34.06 

151 

48.07 

195 

62.07 

OA 

6.71 

108 

34.38 

152 

48.39 

196 

62.39 

01 
Zl 

7.71 

65 

20.70 

109 

34.70 

153 

48.70 

197 

62.71 

22 

7.03 

66 

21.02 

110 

35.02 

154 

49.02 

198 

63.03 

23 

7.34 

67 

21.33 

111 

35.34 

155 

49.34 

199 

63.34 

24 

7.66 

68 

21.65 

112 

35.65 

156 

49.66 

200 

63.66 

25 

7.98 

69 

21.97 

113 

35.97 

157 

49.98 

201 

63 -98 

26 

8.30 

70 

22.29 

114 

36.29 

158 

50.30 

202 

64.30 

27 

8.61 

71 

22.61 

115 

36.61 

159 

60.61 

203 

64.62 

28 

8.93 

72 

22.92 

116 

36.93 

160 

50.93 

204 

64.94 

29 

9.25 

73 

23.24 

117 

37.25 

iDi 

51.25 

205 

65.26 

30 

9.57 

74 

23.56 

118 

37.56 

162 

51.57 

206 

65.57 

31 

9.88 

75 

23.88 

119 

37.88 

163 

51. 89 

207 

65.89 

32 

10.20 

76 

24.20 

120 

38.20 

164 

52.21 

208 

66.21 

33 

10.52 

77 

24.52 

121 

38.52 

165 

62.52 

209 

66.53 

Q  t 

o-t 

10.84 

78 

24.83 

322 

38.84 

166 

62.84 

210 

66.85 

35 

11.16 

79 

25.15 

123 

39.16 

167 

53.16 

211 

67.17 

36 

11.47 

80 

25.47 

124 

39.47 

168 

53.48 

212 

67.48 

37 

11.79 

81 

25.79 

125 

39.79 

169 

53.80 

213 

67.80 

38 

12.11 

82 

26.11 

126 

40.11 

170 

54.12 

214 

68.12 

39 

12.43 

83 

26.43 

127 

40.43 

171 

54.43 

215 

68.44 

40 

12.74 

84 

26.74 

128 

40.75 

172 

54.75 

216 

C8.76 

41 

13.06 

85 

27.06 

129 

41.07 

173 

55.07 

217 

69.07 

42 

13.38 

86 

27.38 

130 

41.38 

174 

55.39 

218 

69.39 

43 

13.70 

87 

27.70 

131 

41.70 

175 

55.71 

219 

69.71 

44 

14.02 

88 

28.02 

132 

42.02 

176 

56.02 

220 

70.03 

45 

14.33 

89 

28.34 

133 

42.34 

177 

56.34 

221 

70.35 

46 

14.65 

90 

28.65 

134 

42.66 

178 

56.66 

222 

70.67 

47 

14.97 

91 

28.97 

135 

42.98 

179 

56.98 

223 

70.68 

48 

15.29 

92 

29.30 

136 

43.29 

180 

57.23 

224 

71.30 

49 

15.61 

93 

29. Ql 

137 

43  61 

181 

57.62 

225 

71.66 

50 

15.93 

94 

29-93 

138 

43.93 

182 

68.93 

226 

71.94 

To  find  the  Radius  for  any  given  Pitch  other  than  two  inches,  the  rule 
is,  as  two  inches  is  to  the  given  pitch,  so  is  the  radius  of  the  Table  to 
the  radius  required,  or,  to  determine  the  number  of  Teeth  in  a  wheel  for 
a  designated  pitch  and  diameter,  divide  the  diameter  by  the  pitch,  and 
opposite  to  the  quotient,  in  the  Table  will  be  found  the  proper  number 
of  teeth. 

Wheel  Gearing,  Construction  of  Teeth. — The  cut  represents 
a  section  of  a  pair  of  gears  whose  teeth  act  on  each  other  on  the  same 
plane;  they  are  known  as  Sj^wr  gear.  The  lai'gest  is  sx  spwmorticQ 


446     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT, 


V)hcd,  fittod  with  wooden  cogs.  A  shows  the  squaro  wooden  cogs, 
genonilly  drivciu  into  inortico  wheels  provioua  to  being  hiid  off  witli 
the  dividers  and  dressed  down  to  the  exact  pitch  and  outline,  as  shown 


in  the  shaded  part  representing  the  finished  tooth.  The  teeth  of  the 
small  wheel  (called  the  driven,  the  large  one  with  the  cogs  being  known 
as  the  driver)  are  iron,  being  cast  with  the  wheel,  and  are  sufficiently 
strong  if  but  half  the  size  of  cogs. 

The  ][)itch  line  (see  dotted  lines  extending  from  B  to  C,  and  from  D 


MACHINiaTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  447 


to  E)  is  a  circle  of  sufficient  climcusionr,  to  pcrrait  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  teetli  and  spaces  to  be  laid  out  on  it. 

Tlie  length  of  a  tootli  sliould  be  .7  of  the  pitch,  A  of  it  being  belo^v 
the  pitch  line,  and  .3  above,  as  shomi  in  cut.  As  a  general  thing,  the 
greater  the  breadth  of  a  tooth  across  the  surface  the  longer  it  wili  wear. 

By  pitch  is  understood  the  space  between  the  middle  orcentrea 
of  two  adjoining  teetli,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  at  F  F,  or  the  breadth 
of  a  tooth  and  a  space,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  at  G  G.  The  semi- 
diameter  running  to  the  pitch  line  is  called  the  pitch  radius. 

The  true  or  chordial  pitch  is  a  straight  line  drawn  between  the 
centres  of  two  adjoining  teeth,  and  is  that  by  which  the  dimensions 
of  the  teeth  and  speed  of  wheel  are  computed. 

The  radius  is  the  space  between  the  centre  of  the  wheel  and  the 
■periphery  of  a  tooth,  or  half  the  diameter  of  the  Avheel. 

The  line  of  centres,  showai  at  H,  passes  through  the  centres  of  two 
wheels,  and  on  this  line  the  pitch  circles  of  the  wheels  should  merge 
into  each  other  (as  shown  in  cut)  when  they  are  properly  regulated 
for  operation. 

Peopobtiox  of  Teeth  of  "Wheels—. 

From  pitch  line  to  top  of  tooth  =  Pitch  x  0-.33 
Total  depth  of  tooth  =  Pitch  x  0-75 

Thickness  of  tooth  ou  pitch  line  =  Pitch  X  0*45 
Space  between  teeth  on  pitch  line  =  Pitch  x  0*55 
Thickness  of  rim  of  wheel  =:  Pitch  x  0*45 

Thickness  of  arms  in  flat  =  Pitch  x  2*53 

Thickness  round  centre  rr  Pitch  x  I'SO 

Mortice  wheels  to  be  wider  than  iron  wheels  by  twice  the  thickness  ot 
the  rim ;  rim  to  be  double  the  thickness  of  iron  Avheels. 

Pitches  of  Equivalent  Steengtu  fok  the  Teeth  of  Wheels  ih 
Diffekent  Materials — 

Pitch  for  cast  iron  =  l-oo 

"  brass  =  1-00 

"  hardwood  =  1-20 

"  "        according  to  other  authorities  =  1 -20 

The  number  of  arms  in  wheels  should  be  as  follows  :— 

1-5  to  3.26  feet  in  diameter,  4  1  8.5  to  IG  feet  in  diameter,  8 
3-25  to  5       "  "5  16    to  24  '<  10 

5     to  8.5     "  "        6  J 

Fly  Wheels.— Weight  of  rim  should  be  85  to  95  lbs.  per  horse 
power,  momentum  of  wheel  being  4J  times  that  of  the  piston;  dia- 
meter 3  to  4  times  that  of  the  stroke  of  the  engine.  Single-acting 
engines,  fly-wheel  to  be  5  times  heavier  than  in  double  acting  engines. 

To  Compute  Weight  of  Rim — Multiply  the  mean  effective  pressure 
upon  the  piston,  in  pounds,  by  its  stroke,  in  feet,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  the  product  of  the  square  of  the  number  of  revolutions,  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel,  and  '00023.  For  a  light  wheel  multiply  by 
'0003;  for  a  heavy  one  by  'OOOIG. 

To  Coynpute  Dimensions  of  i^im— Multiply  the  weight,  in  pounds, 
by  "1,  .and  divide  the  product  by  the  mean  diameter  of  tlie  rim,  in 
feet ;  the  quotient  will  give  the  sectional  area  of  the  rim  in  square 
inches  of  cast  iron. 

Ginning  Cotton — 4  horse  powder  will  drive  a  gin  of  from  40  to  60 
6aws,  and  for  every  additional  20  saws  add  1  horse  power. 

Threshing  Grain — 4  horse  power  should  thresh  50  bushels  per 
hour  ;  6  to  8  horse  power  will  drive  the  ordinary  10  to  12  horse 
thresher  and  separator. 


418     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS*  DEPARTMENT. 


BORING  MACHINE  FOR  SUBMARINE  TUNNELS. 
The  above  engraving  represents  a  back  view  of  the  tunnelling  or 
boring  machine  intended  to  be  used  in  perforating  the  proposed  tunnel 
nnder  the  English  Channel,  between  France  and  England.  Opera- 
tions have  already  been  commenced  on  the  French  coast,  and  fer- 
vent hopes  are  entertained  that  no  insurmountable  obstacles  will  be 
encountered.  The  chalk  formation  through  which  it  is  proposed  to 
drive  the  tunnel,  is  400  feet  thick  on  the  English  coast  and  300  feet 
on  the  French  ;  and,  as  the  Straits  of  Dover  are  in  no  part  deeper  than 
186  feet,  it  is  confidently  anticipated  that  the  proposed  enterprise  will 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  449 


be  successful.  It  is  intended  that  the  machine  will  at  once  bore  out 
the  tunnel  to  the  proper  size,  16  or  18  feet  in  diameter  ;  and,  as  the 
soil  to  be  penetrated  consists  only  of  soft  chalk  beds,  it  is  thought 
tliat  all  the  operations  can  be  conducted  without  resorting  to  the  use 
of  steel  drills  or  blasting  operations,  as  simple  boring  tools  will  be 
all  that  will  be  requisite.  The  power  will  be  transmitted  from  a 
steam  engine  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  shaft  or  entrance  to  the  tun- 
nel, by  means  of  a  wire  rope  connecting  with  the  first  wheel  or 
pulley,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  which  then,  by  means  of  intermediate 
gearing,  &c.,  communicates  motion  to  a  series  of  cutters  and  borers  in 
front  of  the  machine.  Should  this  arrangement  prove  too  compli- 
cated, it  is  most  probable  that  compressed  air  will  be  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  steam  power.  The  machine,  as  represented  above,  is  im- 
movably braced  by  means  of  two  uprights,  fitted  with  stout  rollers, 
extended  against  the  arch  above,  and  four  projecting  wheels  with 
triple  flanges,  fitted  into  temporary  rails  below,  the  whole  being 
further  secured  by  two  heavy  jack-screws,  one  above  the  machine 
and  another  below,  pressing  on  proper  bearings  against  the  contri- 
vance from  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  tunnel.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  tunnel,  if  driven  through  the  lower  chalk  formation,  will  be  about 
23  miles  long  ;  but  in  the  event  of  serious  obstacles  arising  from  over- 
whelming quantities  of  water  breaking  in,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  advice  of  Professor  Prestwick  may  be  followed  :  to  drive  a  tun- 
nel through  the  Paleozoic  rocks  (the  lowest  fossiliferous  strata),  which 
are  supposed  to  be  about  600  feet  below  the  surface  at  Dover,  in 
which  event  the  length  would  somewhat  exceed  the  above  estimate. 
The  only  question  in  connection  with  the  prosecution  of  this  enormous 
enterprise,  is  merely  one  of  money,  as  the  scientific  appliances  of 
the  present  day  put  the  practicability  of  the  work  beyond  a  doubt. 
That  a  vast  amount  of  money  will  be  required,  may  be  manifest  from 
the  following  table,  compiled  by  Major  IvIcClellan,  IJ.  S.  A.,  showing 
the  cost  of  tunnels  in  various  localities  prior  to  1855  : — 


Location. 

Per  Cubic 
Yard. 

Location. 

Per  Cubic 
Yard. 

Black  Rock,  U.S.,  grey 

wacke  slate. .  . .  

Blaisley,  France,  lined 
Ellsworth,  Eng.,  blue 

$6  60 

3  18 

1  55 

4  00 

England,  freestone,  mar- 
ble, clay,  &c.,  lined. . 
Lehigh,  U.S.,  hardgran- 

Schuylkill,  U.  S.,  slate.. 

^3  46 

4  36 
2  CO 
2  08 

Railway  Tunnels  in  soft  sandstone,  in  the  United  States,  cost, 
without  lining,  per  lineal  yard,  ^88.  In  loose  ground,  thick  lining, 
per  lineal  yard,  $7.10.  Ordmary  brick  lining,  mcluding  centering,  per 
cubic  yard,  $8.50. 

Shafts.— Blaisleif  Tnnnel,  clav,  chalk,  and  loose  earth,  cost,  per 
yard  in  depth,  $139.11.  Deepest,  (646  ft.  Black  Rock,  7  ft.  in  diam. 
and  139  in  depth,  hard  slate,  cost,  per  yard  in  depth,  $79.50,  or  per 
cubic  yard,  $18.72.  The  time  required  to  drive  the  heading  of  the 
Black  Rock  Tunnel  for  1782-5  feet,  was  23,387  turns  of  12  hours  each. 

The  Ingersoll  Rock  Drill,,  represented  in  the  cuts,  is  a  most 
powerful  and  effective  mechanical  appliance  in  the  varied  require- 
29 


450     MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DnPA^.TMENT. 


VIEW  OF  THE  DKILIi  ATTACHED  TO  COLUMK,  AS 
USED  WITH  COMPRESSED  AIR  OK  STEAM, 
WHEN  PRACTICABLE. 


jaicnts  of  tunnelliuff,  mining,  submarine  blasting,  &c.   It  works  on 

tlio  percussion 
principle,  and  in 
operated  either  by 
steam  power,  as  il- 
lustrated in  tho 
cut,  or  by  com- 
pressed air,  acting 
on  a  piston  Avithiu 
a  cylinder,  secured 
by  clamps  to  a  ver- 
tical or  horizontal 
column  or  tripod. 
It  can  be  adjusted 
to  perforate  tho 
rock  at  any  desired 
angle,  and,  on  open 
quarry  work,  the 
large  drill  (they 
are  made  of  differ- 
ent sizes),  is  an 
equivalent  to  the 
work  of  25  men, 
and  has  often  done 
the  work  of  40  men 
for  successive  days. 
In  railway  tunnels 
and  other  subter- 
ranean places  pre- 
senting  impedi- 
ments to  active 
work,  of  course  the 
progress  is  consid- 
erably less.  Tho 
average  boring 
done  in  hard  rock, 

Eer  day,  of  ten 
ours,  IS  from  70 
to  80  feet.  In  un- 
derground work, 
where  foul  air  ex- 
ists, the  employ- 
ment of  compress- 
ed air  becomes  a 
necessity,  as  it  not 
only  dissipates  all 
danger  from  ex]>lo- 
f'ive  gases,  but 
drives  the  drill 
equal  to  steam 
power,  cools  tho 
atmosphere,  and 
VIEW  OF  DRILL,  ATTACHED  TO  COLUMN,  AS  AR-  dispenses  f  resh  air 
KANGED  FOR  USE  IN  SHAFTS.  to  the  Workmen. 

Considered  in  all 
its  bearings,  it  is  a 
most  wonderful 
machine. 


ASSAYING  AND  SMELTING  METALS. 


451 


Gold  Assay  by  Smelting  Process.— Take  600  grains  of  the 
gold-bearing  quartz,  finely  pulverized,  and  free  from  sulphurets;  mix 
with  600  grs.  litharge  and  7  grs.  of  charcoal ;  melt  all  in  a  crucible  of 
ample  size,  and  set  off  to  cool.  Break  the  crucible  wlien  cold, 
and  the  gold  will  be  found  in  a  small  button  under  the  refuse  matter 
at  the  bottom.  To  ascertain  the  amount  of  gold  in  a  metallic  sub- 
stance, select  a  small  sample,  weigh  it,  and  melt  in  a  small  cupel, 
composed  of  calcined  bone  ashes.  This  absorbs  the  common  metal, 
leaving  the  gold  and  silver  exposed  to  view.  The  resultant  button  is 
melted  once  more  in  the  proportion  of  gold,  1  part,  silver,  3  parts, 
and  then  rolled  into  a  thin  band  and  boiled  in  nitric  acid,  which  dis- 
solves out  the  silver,  and  leaves  the  gold  pure  at  the  bottom.  Tho 
gold  can  be  removed,  and  the  silver  subsequently  precipitated  with 
mlt. 

Gold  Assay  with  a  Horn  Spoon.— Take  an  ox  horn  and  re- 
move half  of  it,  so  as  to  leave  an  open  part  7  or  8  ins.  long  and  about 
Sins,  wide;  pulverize  the  rock  to  be  tested  very  fine,  and  using  it 
instead  of  a  pan,  wash  out  a  few  ounces,  and  if  some  particles  of  gold 
are  detected,  or  a  "  color  "  perceived,  as  a  rule  it  will  pay  to  work  it. 

In  the  Assay  of  Rock  Containing  Pyrites,  it  must  be 
roasted  until  it  ceases  to  evolve  sulphurous  fumes,  then  mix  600  gTS. 
of  the  powder  with  300  grs.  carbonate  of  soda,  300  grs.  charcoal,  300 
grs.  litharge,  300  grs.  dried  borax,  and  15  grs.  charcoal;  melt  all  in 
a  crucible,  and  treat  as  directed  above. 

Silver  Assay  by  Smelting. — If  no  lead  is  present,  mix  600 
grs.  of  the  pulverized  ore  with  300  grs.  carbonate  of  soda,  600  grs.  of 
litharge,  and  12  grs.  of  charcoal  in  a  crucible,  add  a  slight  coat  of 
borax  over  all,  put  on  the  furnace,  melt,  take  off,  give  it  a  few  taps 
to  settle  the  metal,  let  it  cool,  and  remove  the  button. 

To  Assay  Argentiferous  Galena,  or  lead  bearing  silver  ore. — 
Mix  300  grs.  of  the  pulverized  ore  with  900  grs.  carbonate  of  soda  and 
30  grs,  charcoal;  melt  in  a  crucible  on  a  furnace,  and  treat  as  de^, 
scribed  above,  and  remelt  the  button  in  a  porous  cupel  made  of  bone 
dust,  which  absorbs  the  lead,  leaving  the  silver  pure. 

"Pest  for  Iron  or  Copper  Pyrites. — Place  a  sample  of  the 
mmeral  rock  on  an  anvil;  if  it  becomes  flat  mider  a  blow  of  the 
hammer  it  is  gold,  but  if  it  scatters  into  fragments  it  is  pyrites ;  or 
place  some  of  the  doubtful  material,  pulverized,  in  a  cup  with  nitric 
acid  over  a  flame  until  it  evolves  dark  red  vapors :  the  acid  will  be- 
come stained  or  tinged  if  pyrites  are  present. 

Silver  Assay  with  Testing  Tube.— Place  in  the  tube  enough 
of  the  powdered  mineral  to  fill  one  inch  of  space,  and  on  this  pour 
nitric  acid  in  quantity  to  occupy  2  ins,  more,  and  hold  the  mixture 
over  a  flame  nntil  the  acid  boils.  The  acid  will  dissolve  what- 
ever silver  may  be  present,  and  must  be  passed  through  filter- 
ing paper  to  remove  extraneous  matter,  and  returned  to  the  tube. 
Next  add  a  few  drops  of  water  saturated  with  salt;  any  silver  or  lead 
that  may  be  present  will  be  precipitated  in  a  cloudy  form  to  the  bottom. 
Drain  off  the  acid,  place  the  precipitate  in  the  sunlight,  and  in  a  few 
minutes,  if  it  contains  silver,  it  will  turn  to  a  purple  color,  and  may 
be  again  liquified  by  the  addition  of  spirits  of  ammonia.  The  testing 
tube  is  formed  of  thin  glass,  about  5  ins.  long,  and  less  than  1  in. 
diam. ;  bottom  and  sides  of  equal  thickness.  Where  the  tube  is  lack- 
ing, a  cup  may  be  used  instead. 


452 


PROSPECTING  FOR  GOLD. 


riiosPECTiNO  FOR  Quartz.— The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  ascer- 
tain the  direction  ot  tlio  strata  of  the  bed-roclc  and  quartz  veins  im- 
bedded tlierein,  Tlicn  tiike  a  conunon  pick,  shovel,  and  good  iron 
pan,  and  prospect  the  surface  dirt  along,  and  just  under  the  break  of 
the  veins  every  few  yards,  then  following  the  vein  as  far  as  it  shoves 
itself,  either  by  its  outcrop  or  loose  fragments  ;  and  if  gold  is  found 
in  the  surface  along  the  vein,  it  is  a  good  prcsumj)tive  evidence  that  the 
vein  is  gold  bearing.  Then  ascertain  the  point  on  the  vein  that  gives 
the  best  "  prospect,"  and  make  a  cut  across  it  deep  enough  to  show 
the  vein  as  it  is  inclosed  in  the  bed  or  Avail  rock ;  then  make  a  careful 
examination  of  every  part  of  tlie  vein,  so  as  to  determine  what  part  of 
it  is  gold  bearing.  The  casing  of  the  vein  Avhere  it  joins  the  wall  rock 
sliould  be  carefully  tested  also  ;  it  frequently  occurs  that  the  casing 
is  richer  than  the  vein  itself.  The  best  mode  of  testing  the  rock  is  to 
pound  it  up  finely  in  a  hand  mortar,  and  wash  it  out  in  a  pan  or  horn 
spoon.  If  a  satisfactory  result  is  obtained,  then  sink  a  shaft  so  as  to 
cut  the  vein  at  the  point  where  the  prospect  is  obtained,  and  follow  it 
down,  say  40  or  50  feet.  The  character  of  the  "  wall  rock  "  should  be 
closely  observed,  to  ascertain  the  "  line  of  its  texture."  The  smooth 
faces  that  separate  the  vein  from  the  wall  rock  should  be  carefully 
examined  ;  the  smooth  faces  have  numerous  small  ridges  upon  them, 
that  show  "the  line  of  its  projection,"  or  the  direction  from  which 
the  vein  was  forced  up  between  the  walls  enclosing  it.  The  ridges 
and  fine  grooves  on  the  faces  of  the  veins  will,  in  most  cases,  be  found 
to  have  the  same  direction  of  the  texture  of  the  wall  rock;  and  the 
rich  section  of  the  vein  will  most  generally  continue  rich  in  the  "  lino 
of  its  projection."  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  a  A-ein  will  have  a 
section  of  a  few  feet  that  will  be  rich,  and  all  the  balance  of  it  be 
poor  ;  therefore,  it  is  very  important  to  learn  the  "  line  of  its  projec- 
tion," for  the  rich  sections  alAvays  follow  the  course  indicated  by  the 
"  line  of  projection,"  and  the  •'line  of  texture "  of  the  wall  rock. — Ji 
E.  Clayton. 

To  iPKOSPECT  A  BiVER  Bar.— The  prospector  should,  during  the 
season  of  low  water,  select  the  bend  of  a  stream  below  where  it 
emerges  from  a  deep  gorge,and,noting  the  spot  where  the  eddy  usually 
exists  during  high  Avater  on  the  inward  bend  of  the  stream,  he  will 
proceed  to  dig  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  ft.,  as  near  the  water's  edge  as  pos- 
sible, but  distant  enough  to  keep  the  hole  dry  on  reaching  the  rock. 
Now  fill  the  pan  nearly  full  Avitli  the  bottom  dirt  from  the  rock,  take 
it  to  the  stream,  immerse  it  in  the  water  and  agitate  the  mass,  break- 
ing up  the  lumps  of  clay,  &c.,  if  any  exist.  Keep  the  pan  underwater, 
with  the  side  next  the  operator  slightly  elevated;  shake  from  side  to 
side ;  the  muddy  water  will  flow  out,  as  the  clear  water  flows  in,  car- 
rying aAvay  the  dirt;  the  pan  is  now  raised  from  the  water,  and  the 
shaking  continued,  with  the  lower  side  still  more  depressed  in  order 
to  alloAV  the  light  sand  to  pass  over  the  further  edge ;  the  stones  are 
removed  by  hand,  and  the  operation  continued  until  but  a  few  dregs 
are  left;  the  particles  of  gold,  if  any  existed  in  the  sample,  will  be 
found  in  the  pan,  and  a  search  for  them  will  decide  the  question  of 
value. 

To  Prospect  ik  a  Guilly. — Select  a  spot  soon  after  a  rain,  when 
water  is  abundant,  and  if  possible  let  it  be  a  level  place  over  a  vein  of 
slate  with  vertical,  or  nearly  vertical  strata,  presenting  its  ragged 
edges  towards  the  adjacent  acclivities  in  such  position  as  to  intercept 


PROSPECTING,  PLACER  MINING.  453 

the  gold  in  its  downward  progress.  Fill  the  pan  with  dirt  from  the 
slaty  bed,  make  a  dam  across  the  stream  and  pan  out  in  standing 
water. 

In  Prospecting  Flats,  examine  the  surface  for  the  indications 
of  old  channels,  and  the  beds  of  ancient  streams  or  brooks,  and  ex- 
plore the  most  promising  spots  by  digging  down  to  the  bed  rock,  and 
test  by  panning  out  a  portion  of  the  dirt.  In  mining  districts,  the 
high  elevations  containing  gravel  and  clay  should  be  well  tested  by 
the  panning  out  of  numerous  samples,  as  they  frequently  contain  vast 
stores  of  golden  wealth. 

To  Prospect  with  a  Knife. — Select  a  suitable  spot  in  a  ravine 
in  an  auriferous  district,  remove  the  earth  to  the  vicinity  of  tiie  rock, 
making  a  hole  large  enough  to  afford  room  to  admit  the  prospector  to 
overhaul  the  dirt  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  The  particles  of  gold  are 
carefully  picked  as  they  are  discovered,  and  the  rest  is  rejected;  the 
seams  and  crevices  in  the  rock  should  be  thoroughly  scraped  out  and 
the  contents  closely  examined,  as  these  places  often  contain  the  most 
precious  deposits. 

Placer  Mining,  Board  Sluice  Process.  — The  board  sluice  is  a 
trough  from  50,  to  1400  or  1500  ft.  long  (composed  of  1^  in.  boards, 
length  of  boards  from  12  to  14  feet, )  constructed  iji  sections  or  boxes 
of  the  same  length  as  the  boards.  The  sections  composing  the  trough 
are  made  to  fit  into  each  other,  and  usually  rest  on  trestles  elevated 
from  the  ground,  but  with  an  inclination  of  from  12  to  18  ins.  in  every 
12  feet  of  length.  The  box  may  be  from  12  to  50  ins.  wide,  and  half 
as  deep  as  it  is  broad,  more  or  less  as  desired.  By  placing  division 
boards  edgeways  along  the  centre  it  may  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
thus  adopting  it  for  the  use  of  tv/o  parties,  or  for  keeping  up  constant 
work  in  the  washing  department  on  the  one  side,  while  cleaning  is  go- 
ing on  in  the  other.  The  bottom  of  the  sluice  is  fitted  with  longitudinal 
riffle  bars  from  3  to  7  ins.  high,  and  from  2  to  4  ins.  wide',  well  se- 
cured from  1  inch  to  IJ  ins.  apart,  by  means  of  wedges,  two  sets  of  rifflo 
bars  being  fitted  into  each  box. 

The  labor  of  from  5  to  18  or  20  men  is  required  to  fill  the  dirt  into 
the  sluice,  and  a  stream  of  water,  say  from  15  to  40  inches  or  more,  ia 
admitted  at  the  upper  end  and  emerges  at  the  lower,  carrying  along 
the  mud,  gravel,  stones,  &c.,  in  its  course.  A  vessel  containing 
quicksilver  IS  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sluice,  and,  about  2  hours  af- 
ter the  washing  commences,  the  liquid  particles  are  allowed  to  trickle 
through  an  aperture  in  the  side  of  the  vessel  into  the  stream,  which 
hurries  them  onwards  and  downwards  through  the  sluice,  where  they 
mingle  with  the  gold  particles  and  lodge  together  against  the  riffle 
bars.  Ihe  nrecious  metals  being  heavy,  alway  trend  towards  the 
bottom,  and  lodge  against  these  interposed  obstacles,  the  riffle  bars, 
ihe  same  effects  may  be  seen  on  our  streets  and  roads  any  day  after 
a  shower,  the  dirt  is  washed  away,  and  the  lieavy  articles,  as  nails, 
Duttons,  horseshoes,  &c.,  remain.  This  furious  torrent  "  or  run  "  of 
S^^^®^'  stones,  mud,  &c.,  is  continued  through  the  sluice  for  6 
or  »  days,  by  which  time  the  riffle  bars  are  usualiyVorn  out,  and  the 
cleaning  up  process  is  commenced  by  raismg  6  or  7  sets  of  the  riffle 
jjars  towards  the  head  of  the  sluice,  and  the  auriferous  matter  found 
lodged  against  them  is  removed  with  scoop  and  pan.  Another  lot  of 
riffle  bars  is  then  raised  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated  until  they 
are  all  cleaned  out.    An  amalgam  plate,  inserted  in  the  last  box  of 


454  HYDRAULIC  MINING,  LONG  TOM. 


the  sluice,  is  very  effective  in  arresting  tlie  fine  gold  on  its  downward 
course.  To  prepare  the  plate,  place  a  sheet  of  copper,  say  3  feet  or 
more,  in  lentfih,  and  the  same  width  as  the  box,  very  even  and  flat  on 
tlie  bottom.  Make  a  tight,  close  lit  on  the  upper  edge,  and  secure 
each  side  by  nailing  down  narrow  strips  of  board.  Hext,  take  nitric 
acid,  1  lb.,  add  to  this,  water,  1  lb.,  and  apply  the  mixture  to  the  cop- 
per plate  with  a  rag  on  the  end  of  a  stick ;  drop  on  some  quicksilver, 
and  wipe  it  all  over  the  plate  until  it  is  completely  silvered.  'I'his  ia 
the  amalgam  plate.  Now  get  a  sheet  of  stout  plate  iron,  equal  in  di- 
mensions to  the  copper  plate,  and  perforate  with  numerous  slits  ^ 
inch  long  and  1-lG  inch  wide,  crosswise  of  the  plate,  not  in  regular 
rows,  but  as  it  were  with  broken  johits,  like  bricks  in  a  wall,  ranged 
"With  their  ends  out  of  line  on  every  half  inch,  in  order  to  permit  the 
easy  entrance  of  fluid  material  at  all  points.  The  perforated  iron 
plate,  being  now  ready,  is  laid  in  the  box  immediately  over  the  amal- 
gamated plate,  and  resting  on  the  narrow  boards,  which  hold  the  lat- 
ter in  place,  and  is  firmly  secured  in  this  position,  but  so  as  to  be 
easily  detached  when  required.  The  sluice  box  is  now  adjusted  or 
placed  at  the  same  grade  as  the  others,  but  so  that  the  iron  plate  will 
be  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  box  above.  It  will  be  found  that 
while  the  gravel,  stones,  and  gross  material  will  easily  pass  over  tho 
iron  plate,  part  of  the  fluid  portion,  with  the  fine  atoms  of  gold,  will 
fall  through  the  crevices  on  the  amalgamated  plate  below,  when  tho 
latter  will  be  arrested  at  once.  Each  day,  for  the  first  week  or  less, 
the  iron  plate  should  be  removed,  the  copper  cleaned  from  a  green 
substance  which  adheres,  and  more  quicksilver  added .  A  riffle  bar 
should  be  x)laced  below  the  plate  to  secure  the  surplus  quicksilver. 
The  gold  may  be  removed  at  proper  intervals  as  it  accumulates.  The 
value  of  the  catch  will  be  enhanced  by  admittmg  a  small  quantity  of 
water  into  the  sluice  just  above  the  plate. 

The  water  used  by  miners  is  generally  sold  by  water  companies  at 
a  certain  rate  per  inch;  it  is  delivered  from  an  orifice  in  the  side  of  a 
flume,  which  in  many  cases  conveys  the  water  from  distant  mountains 
over  hills,  ravines,  plains,  and  along  excavations  on  the  sides  of  pre- 
cipitous mountains,  &c.  An  inch  of  water  is  estimated  to  be  tho 
quantity  emitted  through  an  aperture  an  inch  square  under  a  head  of 
C  or  7  inches,  and  the  price  per  inch  varies  from  12  cents  up  to  4.0 
cents  per  day,  according  to  the  locality,  demand,  &c. 

Hydraulic  Mining. — The  operative  power  in  hydraulic  mining 
is  derived  from  a  reservoir  of  water  placed  at  a  high  elevation  above 
the  point  of  action,  from  whence  the  water  is  conveyed  through  a 
hose,  and  projected  with  terrific  force  under  a  pressure  of  from  80  to 
200  feet,  against  the  dirt  above  the  bed  rock.  The  effect  is  equal  to 
the  combined  labor  of  several  hundred  men;  the  force  exerted  being 
literally  equivalent  to  the  removal  of  mountains,  as  the  superincumx 
bert  masses  of  earth  and  rock  frequently  comes  tumbling  down  in 
quantities  of  hundreds  of  tons  at  a  time.  The  dirt  thus  loosened  is 
conveyed  into  and  washed  down  the  sluice.  To  fortify  the  hose  to 
withstand  the  fearful  pressure  of  the  water,  it  should  be  stoutly  band- 
ed with  strong  galvanized  iron  rings  about  2  ins.  broad,  secured 
around  the  hose  at  intervals  of  about  2  ins.  apart.  The  quantity  of 
water  required  by  a  hydraulic  claim  varies  from  50  to  300  ins. 

The  Long  Tom,  at  one  time  in  quite  extensive  use  by  miners  in 
California,  is  a  trough  ranging  from  8  to  14  ft,  in  length,  generally  10 


QUARTZ  CRUSHING,  MIXING  MACHINERY.  455 

ins.  wide  at  the  upper  end  where  the  dirt  is  deposited,  30  ins.  wide  at 
the  lower  extremity,  and  about  8  ins.  deep.  The  bottom,  at  the  wide 
end  is  composed  of  a  sieve  or  riddle  of  perforated  sheet  iron,  with  a 
small  riffle  box,  or  trough  with  riffle  bars  placed  underneath.  The 
^ater  entering  in  at  the  upper  end,  flows  through  the  entire  length  of 
tne  xux^.,  washing  the  dirt  in  its  passage,  but  is  prevented  from  forcini? 
It  over  tlie  iow..  by  an  upward  ejection  at  the  lower  end  of  ihf 
riddle.  The  gravel,  saua,  ~,^s^all  stones  escape  through  t  eperfo! 
rated  iron,  while  the  large  stones      +oc«pH  nnt  with  .w^i 


casionaliy  to  assist  in  securmg  the  finer  particles.  ^ 

Quartz  Crushing  by  Stamps.— The  rotary  stamp  is  very  uigM^ 
commended  as  the  most  efficient  stamp  in  use  for  the  crushing  of 
quartz  rock.  The  square  stamp  is  vertical,  with  the  main  part  or 
shaft  about  8  ft.  long,  and  from  5  to  8  ins.  square,  shod  with  massive 
iron  weighing  from  100  to  1000  lbs.  They  are  elevated  by  cams  pro- 
jecting from  a  horizontal  shaft,  which  effect  a  lift  of  from  6  to  18  ins. 
at  each  revolution,  when  the  stamp  falls  with  all  its  force  into  the 
battery  or  the  quartz  below.  The  quartz,  previously  broken  to  pieces 
the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  or  less,  may  be  crushed  in  a  dry  state,  or  in  a 
wet  condition,  with  a  small  stream  of  water  constantly  flowing  through 
the  battery,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  wire  cloth  or  perforated  plate  of 
sheet  of  iron,  to  permit  the  egress  of  the  quartz  when  sufficiently  trit- 
urated. The  separation  of  the  gold  from  the  quartz  ie  effected  by  wash- 
ing, etc.,  as  in  placer  mining;  much  of  it  is  caught  by  the  use  of 
coarse  blankets  laid  in  troughs,  through  which  the  quartz  is  washed 
as  in  a  sluice,  and  many  use  the  amalgam  plate,  made  as  described 
above,  to  secure  the  gold . 

In  amalgamating  in  the  battery,  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  to  1  oz,  of  gold 
is  the  best  proportion  for  use,  and  produces  the  most  effective  results 
in  securing  the  gold. 

MiifiNG  Machinery  (Molesworth). 

Speed  of  crushing  rolls  at  periphery  60  ft.  per  minute. 

Diameter  of    "         "         "   2 i  to  30  ins. 

Breadth  of      "         "        *'   12  to  15  ins. 

Roller  shaft  6  ins.  square. 

Tumbling  shaft  41/2 

Sifting  screen  shaft  1%  ins.  diameter. 

Rolls  crushed  together  with  a  force  of  60  tons. 

Weight  of  stamper  heads,  from  IVa  to  5  cwt. 

Lift  of  ditto  9  to  12  in?. 

Kumber  of  lifts  per  minute  45  to  60. 

Exposed  area  of  cast  gratings  about  9  X  10  in?. 

Number  of  holes  to  the  inch  for  tin.  140. 

Area  of  stamper  bottom,  generally  6  x  10  ins. 

I         Pumps  for  deep  mines,  usually  8  to  10  ft.  stroke. 

Each  lift  \  from  150  to  200  ft. 

Horse  power  of  pumping  engines  : — 

Q  —  quantity  of  water  raised  per  minuto,  cubic  feet. 

H  =  height  in  feet. 

Actual  horse  power  =  -0021 H  Q. 

In  Smelting  Silver,  fifty  per  cent,  of  lead  is  added  to  silver  ore, 
or  lead  ore  containing  that  proportion  of  lead,  will  do  as  well.  Add 
10  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  melt  all  together;  the  silver  is  then  permit- 
ted to  escape  through  an  orifice  in  the  lower  part  of  the  furna9e.  The 


'456 


SILVER  SMELTING,  STUBS*  GAUGE,  &C. 


.'silver  is  once  more  put  in  a  furnace  and  boiled  until  all  impurities  are 
driven  off. 

In  thk  Salt  Solution  Process,  five  per  cent,  of  salt  is  added  to 
the  silver  ore,  and  the  mixture  is  roasted  until  the  salt  is  converted 
into  a  chloride.  When  in  this  state,  and  still  red  hot,  it  is  thrown  ^"^^ 
»  very  strong  solution  of  boiling  brine,  to  dissolve  tT^^  ^'V^*"^.® 
flilvcr.  The  brine  is  filtered  at  a  temperature  -f  ^i^,  and  the  silver 
is  precipitated  bjr  adding  small  pieco-  copper,  together  with  a  sraaU 
quantity  of  muriatic  acid. 


■6 

h 
•< » 


•31;. 
,26 


ii.  vr.  o. 
No,  10: 


Ins. 
=  •132 

•M 

V083 

.072 
.06  s 
.056 

'^^^ 

>7    «  ..^in^ 


IS 

:i6 
17 
»8 


No.  10  =.042 

,20  «o3S 

at  .032 

0X  .028 

24  .022 

as  .02 

36  .018 

2f  .01$ 


No.  28-  .oif\ 
-29  ..0*5. 

3t^ 
3* 


.or 
.00^ 
-.ooS 
.007 
.005- 

.DCi» 


16  -,V  in. 


Artificial  Meerschaum  is  made  with  very  fine  sifted  plaster  ol 
Paris,  baked  for  a  few  hours  and  thrown  while  warm  into  melted  wax 
or  linseed  oil;  the  resemblance  may  be  increased  by  a  coloring  solu- 
tion of  gamboge  and  dragon's  blood. 


MACHINISTS,  ESJ^SINEERS',  AC,  RECEIPTS,  457 

KB.~In  addition  to  the  following  inestimable'Receiptg  and  pro- 
cesses, the  blacksmith  will  find  Iron  Tables,  and  Tables  of  Circum- 
ferences, Areas  and  Diameters  of  Circles,  for  measurement  of  hoops, 
rings,  &c.,  at  the  end  of  the  mechanical  department. 


Tempering  Liquids.— 1.  Water,  3  gals ;  soda,  2  ozs. ;  saltpetre,  2 
■ozs. ;  prussic  acid,  loz.,  or  oil  of  vitrol,  2  ozs.  2.  Water,  6  gals.; 
•Baltpetre,  sal-ammoniac  and  alum,  of  each  4  ozs.,  and  draw  no  tem- 
per. 3.  Water,  4  gals. ;  saltpetre  and  alum,  of  each,  4  ozs. ;  sal-am- 
moniac, pulverized,  1  oz. ;  salt,  3  lbs.  Heat  to  a  cherry  red  and 
plunge  in,  drawing  no  temper.  4.  Water,  4  gals. ;  saltpetre,  1  oz. ; 
alverized  borax,  1  oz. ;  pulverized  sal-ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  white  vitriol, 
ozs. ;  salt,  3  i)ts.  Do  not  hammer  too  cold,  nor  heat  too  high.  5. 
Water,  4  gals. ;  salt,  2  teacupfuls;  saltpetre,  2  ozs. ;  pulverized  alum, 
4  teaspoonfuls;  never  heat  over  a  cherry  xed,  nor  draw  any  temper. 

6.  Water,  2  gals. ;  add  corrosive  sublimate,  oz. ;  common  salt,  2 
handfuls;  when  dissolved  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  first  gives  tough- 
ness to  the  steel,  while  the  latter  gives  the  hardness,  causing  the  water 
to  adhere  to  the  steel,  which  otherwise  would  be  repelled  by  the  heat. 

7.  Tempering  Liquid  for  Mill  Picks. — ^Water,  3  gals. ;  spts.  of  nitre,  3 
ozs.;  hartshorn,  3  ozs;  white  vitriol,  3ozs. ;  alum,  3  ozs.;  sal-ammo- 
niac, 3  ozs. ;  salt,  6  ozs.,  with  2  handfuls  of  the  parings  of  horses' 
hoof.   The  steel  is  to  be  heated  to  a  cherry  red.   A  large  jug  of  this 

Preparation  should  be  kept  corked  tight,  in  order  to  retain  its  strength. 
Ise  soft  water  in  all  these  tempering  liquids. 

Tempering  Mill  Picks. — Get  double  refined  cast  steel  made  ex- 
pressly for  mill  picks.  In  drawing  out  the  pick,  use  an  ajivil  and 
hammer  with  smooth  faces,  and  bo  careful  not  to  heat  the  steel  higher 
than  a  dark  cherry  red.  Do  not  strike  the  pick  on  the  edge  when- 
finishing  it,  but  hammer  it  on  the  flat  side,  striking  light  and  often,, 
until  the  steel  is  quite  dark,-  letting  the  blows  fall  so  as  to  close  the 
pores  of  the  steel.  When  a  dozen  picks  are  ready  to  temper,  get  2 
gals,  of  rain  water  from  which  the  chill  should  bo  taken,  if  in  winter,'-' 
by  dipping  a  hot  iron  into  it;  add  2  lbs.  salt,  and  it.is;  ready  for  use. 
Heat  your  pick  gradually  from  the  centre;  let  the  heat  run  to  the 
point,  and  when  it  is  a  dark  cherry  red,  dip  the  point  vertically  into 
the  bath  and  hold  it  still.  When  the  heat  has  left  the  partimmersed,- 
take  it  out,  and  cool  the  balance  of  the  pick  >  in  ordinary  water.C  Be 
sure  to  heat  and  hammer  well. 

To  Temper  a  Drill, very  Hard.— Heat  yourTdrill  to  a  cherry, 
red  and  quench  it  in  mercury^         will  drill  hardened  steel,  -  -  .  • 


458       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS  .  &C.,  KECEIPTS. 

CoMPOSiTiOK  FOR  TEMrEiilNG.— Hosiii,  parts;  whalo  oil,  IJ 
parts;  pulverized  charcoal,  J  part;  tallow,  ^  part.  Directions. — Very- 
small  tools  should  be  dipped  in  this  mixture  the  same  as  in  water, 
then  polish  and  draw  the  temper  as  usual.  Largo  tools  should  ho 
dipped,  then  heated  up  again  and  temperas  usual.  This  composition 
will  also  restore  burnt  steel  as  good  as  new.  If  small  tools,  dip  once. 
If  large,  dip  two  or  three  times;  no  hammering  is  required. 
1  To  Make  Ikon  take  a  Bright  Polish  like  Steel. — Pulverizo 
\  and  dissolve  the  following  articles  in  1  qt.  hot  water ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ; 
borax,  1  oz. ;  prussiate  of  potash,  1  oz. ;  charcoal,  1  oz. ;  salt,  ^  pt. ;  then 
add  1  gal.  linseed  oil,  mix  well,  bring  your  iron  or  steel  to  the  proper 
heat  and  cool  in  the  solution.  It  is  said  the  manufacturers  of  the  J  udsoii 
governor  paid  $100  for  this  receipt,  the  object  being  to  case  harden 
iron  so  that  it  would  take  a  bright  polish  like  steel. 

Dipping  Tools  when  Hardening. — To  harden  a  pen-knife  blade, 
lancet,  razor,  chisel,  gouge-bit,  plane,  spoke-shave,  iiou  shaving 
knife,  three  or  four  square  files,  and  round  and  flat  files,  dip 
theifl  endwise  or  perpendicularly.  This  keeps  them  straight, 
Avhich  would  not  be  the  case  were  they  dipped  in  the  water  ob- 
liquely. 

Substitute  fob  Borax. — Alum,  2  ozs. ;  dilute  -with  water  and  mix 
■with  2  ozs.  potash,  boil  in  a  pot  half  an  hour  over  a  gentle  fire,  take  it 
out  of  the  water,  add  2  ozs.  gem  salt  in  powder,  as  much  of  alka- 
line salt,  3  lbs.  honey,  and  one  of  cow's  milk,  mix  all  together,  set  it 
in  the  sun  for  3  days  and  the  borax  is  ready  for  use.  This  will  go 
twice  as  far  in  a  blacksmith's  shop  as  common  borax. 

Welding  Cast  Steel. — Silver  sand  2  lbs.,  plaster  of  Paris,  1  lb. ; 
mix  thoroughly.  Heat  your  article  and  dust  it  with  the  above,  place 
it  in  the  fire  again  until  you  get  a  red  heat  and  it  will  weld. 

Respirator. — An  excellent  respirator  may  be  made  of  a  thick 
sheet  of  carded  cotton  wool  placed  between  two  pieces  of  muslin. 
Unequalled  for  arresting  dust,  steel  particles,  &c. 

Annealing  Steel. — ^For  small  pieces  of  steel,  take  a  piece  of  gas 
pipe  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  put  the  pieces  in  it,  first  heat- 
ing one  end  of  the  pipe,  and  drawing  it  together,  leaving  the  other 
cud  open  to  look  into.  When  the  pieces  are  of  a  cherry  red,  cover 
the  fire  with  saw  dust,  use  a  charcoal  fire,  and  leave  the  steel  in  over 
night. 

To  DRILL  Hardened  Steel.— Cover  your  steel  with  melted  beeswax, 
•when  coated  and  cold,  make  a  hole  in  the  wax  with  a  fine  pointed  nee-', 
die  or  other  article  the  size  of  hole  you  require,  put  a  drop  of  strong* 
nitric  acid  upon  it,  after  an  hour  rinse  off,  and  apply  again,  it  will 
gradually  eat  through.  ^ 

To  Harden  Metals.— Iron,  60  parts:  chrome,  40  parts:  form  a 
composition  as  hard  as  the  diamond.  A  high  degree  of  hardness 
may  also  be  imparted  to  iron  or  steel  by  adding  part  of  silver. 
Copper  may  be  externally  hardened  by  the  fumes  of  zmc  and  tin. 
The  specula  of  Lord  Ross's  telescope  is  1  part  tin  and  1  parti 
copper,  this  is  as  hard  as  steel,  and  takes  a  very  high  polish  ;  if 
more  than  this  be  added  it  will  scarcely  cohere. 

Welding  Cast  Steel. — Rock  saltpetre,  ^  lb. ;  dissolve  in  ^  lb.  oil 
vitriol;  and  add  it  to  1  gal,  water.  After  scarfing  the  steel,  get  it 
liot;  and  quench  in  the  preparation.    Then  weld  the  same  as  s. 


MACniNTSTS,  ENGINEERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  459 

piece  of  iron,  hammer  it  very  quick  with  light  blows.  It  answers  the 
purpose  much  better  than  borax;  cork  it  iu  a  bottle,  and  it  will  keep 
lor  years.  ^no</iej'.— Borax,  15  parts;  sal-ammoniac,  2  parts;  cyan- 
ide of  potassium,  2  parts;  dissolve  all  in  water,  and  evaporate  the 
water  at  a  low  temperature. 

Gekjian  WELDiNa  Powder.— Iron  turnings,  4  parts;  borax,  3 
parts,  borate  of  iron,  2  parts ;  water,  1  part. 

Tempering  Swords  and  Cutlasses. — N.  B.  Amos,  late  of  Clii- 
copce,  Mass.,  after  many  costly  experiments,  found  that  the  bcft 
means  of  tempermg  swords  and  cutlasses  that  would  stand  the  U. 
S.  Government  test,  was  by  heating  in  a  charcoal  fire,  hardening 
in  pure  spring  water,  and  drawing  the  temper  in  charcoal  flame. 

Belgian  Weldinq  Powder.— Iron  filings,  1000  parts;  borax,  500 
parts;  balsam  of  copaiba,  or  other  resinous  oil,  60  parts;  sal-ammo- 
niac, 75  parts.  Mix  all  well  together,  heat,  and  pulverize  completely. 
The  surfaces  to  bo  welded  are  powdered  with  the  composition,  and 
then  brought  to  a  cherry  red  heat,  at  which  the  powder  melts,  when 
the  portions  to  be  united  are  taken  from  the  fire  and  joined.  If  tho 
pieces  to  be  welded  are  too  large  to  be  both  introduced  into  the  forge, 
one  can  be  first  heated  with  the  welding  powder  to  a  cherry  red  heat, 
and  the  other  afterwards  to  a  white  neat,  after  which  the  welding 
may  be  effected. 

Composition  Used  in  Welding  Cast  Steel.— Borax,  10  parts; 
sal-ammoniac,  Ipart;  grind  or  pound  them  roughly  together;  then 
fuse  them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire,  taking  care  to  continue  tho 
heat  imtil  aU  spume  has  disappeared  from  the  surface.  When  tho 
liquid  appears  clear,  the  composition  is  ready  to  be  poured  out  to 
cool  and  concrete;  afterwards  being  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  it  is 
ready  for  use.  To  use  this  composition,  tho  steel  to  be  welded  ia 
raised  to  a  heat  which  may  be  expressed  by  "bright  yellow;"  it  is 
then  dipped  among  the  welding  powder,  and  again  placed  in  the  firo 
until  it  attains  the  same  degree  of  heat  as  before:  it  is  then  ready  to 
be  placed  under  the  hammer. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Steel  and  Improve  Poor  Steel.— Borax, 
3  ozs. ;  sal-ammoniac,  8  ozs. ;  prussiate  of  potash,  3  ozs. ;  blue  clay,  2 
ozs. ;  resin,  ^Ib.;  water,  Igill;  alcohol,  1  gill.  Put  all  on  the  fire, 
and  simmer  till  it  dries  to  a  powder.  The  steel  is  to  be  heated,  di^)- 
■ped  in  this  powder,  and  afterwards  hammered. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Cast  Steel.— Borax  1^  lbs. ;  sal-ammoniac 
i  lb. ;  prussiate  of  potash  i  lb. ;  rosin,  1  oz.  Pound  the  above  fine, 
add  a  gill  each  of  water  and  alcohol,  and  boil  all  to  a  stiff  paste  in  an 
iron  kettle.  Do  not  boil  too  long,  or  it  will  become  hard  when  cool. 
The  burnt  steel  is  dipped  while  quite  liot  in  the  composition  and 
shghtly  hammered. 

Restoring  Burnt  Steel.— It  is  not  generally  known  that  bunit 
steel  maybe  almost  instantaneously  restored  by  plunging  it  wliile  hot 
in  cold  water,  and  hammering  it  with  light  strokes  on  the  anvil,  turn- 
ing it  so  as  to  hammer  all  over  it,  again  dipping  in  the  cold  water,  and 
repeating  the  hammering  process  as  before  Try  it ;  if  you  dou't  suc- 
ceed the  first  time,  you  will  soon  do  so. 

Composition  to  Restore  Burnt  Steel.— Two  parts  horn  fil- 
ings; 10  parts  tallow;  Ipart  sal-ammoniac,  1  part  pulverized  charcoal: 
1  part  soda;  pulverizo  tho  hard  ingredieijts  separately,  mix  all 


460       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  nECEIPTS. 

thoroughly  with  Iho  tallow.  Bring  your  bnnit  stccl  to  a  cherry  red 
and  dip  it  in  tho  mixture;  when  it  gets  cold  it  may  ho  hardened  in 
the  usual  manner. 

Composition  to  TouGiiETf  Stkel.— Resin,  2  Ihs. ;  tallow,  2  lbs. ; 
"black  pitch,  1  lb. ;  melt  together,  and  dip  in  tho  steel  Avhcn  hot. 

lJuKGLAR  AKD  Dkill-Pkoof  Diamojn'D  CniLL. — ^Take  1  gal.  urine, 
and  add  to  it  1  oz.  borax  and  1  oz.  salt. 

To  Kk-shaupen  Old  Files.— Removcthe  grease  and  dirt  from  your 
files  by  washing  them  in  warm  potash  water,  then  Avash  them  in 
warm  water,  and  dry  with  artificial  heat;  next,  i)laco  1  pt.  warm 
,water  in  a  wooden  vessel,  and  put  in  your  files,  add  2  ozs.  of  blue 
Titriol,  finely  pulverized,  2  ozs.  borax,  well  mixed,  taking  care  to  turn 
the  files  over,  so  that  each  one  may  come  in  contact  with  the  mixture. 
Now  add  7  ozs.  sulphuric  acid  and  ^  oz.  cider  vinegar  to  tho  abovo 
mixture.  Remove  the  files  after  a  short  time,  dry,  sponge  them  with 
olive  oil,  wrap  them  up  in  jwrous  paper,  and  put  aside  for  use  Coarso 
files  require  to  be  immersed  longer  than  fine.  ^ 

Substitute  for  Borax. — Copperas,  2  ozs. ;  saltpetre,  1  oz.f  com- 
inoh  salt,  Gozs. ;  black  oxide  of  manganese,  1  oz;  prussiateof  pot- 
ash, 1  oz. ;  all  pulverized  and  mixed  vrith  3  lbs.  nice  welding  sand, 
,«nd  use  the  same  as  you  would  sand.  High-tempered  steel  can  bo 
welded  with  this  at  a  lower  heat  than  is  required  for  borax. 

To  Soften  Iron  or  Steel. — ^Either  of  the  following  methods 
will  make  iron  or  steel  very  soft: — 1.  Anoint  it  all  over  with  tallow, 
temper  it  in  a  gentle  charcoal  fire,  and  let  it  cool  of  itself.  2.  Take  a 
little  clay,  cover  your  iron  with  it,  temper  in  a  charcoal  fire.  IV, 
= When  the  iron  or  steel  is  red  hot,  strew  nelleboro  on  it.  4., Quench 
the  iron  or  steel  in  the  juice  or  water  of  common  beans.i 

Teotering  Steel  Springs.— The  steel  used  should  be  that  called 
"spring"  for  the  large  work;  for  small  work,  "double  shear 
After  hardening  in  the  Usual  way,  in  water,  or,  as  some  prefer,  in  oil,, 
dry  the  spring  over  the  fire  to  get  rid  of  its  moisture,  then  smear  it 
over  with  tallow  or  oil,  hold  it  over  the  flame  of  the  smith's  forge, 
passing  it  to  and  fro,  so  that  the  whole  of  it  will  be  equally  heated, 
holding  it  there  until  the  oil  or  tallow  takes  fire.  Take  the  article 
out  of  "the  fire  and  let  it  bum  a  short  time,  then  blow  it  out  Tho 
process  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  if  the  operator  fancies 
that  any  portion  of  the  spring  has  not  been  reduced  to  the  proper 
temperature,  or  rather  raised  to  it. 

Tempering  Saws. — A  late  improvement  consists  in  tempering 
and  straightening  the  saws  at  one  operation.  This  is  done  by  heat- 
ing the  saws  to  the  proper  degree,  and  then  pressing  them  with  a 
sudden  and  powerful  stroke  between  two  surfaces  of  cold  iron.  A 
drop  press  is  employed  for  the  purpose.  The  mechanism  is  quite 
simple  and  inexpensive.  Its  use  effects  an  important  economy  in  the 
manufacture  of  nearly  all  kinds  of  saiws,  and  also  improves  their 
quality. 

TisMPERTNG  Spiral  Springs. — ^Place  a  piece  of  round  iron  inside 
the  spring,  large  enough  to  fill  it;  then  make  the  spring  and  iron  rod 
hot,  and,  when  hot  place  them  quickly  into  cold  water,  and  stirthera 
about  till  cold;  afterwards  rub  them  with  oil  or  grease,  and  move 
them  about  in  a  flame  till  the  grease  takes  fire;  the  spring  will  then 
l>e  reduced  to  its  proper  temper. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  461 

To  Temper  Small  Springs, — In  Large  Quantities.— Tirst,  harden 
them  in  the  usual  manner  of  hardening  steel ;  then  place  as  many  as 
convenient  in  a  vessel  containing  oil.  Heat  the  oil  containing  the 
springs  until  it  takes  fire  from  the  top,  then  set  off  the  vessel  and  let 
it  cool.  The  springs  will  then  be  found  to  possess  the  required 
temper. 

Tempering.— The  article  after  being  completed,  is  hardened  hi 
being  heated  gradually  to  a  bright  red,  and  then  plunged  into  cold 
Avater:  it  is  then  tempered  by  being  warmed  gradually  and  equably, 
cither  over  a  fire,  or  on  a  piece  of  heated  metal,  till  of  the  color  cor- 
responding to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required,  as  per  table  be- 
low, when  it  is  again  x)luugcd  into  water. 

Corresponding  Temperature, 

A  very  i)ale  straw  .  430  Lancets  \ 
Straw   450  Kazors  J 

Darlcer  Straw  .    .    .470   Penknives  /  All  kinds   of  wood  tools. 

Yellow   490   Scissors     )        Screw  taps. 

Brown  yellow  .    .    .  500 1  Hatchets,  Chipping  Chisels, 
Slightly  tinged  purplo  520  >  Saws. 

Purple   530  \  Ml  kinds  of  percussive  tools. 

Dark  purple.  .  .  .  550  j  c;„,.;„„- 
Blue   570i^^'"°SS. 

Dark  blue   .   .   .    .GOO   Soft  for  saws. 

Tempering  Razors,'  Cutlery,  Saws,  &;c.— Razors  and  pen- 
knives are  too  frequently  hardened  without  the  removal  of  the  scale 
arising  from  the  foregoing  :  this  practice,  which  is  never  done  loith 
the  best  works,  cannot  he  too  much  deprecated.  The  blades  are  heated 
in  a  coke  or  charcoal  fire,  and  dipped  in  the  water  obliquely.  In 
tempering  razors,  they  are  laid  on  their  backs  upon  a  clean  fire,  about 
half-a-dozen  together,  and  they  aro  removed  one  at  a  time,  when  tho 
edges,  which  aro  as  yet  thick,  come  down  to  a  pale  straw  color. 
Should  the  backs  accidentally  get  heated  beyond  the  straw-color,  the 
blades  are  cooled  in  water,  but  not  otherwise.  Pen-blades  are  tem- 
pered a  dozen  or  two  at  a  time,  on  a  plate  of  iron  or  copper,  about  12 
inches  long,  3  or  4  inches  wide,  and  about  |  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
blades  are  arranged  close  together  on  their  back  and  lean  at  an 
angle  against  each  other.  As  they  come  dowai  to  the  temper,  they 
are  picked  out  with  small  pliers  and  thrown  into  water  if  necessary; 
other  blades  are  then  thrust  forward  from  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
plate  to  take  their  place.  Axes,  adzes,  cold  chisels,  and  other  edge 
tools,  in  which  the  total  bulk  is  considerable  compared  with  the  part 
to  be  hardened,  arp  only  i)artially  dipped ;  they  are  afterwards  let 
down  by  the  heat  of  tlie  remainder  of  the  tool;  and,  when  the  color 
indicative  of  tho  temper  is  attained,  they  aro  entirely  quenched. 
With  the  view  of  removing  the  loose  scales,  or  the  oxidation  acquired 
in  the  fire,  some  workmen  rub  the  objects  hastily  in  dry  salt  before 
plunging  them  in  tho  water,  in  order  to  give  them  a  cleaner  and 
brighter  face. 

Oil,  or  resinous  mixtures  of  oil,  tallow,  wax,  and  resin,  are  used  for 
many  thin  and  elastic  articles,  such  as  needles,  fish  hooks,  steel  pens 
and  springs,  which  require  a  milder  degree  of  hardness  than  is  given 


462       MACHINISTS,  ENGIlfEEKS,  AC,  EECEIPTS. 

by  \ratcr.  Grin  lock-springa  aro  sometimes /Wed!  in  oil  for  a  con- 
eiderable  time  over  a  nro,  in  an  iron  tray;  the  thick  parta  aro  then 
cure  to  bo  sufficiently  reduced,  and  the  thin  parts  do  not  become  the 
more  softened  from  the  continuance  of  the  blazing  heat.  Saws  and 
springs  are  generally  hardened  in  various  compositions  of  oil,  suet, 
wax,  &c.  The  saws  aro  heated  in  long  furnaces,  and  then  immersed 
horizontally  and  edgeways  into  a  lung  trough  containing  the  com- 
position. Part  of  the  composition  is  wiped  off  the  saws  with  a  piece 
of  leather,  when  they  are  removed  from  the  trough,  and  heated  ono 
by  one,  imtil  the  grease  inflames.  This  is  called  blazing  off."  The 
composition  used  by  a  large  saw  manufacturer  is  2  lbs.  suet.'  and  |  lb. 
of  beeswax,  to  every  gallon  of  whale  oil;  the  scare  boiled  together, 
and  will  serve  for  thin  works  and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addition 
of  black  resin,  about  1  lb.  to  each  gallon,  makes  it  serve  for  thicker 
pieces,  and  for  those  it  refused  to  harden  before;  but  resin  should 
be  added  with  judgment,  or  the  works  will  become  too  hard  and 
brittle. 

To  larpROVE  Poor  Iron.— Black  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part;'cop- 
jieras  and  common  salt,  4  parts  each;  dissolve  in  soft  water,  and  boil 
till  dry ;  when  cool,  pulverize,  and  mix  quite  freely  Avith  nice  welding 
sand.  When  you  have  poor  iron  which  you  cannot  afford  to  throw 
away,  heat  it,  and  roll  it  in  this  mixture ;  working  for  a  time,  reheat- 
ing, &c.,  will  soon  free  it  from  all  impurities,  which  is  the  cause  of  its 
Tottenness.  By  this  process  you  can  make  good  horse  nails  out  of 
common  iron. 

Case-Hardening  for  Iron.— Cast  iron  may  bo  case-hardened  by 
heating  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  rolling  it  in  a  composition  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  prussiato  of  potash,  sal-ammoniac,  and  saltpetre,  all 
pulverized  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This  must  be  got  to  every  part  ol 
the  surface;  then  plunged,  while  yet  hot,  into  a  bath  containing  2  ozg. 
prussiate  of  potash,  and  4  ozs.  sal-anmioniac  to^each  gallon  of  cold 
water.  "  ^ 

Moxon's  CASE-IlARDENiNa  PROCESS.— Cow's"  homs  or  hoofs  aro 
to  be  baked,  dried  and  pulverized  in  order  that  more  may  be  got  into 
the  box  with  the  articles,  or  bone  dust  answers"  very  well.  To  this 
add  an  equal  quantity  of  bay  salt;  mix  them  with  stale  chamber 
ley,  or  white  wine  vinegar;  cover  the  iron  with  this  mixture,  and  bed 
it  in  the  same  in  loam,  or  enclose  it  in  an  iron  box,  lay  it  on  tho 
hearth  of  the  forge  to  dry  and  harden;  then  put  it  into  the  lire,  and 
blow  till  the  lump  has  a  blood  red  heat,  and  no  higher,  lest  the  iron 
mixture  be  burnt  too  much  Take  the  iron  out  and  throw  it  into  cold 
water.   

For  Malleable  lRON>-Put  the  articles  in  an  iron  box,  and  strat* 
ify  them  among  animal  carbon,  that  is,  pieces  of  homs,  hoofs,  skins, 
or  leather,  just  sufficiently  burned  to  be  reduced  to  powder.  Luto 
the  box  with  equal  parts  of  sand  and  clay;  then  place  it  in  the  fire, 
and  keep  at  a  light  red  heat  for  a  length  of  time  proportioned  to  tho 
depth  of  steel  required,  vwhen  tho  contents  of  tho  box  aro  emptied 
into  water. 

Another  for  "Wrought  Iron. — ^Take  prussiate  of  potash,  finely 
pulverized,  and  roll  the  article  in  it,  if  its  shape  admits  of  it;  if  not, 
sprinkle  the  powder  upon  it  freely,  while  the  iron  is  hot. 

To  Temter  Springs.— For  tempering  castrfiteel  trap  springs,  all 


MACnrNISTS,  EXGINEERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  463 

that  ia  necessary  is  to  heat  them  in  the  dark^  just  bo  that  you  can  see 
that  they  are  red;  then  cool  them  iii  luke-warm  water.  You  can  oh- 
Borvc  a  much  lower  degree  of  heat  in  the  dark  than  by  daylight,  and 
the  low  heat  and  warm  water  give  the  desired  temper. 

CASE-HAKDEXiNa  Ck)MPOUND.— Prussiato  of  potash,  3  lbs. ;  sal-am- 
moniac, 2  lbs. ;  bone  dust,  2  lbs. 

Composition-  fob  "Welding  Cast  Steel.— Pulverized  borax  any 
quantity,  and  slightly  color  it  with  dragon's  blood.  Ileat  the  steel  red 
hot,  shake  the  borax  over  it;  place  it  again  in  the  lire  tiU  the  borax 
smokes  on  the  steel,  which  will  bo  much  below  the  ordinary  welding 
heat,  and  then  hammer  it. 

To  Weld  Cast  Iron.— The  best  way  of  weldmg  cast  iron  is  to 
take  it  at  a  very  intense  heat,  closely  approaching  the  melting  pouit. 
In  this  stato  it  Avill  be  found  sufficiently  malleable  to  stand  welding  by 
the  hammer.  There  are  other  methods,  but  most  of  them  are  attend- 
ed by  almost  insurmountable  difficulties. 

To  Temter  Tats  or  Reamers  without  springing,  select  your 
etcel  for  the  job,  and  forgo  tho  tap  with  a  little  more  than  the  usual 
allowance,  being  careful  not  to  heat  too  hot  nor  hammer  too  cold ; 
after  tho  tap  or  reamer  is  forged,  heat  it  and  hold  it  on  one  end  ou 
tho  anvil.  If  a  largo  one,  hit  it  with  tho  sledge;  if  a  small  one,  tho 
hammer  will  do.  This  will  cause  tho  tap  to  bend  slightly.  Do  not 
straighten  it  with  tho  hammer,  but  on  finishing  and  hardening  tlio 
tap,  it  will  become  straight  of  its  own  accord. 

To  Harden  and  Temper  Cast  Steel.— For  saws  and  springs 
in  general  tlio  following  is  an  excellent  liquid;  Spermaceti  oil,  20 
gals. ;  beef  guet  rendered^  20  lbs. ;  neat's-foot  oil,  1  gal. ;  pitch,  1  lb, ; 
black  resin,  3  lbs.  Tho  last  two  articles  must  be  previously  melted 
together,  and  then  added  to  the  other  ingredients,  when  the  wholo 
must  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron  vessel,  with  a  close  cover  fitted  to  it, 
until  all  moisture  is  evaporated,  and  the  composition  will  take  fire  ou 
a  flaming  body  being  presented  to  its  surface. 

Water  Annealing.— Heat  the  steel  to  a  red  heat,  and  let  it  lie  a 
few  minutes,  until  nearly  black  hot;  then  throw  it  into  soap-suds; 
steel  in  this  way  may  bo  annealed  softer  than  by  putting  it  into  tho 
ashes  of  tho  forge. 

To  Soften  Malleable  Iron.— When  your  fumaco  is  charged 
with  fuel  and  metal,  get  tho  fire  up  to  a  dull  red  heat,  then 
pour  fluoric  acid  all  over  tho  coke;  use  \  pt.  to  1  pt  or  even  1 
qt.  adding  a  handful  of  fluor  spar;  it  will  make  the  metal  much 
softer. 

WoRKiNO  Steel  for  Tools.— In  workmg  steel  for  tools,  great 
caro  should  be  taken  to  hammer  all  sides  alike,  for  if  one  side  is 
liammered  more  than  another  it  will  cause  it  to  spring  in  harden- 
ing. Again,  steel,  when  being  hammered,  should  be  heated  as  hot 
as  it  will  stand,  until  finishing,  and  should  then  be  hammered  until 
almost  black  hot,  for  the  reason  that  it  sets  the  grain  finer,  and 
gives  the  tool  a  better  edge.  Tho  reason  for  heating  the  steel  so 
hot  whUe  hammering  is  simply  because  it  makes  the  steel  tougher 
when  hardened,  and  softer  when  annealed,  while  if  it  wero 
worked  at  a  low  red  heat,  tho  continued  percussive  shocks  of  the 
hammer  would  so  harden  it  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  to 
anneal  it,  and  at  the  samo  timo  render  it  brittle  whoa  hardened. 


4G4      MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

To  Make,  Harden,  and  Temper  Tools.— Experience  has  proved 
tliat  ;ill  .stool  cutting  tools  sliould  be  hardened  at  a  low  red  heat,  or 
the  lowest  degree  of  heat  compatible  to  yield  efficient  results,  not 
forgetting  that  large  tools  require  more  heat  than  small  ones,  for  tho 
reason  that  they  retain  the  heat  much  longer  in  the  cooling  process. 
Very  small  tools  such  as  some  surgical,  and  dental  instruments,  all 
springs,  centre  drills,  needles,  etc.,  should  be  hardened  in  oil,  as  cold 
water  is  apt,  by  cooling  them  too  ra])idly,  to  render  them  brittle  and 
Avorthless.  Too  much  heat  imparts  a  coarse  grain  like  cast  iron,  to 
the  steel,  and  makes  it  liable  to  break  when  in  use.  A  heat  sufficient 
to  raise  scales  should  never  be  taken  unless  with  an  implement  too 
large  to  temper  without  it,  for  it  is  sure  to  result  in  injury  to  the  steel, 
even  though  the  temper  is  drawn  to  a  straw  color.  Tools  such  as 
cutters  and  reamers  Avhicli  require  to  be  hardened  without  springing, 
should  be  accurately  turned  to  within  ^  inch  of  their  finished  size,  and 
then  annealed  previous  to  finishing.  In  annealimi  steel,  it  should  be 
heated  very  slowly  to  a  red  heat,  being  careful  to  keep  it  under  the 
scaling  degree,  then  allow  it  two  days  or  more  to  cool  in.  In  making 
taps,  you  should  have  immediately  under  the  square  head,  a  place 
accurate  size  of  the  outside  of  the  thread,  so  that  you  will  have  no 
trouble  in  getting  dimensions  of  the  thread  wherever  an  odd  number 
of  flutes  exist.  Every  tap  should  be  the  accurate  size  of  the  bottom  of 
the  thread  to  within  about  ^  an  mch  of  the  square  head,  shaping  it 
this  way,  when  a  strain  comes  in  the  work  it  will  twist  instead  of 
breaking.  The  threads  on  V  taps  ought  to  be  cut  with  a  tool  exactly 
three  square,  (unless  the  thread  is  rounded  on  the  top),  and  then 
finished  with  a  sharp  tool  without  polishing,  as  this  produces  a  glaze 
on  the  metal  while  bemg  tapped.  In  making  a  tap  for  common  ma- 
chine screws  or  for  bolts,  measure  with  callipers,  the  lower  part  of 
the  thread  of  one  of  the  screws,  and  proceed  to  cut  your  tap  at  the 
bottom  of  the  thread  the  exact  size  of  the  measurement.  Strong  taps 
for  square  thread  screios  ought  to  be  cut  ^  the  depth  of  their  pitch, ; 
go  if  the  thread  is  five  to  the  inch,  cut "  one-tenth  of  an  inch  deep. 
The  threads  bemg  5  to  the  inch,  leaves  a  space  between  the  threads  of 
one  tenth  of  an  inch,  and  the  thread  being  one  tenth  in  depth  and: 
one-tenth  wide,  would  make  the  thread  square.  In  square  threads 
required  for  wear,  the  cut  should  be  |  the  depth  of  their  pitch. 

In  hardening  a  tap,  use  a  clear,  bright  fire;  a  fire  of  charcoal  is  the 
best;  heat  to  a  cherry  red,  and  holding  it  by  the  upper  end  immerse 
the  entire  thread-part  first,  keeping  it  stationary  until  the  smooth 
part  attains  a  dark  red  color;  then  gradually  dip  the  whole  tool,  hold- 
ing it  stationary  until  cold  Brighten  the  fluted  parts  and  proceed  to 
temper  the  tool  by  heating  a  piece  of  an  iron  pipe  to  a  bright  red ;  re-r 
move  it  from  the  fire,  place  it  in  a,  vertical  position,  and  insert  the 
tap  in  the  centre  of  the  tube  (but  not  touching  any  part  of  it)  with 
the  threaded  part  outside.  The  interior  of  the  tube  should  be  twice  the 
diameter  of  the  tool,  and  the  length  but  half.  Revolve  the  tap  in 
the  hot  pipe  until  the  smooth  part  is  warm  enough  to  slightly  pain 
the  hand,  keeping  it  in  motion  endways,  back  and  forth  through  the 
pipe  and  turning  it  until  the  thread  is  tinted  to  a  deep  brown,  and  the 
rest  of  the  tool  to  a  brown  purple,  modify  any  irregularity  in  the  color 
by  holding  the  light  colored  parts  longer  in  the  tube,  or  if  any  parts 
color  too  deep,  cool  off  with  a  little  oil.  The  squares  of  taps  should  be 
tempered  to  a  deep  blue  color. 


MACHINISTS  TOOLS* 


465, 


Fig.  1.  Tool  for  cutting  square  thread  screws,  <£:c. 

Fig.  2.  Lathe  tool  for  boring. 

Fig.  3.  Tool  for  cutting  interior  screws. 

Fig.  4.  Left  hand  side  tool,  top  view. 

Fig.  5.  Tool  for  cutting  V  thread  screws. 

Fig.  6.  Diamond-point  tool,  to  turn  small  shafting,  Ac. 

Fig.  7.  Kound-ended  tool,  to  tura  heavy  shafting,  &c. 


466         MACHINISTS,  engineers'  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

To  Dip  or  Temper  Half-round  Files  or  Reamers,— On 
account  of  the  unequal  surface  presented  to  the  water  by  half  round 
tools,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  keep  them  straight,  or  nearly  so. 
while  tempering,  that  they  should  be  inserted  with  the  scmi  circxdar 
side  20?  leaninfj  towards  the  loater.  To  dip  a  fluted  reamer,  insert  it  ^ 
an  inch  beyond  the  fluting,  dipping  and  withdrawing  it  several  times 
in  succession.  This  ensures  a  reliable  temper  in  the  tool  and  will 
assist  greatly  in  preventing  fracture,  and  breakage. 

To  Set  a  Lathe  to  Turn  Taperlng. — Calculate  a  certain 
amount  of  taper  to  the  foot  or  the  extension  of  the  piece  to  be  turned, 
for  instance  with  a  shaft  one  foot  long  with  a  thickness  of  1  inch  at 
one  end  larger  than  the  other,  set  the  puppet-head  over  ^  inch,  and 
you  will  obtain  the  desired  taper  of  1  inch  per  foot.  With  a  shaft  20 
ins.  long,  you  wiU  obtain  a  taper  of  2  ins.  over  its  whole  length,  by 
setting  your  lathe  over  1  inch. 

To  Set  a  Lathe  to  Turn  Shaftxng.  — Find  out  if  your  centres 
are  true,  and  adjust  them  correctly  if  they  are  not,  using  a  square 
eu4  tool,  keeping  them  true  to  a  three-squaro  gauge,  otherwise  you 
will  be  apt  to  ruin  your  work,  Now  set  your  puppet-head  so  that  it 
will  turn  the  shaft  true  and  straight,  and  if  without  a  straight  mark 
upon  it,  turn  one  end  of  the  shaft  for  about  an  inch,  next,  without 
stirring  your  tools,  take  the  shaft  from  the  lathe,  run  the  carriage 
down  to  the  main  head,  and  if  the  tool  comes  in  contact  with  the  spot 
you  have  turned,  the  machine  is  straight,  if  not,  screw  over  the 
puppet  head,  and  keep  adjusting  it  until  the  tool  touches  the  place 
turned  at  both  ends  of  the  lathe. 

On  Keys,  Planing  Key  Wats,  &c.~To  ensure  an  easy  entrance, 
apply  oil  to  the  key  way  and  enter  the  key,  marking  where  it  binds, 
avoiding  extreme  tightness  at  the  sides,  and  securing  the  lock  by  a 
proper  taper  at  the  rate  of  about  |  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  of  length. 
To  ease  hardened  key  ways  and  slots,  use  a  strip  of  copper  as  a  file  on 
the  surface  of  the  metal,  together  with  emery  and  oil.  To  plane  a  key 
way  in  a  shaft,  drill  a  hole  the  size  of  the  way  the  depth  you  wish  to 
plane;  then  plane  the  key  way  slightly  narrower  than  the  intended 
size  ;  this  is  done  with  a  square  point  tool,  afterwards  finish  with  a 
tool  of  the  desired  size  ;  this  method  ensures  a  much  neater  finish, 
than  the  use  of  one  tool  only.  To  ensure  true  cutting  in  adjusting  a 
tool  for  cutting  a  key  way,  test  each  side  of  it  by  a  square  set  on  the 
planer  bed,  to  see  that  it  is  perpendicular.  To  plane  a  T  shaped  slot 
or  way,  plane  to  the  desired  depth  with  a  square  point  tool,  then  plane 
the  upper  part  of  the  way  to  the  proper  width.  Now  plane  the  bottom 
part  of  the  way  with  two  tools,  each  bemg  bent  to  a  different  angle, 
one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left.  Shallow  ways  may  be  cut 
out,  the  upper  width  and  proper  depth,  then  finished  with  one  tool 
shaped  the  desired  form  of  the  way.  Powerful  tools  should  be  used  in 
planing  large  ways  in  order  to  avoid  breaking,  and  should  cut  easily 
on  each  of  the  three  sides.  Use  a  sheet  iron  gauge  and  plane  the  way 
to  conform  to  it.  To  plane  a  gibe  rest  or  slide,  plane  it  all  over, 
omitting  the  slide,  on  both  sides  ;'then  set  the  planer  head  at  an  angle 
of  30°,  and  finish  the  slide  with  a  taper  point  tool.  In  planing  thin 
cast  iron  surfaces,  the  outside  being  harder  than  the  inside,  it  is 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  springing  owing  to  the  expansion  of  the 
scale,  to  plane  ever  a  cut  on  each  side  previous  to  finishing  either. 


machinists'  tools.  4G7 


Fig.  8.  Side  view  of  right-hand  side  tool. 

Fig.  9.  Tool  for  cutting  V  tlireads,  side  view. 

Fig.  10.  Tool  for  planing  a  key-way. 

Fig.  11.  End  view  of  a  fluted  tap  or  reamer. 

Fig.  12.  Side  tool  for  squaring  the  ends  of  wrought  iron  work. 

Fig.  13.  Tool  for  parting  or  cutting  brass  apart. 

Fig.  14.  Side  tool  for  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  or  steel,  left  hand  form. 

Fig.  15.  Parting  tool  for  iron  or  steel  work. 


468      MACHINISTS,  engineers'  &c.,  receipts. 

Cake  or  Latites,  Planers,  Drills,  &c,— In  order  to  utilize  your 
lathes,  &c.,  for  nice  lino  worlc,  and  keep  your  ways,  arbors  and 
centres  in  order,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  clean  by  brushing:  awav 
the  rubbish  from  the  Avays,  feed  gears,  and  other  working  parts- 
clean  well  by  frequent  rubbing  with  cotton  waste,  and  keep  them  iu 
easy  wojrking  order  by  regular  oiling. 

Tools  for  Turnikg.— 1.  For  turninfj  balance  ichcels,  or  squanna 
vp  large  S7n:faccs,  use  a  round  end  tool  constructed  Avell  taperino-  to 
cut  from  the  side.  2.  The  best  tool  for  turninrj  small  shaftinr;  is  a 
diamond  ponit  tool;  for  heavy  shafting  use  a  round  end  tool,  shaped 
to  stand  higa  like  a  diamond  point  and  to  cut  full  and  free  from 
the  side.  3.  For  cuttmc/  off  a  shaft,  use  a  tool  shaped  thin  and 
having  the  tapcriug  down  the  reverse  of  turning  tools.  4.  For 
cutting  a  V  thread  screw  use  a  V  thread  tool,  Y/ith  the  points 
ground  to  lean  down  when  finished,  so  as  to  prevent  running  and  de- 
stroying both  the  tool  and  the  work.  6.  For  aitting  a  square  thread 
■  screw,  the  best  way  is  to  use  a  square  point  tool  about  ^  of  the  thick- 
:,iiess  of  the  thread  you  intend  to  cut,  and  finish  Avith  another  the  exact 
size  of  the  thread.  In  cutting  a  thread  within  a  hole  apply  the  same 
method.  C.  For  boring  out  a  hole  use  a  lathe  boring  tool  with  the  end 
turned  on  a  right  angle  to  the  left,  and  the  point  turned  up  hooking. 
_  The  side  tool  shown  in  Fig.  12,  should,  for  light  work,  be  hardened 
right  out;  temper  to  a  straw  color  for  heavy  work.  For  heavy  work 
on  a  slotting  machine,  temper  to  a  brownish  purple,  and  grind  so  that 
the  cutting  edge  first  strikes  the  cut  near  the  body  of  the  tool,  and 
not  at  the  point  ends;  use  at  a  speed  of  about  10  feet  per  minute. 

The  parting  tool  for  bi'ass,  Fig.  13,  should  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  shape  as  represented  and  hardened  right  out. 

The  side  tool  for  iron.  Fig.  14,''cannot  be  made  too  hard;  and  should 
be  used  at  a  speed  ranging  from  20  to  30  feet  per  minute,  with  feed 
from  20  to  30  revolutions  for  each  inch  cut,  varying  as  the  dimensions 
of  the  work  ranges  from  1  inch  up  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  the  speed 
decreasing  as  the  size  of  the  work  increases. 

Hheparting  tool  for  iVon,  Fig.  15,  should  be  tempered  in  accordance 
with  the  size  of  the  tool  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done;  it 
may  be  hardened  right  out,  or  hardened  to  a  dark  straw,  or,  for  a 
weak  tool,  to  a  purple  color. 

The  roughing  tool  for  torovgJit  iron,  Fig.  16,  when  used  on  large 
work,  should  be  tempered  to  a  light  straw,  but  for  work  of  5  inch 
diameter  or  less,  it  should  be  made  as  hard  as  possible  and  not  tam- 
pered at  all.  The  cutting  speed  varies  from  35  to  35  feet  per  mir^ute 
as  the  size  of  the  work  varies  from  1  inch  to  20  inches  or  more^  in 
diameter;  feed  &c.,  ranging  about  as  follows:  — 

Diameter  of  Work  Cutting  Speed  Fee;  Feed  per  Inch, 

in  Inches.  per  Minute;  "  Cut. 


c  in  hardening  and  tempering  the  boring  ?oo<s  represented  by  Figs.  17, 
19,  20,  21.  22  and  26  proceed,  according  to  the  directions^  given  else- 
where; making  them  very  hard. 
The  side  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  18,  should  be  hardened  as  much  as  fire 


20  and  upwards 


lto2 
2'  5 
5  "  10 
10"  ^0 


i  or  less. 


35 
24 
20 
17 
16 
15 


25 
19 
19 
14 
12 
12. 


machinists'  tools.  469 


Fig.  16.  Tool  for  rougliing  out  ■wrought  iron  vrork. 
Fig.  17.  Boring  tool  for  heavy  work  on  wrought  iron. 
Fig.  18.  Side  tool  for  brass  work. 

Fig.  ID.  Boring  tool  for  heavy  cutting  on  wrought  iron. 

Fig.  20.  For  boring  on  cast  iron  where  tool  is  liable  to  vibrato  or  tremble^ 

Fig.  21.  Stout  finishing  tool  on  cast  iron.   The  back  part  of  the  tocl  is 

formed  for  scraping  only,  the  front  comer  doing  the  cutting. 
Fig.  22.  Tool  to  cut  out  a  straight  comer  at  the  bottom  of  a  holo  in- 

wrought  iron.    Fig.  23.  Boring  tool  for  wrought  iron  or  steel. 


470         MACHINISTS,   engineers'   AC,  RECEIPTS. 

and  water  will  permit,  and  may  bo  used  at  a  cutting?  speed  of  from  150 
to  350  feet  per  minute  on  work  ranging  from  1  inch  up  to  20  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  feed  of  30  and  25  revolutions  to  each  inch  turned. 

The  borinr/  tool  for  xoroxujht  iron,  etc.,  Fig.  23,  should,  if  slight,  bo 
tempered  to  a  light  straw  color;  otherwise,  harden  it  right  out,  and 
wheniuuso  lubricate  well  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soai>  1  lb;  boiling 
water,  1  gal. 

The  finishing  tool  for  cast  iron,  Fig.  24,  should  bo  hardened 
ri^htout;the  cutting  speed  on  the  lathe  is  about  25  to  30  feet  per 
minute  on  small  work,  and  18  feet  on  large  work,  with  a  coarse  feed 
of  say,8  revolutions  of  the  lathe  per  inch  of  travel. 

To" make  ^.cQuntcr  horiwj  tool,  (Fig.  25),  adjust  the  handle  to  a 
proper  collet  and  turn  the  governor,  which  ought  not  to  be  over  a  :J  of 
inch  in  length ;  next  turn  a  spot  for  the  lips  about  ^  of  an  inch,  on 
small  tools  and  about  |  inch  on  largo  ones.  Above  this  spot,  turn  it 
about  ^  larger  than  the  governor  and  straight  up  to  the  handle,  by 
leaving  the  place  for  the  lips  short,  thus  saving  filing.  Next  file  4 
spiral  lips  in  theiii,  resembling  a  drill;  afterwards  dress  off  the  back 
back  side  of  the  lips  on  the  end  to  an  edge  with  a  file,  and  harden. 

Milling  tools  or  cutters,  (Fig.  27.)  ought  to  be  chucked  to  fit  loosely 
on  the  arbor,  so  that  they  may  not  prove  to  be  too  small  after  harden- 
ing. Now  turn  them  to  within  a  32nd.  of  an  inch  of  the  required 
thickness,  and  again  heat  previous  to  finishing.  This  second  heating 
renders  them  less  apt  to  spring  when  heated  for  the  final  hardening. 

The  front  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  29,  should  be  hardened  right  out, 
and  the  speed  and  feed  should  be  about  the  following  :— 

Diameter  of  work  Cutting  Spqed  ft.  Amount  of  Feed 

in  Inches.  pir  minute. 

1  or  less,  345  25 

2  to  5,  245  25 
5  to  10,  195  25 
10  to  20,  150  30 

The  tool  for  chitting  square  threads.  Fig.  30,  should  be  made  quite 
hard,  and  formed  as  shown  in  cut.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the 
tool  for  hard  metal,  shown  at  Fig.  31. 

The  boring  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  32,  should  be  made  as  hard  as  fire 
and  water  will  make  it,  and  used  with  a  quick  speed  and  lightfeed. 

The  finishing  tool  for  wrought  iron,  &c..  Fig.  33,  should  be  hard- 
ened right  out,  and  used  at  a  cutting  speed  of  "from  18  to  38  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  as  the  size  of  the  work  varies  from  18  inches,  or 
more,  down  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  feed  from  14  to  30  revolu- 
tions for  each  inch  cut,  as  follows  :— 

Diameter  of  Work  Cutting  Speed  ft.  Amount  of  Teed, 

in  Inches.  per  minute. 

1  or  less,  38  30 
lto2,  29  24 

2  to  4,  24  19 
4  to  10,  22  19 
10  to  18,  19  16 
18  and  upwards,                           18  14 

In  addition  to  these  instructions,  each  tool  requires  to  be  ground 
in  such  a  way  as  will  best  adapt  it  for  the  performance  of  the  various 
kinds  of  work  that  may  be  in  hand. 

SpiRAii  Drills,  Fig.  35,  should  be  annealed  and  turned  to  l-50th 
of  an  inch  larger  than  the  finished  size  ;  then  heated  again,  and  au- 


machinists'  tools. 


471 


Fig.  24.  Finishing  tool  for  cast  iron. 
Tig.  25.  Counter  boring  tool,  end  view. 

Fig.  26.  To  be  used  on  wrought  iron  when  the  tool  is  liable  to  spring  on 

account  of  distance  from  the  tool  post. 
Fig.  27,  Fluted  milling  tool  or  cutter. 


472       MACHINISTS,   ENaiNEERS',  &C.,  RKCEIPTS. 

ncaled  in  a  vertical  position,  among  lime,  ashes,  or  Koap-suds  ;  the 
shank  is  then  turned  to  fit  a  proper  collet  socket,  and  afterwards  the 
point  may  bo  turned  to  the  desired  dimcsnsions  and  shaped.  Next 
measure  from  the  i)oint  and  fiiiish  tlie  turning,  "by  making  it  tapering 
to  tiie  extent  of  100th  of  an  inch  smaller  for  every  2  inches  of  the 
length  of  the  drill.  The  spiral  grooves  arc  cut  on  a  machine  cou- 
gtructed  for  the  purpose,  containing  a  i;pindle,  \^'hich  imparts  tjio 
double  movement  of  sliding  and  revolving  slowly  while  the  spirals 
are  being  cut.  The  spindle  contains  a  screAv,  on  which  a  chuck  to 
hold  the  drill  is  adjusted.  The  drill  being  inserted  in  the  chuck,  pro- 
ceed to  elevate  the  sliding  block  bcneatli  tlje  drill,  so  that  Jt  will 
touch  it,  adjusting  ii'sQ  as  not  to  raise  it  too  hig^i ;  then  inseit  a  cut- 
ter, which  should  be  ohe-half  the  diameter  of  drill,  and  groove  your 
drills,  Avhich  should,  for  a,  drill  1  inch  in  diameter,  be  cut  1  to  the 
inch,  and  down  to  within  a  o2nd  cf  the  centre  ;  for  ^-inch  drills,  cut 
the  grooves  1^  to  the  inch,  down  to  "within  a  C4th  of  the  centre  ;  for 
J-inch  drills,  cut  the  grooves  2  to  the  inch,  down  to  within  lOOlii  of 
the  centre,  computing  as  you  would  in  cutting  a  screw  in  a  lathe,  the 
index  plate-giving  you  the  two  starthig  points  at  which  to  commence 
the  work.  " '  ' 

Fluted  Reamers,  Fig.  EG, 'should  be  carefully ^;itTned  to  aS2nd 
of  an  inch  oi  the  finished  size,  then  heated  and  allowed  to  cool  in  a 
perpendicular  position,  previous  to  finishing.  The  treatm?ent  re- 
moves the  strains  and  the  occasional  hardness  made  by  theiammer- 
ing,  so  that  they  will  not  spring  in  the  operation  of  heating  for  tem- 
pering. The  lips  of  a  reamer  should  be  made  uneven  ;  otherwise, 
when  it  chatters,  it  leaps  from  one  lip  to  the  other.  In  reamers  fioni 
1  inch  to  11  inches  in  diameter,  the  flutes  or  ""channels  should  be  9~in 
number,  and  ,11  in  reamers  of  from  to  1^  inches  in  diameter. 
Reamers  from  ^  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  should  have  5  flutes,  and 
reamers  from  f  to  1  inch  should  have '7.  After  cooling,  as  above 
noted,turn  the-part  intended  for  the  lipg'  100th  of  an  inch  larger  tlian 
the  finished  size  ;  afterwards  turn  a  spot  in  the  middle  of  it  |  loiY^, 
and  l-12th  of  the  size  of  the  reamer  smaller  than  the  reamer.  After 
hardening,  this  is  the  place  to  pene  it  straight.  'When  the  tunjii^g  of 
all  but  the  upper  part  is  finished,  put  it  on  the  centres,  and.  prepare 
to  flute  it,  deferring  the  turning  of  the  upper  part  imtil  after^harden- 
ing  and  straighteuiitg.  Place  it  on  the  centres  ;  if  on  a  pjaijer,  flute 
with  a  round  end  tool,  1-lOth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  plap^  dowii  to 
the  face  of  each  lip,  to  the  bottom  of  th'e  spot  intended  lor  ihe  pen- 
ing,  and  plane  them  so  that  the  space  between  every  ether  of  the  two 
lips  will  be  shorter  than  that  of  the  two  just  before  them.  The 
next  step  is  to  plane  off  the  back  side  of  th^  lips  with  a  square  end 
tool  to  within  a  o2nd  of  an  inch  from'the  face.  The  faces  of  the  lips 
should  be  planed  even  with  the  centre,  the  lips  dressed  smooth  with 
the  file,  hardened  again,  and  then  pened  straight.  Finish  by  turning 
the  upper  part  to  the  desired  size,  and  polish  it  off  ;  grind  the  lips  to 
a  sharp  edge  and  to  the  proper  size,  and  it  is  all  ligM. 

To  flute  taps,  Fig.  38,  adjust  the  work  on  the  centres,  and  plane 
the  faces  of  all  the  teeth  with  a  cutter  or  planing  tool,  made  circular 
at  the  end,  the  thickness  at  the  enfl  being  ^  the  diameter  of  the  tap. 
Taps  should  be  fluted  with  the  teeth  slightly  hookijog  . on  the  face. 
Dress  the  faces  of  all  the  teeth  with  the  planer  one-half  the  depth  of 
he  thread  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  thread-^;- this  dene,  plane 


machinists'  tools. 


Mg.  29.  Front  tool  for  brass  wOrk. 
rig.  30.  Tool  for  cutting  square  threads. 
Pig.  31.  Tool  for  cutting  hard  metal, 
rig.  32.  Boring  tool  for  brass. 

Fig.  33.  Tool  for  finishing  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

Fig.  34.  Die  for  screw-cutting,  faoo  view. 

Fig.  35.  Spiral  drill.       '  "      •  ■  '     ' " 


474        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

off  tlio  back  parts  of  tho  teeth,  giving  them  1^  the  breadth  of  theif 
pitch,  leaving  tlvem,  if  tlie  pitch  is  10,  a  10th  and  a  20th,  Avliich  leaves 
them  quite  strong  enough  lor  efficient  service  and  easy  work.  Trim 
tho  bade  parts  of  the  teeth  with  a  planing  tool  «']^ual  in  thiclcnea  to 
the  size  of  the  tap.  Two  taps  should  be  used  for  each  thread;  with 
lite  first,  remove  two-thirds  of  tho  thread,  and  finish  off  with  tho 
other.  No  taer  is  prequired  on  taps  for  5  threads  ;  if  they  are  fabri- 
cated by  this  plan,  they  are  not  liable  to  break,  and  work  easy. 
Extra  large  mongrel-thread  taps  should  invariably  bo  of  two  or  more 
sizes,  ow^g  to  the  coarse  thread  and  the  mass  of  metal  to  be  re- 
moved by  them,  which  otherwise  would  be  crushed  and  torn. 

Cold  Chisels  should  be  shaped  thin  at  the  cutting  end,  and  with 
the  edge  slightly  rounded  outwards,  instead  of  being  square  across 
or  hollowed  inwards,  as  is  frequently  the  case.  This  shape  imi)art8 
more  endurance  to  the  tool,  and  makes  it  cut  easier  than  when  it  is 
even  across  or  rounded  inwards,  as  we  see  it  in  many  cases.  In  hard- 
ening, heat  the  tool  to  a  dark  red  heat  to  a  depth  equivalent  to  its 
width,  and  dip  it  half  that  length  into  the  tempering  liquid,  holding 
it  stationary  about  4  seconds  ;  then  plunge  it  a  little  deeper  and  with- 
draw ;  brighten  one  side  by  rubbing  on  an  emery  or  sand  board,  re- 
move the  bad  color  with  a  piece  of  waste  or  rag,  and  bring  out  a 
clear  blue  color  by  immersion  in  the  water.  In  many  cases  it  is 
rather  difficult  to  temper  a  piece  of  steel  uniformly,  and  molten 
metallic  mixtures  are  used,  being  chiefly  made  up  of  tin  and  lead  ; 
the  bright  hardened  steel  is  kept  in  these  mplten  mixtures  until  it  has 
assumed  the  temperature  of  the  bath.  The  following  tabulated  form 
exhibits  the  composition  of  the  metallic  baths  which  experience  has 
proved  to  be  the  best  for  the  manufacturing  of  cutlery  : — 

Composition  of  Melting  Temperature. 

Metallic  Mixture.  Point. 
Lead.  Tin. 

Lancets                       7         4  220°  Hardly  pale  yellow. 

Razors                         8          4  228°  j^^^^  ^^jl^SJ^^ '^'^"^ 

Pen-knives   gi,^       4  232°      Straw  yellow. 

Pairs  of  Scissors         14  4  254°  Brown. 

Clasp-knives,  Join-) 

ers*  and  Carpen-[  19  4  2G5°      Purplish  Colored. 

ters'  Tools  ) 

Swords,  Cutlasses, ) 

and    W  a  t  c  h  I  48'  4  28S°      Bright  blue. 

Springs  ) 

Stilettos,  Boring) 

Tools,  and  Fine!  5a  2  202°      Deep  blue. 

Saws  ) 

Ordinary  saws |  oil!'''"  j        ^^^'^     Blackish  dIuc. 

Such  tools  as  are  required  to  work  iron  and  other  meta,ls,  and 
hard  stones,  nre  heated  to  a  bright  yellow  ;  razors,  coining  dies,  en- 
gravers' tools,  and  wire-drawing  plates  follow  next  to  straw  yellow  ; 
carpenters'  tools  to  purplish  Ted,  while  such  tools  and  objects  as  are 
required  to  be  elastic  are  heated  to  the  violet  or  deep  blue  tint.  Tho 
less  steel  is  heated  the  harder  It  remains,  but  also  the  more  brittle. 


machinists'  tools. 


475 


Fig.  36.  Fluted  reamer,  side  view. 

Fig.  37.  Single  lipped  drill,  to  drill  very  true. 

Fig.  38.  Square  thread  tap,  Bide  view. 

Fig.  39.  Single  lipped  reamer. 

Fig.  40.  Counter  boring  tool,  side  view, 


476      MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 


Single-Uppcd  Reamers,  Fig.  39,  should  be  fabricated  from  a 
piece  of  steel,  Avitli  the  head  forged  square  to  adept  it  to  a  i^roper 
wrench ;  turn  it  tapering  and  exactly  round,  and,  after  placing  it  on 
the  centres,  plane  a  groove  through  its  entire  length,  one  side  ^iof 
■which  groove  will  form  the  lips  of  the  reamer.  From  this  groove 
dress  off  the  64th  of  an  inch  half  the  distance  round.  Finish  lair 
filing  up  the  face  of  the  lii^s  on  a  line  through  the  middle  on  the  end: 
next  harden  and  temper.  Rose  reamers  should  be  made  with  square 
ends,  with  the  corners  removed,  lips  cut  about  9  to  the  inch  ou,  the 
end,  and  a  little  hooking,  with  a  temper  like  other  reamers. 

To  Chuck  Puj:iLEYS. — This  means  to  adjust  or  secure  the  work; 
in  such  position  as  to  ensure  truthful  drilling  or  planing  ;  the  term- 
chuck  is  also  used  to  denote  the  instrument  employed  to  secure  the 
work,  beiufl;  merely  a  circular  Diece  of  iron  with  an  aperture  on  one 
side  of  it,  fitted  Avith  a  screw  arrangement  used  to  secure  it  to  the 
SDindle  of  a  lathe.  The  other  side  contains  a  number  of  jaws,  gener-. 
ally  three  or  lour,  whicn  screw  together  for  the  purpose  of  securing' 
the  work  while  it  Is  being  drilled  or  otherwise  operated  upon.  To 
chuck  a  pulley,  first  secure  it  by  screwing  it  in  the  jaws  of  the  chuck 
as  near  the  right  position  as  possible,  next  screw  a  tool  into  the  post, 
with  one  end  of  it  near  the  face  of  the  pulley ;  then  turn  and  true  the 
pulley  by  means  of  the  screws,  so  that  the  tool  touches  it  all  around, 
and  true  the  edges  the  same  way  ;  repeat,  trying  the  face  again  to 
sec  if  it  has  moved.  Pulleys  should  be  chucked  either  on- a  mandril 
or  else  chucked  by  the  arms,  since  chucking  them  by  the  rims  springs 
them  out  of  true. 

To  Set  the  Chuck  Rest. — ^To  set  the  rest,  place  it  into  the  tool 
post  with  the  centres  of  the  slats  through  which  the  drills  passes 
:just  as  high,  and  no  more,  as  the  centres  of  the  lathe,  (otherwise  it 
will  fail  to  bore  true)  and  drill  your  wheel,  using  two  drills,  to  ensure; 
true  work,  or  three,  if  the  holes  are  cored  badly  to  one  side  ;  the  last 
tool  should  remove  no  more  than  the  of  an  inch,  which  will  leave 
the  hole  exactly  right. 

To  Scrape  CAST-lEOJir  Smooth.— Place  a  rest  close  to  the  sur- 
face to  be  operated  on,  and,  using  a  thin  wide  scraper,  rest  it  on  one 
edge  and  scrape,  twisting  it,  and  upholding  it  Avhile  cutting,  in  your 
hand.  Don't, bear  on  very  hard,  Ijut  remove  as  thin  a  chip  as  pos- 
sible, and  you  wUl  easily  succeed. 

Work  should  be  fitted  as  exact  and  true  as  possible  before  being 
scraped  with  the  flat  scraper,  which  should  be  used  on  fiat  surfaces 
only.  The  half  round  scraper  is  the  best  form  for  curves,  hollow 
work,  etc.,  the  three-cornered  scraper  being  the  least  useful.  Old 
files  which  have  never  been  re-cut  make  very  good  scrapers. 

To  Make  Drilt.  Sockets  ok,  Collets.— The  best  collets  for 
correct  work  on  drill  lathes  are  those  formed  to  screw  ou  to  the  spin- 
dle, and  constructed  with  a  tapering  hole  for  the  retention  of  the 
drill,  and  a  key-way  to  secure  the  end  of  the  drill  from  turning. 
Sockets  for  ordinary  job  form,  should  be  shaped' with  a. set-screw  to 
retain  the  drills,  and  the  aperture  for  the  drills  should  be  drilled 
circular,  adapted  for  the  reception  of  round  drill  steel  about  of  an 
in.  in  diameter.  For  collets  to  screw  on  the  drill  lathe,  bore  out  the 
end  and  shape  the  screw  to  conform  well  to  the  spindle,  and  attach  it 
by  screwing  it  on  to  the  lathe  where  it  is  required  for  use.  Next, 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  ^Tl^. 

bore  a  hole  for  the  drill  shank  ins.  deep,  exactly  straight  and 
true,  ream  it  tapering,  and  cut  a  key-way  through  the  metal,  below 
the  lower  part  of ,  and  running  mto  the  aperture  bored  for  the  shank,. 
This  key- way  is  intended  to  secure  the  drill  and  ought  to  be  |  an 
inch  long  and  ^  wide.  A  collet  for  upright  drills  should  be  ipade  by 
drilling  the  centres  and  turning  up  the  ends  to  be  drilled  for  the 
shank  so  as  to  adapt  it  for  running  m  a  back  rest;  then  insert  the  end 
to  be  drilled  into  the  back  rest  and  the  other  end  on  the  lathe  centre^ 
and  proceed  to  drill  out  the  hole  for  the  shank;  then  remove  it  front 
the  back  rest,  and,  making  use  of  the  hole  for  a  centre,  turn  it  to  fit 
the  diill,  insert  a  set  screw  in  it,  and  all  is  finished. 

Screw  Threads. — The  English  Propoutioxs,  the 
Whitwortii  Thread. 

DIam.  in  inches  ^\  \       I  iV  i  f  111  H  li  If  ^ 

Threads  per  inch.  . .  .21  20  18  16  14  12  1110  9  8  7  7    6  6 


Threads  per  inch. . 

1-1  H  2  2121  2-13  3^3^31  4 
5  4^4^  4  3131313^3  3 

4  ^ 

Threads  per  inch .  . 

5  5^5151  6 
2f2|2f2^2^ 

Angle  of  threads  =  55°.  Pepth  of  threads  =  pitch  of  screws. 
One-6th  of  the  depth  is  rounded  off  at  top  and  bottom.  Number  of 
threads  to  the  inch  in  square  threads  =  \  number  of  those  in  angular 
threads. 

Screw  Threads. — Standard  American  Proportions. 


Diam.  in  inches .  . 

18 

1II 

[V  i  1  f 

l4  13  11  10  9 

1 

8 

\\ 

H  If 
7  6 

Diam.  in  inches. . 
^0.  of  threads .  . . 

If 
6 

If 
5 

H  2  21  2^ 
5  4^  4^  4 

3 

H  H 

Diam.  in  inches.  . 
No.  of  threads.  . . 

4 
3 

^ 
21 

41    4|  5 

2f 

5f  6 
3f  21 

Angle  of  threads  =  60°.  Flat  surface  at  top  and  bottom  =  ^  of 
the  pitch.  For  rough  bolts,  the  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of 
bolt-head  and  nut  =  1^  diameters  of  bolt  -j-  g  of  an  inch.  Thickness 
of  head  =  ^  distance  of  between  parallel  sides.  Thickness  of  nut  = 
diam .  of  bolt.  In  finished  bolts,  thiclniess  of  head  equals  thickness 
of  nut.  Distance  between  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt-head  and  nut  and 
tiiickness  of  nut  is  xV  «f  an  inch  less  for  finished  work  than  for  rough. 

Speei>  of  Emery  Wheels.— A  12-inch  wheel  should  make  1,200 
revolutions  per  minute;  an  8-inch,  18,00;  and  a  6-inch,  2,400. 

To  True  Corundum  Wheels.— Adjust  the  wheel  in  the  lathe 
and  start  it  at  a  high  speed,  holding  a  piece  of  corundum  stone  against 
the  uneven  surface.  Tlie  stone  will  soon  melt  and  unite  itself  "to  the 
defective  places  iii  the  wheel. 

,  To  Clean  Gbtsasy  Cotton  Waste, — Boil  it  in  a  strong  solution 
of  common  soda  in  water,  and  .  use  ,the  resultant  emulsion  as  a  lubri- 
cant for  drillsf  reamers,  &c. 


478       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS,'  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

TEMTi5itiN-a  TooiiS.— Drawing  tho  temper  of  tools  is  usually  done 
in  a  charcoal  flame,  and  to  draw  the  temper  of  a  tool  properly  it 
should  be  held  in  tho  thickest  part,  or  tho  part  not  requiring  any 
temper,  towards  the  fire,  and  in  the  meantime,  should  be  often 
wiped  with  a  piece  of  waste  or  rag,  dipped  in  oil.  Tho  oil  keeps 
the  temper  even,  and  prevents  it  drawing  more  to  one  place  than 
another.  And  in  drawing  the  temper  of  any  tool  it  should  bo 
drawn  very  slowly,  otherwise  it  will  run  too  far  cro  you  are  awaro 
of  it.  Lancet  blades  and  razors  should  be  drawni  to  a  straw 
color.  Knife  blades  and  chisels  should  bo  drawn  to  a  copper  or 
almost  red  color.  Piano  irons,  shaving  knives  and  shoemakers 
knives  the  same  temper ;  cold  chisels  and  stono  drills,  should  bo 
drawn  to  a  dark  blue.  Fluted  reamers  should  only  bo  drawn  to  a 
straw  color,  on  the  end,  as  they  never  break  elsewhere,  and  keep 
their  size  longer  by  leaving  the  lips  hard.  Half  round  or  tapering 
reamers,  also  taps,  dies,  and  drills,  should  bo  drawn  to  a  straw 
color.  Jijucs  and  gauges,  also  common  lathe  tools,  need  no  drawing, 
being  tempered  enough  when  merely  hardened. 

Hardening  and  Filling  for  Firb-proof  Safes.— Experience  has 
shown  that  the  fire  and  burglar-proof  diamond  chill  for  iron  or  steel, 
described  in  another  part  of  this  work,  has  no  superior  as  a  harden- 
ing for  security  in  the  construction  of  safes;  and,  as  a  non-conductor 
of  heat,  we  would  recommend  a  filling  of  plaster  of  Paris  or  al  um.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  a  mixture  of  both  of  these  articles  forms  the  best 
known  filling  for  safes,  as  an  external  application  of  intense  heat  is 
certain  to  liberate  a  large  quantity  of  water,  which  is  transformed  into 
steam,  thus  ensuring  entire  safety  to  the  contents  of  the  safe.  Other 
manufacturers  employa  concrete  filling  for  safes,  and  ex  tol  it  very  high- 
ly. Mr.  Moffat,  gas  and  steamfitter,  Boston,  has  informed  me  that  ho 
lias  applied  for  protection  in.  the  matter  of  a  discovery  by  which  heclaims 
that  he  can  fully  protect  a  safe  against  a  double  blast  furnace  heat,  by 
means  of  an  outside  lining  of  bricks  composed  of  asbestos  and  kaolin, 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  latter  material  being  used.  From  tho  well 
known  incombustible  nature  of  these  materials,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  but  that  the  claim  in  question  is  a  just  one. 

Metallic  Bath  for  Tempering.— Use  a  black  lead  or  cast  iron 
crucible  (of  the  requisite  depth),  and  place  the  same,  filled  with  lead, 
on  a  fire  made  of  coal  or  cliarcoal,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a 
metallic  or  brick  wall,  level,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  top  of  tlio  crucible}, 
but  at  a  sufficient  distance  (say  6  or  6  inches)  from  it,  to  receive  tho 
fuel  necessary  to  maintain  the  fire,  in  order  to  keep  the  lead  in  a 
melted  state.  Let  tho  crucible  rest  on  iron  bars,  and  leave  apertures  to 
admit  air  to  the  fire.  The  articles,  slightly  greased  to  prevent  tho 
adherence  of  oxide,  are  immersed  in  the  melted  lead  (which  is  kept 
at  a  red  heat)  by  means  of  tongs,  two  or  three  pairs  being  generally 
used,  in  order  that  one  or  two  pieces  may  be  heated  while  the  other 
Is  undergoing  manipulation  by  the  hardening  process.  Keep  tho  lead 
covered  with  charcoal  dust  or  cinders.  This  plan  is  used  by  many 
cutlers  and  file  manufacturers  for  giving  the  proper  degree  of  heat  in 
the  tempering  of  their  wares.  The  process  is  highly  valued  by  those 
who  use  it.   See  file  manufacture. 

Concerning  Saws,  Railway  Springs,  &c.— "When  the  saws  are 
wanted  to  bo  rather  hard,  but  little  of  tho  oil  tempering  composition 


MACniNISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC,  EECEirTS  479 

is  bnmed  off;  when  milder,  a  largo  portion;  and  for  a  epring  temper 
tlie  whole  is  allowed  to  burn  away.  Saws  as  wcU  as  springs  appear  to 
lose  their  elasticity,  after  hardening  and  tempering,  from  the  reduction 
tliey  undergo  in  grinding  and  polishing.  Towards  the  conclusion  of 
tlie  manufacture,  the  elasticity  of  tho  saw  is  restored  principally  by 
hammering,  and  partly  over  a  clear  coke  fire  to  a  straw  color;  tlio 
tint  is  removed  by  very  diluted  muriatic  acid,  after  which  tho  saw3 
are  well  washed  in  plain  water  and  dried.  Spring  manufacture  in- 
cludes the  heaviest  specimens  of  hardened  steel  works  uncombincd 
with  iron;  for  example,  bow-springs  for  all  kinds  of  vehicles,  sorao 
intended  for  railway  use,  measure  34  feet  long,  and  weigh  50 lbs.  each 
piece;  two  of  these  are  used  in  combination;  other  single  springs  aro 
C  feet  long,  and  weigh  70  lbs.  The  principle  of  these  bow-springs  will 
Tae  immediately  seen  by  conceiving  tho  common  archery  bow  fixed 
horizontally  with  its  cord  upwards;  tho  body  of  the  carriage  being, 
attached  to  the  cord  sways  both  perpendicularly  and  sideways  witli 
perfect  freedom.  In  hardening  them  they  are  heated  by  bemg  drawn 
backwards  and  forwards  through  an  ordinary  fire  built  hollow,  and 
they  are  immersed  in  a  trough  of  plain  water.  In  tempering  them 
they  are  heated  until  the  black  red  is  just  visible  at  m'ght ;  by 
daylight  the  heat  is  denoted  by  its  making  a  pieco  of  wood  sparklo 
when  rubbed  on  the  spring,  which  is  then  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air. 
The  metal  is  nine-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  some  consider  five- 
eighths  the  hmits  to  which  steel  will  hard  enproperly,  that  is  sufficiently 
alike  to  serve  as  a  spring.  Their  elasticity  is  tested  far  beyond  their 
intended  range. 

Tempering  Locomotive  Tires.— This  is  quite  ponderous  work,  as 
the  tires  of  the  eight  foot  wheels  weigh  about  10  cwt.  and  consist  of 
about  one-third  steel.  The  materials  for  the  tires  aro  first  swaged  se- 
parately, and  then  welded  together  under  the  heavy  hammer  at  tho 
steel  works,  after  which  tliey  are  bent  to  the  circle,  welded,  and 
turned  to  certain  gauges.  The  tire  is  now  heated  to  redness  in  a  cir- 
cular furnace  ;  during  the  time  it  is  getting  hot,  the  iron  wheel,  pre- 
viously turned  to  the  right  diameter,  is  bolted  down  upon  a  facc- 

Slate,  the  tire  expands  with  the  heat,  and  when  at  a  cherry  red,  it  is 
ropped  over  the  wheel,  for  which  it  was  previously  too  smaU,  and  is 
also  hastily  bolted  down  to  the  surface  plate.  Tho  whole  load  is 
quickly  immersed  by  a  swing  crane  into  a  tank  of  water  about  five 
feet  deep,  and  hauled  up  and  down  until  nearly  cold  ;  the  steel  tires 
are  not  afterwards  tempered.  The  spokes  aro  forged  out  of  flat-bars 
with  T  formed  heads,  these  are  arranged  radially  in  the  founder's 
mould  whilst  the  cast-iron  centre  is  poured  around  them,  the  ends  of 
the  T  heads  are  then  welded  together  to  constitute  the -periphery  of 
the  wheel  or  inner  tire,  and  little  wedge-form  pieces  are  inserted 
where  there  is  any  deficiency  of  iron.  The  wheel  is  then  chucked  on 
a  lathe,  bored  and  tamed  on  the  edge,  not'  cylindrically,  but  liko 
the  meeting  of  two  cones,  and  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  higher  in 
the  middle  than  the  two  edges.  The  compptmd  tire  is  turned  to  tho 
corresponding  form,  and  consequently,  larger  within  or  under  cut  so 
tliat  the  shrinking  secxnes  the  tire  without  the  possibility  of  obliquity 
or  derangement,  and  no  rivets  aro  required.  It  sometimes  happens, 
that  the  tire  breaks  in  shrinking,  whoa  by  mismanagement  the  diam- 
eter of  the  wheel  13  in  excesB. 


480       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS*.  AC,  HECEIPTS. 

MAKmo  Ancttoks.— The  anchor  smith's  forgo  consists  of  a  hearth 
of  brickwork,  raised  about  9  inches  above  the  ground,  and  generally 
about  7  feet  square.  In  the  centre  of  this  is  a  cavity  contaiuuig  tho 
fire.  A  vertical  brick  wall  is  built  on  one  side  of  tho  hearth,  which 
Bupports  the  dome,  and  a  low  chimney  to  carry  off  the  smoke. 
Behind  this  wall  are  placed  the  bellows,  with  which  tho  fire  is  urged  ; 
the  bellows  being  so  placed  that  they  blow  to  tho  centre  of  tho  fire. 
Tho  anvil  and  the  crane  by  which  the  hea\Tr  masses  of  metal  aro 
moved  from  and  to  the  fire  are  adjusted  near  tho  hearth.  Tho 
Hercules,  a  kind  of  stamping  machine,  or  the  steam  hammer,  need 
not  be  described  in  this  place.  To  make  tlie  anchor,  bars  of  good 
iron  are  brought  together  to  be  fagoted  ;  the  number  varj  iug  with  tho 
size  of  the  anchor.  The  fagot  is  kept  together  by  hoops  of  iron, 
and  the  whole  is  placed  upon  the  properly  arranged  hearth,  and 
covered  up  by  small  coals,  which  are  thrown  upon  a  kind  of  oven 
made  of  cinders.  Great  care  and  good  management  are  required  to 
keep  this  temporary  oven  sound  during  the  combustion  ;  a  smith 
strictly  attends  to  this.  When  ail  is  arranged,  the  bellows  arc  set  to 
work,  and  a  blast  urged  on  the  fire  ;  this  is  continued  for  about  an 
hour,  when  a  good  welding  heat  is  obtained.  The  mass  is  now 
brought  from  the  fire  to  the  anvU,  and  tho  iron  welded  by  tho 
hammers.  One  portion  having  been  welded,  the  iron  is  returned  to 
to  the  fire,  and  the  operation  is  repeated  until  the  whole  is  welded  in 
one  mass.  The  different  parts  of  the  anchor  being  made,  the  arms  aro 
united  to  the  end  of  the  shank.  This  must  be  done  with  great;  care, 
as  the  goodness  of  the  anchor  depends  entirely  upon  this  proceae 
being  effectively  performed.  The  arms  being  welded  on,  the  nng  has 
to  be  formed  and  welded.  Tho  ring  consists  of  several  bars  welded 
together,  drawn  out  into  a  round  rod  passed  through  a  hole  in  tho 
shank,  bent  into  a  circle,  and  the  ends  welded  together.  When  all 
thepayts  are  adjusted,  tho  whole  anchor  is  brought  to  a  red  heat, 
and  hammered  witJi  lighter  hammers  than  those  used  for  welding, 
the  object  being  to  give  a  finish  and  evenness  to  the  surface.  The 
toughest  iron  that  can  be  procured  should  be  used  in  anchors.  Good 
"Welsh  mine  iron"  is  suitable;  also  "scrap  iron."  An  anchor  of 
the  ordinary  or  Admiralty  pattern,  tho  Trotman,  or  Porter's  im- 
proved (pivot  fluk6),  theHoniball,  Porter's,  Aylin's,  Rodger's,  Mitclie- 
son's and  Lennox's,  each  weighing,  inclusive  of  stock,  27000  lbs., 
withstood  without  injury  a  ^roof  strain  of  45000  lbs.  In  dry  ground, 
Rodger's  dragged  the  Admiralty  anchor  at  both  long  and  short  stay  ; 
at  snort  stay,  Rodger's  and  Aylin's  gavei  equal  resistance;  Mitche- 
son's  dragged  Aylin's  at  both  long  and  short  stay ;  and  Aylin's 
dragged  the  Admiralty  at  short  stay,  they  giving  equal  resistance  at 
long  stay.     In  ground  under  water,  Trotman' s  dragged  Aylin's, 


Mitcheson'sdrag^edRodger's,  and  Lennox's  dragged  the  Admiralty's. 
The  breaking  weights  between  a  Porter  and  Admiralty  anchor,  as 
tested  at  the  Woolwich  Dockyard,  were  as  43  to  15. 
1  Manufactuking  akd  Repairing  Anvils.—- The  common  anvil  is 
usually  made  of  seven  pieces  :  1,  the  core,  or  body  ;  2,  3,  4,  5,  tho 
four  comer  pieces,  which  serve  to  enlarge  its  base  ;  G,  the  projecting 
(Eiiid,  which  has  a  square  hole  for  the  reception  of  the  tail  or  shank  of 
a  dtusel  on  which  iron  bars  may  bo  cut  through,  and  7,  the  beak,  or 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS     &C.,  RECEIPTS  481 

horizontal  cone  round  wliich  rods  or  slips  of  metal  may  be  turned  m 
a  circular  form,  as  iu  maldng  rings.  These  six  pieces  are  welded 
separately  to  the  first  or  core,  and  then  hammered  into  a  uniform  body. 
In  manufacturing  largo  anvils  two  hearths  are  needed,  iu  order  to 
bring  each  of  the  two  pieces  to  be  welded  to  a  proper  heat  by  itself, 
and  several  men  are  employed  in  working  them  together  briskly  in 
€he  welding  state,  by  heavy  swing  hammers.  The  steel  facing  is  ap- 
I)lied  by  welding  in  the  same  manner,  powdered  borax  with  sal-am- 
moniac (1  part  to  10  parts  of  borax)  being  used  as  a  flux.  The  anvil 
is  then  heated  to  a  cherry  red,  and  plunged  into  cold  water,  a  run- 
ning stream  being  better  than  a  pool  or  cistern,  the  rapid  formation 
of  steam  at  the  sides  of  the  metal  preventing  the  free  access  of  the 
water  for  the  removal  of  the  heat  with  the  required  expedition.  In 
Bome  cases  a  stream  of  water  is  contrived  to  descend  from  a  cistern 
ftbove  on  the  part  to  be  chilled,  which  is  sure  to  render  it  very  hard. 
The  facing  ^ould  not  be  too  thick  a  plate,  for  when  such,  it  is  apt  to 
crack  in  the  hardening.  It  is  somewhat  dangerous  to  stand  near 
such  works  at  the  time,  as  when  the  anvil  face  is  not  perfectly  weld- 
ed, it  sometimes,  in  part,  flies  off  with  great  violence  and  a  loud  re- 
port. In  the  case  of  broken  anvils  the  repairs  will  have  to  be  made 
in  accordance  with  the  above  description.  In  finishing  off  the  face,  it 
is  smoothed  upon  a  grindstone,  and,  for  fine  work,  polished  with  em- 
crv  and  crocus. 

5\lANUFACTURTNO  CHAINS. — For  this  purposo  the  iron  is  cut  off 
with  a  plain  chamfer,  as  from  the  annular  form  of  the  links  their  ex- 
tremities cannot  slide  asmider  when  struck.  Every  succeeding  link 
is  bent,  mtroduced,  and  finally  welded.  In  some  of  these  welded 
ciiains  the  luiks  are  not  more  than  ^  an  inch  long,  and  the  iron  wire 
I  mch  diameter.  These  are  made  with  great  dexterity  by  a  man  and 
a  boy,  at  a  small  fire.  The  curbed  chains  are  welded  in  the  ordmary 
way  and  twisted  afterwards,  a  few  links  bemg  made  red-hot  at  p. 
time  for  the  purpose.  The  massive  cable  chains  are  made  much  iii 
the  same  manner,  although  partly  by  aid  of  machinery.  The  bar  of 
iron,  now  one,  one  and  a  half,  or  even  two  inches  in  diameter,  is  heate4 
and  the  scarf  is  made  as  a  plain  chamfer,  by  a  cutting  machine  ;  tha 
liulc  is  then  formed  by  inserting  the  edge  of  the  heated  bar  within  a 
loop  in  the  edge  of  an  oval  disc,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  chuck 
fixed  on  the  end  of  a  lathe  mandril.  The  disc  is  put  in  gear  by  th« 
Bteam  engine  ;  it  makes  exactly  one  revolution  and  throws  itself  out- 
of  motion.  This  bends  the  heated  extremity  of  the  iron  into  an  ova| 
figure.  Afterwards  it  is  detached  from  the  rod  with  a  chamfered  cut 
by  the  cutting  machine,  which,  at  one  stroke,  makes  the  second  scarf 
of  the  detaclied  luik,  and  the  first  of  that  next  to  be  curled  up.  Th^ 
link  is  now  threaded  to  the  extremity  of  the  chain,  closed  togethof; 
and  transferred  to  the  fire,  the  loose  end  bemg  carried  by  a  traver^ 
crane.  When  the  link  is  at  the  proper  heat,  it  is  returned  to  the  anvU 
welded,  and  dressed  off  between  the  top  and  bottom  tools,  after  which 
the  cast  iron  transverse  stay  is  inserted,  and  the  link  having  been 
closed  upon  the  stay,  the  routine  is  recommenced.  The  work  com- 
monly requires  three  men,  and  the  scarf  is  placed  at  the  side  of  the 
oval  link,  and  flat  way  through  the  same.  In  similar  chains  made 
by  hand,  it  is,  perhaps,  more  customary  to  weld  the  link  at  the  croicn, 
or  small  cud. 

31 


182     3iAciiiNisi»,  i:xgim:kiis',  «fcc.,  reckipts. 

VuLCAinTE  Emery  Wheels.— IJRe  a  componnd  of  India  rubber, 

and  Wellington  mills  emery,  as  littlo  of  tlio  former  as  will  sufHco 
to  hold  the  particles  of  emery  together.  The  materials  must  be  thor- 
oughly incorporated  together,  then  rolled  into  sheets,  cut  into  •wheels 
of  the  desired  size  and  pattern,  pressed  into  the  iron  moulds,  and  vul- 
canized or  cured  by  bemg  subjected  to  a  high  degree  of  eteam  heat 
for  several  liours,  making  it  almost  as  hard  as  cast  iron. 

To  Braze  a  Band  Saw.— Ti7u<nc7/'5  me</iod.— The  tools  required 
are  a  small  portable  forge,  brazing  clamps,  &c.  and  a  straight  edge, 
3  or  4  feet  long,  also  some  brass  wire  and  powdered  borax.  Take  the 
saw  and  cut  it  to  the  proper  length,  scarf  the  ends  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch,  thcii  i)ut  the  saw  in  the  clamps.  I  would 
Bay  that  I  use  a  very  small  and  simple  clamp  in  the  shape  of  a  double 
vise.  Keep  the  back  of  the  saw  out  of  the  jaws  of  the  vise,  or  chimps, 
and  apply  the  straight  edge  to  the  back,  as  it  is  very  necessary  to 
braze  it  straight ;  make  the  fire  in  as  small  a  compass  as  possible  ; 
place  the  clamps  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  fire,  and  then  put  on 
three  pieces  of  brass  wire,  bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  U,  so  that 
they  will  pinch  the  laps  together  ;  put  as  much  borax  as  will  lie  on  tho 
f^aw,  cover  the  whole  with  a  piece  of  charcoal :  melt  the  brass  so 
that  it  will  flow  over  the  saw  before  taking  it  olT  tlie  fire,  and  cool 
very  slow  so  as  not  to  make  the  braze  brittle.  File  off  what  remains 
on  the  saw  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  Remove  Rust. — If  you  immerse  the  articles  in  kerosene  oil  and 
let  them  remain  for  some  time,  the  rust  will  become  so  much  loos- 
ened as  to  come  off  very  easy. 

Da^viascus  Steel. — ^It  is  said  that  this  steel  consists  of  a  highly 
carburetted  metal  which,  by  undergoing  careful  coolmg  and  annealing, 
separates  into  two  compounds  of  iron  and  carbon,  giving  it  the  peculiar 
appearance  known  as  Damasceening."  The  wonderful  strength  of 
this  steel  is  no  doubt  owing  to  careful  raanipiUation. 

Gearing  a  Lathe  fob  Screw  Cutting. — ^Every  screw-cutting 
lathe  contains  a  long  screw  called  the  lead  screw,  which  feeds  the 
carriage  of  the  lathe,  while  cutting  screws ;  upon  the  end  of  this  screw 
is  placed  a  gear  to  which  is  transmitted  motion  from  another  gear 
placed  on  the  end  of  the  spindle,  these  gears  each  contain  a  differeivt 
number  of  teeth,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  different  threads,  and  tho 
threads  are  cut  a  certain  number  to  the  inch  varj'ing  from  1  to  50. 
Therefore  to  find  the  proper  gears  to  cut  a  certain  number  of  threads 
to  the  inch,  you  will  first: — multiply  tho  number  of  threads  you  de- 
sire to  cut  to  the  inch,  by  any  small  number,  four  for  instance,  and 
this  will  give  you  the  proper  gear  to  put  on  the  lead  screw.  Then 
with  the  same  number,  four,  multipl5^  the  number  of  threads  to  the 
iuch  in  the  lead  screw,  and  this  will  give  you  the  proi)er  gear  to  put 
on  the  spindle.  For  example,  if  you  want  to  cut  12  to  the  inch,  mul- 
tiply 12  by  4,  and  it  will  give  you  48.  Put  this  gear  on  the  lead 
screw,  then  with  the  same  number,  4,  multiply  the  number  of  threads 
to  the  inch  in  the  lead  screw.  If  it  is  five,  for  instance,  it  wiU  give  you 
twenty,  put  this  on  the  spindle  and  your  lathe  is  geared.  If  the  lead 
screw  is  4,  5,  6,  7,  or  8,  the  same  rule  holds  good.  Alwtiys  multiply 
the  number  of  threads  to  be  cut,  first.  Some,  indeed  most  small 
lathes,  are  now  made  with  a  stud  geared  into  the  spmdle,  which  stud 
only  runs  half  as  fast  as  the  spindle,  and  in  finding  the  gears  for  those 


MACHINISTS,  ENGIIs^EERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  483 

lathes,  you  -will  first  multiply  the  number  of  threads  to  be  cut,  as  be- 
fore, and  then  multiply  the  number  of  threads  on  the  lead  screw,  as 
double  the  number  it  is.  For  instance,  if  you  want  to  cut  10  to  the 
inch,  multiply  by  4,  and  you  get  40,  put  this  on  the  lead  screw,  then 
if  your  lead  screw  is  five'to  the  inch,  you  call  it  10;  and  multiply  by 
4  and  it  will  give  you  40.  Agam  put  this  on  your  stud  and  your  lathe 
is  geared  ready  to  commence  cutting. 

Cutting  a  Screw  in  an  Engine  Lathe.— In  cutting  V  thread- 
screws,  it  is  only  necessary  for  jon  to  practice  operating  the  shipper 
and  slide-screw  handle  of  your  lathe,  before  cutting.  After  having 
done  this,  until  you  get  the  motions,  you  may  set  the  jwint  of  the  tool 
as  high  as  the  centre,  and  if  you  keep  the  tool  sharp,  you  will  find  no 
difficulty  in  cutting  screws.  You  must,  however,  cut  very  light 
chips,  mere  scrapings  in  finishing  and  must  take  it  out  of  the  lathe 
often,  and  look  at  it  from  both  sides,  very  carefully,  to  see  that  the 
tlireads,  do  not  lean  like  fish  scales.  After  cutting,  polish  with  an 
emery  stick,  and  some  emery. 

Cutting  Square  Thrkad-Scretvs. — ^In  cutting  square  thread- 
screws,  it  is  always  necessary  to  get  the  depth  required,  with  a  tool 
somewhat  thimier  than  one-half  the  pitch  of  the  thread.  After  doing 
this,  make  another  tool  exactly  one-half  the  pitch  of  the  thread,  and 
iis,e  it  to  finish  with,  cuttmg  a  slight  chip  on  each  side  of  the  groove./ 
After  doing  this,  polish  with  a  pine  stick,  and  some  emery.  Square 
threads  for  strength  should  be  cut  one-half  the  depth  of  their  pitch, 
•while  square  threads,  for  wear,  may,  and  should  be  cut  three-fourths 
the  depth  of  their  pitch.  ^  - 

Mongrel  Threads. — ^Mongrel,  or  half  V,  half-square  threads  arc 
usually  made  for  great  wear,  and  should  bo  cut  the  depth  of  their 
pitch  and  for  extraordinary  wear  they  may  even  be  cut  1^  the  depth 
of  the  pitch.  The  point  and  the  bottom  of  the  grooves  should  be  in 
•width  J  the  depth  of  their  pitch.  What  is  meant  here  by  the  point  of 
the  thread,  is  the  outside  surface.  And  the  bottom  of  the  groove  is 
the  groove  between  the  threads.  In  cutting  these  threads  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  a  tool  about  the  shape  of  the  thread,  and  in  thickness 
about  one-fifth  less  than  the  thread  is  when  finisned.  As  it  i.s  im- 
possible to  cut  the  whole  surface  at  once,  you  will  cnt  it  in  depth 
about  one-stxteeuth  at  a  time,  then  a  chip  off  the  sides  of  the  tluead 
and  continue  in  this  "way  alternately  till  you  have  arrived  at  tho 
depth  required.  Make  a  gauge  of  the  size  required  between  tho 
threads  and  finish  by  scraping  with  water.  It  is  usually  best  to  leave 
such  screws  as  these  a  little  largo  until  after  they  are  cut,  and 
then  turn  off  a  light  chip,  to  size  them,  this  leaves  them  true  and 
nice. 

Planing  METALS,~The  first  operation  about  planing,  is  to  oil 
your  planer  and  find  out  if  the  bed  is  smooth.  If  it  is  not,  file  off 
ibe  rough  places  ;  then  change  the  dogs  to  see  if  they  will  work 
■well,  and  find  out  the  movements  of  the  planer.  After  doing  this, 
bolt  your  work  on  the  bed,  and  if  it  is  a  long,  thin  piece,  plane 
off  a  chip,  then  turn  it  over  and  finish  the  other  side,  taking  two 
chips,  the  last  of  which  should  be  very  light.  Great  care  should 
be  taken,  in  bolting  it  to  the  bed,  not  to  spring  it.  After  finish- 
ing this  side  turn  it  to  the  other  side,  and  take  off  a  light  cut  to 
finish  it. 


484        MACHINISTS,  KNGINEERS',  &C.,  KECEIPTS. 

Planino  Pkiu'exdicularly.— In  planing"perpcndicitlarly,  it  ii 

necessary  to  Kwivcl  the  bottom  of  the  small  head  around,  so  it  will 
stand  about  tlirec-foiirths  of  an  inch  inside  of  square,  towards  tho 

{)iece  you  are  to  i)lane.  This  ijreveuts  breaking  the  tool  when  tho 
)ed  runs  back. 

Gear  Cutting. — In  cutting  gears,  they  are  reckoned  a  certain 
number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  measuring  across  tho  diameter  to  a  cer- 
tain line  which  is  marked  on  tho  face  or  sides  of  tho  gear  with  a  tool. 
This  line  is  one-half  the  depth  of  tho  teeth  from  tho  outer  diameter. 
That  is,  if  the  teeth  of  the  gear  are  two-tenths  of  an  inch  deep,  this 
line  would  be  one-tenth  of  an  inch  from  tho  edge  and  is  called  the 
pitch  line. 

Depth  of  Teeth. — ^Every  gear  cut  with  a  different  number  of 
teeth  to  the  inch,  shonld  be  cut  of  a  depth  to  the  pitch  line,  to  corres- 
pond with  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  This  is  called  proportion. 
Therefore,  if  you  cut  a  gear  eight  to  the  inch,  the  depth  to  the  pitch 
line  should  be  one-eight  of  an  inch,  and  the  whole  depth  of  the  tooth 
would  be  two-eighths.  Agam,  if  you  cut  a  gear  twelve  to  the  inch,  tho 
depth  to  pitch  line  should  be  one-twelfth  of  an  inch,  and  the  whole 
depth  of  tooth  two-twelfths.  And  again,  if  you.  cut  a  gear  twenty  to 
the  inch,  the  depth  to  pitch  lino  should  be  one-twentieth  of  an  inch, 
while  the  whole  depth  should  be  two-twentieths,  and  so  on  ad  in- 
finitum. 

^Measuring  to  find  the  Number  of  teeth. — ^To  find  the  size 
a  certain  gear  should  be,  for  a  ce'itiiin  number  of  teeth,  is  an  easy 
matter,  if  you  study  carefully  these  rules.  If  you  want  a  gear  with 
thirty-two  teeth  and  eight  to  the  inch,  it  should  be  four  inches  measur- 
ing across  the  diameter  to  the  pitch  luie,  and  the  two-eighths  outside 
of  the  pitch  line  would  make  it  four  inches  and  two-eighhts.  Again, 
if  you  want  a  gear  Avith  forty  teeth,  and  ten  to  the  inch,  it  should 
measure  across  the  diameter  to  pitch  line  four  inches,  and  the  two- 
tenths  outside  the  pitch  line-  would  make  the  whole  diameter  four 
inches  and  two-tenths.  And  again,  if  you  Avant  a  gear  with  eighty 
teeth,  and  twenty  to  the  inch,  it  should  measure  to  the  pitch  line, 
across  the  diameter,  four  inches,  and  the  two-twentieths,  outsido 
tlie  pitch  line,  would  make  it  four  inches  and  two-twentieths,  and 
these  examples  will  form  a  rule  for  the  measurement  of  all  except 
lievel  gears. 

Bevel  Gears. — ^These  are  turned  a  certain  bevel  to  correspond 
with  each  other,  according  to  the  angle  itpou  which  the  shafts  driven 
by  them  are  set.  For  instance,  if  two  shafts  are  set  upon  an  angle  of 
ninety  degrees,  the  surfaces  of  tlie  faces  of  these  gears  will  stand  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  To  get  the  surface  of  these  gears,  in 
turning  them,  put  a  straight  edge  across  the  face.  Then  set  your 
level  on  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  try  the  face  of  the  teeth  by 
placing  the  level  on  the  straight  edge.  After  turning  the  face  of  tha 
teeth,  square  the  outer  diameter  by  the  face  of  the  teeth;  and  to  get 
the  size  to  which  yon  wish  to  cut,  measure  from  the  centre  of  the 
face  of  the  teeth.  Thus,  if  a  bevel  gear  is  six  inches  in  diameter,  and 
the  face  of  the  teeth  is  one  inch,  you  will  measure  from  the  centre  of 
the  face,  and  find  it  is  five  inches.  On  this  line  you  calculate  the 
number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  and  if  you  want  a  gear  with  twenty 
teeth,  and  ten  to  thi^  'nch,  it  should  measure  two  inches  across  the 


MAcniNisTs,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts.  484 

face  to  the  centre  of  the  surface  of  the  teeth ;  and  if  the  face  of  tho 
teeth  were  one  inch  in  length,  the  diameter  of  the  gear  would  bo 
three  hiche.s,  and  the  inside  of  the  teeth  would  measure  only  one 
inch.  Again,  if  you  want  to  cut  a  gear  with  forty  teeth,  and  ten  to 
the  inch,  it  would  measure  four  inches  to  the  centre  of  the  teeth  on 
the  surface.  And  if  the  surface  of  the  teeth  were  one  inch  long,  tho 
diameter  of  the  gear  would  be  five  inches,  while  it  would  only 
measure  three  inches  inside  the  teeth.  These  examples  will  form  a 
rule  for  all  bevel  gears. 

DiiAw-FiLiNG  AND  FiNiSHiNC. — To  draw-filo  a  piece  of  work 
jsmoothly  and  quickly,  it  is  best  to  first  draw-file  it  with  a  medium 
fine  file,  and  finish  with  a  superfine  file.  After  doing  this,  polish 
the  work  Avith  dry  emery  paper  and  then  with  emery  paper  and  oil. 

Lining  Boxes  with  Babbitt  Metal, — To  line  boxes  properly,  so 
as  to  insure  their  fillhig  every  time,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  box 
nearly  red  hot,  or  at  least  hot  enough  to  melt  the  metal.  Then  smoko 
the  shaft  where  the  metal  is  to  be  poured  upon  it.  This  insures  its 
coming  out  of  the  box  easily,  after  it  is  cold.  After  smoking  tho 
shaft,  put  it  into  the  box  or  boxes,  and  draw  some  putty  around  the 
ends  of  them,  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  them,  takuig  care 
not  to  press  upon  it,  for  if  you  do  it  will  go  into  the  box  and  fill  a 
place  that  ought  to  be  filled  with  metal ;  and,  in  the  meantime,  your 
metjil  ought  to  be  heated,  and  after  you  have  poured  it,  let 
the  box  stand  till  it  is  nearly  cold  ;  drive  out  your  shaft,  anditia 
done. 

Tlunino  and  Boring. — For  turning,  the  proper  speed  for  the  cir- 
cumference is  about  fifteen  feet  per  minute.  The  best  speed  for  bor, 
ing  cast  iron  is  about  7^  feet  per  minute.  For  drilling,  about  10 
11  feet  per  minute  is  a  good  speed  for  the  circumference  of  the  tool 
For  a  1  inch  drill,  40  revolutions  =  11  feet  per  minute,  other  sizes  if 
proportion. 

IIow  TO  fit  Keys  into  Locks.— When  it  is  not  convenient  to 
take  locks  apart  in  the  event  of  keys  being  lost,  stolen,  or  missing, 
Avhen  5-0U  wish  to  fit  a  new  key,  take  a  lighted  match  or  candle  and 
smoke  the  new  key  in  the  flame,  introduce  it  carefully  into  the  key- 
hole, press  it  firmly  against  the  opposing  wards  of  the  lock,  withdraw 
it;  and  the  indentations  in  the  smoked  part  of  the  key  will  show  you 
exactly  where  to  tile. 

Putting  ISIachines  ToGETHEii.—In  putting  machines  together  no 
part  should  be  finished  except  where  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  fit,  as 
it  is  sometimes  the  case  that  machinery  is  miscalculated,  and  by 
finishing  it  would  be  spoiled,  while  if  it  were  not,  it  might  be  saved 
by  slight  alterations  in  design.  And  again,  in  finishing  certain  parts 
before  you  get  a  machine  together,  you  are  unknowingly  fijiishing 
]mrts  not  necessary  to  be  finished,  and  making  tiicm  of  a  shape  any- 
thing but  desirable.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  intended  to  apply  to 
machinery  being  made  to  detail  drawings. 

To  Drill,  a  Hole  where  you  have  no  Readier. — It  is  8ome- 
times  necessary  to  drill  a  hole  of  an  exact  size  to  fit  a  certain  shaft, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  it  smooth  without  reaming  it.  This  may 
be  done,  by  first  drilling  a  hole,  one-hundreth  of  an  inch  smaller  than 
the  size  desired,  and  then  making  a  drill  the  exact  size  and  running  it 
through  to  finish  with.   This  last  drill  should  have  the  comera  of  ita 


1 


48C       MACUINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  RECEIl'TS. 

lips  rounded,  like  a  reamer,  r.iul  the  liolo  should  bo  finished  without 
holding  the  drill  with  a  rest. 

Squ'aiiing,  ok  Facing  up  Cast  Ikon  Surfaces.— A  rouud-end 
tool  is  best  for  this.  A  rough  chip  should  first  bo  taken  off,  over  the 
entire  surface  to  be  faced.  Thea  speed  your  lathe  up  and  tjvking  a 
light  chip,  merely  enough  to  tiike  out  the  first  tool  mark,  run  over 
the  entire  surface  again.  In  turning  up  surface.«i  it  ia  always  best  to 
begin  at  the  centre  and  feed  out,  as  tlie  tool  cuts  freer  and  will  wear 
twice  as  long. 

liOKiNO  A  IIouB  WITH  A  BoRiNO  TooT.. — In  boriug  a  hole  with  a 
boring  tool,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  drill  the  hole  first,  and  too 
much  care  CJinnot  be  taken  in  finishing.  An  iron  gauge  should  bo 
made  first;  it  is  usually  made  of  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  or  wire.  The 
hole  should  then  be  drilled  smaller  than  the  size  desired,  and  then 
bored  to  the  required  size,  and  it  is  impossible  to  bore  a  hole  perfect 
without  taking  two  or  three  light  chips,  mere  scrapings  with  wliich 
to  finish.  Holes,  in  this  way,  may  be  bored  as  nicely  as  they  can  bo 
reamed. 

Boring  Holes  with  Boring  Arbor. — A  boring  arbor  is  a  shaft 
with  a  set  in  it,  for  the  purpose  of  boring  holes  of  great  length,  and  is 
designed  to  be  used  in  a  lathe.  In  doing  this  properly,  you  must  first 
tee  if  your  lathe  is  set  straiglit;  if  not,  adjust  it.  Having  done  this, 
put  the  piece  of  work  to  be  bored  in  the  carriage  of  your  lathe,  pass 
your  arbor  through  the  hole  to  be  bored,  and  put  it  on  the  centres  of 
your  lathe.  Having  done  this,  adjust  your  work  true  to  the  position 
desired  by  measuring  from  the  pomt  of  the  tool,  continually  turning 
round  the  arbor  from  side  to  side  of  the  piece  to  be  bored,  while  you 
are  bolting  it  to  the  carriage,  and  measure  until  it  is  perfectly  true. 
Havuig  done  this,  bore  the  hole,  and  take  for  the  last  chip  only  a 
liundredth  of  an  inch.  This  makes  a  true  and  smooth  hole.  It  is 
impossible  to  make  a  hole  true  with  any  kind  of  a  tool  when  you  aro 
cutting  a  large  chip,  for  the  tool  siirings  so  that  no  dependence  can  be 
jilaced  upon  it. 

To  Make  a  Boring  Arbor  and  Tool  that  will  not  Chat- 
ter.— Boriug  tools,  when  used  in  small  arbors,  are  always  liable  to 
chatter  and  make  a  rough  hole.  To  prevent  this,  the  tool  should  be 
turned  in  a  lathe,  whUe  in  its  position  in  the  arbor,  upon  the  circle  of 
the  size  of  the  hole  to  be  bored,  and  the  bearing  lengthwise  of  the 
arbor,  should  be  only  as  wide  as  the  feed  of  the  lathe;  for  if  the  bear- 
ing of  a  tool  is  on  the  face,  the  more  it  will  chatter. 

To  Straighten  Shafting. — This  shoiild  be  done  by  centreing, 
then  put  it  into  a  lathe,  and  square  the  ends  up  with  what  is  called 
a  side  tool.  Aiter  doing  this,  take  a  piece  of  chalk  and  try  it  in 
several  places,  to  find  out  where  the  worst  crooks  are  :  then,  if 
you  have  not  a  machine  for  springing  shaftin^^,  spring  it  with  a 
lever  where  the  most  crook  is,  and  continue  this  operation  till  the 
shaft  is  straight. 

Turning  Shafting.— To  do  this  properly,  two  cliips  should 
always  be  run  over  the  shaft,  for  the  reason  that  it  saves  filing,  and 
leaves  the  shaft  truer  and  more  round,  and  on  shafts  thus  turned, 
the  time  saved  in  filing  more  tlian  compensates  for  the  time  lost  in 
tuniing.  Before  you  commence  you  will  put  your  feed  belts  or 
gear  on  a  coarse  feed  ;  turn  o£E  one  a  sixty-fourth  of  an  inch 


MACUINISTS,  EXGINEEKS'    AC  RECEIPTS.  487 

Larger  than  tho  size  required  ;  having  tumca  off  this  cliip,*'com 
menco  the  finishing  chip,  and  turn  it  small  cuongh  to  have  tho 
pully  wring  on  abOnt  an  incli  -without  filing.  This  aaIII  leave  it 
largo  enough  to  file  and  finish.  If  there  are  coupUngs  to  go  on  a 
sliaJt,  with  holes  smaller  than  the  holes  in  tho  pulleys,  tho  ends  of 
tho  shaft,  where  they  fit  on,  should  be  turned  down  to  a  sixty-fourth 
of  an  inch  of  the  size  required  before  any  part  of  tho  shaft  is 
finished  ;  that  is,  every  part  of  a  shaft  ehoiild  be  tumed  to  witliiu 
a  sixtj^-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  sizo  required  before  any  part 
if  it  has  the  finish-chip  taken  off.  Tho  reason  for  that  is  that  it 
leaves  every  part  of  the  shaft  perfectly  true,  which  would  not 
bo  tho  case  were  it  done  otherwise.  Iiaving  done  this,  you  wUl 
file  the  shaft  so  that  the  pulleys  wiU  slide  on,  and  the  couplings  so 
that  they  will  drive  on  ;  polish  the  shaft  with  a  pair  of  polishiug- 
damps  and  some  emery  and  it  is  done. 

To  FoKGE  A  Twist  Drill.— It  is  necessary  to  forgo  a  flat  blade 
similar  to  a  flat  drill,  and  then  twist  this  blade  into  the  resem- 
l)lance  required,  then,  with  a  light  hammer,  and  careful  blows,  ham- 
mer the  twisted  edges  so  that  they  will  be  thicker  than  the  central 
line  of  the  tool.  This  will  give  greater  strength  and  a  better  drill, 
and,  to  cut  well,  the  central  line  or  cutting  point  must  be  made 
quite  thin,  lie  careful  to  get  the  same  twist  at  the  point  of  the  drUl 
as  upon  the  body  of  the  drill.  Tho  inexperienced  often  leave  the 
point  straight  like  a  flat  drill. 

To  COJirUTE  THE  NTJBIBER  OF  TEETH  EEQUinED  IN  A  TRAIN  OP 

WHEELS  TO  moDUCB  A  GIVEN  ^•ELOCITY.  Jlule. — Multiply  the 
number  of  teeth  in  the  driver  by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  each  pinion,  for  each 
driver  and  pinion.   For  speed  of  Wheel,  Pulleys,  &c.,  seepage  98. 

Example. — If  a  driver  in  a  train  of  three  wheels  has  90  teeth,  and 
makes  2  revolutions,  and  the  velocities  required  are  2,  10,  and  18^ 
what  arc  the  number  of  teeth  in  each  of  tho  other  two. 

10 :  90 :  :  2 : 18=teeth  in  2nd  tcheel. 

18:  90:  :  2: 10=teeth  in  3rd  wheel. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  DIAMETER  OF  A  WHEEL.  ^U?^.— Multiply  the 

number  of  teeth  by  the  pitch,  and  divide  tho  product  by  3,  141G. 

Example. — Tho  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  is  75,  and  tlio  pitch 
1,  C75  ins:  Avhat  is  the  diameter  of  it? 

75X1.6755 

 =10  ins. 

ai416 

To  COMPUTE  THE  TRUE  OR  cuoRDiAL  PITCH.  ^i/?e.— Divide  180 
by  tho  number  of  teeth,  ascertain  the  sine  of  the  quotient,  and  multi- 
ply it  by  tho  diameter  of  the, wheel. 

Example. — The  number  of  teeth  is  75,  and  tho  diameter  40  inches; 
what  id  tho  true  pitch? 
180 

 =2024,  and  sin.  of  2C24,=  04188,  which  X  40=1.0752  ins. 

75 

Paper  Friction  Pullets. — These  superior  mechanical  contri- 
vances are  made  by  cutting  pieces  of  pasteboard  into  a  circular  form, 
and  of  the  desired  diameter  of  the  pulley,  and  placing  them  in  layers 
one  on  the  top  of  another,  cementing  properly  with  a  good  coat  of  gluo 


488       MACHINISTS,  r.NGINEEKS',  &C.,  liECKIl'TS. 


l)ct\voon  each  layer,  poundin.cj  or  pressing  them  toj;cther  as  close  as 
possil)lo,  and  leaving  a  perforation  in  tlie  centre  ol'  each,  for  the  shaft. 
When  you  have  got  enough  of  these  layers  together  to  give  you  tho 
proi>er  breadth  of  pulley,  allow  the  glue  to  harden,  then  tuni  it  off  to 
A  smooth  finish  in  a  lathe.  Secure  each  side  of  the  pulley  with  a  good 
Btout  iron  flange  largo  enough  to  cover  the  entire  diameler,  or  nearly 
so,  and  with  proper  usage  it  will  last  a  long  time. 

On  Belting  and  riiiCTiON. — Leather  belts  will  last  double  tho 
usual  time  if  treated  with  castor  oil,  they  will  be  rat  proof,  they  will 
always  remain  flexible  and  will  not  crack.  A  belt  4  inches  wide  will 
be  equal  to  one  G  inches  wide  without  it.  It  requires  about  2rl  houn 
to  penetrate  the  leather,  if  used  sooner  the  greasiness  will  cause  it  to 
•slip.  A  leather  belt  should  have  a  .speed  of  1300  It.  per  minute,  and 
not  more  than  1800  It.  or  it  will  not  last  long.  Leather  belts,  with 
grain  side  to  pulley  will  drive  35  per  cent,  more  than  the  flesh  side, 
because  it  is  less  porous,  thus  admitting  less  air  between  the  surfaces. 
Pulleys  covered  Avith  leather  with  evolve  full  60  per  cent,  more  power 
than  the  naked  pulley.  To  increase  tho  power  of  rubber  belting, 
use  red  lead,  French  yellow  and  litharge,  equal  parts ;  mix  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  japan  sufiicient  to  make  it  dry  quick.  This  will  produce 
a  highly  polished  surface.  Experiments  without  lubricants  resulted 
in  showing  the  following  co-efficients.  Oak  upon  oak,  62;  wrought 
iron  on  oak,  49  to  02;  cast  iron  on  oak,  C5;  wrought  iron  on  cast,  19; 
cast  iron  on  cast,  IG;  cast  iron  axles  on  lignum-vitai  bearings,  18; 
copper  on  oak,  62;  iron  on  elm,  25;  pear  tree  on  cast  iron,  44;  iron 
axles  on  lignumvitse  bearings  (with  oil),  11 ;  iron  axles  with  brass 
bearings  (with  oil),  .07.  A  belt  5  in.  wide,  velocity  1000  It.  per  min- 
ute, on  leather  covered  pulleys,  will  yield  5-horse  power;  double  tho 
speed  and  it  will  evolve  double  the  power. 

Methylated  Spirit. — Methylated  spirit,  so  very  useful  in  tho 
arts,  is  an  inferior  kind  of  alcohol,  mixed  with  one-ninth  of  its  vol- 
ume of  pyroxylic  spirit,  or  wood  naphtha. 

Engineers'  Bell  Signals  in  Use  on  Steamers. — Go  ahead,  1 
stroke,  Back,  2  strokes.  Stop,  1  stroke,  Sloivbj,  2  short  strokes.  Full 
speed,  3  short  strokes.  Go  ahead  Slowly ^  1  long  and  2  short  strokes, 
Back  Slowly,  2  long  and  2  short  strokes,  Go  ahead  Fxdl  Speed,  1  long 
and  3  short  strokes.  Back  Fast,  2  long  and  3  short  strokes,  Hurry,  3 
short  strokes  repeated. 

I  To  Dye  Metals. — Metals  can  be  dyed  any  color  by  dissolving  any 
of  the  aniline  dyes  in  methylated  spirit  and  adding  shellac.  This 
polution  must  be  painted  on  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  If 
the  iron  has  been  previously  painted  white  so  much  the  better, 
r  New  Self-Lubricating  Anti-friction  for  Bearings. — Tako 
equal  parts  of  asbestos  and  plurnbago,  mix  them  thoroughly  and 
carefully  together,  then  add  sufiicient  liquid  silicate  of  soda  or  potash 
to  reduce  tho  whole  to  a  half  dry  paste.  This  paste  must  then  be 
submitted  to  the  action  of  a  hydraulic  or  other  press,  till  it  is  con- 
verted into  a  solid  mass,  which  is  afterwards  dried,  either  in  a  fur- 
nace or  by  exposure  to  the  air,  until  all  moisture  has  disappeared. 
The  bearings  may  either  be  turned  out  of  the  block  or  moulded  from 
the  composition  while  in  the  moist  state.  When  tho  bearing  is  finish- 
ed it  is  steeped  in  hot  melted  paraffine  or  other  mineral  oil,  until  all 
t!ic  pores  of  tho  composition  are  filled  up,  - 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  489 

BTTRGiiAB  Alarm.— During  tho  present  time,  when  tramps,  sneak 
thieves,  audacious  burglars  and  desperadoes  are  prowling  around 
and  infesting  society,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  quote  the  following 
description  of  a  home  made  burglar  alarm  by  a  correspondent  of  the 
English  Mechanic  : — "  Just  inside  my  shop  door,  and  directly  oppo- 
site to  it,  I  have  cut  a  trap  in  the  floor,  3ft.  by  2ft.,  and  made  it  to 
work  upon  hinges,  at  the  back  or  door  side  (same  as  a  box-lid). 
I  have  placed  under  the  front  edge  of  the  trap  two  common  spiral 
bed  springs ,  blocked  up  from  the  ground  sufficently  to  throw  front 
edge  of  trap,  which  rests  upon  them,  about! in.  above  the  level 
of  the  flooring.  The  springs  of  course,  are  placed  about  6  in.  from 
each  front  corner,  along  front  edge,  so  as  to  equalize  the  strain  as 
much  as  possible.  The  following  is  easy.  In  the  place  where  "  New 
Subscriber"  -would  fix  his  electric  bell,  let  him  fixer  have  fixed  an  or- 
dinary bell  or  gong,  with  the  wire  carried  from  it,  in  the  way  best 
suited  to  the  house,  under  flooring  of  passage  to  the  trap,  beneath  tho 
front  or  raised  edge  of  which  there  must  be  a  crank  that  the  spring- 
ing of  the  trap  shall  worli  and  ring  the  bell,  which,  if  well  hung  at  a 
good  ringing  jiitch,  will  awaken  the  soundest  sleeper  in  the  event  of 
a  thief  or  any  intruder  entering  the  house  at  imjjroper  times,  or  for 
improper  purposes.  To  avoid  annoyance  in  the  day  time,  a  button 
at  each  end  of  trap  would  fix  it  down  firmly,  and  at  night,  upon 
going  to  bed  or  when  locliing  up,  it  could  be  released.  The  door-mat 
would  cover  the  entire  thing,  and  no  one  but  those  concerned  need 
ever  know  of  its  existence.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  not  one  in 
fifty  people,  or  even  a  hundred,  that  enter  my  shop  know  of  any- 
thing or  notice  anything  different  to  any  other  place  they  may  go  in- 
to, yet  it  has  been  in  use  for  seven  years.  I  fitted  it  myself,  though 
not  a  bell-hanger,  and  it  has  never  once  got  out  of  condition,  but  the 
bell  will  often  give  fifteen  and  twenty  beats  with  one  person  treading 
on  the  mat." 

Black  Varnish  for  Iron  "Work. — Asphaltum,  1  lb. ;  lampblack, 
^  lb. ;  resin,  ^Ib. ;  spirits  turpentine,  1  quart;  linseed  oil,  just  sufficient 
to  rub  up  the  lampblack  with  before  mixing  it  with  the  others.  Ap- 
ply with  a  camel's  hair  brush. 

To  File  a  Hole  Square.— To  file  a  hole  square,  it  is  necessary 
to  reverse  the  work  very  often;  a  square  file  should  first  bo  usecl, 
and  the  holes  finished  with  either  a  diamond-shaped  file  or  a 
half  round.  This  leaves  the  corners  square,  as  they  properly  should 
be. 

To  Turn  Chilled  Iron.— At  Lister's  Works,  Darlington,  Eng- 
land, some  articles  required  turning  in  the  lathe,  and  cast  steel  could 
not  be  made  hard  enough  to  cut  them.  One  man  proposed  cast  metal 
tools.  He  was  laughed  at,  of  course,  but  his  plan  had  to  be  tried. 
Well,  cast  metal  tools  were  tried,  with  points  chilled,  and  they  cut 
when  cast  steel  tools  were  of  no  use.  The  article  was  turned  up  with 
metal  tools. 

Drilling  Holes  in  Cast  Iron.— By  means  of  carbolic  acid  a 
hole  I  of  an  inch  in  diameter  has  been  drilled  through  ^  inch  thickness 
of  cast  iron,  with  a  common  carpenter's  brace;  judge," then,  what  can 
be  done  by  using  the  acid  and  pressure  drill. 

Hardening  Wood  for  Pulleys. — After  a  wooden  pulley  is  turn- 
ed and  rubbed  smooth,  boil  it  for  about  eight  minutes  in  olive  oil; 
then  allow  it  to  dry,  and  it  will  become  almost  as  hard  as  copper. 

To  Solder  Ferrules  for  Tool  Handles.— Take  your  ferrule, 
lap  roimd  the  jointing  a  small  piece  of  brass  wire,  then  just  wet  the 


i 


490        MACHINISTS,  ENGINKERS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

ferrule,  scatter  on  the  joining  ground  borax,  put  it  on  the  end  cx  a 
Avire,  and  hold  it  in  the  liro  till  the  brass  fuses.  It  will  fill  up  ihe 
joining,  and  form  a  perfect  solder.  It  may  afterwards  bo  turned  ir 
the  lathe. 

Making  Dies  for  Screw-Cuttiko.— In  making  dies  for  ecrew- 
cuttiug,  they  should,  whenever  practicable,  be  lapped  Avith  a  tiper 
tiip,  as  they  cut  more  easily  and  wear  longer  than  those  which  arc 
cut  straisjht,  and  then  tapered  off  to  make  the  screw  "  take." 

Very  fine  threaded  screws,  however,  cut  well  with  straight  dies. 
Small  dies,  or  dies  below  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  size,  should  only 
have  three  lips  in  them.  Dies  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  should 
liavc  four  lips  in  them.  Dies  from  three-fourths  to  one  inch  should 
liave  six  lips  in  them;  and  dies  from  one  inch  to  one-and-a-haK 
should  have  seven  lips  in  them.  The  cuts  through  dies  should  bo 
only  twice  the  depth  of  tho  thread,  which  is  sufficient  to  make  them 
free  themselves  from  chips,  for  when  cut  too  deep  they  are  liable  to 
break  on  the  face.   Harden  and  draw  to  a  straw  color. 

To  Dip  a  Fluted  Reajier  Properly. — Dip  it  perpendicularly 
to  a  short  distance  beyond  tlie  fluting — that  is  to  say,  about  half  au 
inch  and  withdraw  and  return  it  several  times.  This  hardens  all  tho 
Jips,  and  prevents  it  cracking  off  at  the  water's  edge,  which  is  tho 
case  when  a  piece  of  steel  is  dipped  in  to  a  cex-tain  depth,  and  allowed 
to  cool  without  moving. 

Anti-Friction  Metal. — Copper,  4  lbs.  ;  regulus  of  antimony,  8 
lbs. ;  Banca  tin,  9G  lbs.  2.  Gram  ziuc,  7^  lbs.  ;  purified  zinc,  7|  lbs.  ; 
antimony,  1  lb.  3.  Zmc,  17 parts;  copper,  1  part;  antimony,  Imparts. 
This  possesses  unsurpassible  anti-friction  qualities,  and  does  not  re- 
quire the  protection  of  outer  casings  of  a  harder  metal.  4.  Block  tin, 
8  lbs.  ;  antimony,  2  lbs.  ;  copper,  1  lb.  If  the  metal  be  too  hard,  it 
may  be  softened  by  adding  some  lead.  5.  Tho  best  alloy  for  journal 
boxes  is  composed  of  copper,  24  lbs.  ;  tin,  24  lbs.  ;  and  antimony,  8 
lbs.  Melt  the  copper  first,  then  add  the  tin,  and  lastly  the  antimony. 
It  should  be  first  run  into  ingots,  then  melted,  and  cast  in  tho  form 
required  for  the  boxes.  C.  Melt  in  a  crucible  1^  lbs.  of  copper,  and, 
while  the  copper  is  meltmg,  melt  in  a  ladle  25  lbs.  of  tm  and  3  of  anti- 
mony, nearly  red  hot,  pour  the  two  together,  and  stir  until  nearly 
cool.  This  makes  the  finest  kind  of  lining  metal.  7.  Fo-y  dieap. 
Lead,  100  lbs.  ;  antimony,  15  lbs.  This  costs  about  10  cents  per  lb. 
8.  For  Bearings  to  sustain  great  iceiglits. — Copper,  1  lb.  ;  zinc,  ^  oz. ; 
tin,  2^oz.  9.  Hard  Bearings  for  machinery. — Copper,  1  lb.  ;  tin,  2 
ozs.  10,  Fej'y  Hard  rft«o. -^Copper,  1  lb.  ;  tin,  2^  ozs.  11.  Lininj 
Metal  for  Boxes  of  Railway  Cars. — Mix  tin,  24  lbs. ;  copper  4  lbs.  ; 
antimony,  8  lbs.  ;  (for  a  hardening)  then  add  tin  72  lbs.  12.  Lining 
Metal  for  Locomotives'  Axle  trees. — Copper,  8G.03.;  tin,  13.97,13. 
Another,  J^?-enc7t.— Copper,  82  parts,  tin,  10  parts,  ziuc,  8  parts. .  14. 
Another,  (Stephenson's). — Copper,  79j)arts;  tin,  8  parts,  zinc,  S.parts, 
lead  8  parts.  15.  Another  (Belgian).— Coi^per,  89.02.  parts,  tin,  2.44 
parts,  zuic,  7.7G  parts  iron,  0.78. 16,  Another  (j&nf/Zis/i).— Copper,  73. 
90  parts,  tin,  9,49  parts,  zhic,  9.03  parts,  lead,  7.09  parts,  iron,  0,43 
pai-ts.  17.  Another. — Copper,  90.06  parts,  tin,  3.56 parts,  zinc.  6.38.  of 
Nickel  Anti-friction  Metal. — A  late  improvement  in  the  mannfactnro 
of  anti-friction  metal  is  the  introduction  of  a  small  percentage  of 
nickel  into  either  of  the  above,  or  any  other  anti-friction  composition. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  491 

Composition  for  Crucibles. — 1 .  Stourbridge  crucible  clay  4  parts, 
plumbago  3  parts,  hard  coke  2  parts,  cement,"  consisting  of  old  pots 
ground  and  sifted,  1  part.  If  old  pots  are  not  to  be  had,  the  forego- 
ing must  be  burnt  hard,  ground  and  sifted.  The  carbon  chippings 
from  the  interior  of  gas  retorts  are  superior  to  the  best  ordinary  coke. 
Pulverize  the  whole  and  sift  through  a  |  inch  mesh  sieve,  temper  and 
mix  with  plenty  of  clean  cold  water,  tread  with  the  bare  foot  to  the 
consistency  of  stiff  dough,  allow  it  to  stand  for  three  or  four  days 
covered  with  a  damp  cloth  to  pennit  sweating  and  thorough  raaturitj', 
then  block  by  a  machine  or  by  hand.  When  completely  dry,  place  in 
the  kiln  and  anneal,  but  do  not  burn  hard.  2.  Another. — The  Birm- 
ingham soft,  tough  pot  consists  of  2  j)arts  of  the  best  Stourbridge  cru- 
cible clay,  3  parts  plumbago,  and  1  part  cement  consisting  of  old  cru- 
cibles pulverized  and  sifted,  &c.,  as  above  described.  3,  Another. — 
Stourbridge  crucible  clay  2  parts,  cement  3  parts,  sift  through  a  ^  inch 
mesh  sieve,  temper  as  above,  and  when  dry  place  in  the  kiln  and 
bum  hard.  4.  Another. — Stourbridge  best  crucible  clay,  3  parts  by 
measure;  cement,  composed  of  old  worn  out  fire  brick,  2  parts;  hard 
coke,  1  part;  sift,  temper  and  manipulate  as  above. 

Cast  Iron  Patterns  should  be  made  very  smooth,  then  slightly 
warmed,  and  waxed  all  over  with  the  best  beesAvax. 

Facings,  Sands,  &c.,  for  Castings.— As  a  facing  for  loam  cast- 
ings use  fire  sand  3  parts,  Whitehead  sand  1  part;  mix.  For  pipes 
and  small  cylinders  use  No.  1,  or  fine  sand,  facing  Avith  plumbago. 
Albany  or  Waterford  sand  is  excellent  for  fine  castings,  or  use  1  part 
of  sea  coal  to  8  or  10  of  Albany  sand;  1  part  to  5  will  do  for  heavy 
castings.  To  ensure  very  smooth  castings,  mix  with  the  green  foun- 
dry sand  about  1-20  pai-t  of  tJir. 

To  Prevent  Holes  in  Castings.— In  casting  iron  on  iron  or 
steel  spindles,  the  moulds  are  cast  endwise;  let  the  cast  metal  spindle 
be  an  inch  longer  on  the  uppermost  side  than  is  necessary  when  the 
job  is  finished;  thus  the  air  holes,  if  any,  will  form  in  the  extra  inch 
of  length,  and  may  be  cut  off  in  tlie  lathe. 

To  Cast  Chilled  Iron  Tools  for  Cutting  Chilled  Iron. — 
After  making  a  tool  of  the  required  form  out  of  wrought  iron,  cast 
the  chilled  part,  using  charcoal  iron  No.  5. 

Dysiot. — The  new  alloy,  called  dysiot,  brought  into  the  market  by 
Rompel  &  Co.,  of  Homburgh,  has  been  analyzed  by  Von  Uhlenhutli, 
and  found  to  consist  of  copper,  62.30  parts;  lead,  17.75;  tin,  10.42; 
zmc,  9.20,  with  traces  of  iron.  It  can  be  pre;  ared  by  melting  together 
62  parts  of  copper,  18  of  lead,  10  of  tin,  and  10  of  zinc. 

Excellent  Anti-Friction, — Tin  50  parts,  antimony  5,  copper  1. 

Cheap  Brass.— Copper  1  lb.,  zinc  12  ozs. 

Brazing  Metal.— Copper  1  lb.,  spelter  8  ozs.,  with  a  little  lead. 

Tough  Type  Metal.— Lead  100  lbs.,  antimony  40,  tin  20. 

Platinum  Bronze,  Must-Proof.— mckel  100  parts,  tin  10,  plati- 
num 1.  ^  ' 

Malleable  or  Aluminum  Bronze,— Copper  90,  tin  10. 
Aluminum  Silver,  OP  Fine  Luster  and  Polish.— Copper  70 
parts,  nickel  23,  aluminum  7. 

Yellow  Brass  for  Steam  Englnes.— Add  4^  to  9  ozs.  zinc  to 
each  lb,  of  copper. 


492        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &0.,  liECEIl'TS. 


Good  Brass  FOR  MAcniNEnT.—l,  Copper,  2  lbs.,  tin  2iozg,,  zina 
oz.  2.  Tonf/h  i^mss.— Copper,  10  ozs.,  tin,  1^  ozs.,  zinc  1^  ozs. 
.  Wheels  and  Fa/rcs.— Copper,  90  lbs.,  tin,  10  lbs.  4.  Brass,  very 
tenacious. — Copper,  88.9  parts,  tin,  8.3  parts,  ziuc,  2.8  parts.  6. 
Lathe  B us/ifis.— Copper,  80  parts,  tin  20  parts.  C.  Machinery  Bearinr/s. 
— (Jopper,  88  paits,  tiji,  12  parts.  7.  Boxes  for  Engines  Runninfj 
at  Jli(/h  Speed. — Copper,  7  lbs.,  tin,  1  lb.  ;  add  spelter  1  lb.  to  every 
40  lbs.  of  the  mixture.  Use  steel  piston  rods  for  high  speed  a  nil 
lignum  vitai  or  apple-tree  wood  for  shoes  or  f/ibbs  on  tlie  cross-hcnds. 
Iron  for  cylinders  and  guides,  if  made  from  pig  iron  should  be  melted 
at  least  8  or  9  times  previous  to  use. 

Bkonze, — 1.  Copper,  83  parts;  zinc,  11  parts;  tin,  4  parts:  lend,  2 
parts;  mix.  2.  Copper,  14  parts;  melt  and  add  zinc,  G  parts;  tin,  4 
parts;  mix.  3.  Ancient  Bronze.— CoYupcr,  100  parts;  lead  and  tin,  of 
each  7  parts;  mix.  4.  Alloij  for  Bronze  Ornaments. — Copper,  82 
parts;  zinc,  18 parts;  tin,  3 parts;  lead,  3  parts;  mix.  5.  Statuary 
Bronze. — Copper,  88  parts;  tin,  9 parts;  zinc,  2  parts:  lead,  Ipart.  0. 
Another. — Copper,  82^  parts;  tin,  5  parts;  zinc,  10$  parts;  lead,  2 

Sarts.  7.  Another. — Copper,  90 parts;  tin,  9  parts;  lead,  Ipart.  8. 
'ronze  for  Medals.— CoY>Y}Qr,  89  parts;  tin  8  parts;  zinc,  3  parts.  9. 
-Bronxe.— Copper,  7 lbs.;  zinc.  3 lbs.;  tin,  2  lbs.  10.  -ino^Aer.— Cop- 
per, 1  lb. ;  zinc,  12  lbs. ;  tin,  8  lbs.  • 

Superior  Bell  Metal.— 1.  Copper,  100 lbs. ;  tm,  23  lbs.  2.  Cop- 
per, 25  parts;  tin,  5  parts.  3.  Copper,  79  parts ;  tin,  26  parts ;  mix. 
4.  Copper,  78  parts; tin,  22  parts;  mix.  5.  Parisian  Bell  Metal. — Cop- 
per, 72 parts;  tin,  26^  parts;  iron,  li  parts.  Used  for  the  bells  of 
small  ornamental  clocks.  6.  Clock  Bell  Metal. — Copper,  75.19  parts; 
tin,  24.81  parts.  7.  Bell  Metal  for  Large  ^eZ/s.— Copper,  100  lbs. ;  tin, 
from  20  to  25  lbs.  8.  Bell  Metal  for  Small  i?eZZs.— Copper,  3  lbs. ;  tin, 
1  lb.  9.  White  Metal  for  Table  IJeZ^s.— Copper,  2.06  parts;  tin,  97.31 
imrts;  bismuth,  0.63  parts. 

Yellow  Brass  (/or  casting).—!.  Copper,  6i.G  parts;  zinc,  35.3 
parts;  lead,  2.9  parts;  tm,  0.2  parts.  2.  Brass  of  Jemappes. — Copper, 
G4.6  parts  ;  zinc,  33.7  paits  ;  lead,  1.4  parts,  tin,  0.2  parts.  3.  Slicet 
of  Stolherg,  near  Aix  la  C/iopeZZe.— Copper,  64.8  parts;  zinc,  32.8 parts; 
lead,  2.0  parts;  tin,  0.4  parte.  4.  B'Arcets  Brass  for  Gilding. — Cop- 
per, 63.70  parts;  zinc,  33.55  parts;  lead,  0.25  parts;  tin,  2.50  parts. 
6.  Another. — Copper,  64.45  parts;  zinc,  32.44  parts;  lead,  2.86  parts; 
tin,  0.25  parts.  6.  S?ieet  Bi^ass  ofRomilly. — Copper,  70.1  parts;  zinc, 
29.9 parts.  7.  English  Brass  TTzre.— Copper,  70.29  parts;  zinc,  29.26 
parts;  lead,  0.28  parts;  tin,  0.17  parts.  8.  Angsburg  Brass  Wire. — 
Copper,  71.89  parts; zinc,  27.63  parts;  tin,  0.85  parts. 

Red  Brass,  for  Gilt  Articles. — 1.  Copper,  82.0  parts  ;  zinc,  18.0 
parts;  lead,  1.5  parts;  tin,  3.0  parts.  2.  Another. — Copper,  82  parts  ; 
zinc,  18  parts;  lead,  3  parts;  tin,  1  part.  3  Another.  Copper,  82.3 
parts;  zinc,  17.5  parts;  tin,  0.2  parts.  4.  French  Tombac  for  Sword 
//aJZfZ^es.— Copper,  80  parts ;  zinc,  17  parts ;  tin,  3  ports.  6  For 
Parisian  Ornaments. — Copper,  85  parts  ;  zinc,  15  parte  ;  tin,  a  trace 

6.  Used  for  German  Ornaments.— CoTpper,  85  3  prrts  ;  zinc,  14.7  parts. 

7.  CVmjsochalk. — Copper,  90.0  parts;  zinc,  7.9  parts;  lead,  1.6  parts. 

8.  Bed  Tombac  from  Pam.— Copper,  92  parts  ;  zinc,  8  parte. 
Brass.— 1.  Yellmo  Brass  for  Turning,  (common  article.) — Copper, 

20  lbs.  zinc,  10  lbs.  lead,  4  ozs.  2.  Another  Brass  for  Turning.— Co^ 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  liECEirTS.  493 

per,  32  lbs.  zinc,  101>:)g,  lead,  1  lb.  3.  Red  Brass  free,  for  Turninf/.— 
Copper,  160  lbs.  ziuc,  50  lbs.  lead,  10  lbs.  antimony,  44  ozs.  4.  BesL 
Jled  Brass  for  fine  Castings. — Copper,  24  lbs.  zinc,  5  lbs.  bismuth,  1 
oz.  5.  Red  Tomhac. — Copper,  10  lbs.  zinc,  1  lb.  6.  Tomftac. —Copper, 
10  lbs.  tin,  1  lb.  zinc,  1  lb-  7.  Brass  for  Heavy  Castings. — Copper,  6 
to  7  parts;  tin,  1  part;  zinc,  1  part.  8.  Malleable  Brass. — Copper,  70.10 
parts;  zinc,  29.90  parts.  9.  Superior  Malleable  ^rass.— Copper,  GO 
parts ;  zinc,  40  parts.  10.  Brass. — Copper,  73  parts ;  zinc,  27  parts.  11. 
Copper,  65  parts;  zinc,  35  parts.  12.  Copper,  70  parts pzinc,  30 
jmrts.  13.  German  Brass. — Copper,  1  lb.  zinc,  1  lb.  14.  Watch- 
makers* Brass. — Copper,  1  part;  zinc,  2  parts.  15.  Brass  for  Wire. — 
Copper,  34  parts;  calamine,  56  parts.  16.  Brass,  for  Tubes. — Copper, 
2  parts;  zinc,  1  part.  17.  Brass  for  Heavy  Work. — Copper,  100  parts: 
tin,  15  parts;  zinc,  15  parts.  18.  ^no</ier.— Copper,  112  parts;  tin,  13 
parts ;  zuic,  1  part  10.  Tombac  or  Red  Brass. — Copper,  8  parts ;  zinc, 
1  part.  20.  Brass. — Copper,  3  parts;  melt,  then  add  zinc,  1  part. 
21.  Buttonmakers'  Fine  Brass.  Brass,  8  parts;, zinc,  5  parts.  22. 
Buttonmakei's'  Common  Brass. — Button  brass,  6  parts;  tin,  1  part; 
lead,  1  part;  mix.  23.  Mallet's  Brass. — Copper,  25.4;  zinc,  74.6;  used 
to  preserve  iron  from  oxydizing.  24.  Best  Brass  for  Clocks. — ^Roso 
copper,  85  parts;  zinc,  14  parts;  lead,  1  part. 

To  Cast  Brass  solid.— The  metal  should  not  be  run  any  hotter 
than  is  necessary  to  insure  sharp  castings.  The  most  probable  cause 
of  the  honey  combings  of  castings  is  that  the  air  cannot  get  out 
of  the  way  ;  and  there  ought  to  be  proper  vents  mader  for  it  from 
tlie  highest  parts  of  the  mould  ;  the  metal  should  be  run  in  near 
or  at  the  bottom  of  the  mold.  If  about  1  lb.  of  lead  be  added  to  eve- 
ry 16  lbs.  of  old  brass,  when  just  at  the  melting  point,  solid  good  bras- 
ses will  be  the  result.  In  melting  old  brass,  the  zinc,  or  lead,  con- 
tained in  it  (when  fluid)  oxydizes  freely,  consequently  the  propor- 
tions of  the  metal  are  altered,  and  require  an  addition  similar  to 
the  above.  If  the  brass  has  not  been  re-cast  a  little  less  lead  will 
do,  but  if  re-cast  several  times  it  may  take  the  full  quantity. 

New  ajtd  Beautiful  Alloys.— Copper,  G9.8  parts;  nickel,  19.8 
parts ;  zinc,  5.5  parts ;  cadminum,  4.7  parts ;  used  for  spoons,  forks,  &c. 
Anotfiei'. — Copper,  89.3  parts;  aluminum,  10.5  parts.  Oreide  resem- 
bling Gold.  Copper,  79.7  parts;  zinc,  83.05  parts;  nickel,  6.09  parts, 
with  a  trace  of  iron  and  tin. 

Good  Britannia  Metal.— 1.  Tin,  150  lbs. ;  copper  3  lbs. ;  antimony, 
lOlbs.  2.  Britannia.  2d  Quality.— Tin,  140  lbs. ;  Copper,  3  lbs. ;  anti- 
mony 9  lbs.  3.  Britannia  Metal,  for  Castinrj.—Tm,  210  lbs.;  copper,  4 
lbs. ;  antimony,  12  lbs.  4.  Britannia  Metal  for  spinning.— Tin,  100 
lbs.;  Britannia  hardenmg,  4  lbs.;  antimony,  4  lbs.  5.  Britannia 
Metal  for  Registers.— Tin,  140  lbs. ;  hardening  8  lbs. ;  antimony  8  lbs. 
6.  Best  Britannia  for  spouts.— Tin  140  lbs. ;  copper,  3  lbs. ;  anti- 
mony, 6  lbs.  7.  Best  Britanniafor  spoons.— Tin,  100  lbs. ;  hardening 
6  lbs.;  antimony,  10  lbs.  8.  ^esf  Bntannia  for  Handles.— Tin,  140  lbs.; 
copper  2  lbs. ;  antimony  5  lbs.  9.  Best  Britanniafor  Lamps,  Pillars, 
and  Spouts.— Tin,  300  lbs. ;  copper,  4  lbs. ;  antimony  15  lbs.  10.  For 
Casting.— Tin,  100  lbs. ;  hardening  5  lbs. ;  antimony,  5  ibs.  11.  Tin, 
82  parts;  lead,  18  parts;  brass  5  parts;  antimony,  5  parts;  mix.  12. 
Another  Brilannia.-T'm,  20  parts;  antimony,  4  parts;  brass,  1  part; 
mix.  13  Hardening  for Bi'itannia.— Bvass,  4  parts;  tin,  4 parts;  when 


494       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS*,  «fcC.,  RECEIl'TS. 

fused,  add  bismuth,  4,  and  antinoony,  4  parts.  Another  Ilardeninff. 
— Antimony,  tin,  bismuth,  and  plate  brass  of  each  equal  parts.  Add 
this  mixture  to  melted  tin  until  it  acquires  the  proper  color  and  liard- 
iicss.  15.  Britannia.— T\\\  89.70  parts,  antimony  9.70  parts,  copper 0. 
oO  parts,  zinc,  0.30  parts,  16.  Tin,  81.64  parts,  antimony,  16.51  parts, 
copper,  1.85  parts.  17.  Tin,  89.97  parts,  antimony  9. 12  parts,  copper, 
0.91  parts.  18.  Tin,  90.00  parts,  antimony,  10  parts.  19.  Tin  89.30 
imrts,  antimony,  7.14  parts,  copper,  1.78  parts,  bismuth,  1.78  parts. 

Gkuma-n  Silver,  Fikst  quality  for  Casting.— 1.  Copper  50  lbs. 
Einc,  25  lbs.  nickel,  25  lbs.  2.  Second,  Quality^  for  Casting. — Cop- 
per, 50  lbs.  zinc,  20  lbs.  best  pulverized  nickel,  10  lbs.  3.  German 
Silver  for  Rolling. — Copper,  GO  lbs.  zinc,  20  lbs.  nickel,  25  lbs.  4. 
German  Silver  for  Belts,  and  other  Casiin^rs.— Copper  GO  lbs.  zinc, 
20  lbs.  nickel,  20  lbs.  lead,  3  lbs.  iron,  that  of  tin  plate  is  the  best, 
2  lbs.  5.  German  Silver  for  Castings.— Lead,  3  parts,  nickel,  20 
parts,  zinc,  20  parts,  copper  60  parte,  mix.  6.  German  Silver  for 
Jiolling. — Nickel,  5  parts,  zinc,  4  parts,  copper  12  parts,  mix.  7.  Cop- 
per, 40.  62  parts,  zinc,  43. 76  parts,  nickel,  15.  62  parts.  8.  Copper  41.47 
parts,  zinc  26. 08  parts,  nickel,  32.  35  parts.  9.  Copper  55.  55  parts, 
zinc,  5.  55  parts,  nickel  38.  90  parts.  10.  Copper,  53.  40  parts,  zinc 
29.  10  parts,  nickel  17.  50  parts.  11.  Alfenide. — Contain  a  trace  of 
iron,  copper,  59.  60  parts,  zinc,  30.  30  parts,  nickel,  10.  10  parts.  12. 
Fine  Silver  Colored  Metal. — Tin  100  lbs.  antimony,  8  lbs.  copper,  4 
lbs.  bismuth,  1  lb.  13.  Fine  }V7iite  German  Silver. — Iron  1  part : 
nickel,  10  parts,  zinc,  10  parts,  copper,  20  parts  :  melt.  14.  Genuine 
German  Silver. — Iron  2^  parts,  nickel  31|  parts,  zinc  25^  parts,  cop- 
per, 40.^  parts  :  melt.  15.  Bidery. — Copper,  48.48  parts ;  tin,  6.60 
parts,  zinc,  33.80  parts,  lead,  12.12  parts. 

Sundry  Compositions. — 1.  Organ  Pipe  Metal  consists  of  lead  al- 
loyed with  about  half  its  quantity  of  tin  to  harden  it.  Lead,  100;  tin, 
33  parts;  and  lead,  100  ;  tin,  20  parts,  answer  very  well.  The  mot- 
tled or  crystalline  appearance  so  much  admired  shows  an  abundance 
of  tin.  2.  Cannon  3Ietal.— Tin,  10  parts  ;  copper,  90  parts  ;  melt 
3.  Alloy  for  Cymbals. — Copper,  80  parts  ;  tin,  20  parts.  4.  Chinese 
Gong  il/efaZ.— Copper,  78  parts  ;  tin,  22  parts.  5.  Cock  Metal— 
Copper,  20  lbs.  ;  lead,  8  lbs.  ;  litharge,  1  oz.  ;  antimony,  3  ozs.  6. 
Metal  for  taking  Impressions. — Lead,  3  lbs.  ;  tin,  2  lbs.  ;  bismuth,  5 
lbs.  7.  Alloy  for  Gun  Mountings.— Co])pev,  80  parts  ;  tin,  3  parts, 
zinc,  17  parts.  8.  Pinc/i6ecfc.— Copper,  5  lbs.  ;  zinc,  1  lb.  9.  Span-- 
ish  Tutania.—lTon.  or  steel,  8  ozs.  ;  antimony,  16  ozs.  ;  nitre,  8  ozs. 
Melt  and  harden  8  ozs.  of  tin  with  1  oz.  of  the  above  compbund.  10. 
Jtivet  Metal. — Copper,  32  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  ;  zinc.  1  oz.  11.  Chinese 
White  Copper.— Copper,  40.4  ;  nickel,  31.6  ;  zinc,  25.4  ;  and  iron,  2.6 
parts.  12.  Bath  Metal. — Brass,  32  parts ;  zinc,  9  parts.  13.  Specu- 
lum Metal. — Copper,  6;  tin,  2;  arsenic,  1  part.  Or  copper,  7;  zinc,  3; 
nnd  tin,  4  parts.  14.  Electrum. — Copper,  8,  nickel,  4,  zinc,  3^  parts. 
This  compound  is  iinsurpassed  for  ease  of  workmanship  and  beauty 
of  appearance.  15.  Common  Pewter. — Tin,  4;  lead,  1  part.  ^6. 
Best  Pewter. — Tin,  100,  antimony,  17  parts.  17  Queen's  Metal. — Tin, 
9;  antimony,  1;  bismuth,  1;  lead,  1  part.  18.  Chantry's  Hard  Alloy.— 
Copper,  1  lb. ;  zinc,  2|  ozs. ;  tin,  2^  ozs.  Razors  as  hard  as  tempered 
pteel  liave  been  made  from  this  alloy.  19.  Alloy  for  Mechanical 
Instruments.— Coi^j)Gr,  1  lb.  :  tin,  1  oz.   20.  Rivet  Metal  for  Ilose.^ 


MAcniNiSTs,  engineers',  &c.,  keoeipts.  495 

Till,  4G  lbs.  ;  copper,  1  lb.  21.  Hard  White  iJ/etoZ.— Sheet  brass,  'C'l 
Dzs.  ;  lead,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  ;  zinc,  1  oz.  22.  Fusible  Alloy,  melta 
ill  Boiling  water. — Bismuth,  8  ozs.  ;  tin  3  ozs.  ;  lead,  5  ozs.  23. 
Fusible  Alloy  for  Silvering  Glass.— Tin,  6  ozs.  ;  lead,  10  ozs.;  bis- 
muth, 21  ozs.  ;  mercurj'-,  a  small  quantity.  24.  Hard  White  Metal 
for  J?u«on5.— lirass,  1  lb.  ;  zinc,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  1  oz.  25.  Button  Ilak- 
;r's  il/eto?.— Copper,  43  parts;  zinc,  G7  parts.  26.  -4not/ier.— Copper, 
32.22  parts,  tin.  2.78  parts,  zuic,  33  parts.  27.  Another. — Copper,  63. 
1)4  parts;  tin,  5.28  -paits;  zinc,  35.78  parts.  28.  3Ietal  that  expands  in 
cooling. — Lead,  9;  antimony,  2;  bismuth,  1  part  ^This  metal  is  very 
useful  in  filling  small  defects  in  iron  castings,  &c.  29.  Albata  Metal. 
— Nickel,  3  to  4  parts;  copper,  20  parts;  zinc,  16  parts.  Used  for 
plated  goods.  30.  Birmingham  Flatin. — Copper,  8  parts,  zinc,  5 
parts.  ■■■  31.  Imitation  Flatinum. — Melt  together,  8  parts  brass,  5  parts 
of  zinc  This  alloy  closely  resembles  platinum.  32.  Chinese  Silver. 
—Silver,  2.5;  copper,  05.24;  zinc  19.52;  cobalt  or  iron,  0.12;  nickel,  13. 
33.  Tutcnag. — Copper,  8;  zinc,  5;  nickel,  8  parts.  34.  Prince's  Metal. 
— Copper,  3  parts ;  zinc,  1  part.  35.  ylnoiAer.— Brass,  8  parts,  zinc,  1 
part  cQ.  Another. — Zinc  and  copper  equal  parts.  Mix.  37.  Queen'  s 
Metal. — Lead,  1  part;  bismuth  1  part;  antimony,  1  part;  tin,  9  parts. — 
Mix.  38.^  Another. — Tin,  9  parts;  bismuth  1  part;  lead,  2  parts;  anti- 
mony 1  part;  mix.  39.  Imitation  Gold. — Platina,  8  parts;  silver,  4 
parts;  copper,  12 parts,  melt.  40.  Imitation  Silver. -B\oQ\'iXm,  100 parts; 
antimony,  8  parts;  bismuth,  1  part;  copper,  4  parts;  melt.  41.  Spur- 
ious Silver  Leaf. — Tin,  90.09  ;  zinc,  9.91  parts  ;  melt.  42.  Mirrors  of 
Reflecting  Telescope.  — Copper  100,  tin,  50  parts.  43.  White  Argentan 
— Copper,  8  parts;  nickel,  3 parts,  zmc,  35  parts.  This  beautiful  com- 
position is  in  imitation  of  silver.  44.  Yelloio  Dipping  Metal. — Cop- 
per, any  desired  quantity  and  6  or  7  ozs.  of  zinc  to  cver;^  lb.  of  copper. 
45.  Shot  Metal. — Lead,  97.06  parts;  arsenic,  2.94  parts.  Another.— Laid, 
99.60  parts;  arsenic,  0.40  parts.  46.  Wiite  Metal. — Parts  by  weight ;  tm, 
82;  lead,  18;  antimony,  5;  zinc,  1;  copper,  5.  47.  Hard  Pewter,-' 
Melt  together,  12  lbs  of  tm;  regulus  of  antimony,  1  lb.  ;  copper,  4 
ozs.  48,  Common  Peioter. — Melt  in  a  crucible,  tin,  7  lbs.  ;  when 
fused  throw  in  lead,  1  lb.  ;  copper,  6  ozs.  ;  zinc,  2  ozs.  49.  Bntish 
PZa<e. —Nickel,  5  to  6  parts ;  copper,  20  parts ;  zinc,  8  to  10  parts.  Used 
for  plated  goods.  60.  Composition  for  Strong  Pumps,  &c. — Copper,  1 
lb. ;  zinc,  ^,  and  tin,  1^  ozs.  61.  Composition  for  Tootlied  TFAeeZs,— Cop- 
per, 1  lb.  ;  brass,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  62.  Another. — Copper,  1  lb.  ; 
brass,  2  ozs.;  tin  1|  ozs.  53.  J^or  Turning  Work. — Copper,  1  lb.;  brass 
2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  64.  For  Nuts  of  coarse  Threads  and  Bearings. — 
Copper,  1  lb.  ;  brass,  1^  ozs.  ;  tin,  2^  ozs.  55.  Pewterers  Temper. — 
Copper,  1  lb.  ;  tin,  2  lbs.  Used  to  add  in  small  quantities  to  tin.  60. 
Alloy  for  Crjlinders  o/ iot'07noii2;e5,— Copper,  88.03  parts;  tin,  2.38 
j)arts;  zinc,  6.99  j)art3.  67.  Metal  for  Sliding  Levers  of  Locomotives. 
— Copper,  85.25  parts;  tin,  12.75  parts;  zinc,  2.00  parts.  68.  Another 
(Fenton  s). — Copper,  5.60  tm,  14,60;  zinc,  80  parts.  59,  Baron  Wet- 
terstedt's  Patent  Sheathing  for  /S'/ups.— Consists  of  lead  with  from 
2  to  8  per  cent,  of  antimony,  about  3  jjer  cent,  is  the  usual  quantity. 
TliG  alloy  is  rolled  into  sheets.  60.  Muntz  Metal  for  Ships. —Best 
seifccted  copper,  00  parts;  best  zinc,  40  parts.  Melt  together  in  the 
usual  manner  and  roll  into  sheets  of  suitable  thiclmess.  This  com- 
position resists  oxidation  from  ex]i03iae  to  sea  water,  and  prevents 


49G      MAcniNiSTS,  engineers',  &c.,  iieceipts. 

fcho  jidliesion  of  l)arnaclG3,  01.  Metal  for  Anatomical  Injections. — Tin, 
10.41  i):iits;  lead,  9.27  parts;  bismuth,  27.81  parts;  mercury,  41.41 
parts.  02.  Fusible  Metal  for  casts.— Bismuth,  8  parts;  lead,  5  parts; 
tin,  3  parts.  It  will  melt  at  200°  or  under  boiling  -water.  For  male 
casts  use  tin  only.  03.  Fot  Metal.— Copi^er,  40  lbs.  ;  lead,  10  lbs.  ; 
tin,  1^  lbs.  04.  Metal  for  Models. — Tea  lead,  Olbs.  ;  tin,  \  lb.  ;  anti- 
mony, lb.  05.  Imitation  of  Silver. — Copper,  1  lb.  ;  tin,  3  ozs.  00, 
Von  lUbra's  Alloy  for  Bismutli,  27.27  parts;  lead,  59.03 

parts  ;  tin,  13.40  parts.  If  the  cast  objects  be  bitten  with  diluted  ni- 
tric acid,  washed  with  water,  and  rubbed  with  a  woolen  rag,  tlio  ele- 
vated spots  become  bright,  while  the  smikeu  portions  are  dull 
and  the  castings  acquire  a  dark  gray  appearance  with  an  antique  lus- 
tre. Without  biting  the  color  is  light  gray.  07.  Neio  Sheathiny  Metal. 
-  This  alloy  is  made  by  meltmg  2^  parts  of  copper  in  one  crucible, 
in  another,  9  parts  of  zinc,  87  of  lead,  1  part  of  mercury,  and  ^  part 
of  bismutli,  then  mix  the  contents  of  both  crucibles,  covering  the  sur- 
face with  charcoal  dust,  and  stirring  well  till  all  are  incoi-porated. 
The  mercury  in  this  alloy  protects  botli  the  zinc  and  copper  from  the 
action  of  sea  water.  The  contents  of  the  crucible  are  run  into  ingots 
and  rolled  into  sheets.  08.  Spelter. — Natural  impure  zinc,  which  con- 
tains a  portion  of  lead,  iron,  copper  and  a  little  manganese  and  lilum- 
bago. 

Iron  LIakufacture. — Charcoal  138  bushels,  limestone  432  lbs., 
and  ore  2012  lbs.,  will  produce  1  ton  of  pig  iron.  In  England  temper- 
ature of  hot  blast  is  000°,  density  of  blast  and  of  refining  furnace  2}^ 
to  3  lbs.  per  square  inch.  Revolutions  of  puddling  rolls  00  per 
minute  ;  rail  rolls,  100  ;  rail  saw,  800.       '  • 

Horse  power  (indicated)  required  for  different  processes. 


Blast  Furnace  00  |  Railway  rolling  train   250 

Refining   "                             20   Small  bar  train   00 

Puddling  Rolls  with  squeezers       |  Double  rail  saw   12 

and  shears   80  |  Straightening   7 

One  pound  of  Anthracite  coal  in  a  cupola  furnace  will  melt  from  5  to 
10  lbs  of  cast  iron  ;  8  bushels  of  bituminous  coal  will  melt  1  ton  of 
cast  iron.  Small  coal  produces  about  |  of  the  effect  of  largo  coal  of 
the  same  kind. 

To  Reducp:  Oxides. — The  more  powerful  deoxidizing  agent  is  un- 
doubtedly coal  in  its  several  varieties,  and  the  gases  deriviu.^  there- 
from during  combustion  in  the  furnace.  The  oxides  of  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  nickel,  cobalt,  copper,  and  iron  require  a  strong  red  heat  in 
the  furnace,  whilst  the  oxides  of  manganese,  chromium,  tin,  and  zinc, 
do  not  lose  their  oxygen  until  heated  to  whiteness.  On  a  small  scale, 
the  reduction  of  oxides  is  generally  ellected  by  mixing  cliarcoal,  to- 
gether with  the  oxide  to  be  reduced,  in  a  refractory  clay  crucible,  the 
charcoal  furnishing  the  carbon  necessary  to  the  proper  performance 
of  this  work.  Some  use  a  crucible  thickly  lined  with  charcoal,  put- 
ting in  the  oxide  on  the  top  of  the  charcoal.  It  is  necessary,  however, 
when  using  the  crucible  and  charcoal,  to  use  a  flux,  say  a  little  borax 
in  powder,  strewed  on  the  mixture  to  accelerate  the  reduction  of  the 
oxide.   The  borax  is  generally  the  first  to  fuse,  and,  as  the  metal  is 


jrACHiNisTS,  engineers',  &c,,  receipts.  497 


eliminated,  seems  to  purify  and  cleanse  it,  as  it  gathers  into  a  button 
at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  It  is  all  the  better  if  you  give  the  cruci- 
ble a  few  sharp  taps  when  you  take  it  off  the  fire. 

Effects  of  heat  on  various  bodies. 


Fine  Gold  melts   2590" 

"   Silver   "    1250 

Copper  melts  25'i8 

Wrought  Iron  melts   3980 

Cast         "         *'    3179 

Bright  red  "  in  the  dark   752 

Red  hot     "  in  tvi^ihght   881 

Glass  melts   2377 

Common  tire   790 

Bra5S  melts   1900 

Air  furnace   3300 

Antimony  melts   951 

Bismuth      "   476 

Cadmium   600 

Steel   2500 

Lead   504 

Tin   421 


Heat,  cheiTy  red   1500* 

"     bright  "    1860 

"     red  visible  by  day  1077 

"     white   2900 

Mercury  boils   662 

"     volatilizes   680 

Platinum  melts   3080 

Zinc  melts   740 

Higliest  natural  temperature 

(Egypt),   IIT 

Greatest  natural  cold  (below 

zero)   56 

"     artificial      "      "   106 

Heat  of  human  blood   98 

Snow  and  Salt,  equal  parts ...  0 

lee  melts   32 

Water  iu  vacnio  boils   1.8 

Furnace  under  steam  boiler. .  1100 


SnUIXKAGE  OF  CASTINGS. 


Iron,  small  cy]iud'A;=l-lGth  iu.  per  ft 

"   Pipes  =  y  '"'ft. 

"   Girders,  beams, 

ect  —  ^  in.  in  15  ins. 

*'   Large  cylind- 
ers,   the  con- 
traction of  di- 
ameter at  top.=  l-16th  per  foot. 
Ditto  at  bottom . .  =  l-12th  per  foot. 


Ditto,  in  length.,  .-g  in  16  ins. 

Brass,  Ihin  =     in  9  " 

Brass,  thick  =-J- in  10  " 

Zinc  =5-l6tlis  in  a  foot 

Lead  =  5-16ths  " 

Copper  =  3-16ths  "  " 

Bismuth  =  5-32nds  "  «' 


Green  sand  iron  castings  are  0  per  cent,  stronger  than  dry,  and 
30  per  cent,  stronger  than  chilled,  but  when  the  castings  are  chilled 
and  annealed,  a  gain  of  115  per  cent,  is  attained  over  those  made  iu 
green  sand.  Chilling  the  under  side  of  cast  iron  very  materially  in- 
creases its  strength. 

To  Repair  Cracked  Bells.— The  discordant  tones  of  a  cracked 
bell  being  due  to  the  jarring  of  the  rugged  uneven  edges  of  the  crack 
against  each  other,  the  best  remedy  that  can  be  applied  is  to  cut  a 
thin  slit  with  a  toothless  saw  driven  at  a  very  high  velocity,  say  3  or 
4000  revolutions  per  minute,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cut  away  the 
opposing  edges  of  the  fracture  whereever  they  come  in  contact.  This 
"will  restore  the  original  tone  of  the  bell. 

To  Galvanize  Grey  Iron  Castings.— Cleanse  the  articles  in  an 
ordinary  chaffing  mill,  which  consists  of  a  barrel  revolving  on  its  axis, 
containing  sand  ;  when  the  sand  is  all  removed,  take  them  out  and 
heat  one  by  one,  plunging,  while  hot,  in  a  liquid  composed  as  follows  : 
10  lbs.  hydrochloric  acid  and  sufficient  sheet  zinc  to  make  a  saturated 
solution.  In  making  this  solution,  when  the  evolution  of  gas  has 
ceased,  add  muriate,  or  preferably  sulphate  of  ammonia  lib.,  and 
let  it  stand  till  dissolved.  The  castings  should  be  so  hot  that  when 
dipped  in  this  solutiouj  and  instantly  removed,  they  will  immediately 


498        JIACIIINISTS,  rNGINKKIIfs',  &C.,  RrCKIPTS. 

dry,  leaving?  the  surface  crystallized  like  frost  work  on  a  window 
pane.  Next  i)liin^e  them  while  hot,  but  perfectly  dry,  in  a  bath  of 
melted  zinc,  previously  Rkimming  the  oxido  on  the  surifaco  away,  and 
throwing  thereon  a  small  amount  of  ])owdered  sal  ammoniac.  If  tho 
articles  are  very  small,  inclose  them  in  a  wroiifjlit  iron  basket  on  a 
pole,  and  lower  them  into  tlio  metal.  When  this  i»  done,  shake  olT 
the  superfluous  metal,  and  cast  them  into  a  vessel  of  water  to  prevent 
them  adhering  when  the  zinc  solidifies. 

To  Flnd  the  Speed  of  a  Counticb-Shaft.— If  the  revolutions  of 
the  main  shaft  and  size  of  pulleys  are  given:  Multiply  the  revo- 
lutions of  tlie  main  shaft  by  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pulley,  and 
divide  by  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pulley  on  the  connter-shalt, 
the  quotient  will  be  tho  number  of  revolutions. 

Example. — "Wh.at  Avill  be  tlie  speed  of  a  counter -.shaft  with  a  12  in. 
pulley  driven  by  a  30  iu.  pulley  180  revolutions  per  minute :  1^:04- 
aO-M2=450. 

To  Find  the  Size  of  a  Pulley  Requihed,  if  the  number  of  revo- 
lutions and  size  of  pulley  on  tho  main  shaft  are  given:  Multiply  tho 
diameter  in  inches  of  driving  pxilley  by  the  revolutions  of  the  main 
shaft,  and  divide  by  the  speed  required;  the  quotient  wiU  be  the  di- 
ameter in  inches  of  the  pulley. 

Example — ^What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  to  make  a  coun- 
ter-shaft turn  450  revolutions  per  minute  driven  bv  a  30  inch  pul- 
ley 180  revolutions  per  minute  :    180-|-£0-^450=12  in.  pulle5% 

10  Find  the  Size  of  a  Pulley  for  a  Main  Shaft,  if  tho 
speed  of  shafts  and  diameter  of  pulley  on  the  counter-shaft  are 
given:  Multiply  the  diameter  in  inches  of  pulley  by  speed  of  tho 
counter-shaft,  and  divide  by  the  revolutions  of  the  main  shaft;  tho 
quotient  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  pulley. 

Example.— 'Whsit  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  on  a  main  shaft, 
making  180  revolutions  per  nnnute,  to  drive  a  12  in.  450  revolutions 
per  minute:   450 Xl2-=-180=30  inch  pulley. 

To  Weld  Steel  Axles. — To  insure  a  good  weld,  prepare  the  com- 
position described  on  page  270  for  welding  cast  steel.  Use  a  strong 
fire,  and  when  the  axle  is  brought  to  what  may  be  termed  a  bright 
red  heat,  apply  a  sufficiency  of  tho  composition  and  return  it  to  tho 
fire  until  the  heat  is  regained  once  more,  then  place  it  under  the 
hammer.  Bo  careful  not  to  put  on  too  much  of  the  composition, 
otherwise  it  might  waste  in  the  fire,  and  by  its  affinity  for  metal  ob- 
struct the  tire  iron,  thereby  preventing  tho  fire  from  receiving  tho 
full  energy  of  the  blast,  and  thus  retarding  if  not  spoiling  the  job, 

MiLDEVT  ON  Sails  can  be  prevented  by  soaping  the  mildewed  parts 
and  then  rubbing  in  powdered  chalk.  The  growth  of  the  mildew 
fun"-us  can  be  prevented  by  steeping  tho  canvas  in  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  corrosive  sublimate.  Another  xoay.  Slacked  lime  2  bushels, 
draw  off  the  lime  water,  and  mix  it  with  120  gals,  water,  and  with 
blue  vitriol  ^  lb.  i        "         ■  ^ 

To  Make  Gun  Cotton.— Take  dry  saltjietre,  \  oz. ;  strong  oil  vit- 
riol I  oz.  Mix  in  a  tumliler,  add  20  grs.  of  dry  cottonwool,  stir  with 
a  glass  rod  6  minutes,  remove  the  cotton  and  wash  from  all  traces  of 
the  acid  in  4  or  5  waters;  then  carefully  dry  under  120^.  This  is 
gun  cotton. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  499 

To  KjEEi*  Wagojt  Tibes  on  the  Wheel.— a  practical  mechanic 
suggests  a  metliod  of  so  putting  tires  on  wagons  that  they  will  not 
get  loose  and  require  resetting.  He  says  he  ironed  a  wagon  some 
years  ago  for  his  own  use,  and,  before  putting  on  the  tires,  he  fiUed 
the  felloes  with  linseed  oil,  and  the  tires  have  worn  out  and  were 
never  loose.  This  method  is  as  foUows :  He  used  a  long  cast  iron 
heater  made  for  tlie  purpose;  the  oil  is  brought  to  a  boiling  heat,  tho 
Avheel  is  placed  on  a  stick,  so  as  to  hang  in  the  oil,  each  felloe  an 
hour.  The  timber  should  be  dry,  as  green  timber  will  not  take  oil. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  oil  is  not  made  hotter  than  a  boiling 
heat,  or  the  timber  will  be  burned.  Timber  filled  with  oil  is  not  sus- 
ceptible of  injury  by  water,  and  is  rendered  much  more  durable  by 
this  process. 

To  Chill  Cast  Iron  tery  Hard. — Use  a  liquid  made  as  follows: 
Soft  water,  10  gallons ;  salt,  1  peck  ;  oU  vitriol,  I  pt. ;  saltpetre,  |  lb. ; 
prussiate  of  potash,  ^  lb. ;  cyanide  of  potash,  ^  lb.  Heat  the  iron  a 
cherry  red  and  dip  as  usual,  and  if  wanted  harder  repeat  the  process. 

Another  to  Harden  Cast  Iron. — Salt,  2  lbs. ;  saltpetre  ^  lb. ; 
roche  alum,  ^  lb. ;  ammonia,  4  ozs. ;  salts  of  tartar,  4  ozs. ;  pulverize 
all  together  and  incorporate  thoroughly,  use  by  powdering  all  over 
the  iron  while  it  is  hot,  then  j)lunging  it  in  cold  water. 

Flux  for  Reducing  Lead  Ore. — Red  argol,  6  parts;  nitre,  4  parts; 
fluor  spar,  1  part;  grind  well  and  mix  thoroughly. 

Varnish  for  smooth  moulding  Patterns. — Alcohol,  1  gal.  ; 
shellac  1  lb. ;  lamp  or  ivory  black,  sufficient  to  color  it. 

Iron  Lustre  is  obtained  by  dissolving  a  i)iece  of  zinc  with  muriatic 
acid,  and  mixing  the  solution  with  spirit  of  tar,  and  applying  it  to  the 
surface  of  the  iron. 

Black  having  a  Polish  for  Iron. — ^Pulverized  gum  asphaltum, 
2  lbs. ;  gum  benzoin,  ^  lb. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal. ;  to  make  quick, 
keep  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  often ;  shade  to  suit  with  finely 
ground  ivory  black.  Apply  with  a  brush.  And  it  ought  to  be  used 
on  iron  exposed  to  the  weather  as  well  as  on  inside  work  desiring  a 
nice  appearance  or  ixjlish. 

Varnish  For  Iron. — Asphaltum,  8  lbs. ;  melt  in  an  iron  kettle, 
slowly  adding  boiled  linseed  oil,  5  gals. ;  litharge,  1  lb. ;  and  sulphato 
of  zinc,  i  lb.  ;  continuing  to  boil  for  3  hours  ;  then  add  dark  gum 
amber,  1^  lbs. ;  and  continue  to  boil  2  hours  longer.  "VYhen  cool,  re- 
duce to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  with  spirits  of 
turpentine 

To  Soften  Cast  Iron  For  Turning. — Steep  it  in  1  part  of  aqua- 
fortis to  4  of  water,  and  let  it  remain  in  24  hours. 

Cast  Iron  Ornaments  are  rendered  susceptible  of  being  finished 
■with  a  scraper,  where  they  cannot  be  reached  with  files,  after  having 
the  following  liquid  applied  to  them : 

Scaling  Cast  Iron. — Vitriol,  1  part;  water,  2  parts;  mix  and  lay 
on  the  diluted  vitriol  with  a  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  brush,  enough  to 
wet  the  surface  well;  after  8  or  10  hours,  wash  oft  with  water,  when 
the  hard,  scaly  surface  will  be  completely  removed. 

To  Break 'Up  Old  Cannon.— Old  cannon  and  massive  castings 
may  be  cut  in  two  by  a  continuous  stream  of  hot  molten  iron, 
which  wears  away  the  iron  as  a  stream  of  hot  water  Avould  eat 
into  a  mass  of  ice.  Or  tho  gun  may  bo  rolled  on  a  frame  to  the  mouth 


600       MACHINISTS,  KNGINEKIIS',  &C.,  KECKirXS. 

of  .1  f uniaco,  and  tlio  itiuzzIo  end  shoved  h\  as  far  as  possible  amon;j 
other  iron,  the  opening  tilled  up  arnd  luted  around  the  gun,  the  end 
of  wliich  is  melted  off.  At  the  next  charge  shove  it  iu  another  length, 
and  so  on  until  the  breech  is  disposed  of. 

Large  masses  of  cast  iron  may  bo  broken  up  by  drilling  a  hole  in  the 
tlie  most  solid  part,  filling  it  up  with  water,  fitting  a  steel  plug  very 
accurately  into  the  hole,  and  letting  the  drop  of  a  pile  driver  descend 
on  the  plug.  ^  *^ 

Amalg.vm  for  Mirrors.— 1.  Tin,  70  parts;  mercury,  30  parts;  2. 
(Fo?*  cw-ved  mirrors)  Tin,  80  parts  ;  mercury,  20  parts  ;  3.  Tin,  8.33 
parts  ;  lead,  8.34  parts  ;  bismuth,  8.33  parts  ;  mercury,  75  parts.  ^4. 
(For  spherical  Mirrors)  Bismuth,  80  parts  ;  mercury,  20  parts.  *" 

Reflector  Metal. — 1.  (Dvppler's)  Zinc,  20  parts;  silver,  80  parts; 
2.  Copper,  6G. 22  parts;  tin,  33.11  parts;  arsenic,  0.G7  parts.  3.  (Coop- 
er's.) Copper,  57.86  [parts  ;  tin,  27.28  parts  ;  zinc,  3.30  parts  ;  arsenic, 
1.65  parts  ;  platinum,  9.91  parts  ;  4.  Copper,  64  parts  ;  tin,  32.00 
parts  ;  arsenic,  4.00  parts.  5.  Copper,  82.18  parts  ;  lead,  9.22  parts  ; 
, antimony,  8.60  parts.  6.  (Little's)  Copper,  69.01  parts ;  tm,  30.82 
parts  ;  zinc,  2.44  parts  ;  arsenic,  1.83  parts. 

Metal  for  Gilt  Wares.— 1.  Copper,  78.47  parts;  tin,  2.87  parts; 
zinc,  17.23  parts  ;  lead,  1.43  parts.  2.  Copper,  64.43  parts  ;  tin,  0.25 
parts ;  zinc,  32,44  parts  ;  lead,  2.86  parts.  3.  Copper,  72.43  parts  ; 
tin,  1.87  parts  ;  zinc,  22.75  parts  ;  lead,  2.96  parts.  4.  Copper,  70.90 
parts  ;  tin,  2.00  parts  ;  zinc,  24.05  parts ;  lead,  3.05. 

Amalgam  for  Electrical  Machines.— 1.  Tin,  25  parts  ;  zinc, 
25  parts  ;  mercury,  50  parts.  2.  Tin,  11.11  parts  ;  zinc,  22.22  parts  ; 
mercury,  66.67  parts. 

Type  Metal. — 1.  For  smallest  and  most  brittle  types— Lead,  3 
parts  ;  antimony,  1  part.  2.  For  small,  hard,  brittle  types. — Lead,  4 
parts  ;  antimony,  1  part.  3.  For  types  of  medium  size. — Lead,  5 
parts  ;  antimony,  1  part.  4.  For  large  types. — Lead,  7  parts  ;  anti- 
mony, 1  part.  5.  For  largest  and  softest  types. — Lead,  7  parts  ;  anti- 
mony, 1  part.  Ill  addition  to  lead  and  antimony,  type  metal  also  con- 
tains 4  to  8  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  sometimes  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  copper. 
().  Stereotype  plates  are  made  of  lead,  20  parts  ;  antimony,  4  parts  ; 
tin,  1  j)ait.  7.  Another  do. — Lead,  25  parts  ;  antimony,  4  parts;  tin, 
1  part.  8.  Type  metal. — Lead,  4  parts ;  antimony,  2  parts.  9.  Tough 
type  metal. — Lead,  100  parts  ;  antimony,  33  parts  ;  tin,  8  parts.  < 

DowLAis  Iron  Works,  (England.)  iSirnaces. — ^Eight,  diameter  16 
to  18  feet,  1300  Tons  Forge  Iron  per  week  ;  discharging  44,000  cubiq 
feet  of  air  per  minute.  Engine,  (noncondensing,)  Cylinder,  55  ins.  in 
diam.  by  13  feet  stroke  of  piston.  Pressure  of  steam,  60  lbs  per  square 
inch,  cut  off  at  J  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Valves,  120  ins.  in  area. 
Boilers.  Eight,  (Cylindrical  flue,  internal  furnace,)  7  feet  in  diam. 
and  42  feet,  in  length ;  one  flue,  4  ft.  in  diam.  Grates,  288  square  feet, 
Fly  loheel.  Diam.  22  feet,  weight,  25  tons.  Blowing  Cylinder,  144 
ins.  diam.  by  12  ft.  stroke  of  piston.  Revolutions,  20  per  minute. 
Blast  3^  lbs.  per  square  inch,  Discharge  pipe,  diam.  5  ft.  and  420  feet 
in  length.    Valves,  Exhaust,  56  square  feet,  delivery,  16  square  feet. 

To  Enamel  Cast  Iron  and  Hollow  Ware.— 1.  Calcined  flints, 
6  parts  ;  Cornish  stone  or  composition,  two  parts  ;  litharge,  9  parts  ; 
borax,  0  parts  ;  argillaceous  earth,  1  part ;  nitre,  1  part  ;  calx  of  tin, 
C  parts ;  purified  potash,  1  part.   2.  Calcined  flints,  8  parts  ;  red 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  50* 

lead,  8  parts  ;  borax,  6  parts  ;  cabc  of  tin,  5  parts  ;  nitre,  1  part.  3 
blotters'  composition,  12  parts  ;  borax,  8  parts ;  white  lead,  30 
parts;  nitre,  2  parts;  ■white  marble,  calcined  1  part;  j)urified.  potash, 
'2  parts  ;  calx  of  tin,  5  parts.  4.  Calcined  flints,  4  parts  ;  potters' 
coinpositiou,  1  i^art ;  nitre,  2  parts  ;  borax,  8  parts  ;  white  marble, 
calcined,  1  part ;  argillaceous  eai-th,  ^  part ;  calx  of  tin;  2  parts. 
Whichever  of  the  above  compositions  is  taken  must  be  finely  pow- 
dered, mixed,  and  fused.  The  vitreous  mass  is  to  be  ground  when 
cold,  sifted,  and  levigated  with  water  ;  it  is  then  made  into  a  pap 
with  water,  or  gum  water.  The  pap  is  smeared  or  bruslied  over  tho 
interior  of  the  vessel,  dried,  and  fused  with  a  proper  heat  in  a  muffle. 
Clean  the  vessels  perfectly  before  applying. 

Russia  Sheet  Iron.— Russia  sheet  iron  is,  in  the  first  instance, 
a  very  pure  ailicle,  rendered  exceedingly  tough  and  flexible  by 
refining  and  annealing.  Its  bright,  glossy  surface  is  partiafly  a 
sUicate,  and  partially  an  oxide  of  iron,  and  is  produced  by  passmg 
the  hot  sheet,  moistened  with  a  solution  of  wood-ashes,  through 
polished  steel  rollers. 

Liquid  Black  Lead  Pousit. — Black  lead  pulverized  1  lb. ;  tur- 
pentine, 1  gill ;  water,  1  gill ;  sugar  1  oz. 

Copperas  Dip  for  Cast  Iron. — Dissolve  3  lbs.  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  add  2  fluid  ozs.  sulphuric  acid. 

Enahielled  Cast  Iron. — Clean  and  brighten  the  iron  beforo 
applying.  The  enamel  consists  of  two  coats— the  body  and  the  glaze. 
The  body  is  made  by  fusing  100  lbs.  ground  flints,  75  lbs.  of  borax, 
and  grinding  40  lbs.  of  this  frit  Avith  5  lbs.  of  potters'  clay,  in  water, 
till  it  is  brought  to  the  consistence  of  a  pap.  A  coat  of  this  being 
applied  and  dried,  but  not  hard,  the  glaze-powder  is  sifted  over  it. 
This  consists  of  100  lbs.  Coniish  stone  in  fine  powder,  117  lbs.  of 
borax,  35  lbs.  of  soda  ash,  35  lbs.  of  nitre,  35  lbs.  of  sifted  slacked 
lime,  13  lbs.  of  white  sand,  and  50  pomids  of  pounded  white  glass. 
TJiese  are  all  fused  together  ;  the  frit  obtained  is  pulverized.  01 
this  powder,  45  lbs.  are  mixed  with  1  lb.  soda  ash,  in  hot  water,  and 
the  mixture  being  dried  in  a  stove,  is  the  glaze  powder.  After  sifting 
this  over  the  body-coat,  the  cast-iron  article  is  put  into  a  stove,  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  about  212  °,  to  dry  it  hard,  after  which  it  is  set  in 
a  muffle-kiln,  to  fuse  it  into  a  glaze.  The  uiside  of  pipes  is  enamelled 
(after  being  cleaned)  by  pouring  tlxe  above  body  composition  through 
them  while  the  pipe  is  being  turned  around  to  insure  an  equal  coat- 
ing ;  after  the  body  has  become  set,  the  glaze  pai>  is  poured  in  in  liko 
maimer.    The  pipe  is  finally  fired  in  the  kihi. 

To  Enamel  Copper  and  Other  vessels. — ^Flint  glass,  6  parts  . 
borax,  3  parts  ;  red  lead,  1  part ;  oxide  of  tin,  1  part.  Mix  all  to- 
gether, frit,  grind  into  powder,  make  into  a  thin  paste  with  water,  ap- 
ply with  a  brush  to  the 'Surface  of  the  vessels,  after  scaling  by  heat 
and  cleaning  them,  repeat  with  a  second  or  even  a  third  coat,  after- 
Avards  dry,  and  lastly  fuse  on  by  heat  of  an  enamelled  kiln. 

Emery  Wheels  for  Polishing. — Coarse  emery  powder  is  mixed 
with  about  half  its  weight  of  pulverized  Stourbridge  loam,  and  a  little 
water  or  other  liquid  to  make  a  thick  paste  ;  this  is  pressed  into  a 
metallic  mould  by  means  of  a  screw-press,  and,  after  being  thoroughly 
dried,  is  baked  or  burned  in  a  muffle  at  a  temperature  above  a  red, 
and  below  a  white  heat.  Tliis  forms  an  artificial  emery  stone,  which 


502        MACHINISTS,  I'MGINEKUS',  &€.,  KPXJKirXS. 

cuts  -very  greedily,  with  very  littlo  wear  to  itself.  Unequalled  for 
grinding' aud  polishing  glass,  metals,  enamels,  stones,  &c. 

Moulding  Sand  fou  Casting  Brass  on  InoN.— The  various  kindi* 
of  good  moulding  sand  employed  in  foundries  for  casting  iron  or  brass, 
have  been  found  to  be  almost  uniform  chcmic:il  composition,  varying 
in  grain,  or  the  aggregate  form  only.  It  contains  between  93  and  IXi 
parts  silex,  or  grains  of  sand,  and  from  4  to  G  parts  clay,  and  a  littlo 
oxide  of  iron,  in  each  100  parts.  Moulding  sand  which  contciins  lime, 
magnesia,  manganese  and  other  oxides  of  metal,  is  not  applicable, 
particular  for  the  casting  of  iron  or  brass.  Such  sand  is  citlier  too 
close,  will  not  stand  or  retain  its  form,  or  it  will  acusc  the  metal  to 
boil  through  its  closeness. 

Refining  Fluxes,  fou  IMetals. — Deflagrate,  and  afterwards  pul- 
verize, 2  parts  of  nitro  and  1  part  of  tartar.  The  following  fluxes 
answer  very  well,  provided  the  ores  be  deprived  of  their  sulphur,  or 
if  they  contam  much  earthy  matter,  because,  in  the  latter  case,  tliey 
unite  with  them,  and  convert  them  into  a  thin  glass,  but,  if  any 
(quantity  of  sulphur  remains,  their  fluxes  unite  with  it,  and  form  .1 
liver  of  sulphur,  which  has  the  power  of  destroying  a  portion  of  all 
the  metals,  consequently  the  assay  must  be,  under  such  circumstances, 
very  inaccurate.  Limestone,  fieldspar,  fluorspar,  quartz,  sand-slate, 
and  slags,  are  all  used  as  fluxes.  Iron  ores,  on  account  of  the  argilla- 
ceous earth  they  contain,  require  calcareous  additions;  and  the  copper 
ores,  rather  slags,  or  nitrescent  stones,  than  calcareous  earth. 

Burning  Iron  Castings  together. — The  usual  mode  is  by  imbed- 
ding the  castings  in  the  sand,  having  a  little  space  left  vacant  round 
about  the  joint  where  it  is  to  be  burned.  Two  gates  must  then  bo 
provided,  one  lying  on  a  level  with  the  lower  side  of  this  space,  and 
the  other  raised  so  that  the  metal,  which  must  be  very  hot,  is  ixjured 
in  at  the  higher  one;  it  passes  round,  fills  up  the  space,  and  runs  olt 
at  the  lower  gate.   A  constant  supply  of  metal  is  thus  kept  up,  till  tho 

{)arts  of  the  casting  are  supposed  to  be  on  the  eve  of  melting.  Tho 
ower  gate  is  then  closed,  and  tho  supply  stopped.  When  cool,  and 
the  superfluous  metal  chipped  off,  it  forms  as  strong  a  joint  as  if  it 
had  been  original.  ' 

*  Cornish  Reducing  Flux.— Tartar  lOozs.,  nitre  3ozs,  and  Gdrs. 
borax,  3  oz.  and  1  dr.  Mix  together.  ' 

f-  Crucibles. — The  best  crucibles  are  made  from  pure  fire-clay,  mixed 
with  finely-ground  cement  of  old  crucibles,  and  a  portion  of  black-lead 
or  graphite;  some  pounded  coke  maybe  mixed  with  the  plumbago. 
The  clay  should  bo  prepared  in  a  similar  Avay  as  for  making  pottery- 
ware  ;  the  vessels,  after  being  formed  must  be  slowly  dried,  and  then 
lu'operly  baked  in  the  kiln.  . 

,  Black-lead  crucibles  are  made  of  2  parts  graphite,  and  1  of  fire- 
clay, mixed  with  water  into  a  paste,  pressed  in  moulds,  and  well  dried, 
but  not  baked  hard  in  the  kiln.  This  compound  forms  excellent 
small  or  portable  furnaces.  \  —  -  " 
!»»  MAI.LEABLE  Cast  Irou. — The  great  secret  of  this  sort  of  work  is 
the  annealing,  which  if  not  done  properly  the  castings  are  of  no  use 
at  all.  The  best  mode  is  to  take  an  iron  pan,  say  one  foot  square; 
])ut  in  a  layer  of  charcoal,  then  some  of  the  castings,  then  another 
layer.  .  When  the  pan  is  full  cover  it  over  with  some  sand,  to  keep  tho 
charcoal  from  burning  away.   Put  on  an  old  piece  of  iron  for  a  lid  to 


i 


MA-CmXISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  Il£CEirTS.  503 

cover  all,  put  it  in  the  annealing  furnace,  and  get  the  heat  up  quito 
slow  and  gradually,  taking  care  not  to  get  the  heat  up  too  quick. 
After  you  have  got  it  to  the  proper  heat,  which  is  this,  the  castings 
must  he  red  hot  through ;  keep  it  at  this  heat  for  5  or  6  hours,  then  let 
your  fire  die  gradually  out,  or,  if  you  want  to  take  some  out  and  put 
more  in,  take  them  to  a  comer  and  bury  them,  pan  and  all, — let  them 
lie  there  till  properly  cooled.  Kegardmg  the  melting,  procure  not 
less  than  two  good  sorts  of  No.  2  pig  iron,  which  you  may  mix  with. 
eoHxe  good  scrap  if  you  choose ;  the  casting,  melting,  and  moulding  are 
conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  common  cast-iron,  only  the  metal 
heing  hard,  when  casting,  you  have  to  make  properly  constructed 
runners  and  risers,  or  flow  gates,  if  the  article  is  likely  to  sink,  for 
you.  cannot  pump  it  well. 

Japanning  Castings. — Clean  them  well  from  the  sand,  then  dip 
them  in  or  paint  them  over  with  good  boiled  linseed  oil ;  when 
moderately  dry,  heat  tliem  in  an  oven  to  such  a  temperature  as  will 
turn  the  oil  blaclc,  without  burning.  The  stove  should  not  be  too  hot 
at  first,  and  the  heat  should  be  gradually  raised  to  avoid  blistering  ; 
the  sloAver  the  change  in  the  oil  is  effected  the  better  will  be  the 
result.  The  castings,  if  smooth  at  first,  will  receive  a  fine  black  and 
polished  surface  by  this  method. 

IIakdening  Axletrees  and  Boxes.— The  method  now  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  Murphy's  axletrees  is  to  use  wrought  iron  and 
"weld  two  pieces  of  steel  into  the  lower  side,  where  they  rest  upon  the 
wheels  and  sustain  the  load.  The  work  is  heated  in  an  open  forgo 
fire,  in  the  ordinary  way,  andwlien  it  is  removed,  a  mixture,  princi- 
pally prussiate  of  potash,  is  laid  upon  the  steel ;  the  axletree  is  then 
immediately  immersed  in  water,  and  additional  water  is  allowed  to 
fall  upon  it  from  a  cistern.  The  steel  is  considered  to  be  very  ma- 
terially hardened  by  the  treatment,  and  the  iron  around  the  same  is 
also  partially  hardened.  One  very  good  way  to  chill  axletree  boxes  is 
to  mould  from  wooden  patterns  on  sand,  and  cast  thenl  upon  an  iron 
core  which  has  the  effect  of  making  them  very  hard.  To  form  the 
annular  recess  for  oil,  a  ring  of  sand,  made  in  an  appropriate  core- 
box,  is  slipped  upon  the  iron  mandrill,  and  is  left  behind  when  the 
atter  is  driven  out  of  the  casting. 

Composite  Ikon  Railings.— Tlie  process  by  which  this  light,  ele- 
gant and  cheap  fabric  is  manufactured,  is  as  follows  : — ^Rods  and  bars 
of  wrought-irou  are  cut  to  the  lengths  desired  for  the  pattern,  and 
Bubjected  to  a  process  called  crimping,  by  which  they  are  bent  to  the 
desired  shape.  These  rods  are  then  laid  in  the  form  of  the  design, 
and  cast-iron  moulds  are  affixed  at  those  points  where  a  connection  is 
desired  ;  the  moulds  are  then  filled  with  melted  metal,  and  immedi- 
ately you  have  a  complete  railing  of  beautiful  design.  Casting  in 
iron  moulds  has  this  great  advantage  over  the  old  sand  moulding,  it 
does  not  require  any  time  for  cooling,  as  tlie  metal  is  no  sooner  run 
than  the  moulds  may  be  removed  and  used  again  immediately  on 
another  section  of  the  work  ;  and  besides,  it  is  so  much  more  easily 
effected.  By  the  combination  of  wrought  and  cast-iron  in  this  pro- 
cess, the  most  curious  and  complex  designs  may  be  j)roduced  with 
great  rapidity  and  cheapness. 

To  Galvanize  Cast  Iron  Through,— To  50  lbs.  melted  iron  add  1 
lb.  pulverized  pure  zinc.   Scatter  the  zinc  powder  well  over  the  ladle, 


504        JIACIITNISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEirTS. 

then  cntcli  iho  melted  iron,  stir  it  up  with  an  iron  rod  and  pour  at 
once. 

To  OBTAIN  Co:mmercial  Antimony. — Fuse  together  100  parts  sul- 
phurct  of  antimony,  40  parts  metiillic  iron,  and  10  parts  dry  crude 
Kul])hate  of  soda.  This  ])roduccs  from  (iO  to  G5  parts  of  antimony, 
hcsidcs  the  scoriai  or  ash  Avhicii  is  also  valuable.  Metallic  Antimom/. 
Mix  IG  parts  snlphurct  of  antimony  and  G  parts  cream  of  tarfcir.  botli 
ill  powder  ;  put  the  mbcture,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  into  a 
vessel  heated  to  redness  ;  wlicn  reaction  ceases,  fuse  the  mass  and 
after  15  minutes,  pour  it  out  and  separate  the  metal  from  the  slag. 
The  product  is  nearly  pure. 

Holes  in  Milestones  arc  filled  with  melted  alum,  mixing  burr 
Band  with  it.  If  the  hole  is  large,  put  some  pieces  of  burr  mill  stones 
in  itfirst,  and  pour  in  melted  alum.  These  pieces  of  block  should  be 
cut  exactly  to  fit.  There  should  be  small  joints,  and  fastened  witli 
plaster  of  Taris.  These  holes  should  bo  cut  at  least  4  inches  deep  ; 
there  is  then  no  danger  of  their  getting  loose. 

'  fiTTiNG  A  New  Back  on  an  Old  Millstone.— Block  your 
stone  up  with  a  bloclc  of  wood,  having  its  face  down  until  it  lies  even, 
Kolid,  and  perfectly  level  ;  then  pick  and  scrape  off  all  the  old  plaster 
doAvn  to  the  face  blocks,  so  that  none  remains  but  what  is  in  the  joints 
of  the  face  blocks  ;  then  wash  these  blocks,  and  keep  them  soaked 
with  water.  Keep  a  number  of  pieces  of  burr  blocks,  at  the  same 
time,  soaked  with  water.  Take  a  pail  half  filled  with  clean  water, 
and  mixed  with  2  tablespoonfuls  of  glue  water,  boiled  and  dissolved  ; 
mix  in  Avith  your  liand  plaster  of  Paris  until  it  be  thick  enough  that 
it  will  not  run  ;  and,  breaking  all  the  lumps,  pour  this  on  the  stone, 
rubbing  it  with  your  hand  ;  the  stone  being  at  the  same  time  damped  ; 
and  place  small  pieces  of  stone  all  over  the  joints  of  the  face  blocks  ; 
you  then,  with  more  plaster,  mixed  in  the  same  way  but  more  stiff, 
with  this  and  pieces  of  burr  stones,  build  waUs  romid  the  eye  and 
verge  4  or  5  inches  high,  leaving  the  surface  uneven  and  the  eyo 
larger,  as  it  will  be  brought  to  its  proper  size  by  the  last  operation. 
It  is  better  to  build  up  the  wall  of  the  running  stone  round  the  verge 
for  3  inches  without  any  spalls,  so  that  the  holes  may  be  cut  in  to 
balance  it.  If  you  wish  to  make  your  stone  heavier,  you  will  take 
small  pieces  of  iron,  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  grease,  and  lay 
them  evenly  all  around  the  stone  in  the  hollow  place  between  the 
two  walls  just  built ;  and,  with  i)laster  mixed  a  little  thicker  than 
milk,  pour  in  mider  and  through  all  the  crevices  in  the  iron  until  tho 
surface  is  nearly  level  with  the  t\\^o  walls.   If  the  stones  do  not  re- 

auire  additional  weight  added-,  instead  of  iron,  use  pieces  of  stono 
le  same  way,  leaving  the  surface  rough  and  uneven.  Again,  as 
before,  build  walls  round  the  verge  of  the  stone,  and  round  the  eye  of 
the  stone,  until  they  are  within  2  inches  of  the  thickness  you  want 
your  stones  to  be,  the  wall  round  the  eye  being  2  inches  higher  than 
that  round  the  verge,  and  fillmg  the  space  between  the  walls  with 
stones  ;  and  pourmg  in  plaster  again,  make  it  nearly  level  with  the 
AvaUs,  but  leaving  the  surface  rough,  and  jagged,  to  make  the  next 
plaster  adliere  Avell  to  it.  Let  it  stand  until  the  back  is  dry  and 
perfectly  set,  when  you  raise  the  stone  upon  its  ed^e,  and,  with  a 
trowel,  plaster  round  the  edge  of  the  stone  neatly,  giving  it  a  taper  of 
half  an  inch  from  the  face  to  the  back  of  tlio  Btoue.  Wlieu  cased 


pjAciiiNisTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEIPTS.  bOu 

ioaud  in  this  way,  lay  the  stone  down  on  the  cock-head  ;  it  being  in 
the  balance  rync,  but  the  driver  off,  then  raise  the  spindle,  and 
balance  the  stone  as  already  directed  before  putting  on  the  remainder 
of  the  back.  Then  have  a  tin  made  the  size  of  the  eye,  and  to  reach 
from  the  balance  ryne  to  the  thickness  you  want  the  stone  to  be  at  the 
eye.  This  tin  should  be  exactly  fitted  to  its  place,  and  made  fast ;  then  fit 
a  hoop  of  wood  or  iron  round  the  verge,  havuig  the  upper  edge  of  the 
thickness  from  the  face  you  want  the  stone  to  be  at  the  verge,  and  equal 
all  round.  This  hoop  should  be  greased;  and,  all  the  cracks  round  it, 
and  the  tin  in  the  eye,  being  stopped,  you  pour  thin  plaster  (with 
more  glue  water  than  in  previous  operations,  to  prevent  it  from  setting 
so  quickly,  and  to  give  time  to  finish  off  the  back  correctly)  until  it  bo 
level  with  the  hoop  round  the  verge,  and  with  a  straiglit  edge,  one 
cud  resting  on  the  hoop,  and  the  other  end  resting  on  the  tin  at  the 
eye ;  then,  by  moving  it  round,  and  working  the  plaster  witli 
a  trowel,  make  the  surface  of  the  back  even  and  smooth  between 
these  two  points.  The  hoop  is  then  taken  off,  and  the  back  and  edges 
planed  smooth  ;  then  lower  the  spindle  until  your  ruimer  lies  solid, 
and  i)ut  your  band  or  hoop  on,  it  being  first  made  nearly  red  hot,  and 
taking  care  that  it  is  of  sufficient  size  not  to  require  too  much  driving  ; 
if  fitting  too  tightly,  it  may  loosen  the  back  in  driving  it  to  its  proper 
place  ;  it  may  be  cooled  gently  by  pouring  water  on  it;  and,  when 
<.'Ool,  it  should  fit  tight. 

BAiiANCixa  A  Millstone. — First,  take  off  the  driver,  that  the 
stone  may  have  full  play  on  the  cock-head  ;  then  raise  the  spindle  so 
that  there  may  be  room  between  the  stone  to  see  the  balance.  Find  tho 
lieaviest  parts,  and  near  the  verge  lay  on  sufficient  weight  to  balance 
it.  Cut  a  hole  in  the  back  of  the  stone,  as  deep  as  you  can  make  it 
and  as  near  the  verge  as  possible  that  the  binding  iron  hoop  of  tho 
stone  may  keep  the  lead  in  its  place.  This  hole  should  be  wider  at 
the  bottom  than  the  top  in  order  to  retain  the  lead  when  the  stoue  is' 
in  motion,  and  into  this  the  melted  lead  should  be  poured  until  it 
brings  the  stone  completely  into  balance.  When  the  lead  is  cold, 
cover  over  with  mixed  plaster,  even  with  the  back  of  the  stone. 

CoaiPOSiTiox  TO  Keep  Millstones  Clean.— Hot  water,  1  gal ; 
borax,  2  oz  ;  washing  soda,  ^  lb.  and  3  balls  of  the  size  of  a  hazel 
nut  each,  of  sal  prunel.  Mix  and  .apply  it  to  the  burrs  with  a 
scrubbing  brush.  When  grinding  garlic  wheat  it  is  not  necessary  to 
take  ui>  the  burrs  at  all.  It  is  sufficient  ,  to  drop  through  the  eye  of 
tho  burr  twice  per  day  one  of  the  above  described  balls  of  sal  prunel, 
and  that  will  keep  the  burrs  sharp  and  clean,  enabling  the  miller  at 
all  seasons  to  use  the  No.  13  bolt,  to  make  finer  fiour  and  in  greater 
quantity  than  usual. 

Mill  Dams. — AVhen 'building  a  dam,  you  should  select  the  most 
suitable  place.  If  you  can,  place  it  across  the  stream  near  a  rocky 
bluff  so  that  the  end  of  the  dam  may  run  into  the  bluff.  This 
Avill  prevent  the  water  running  by  at  the  ends  of  the  dam.  Build 
your  dam  very  strong  ;  if  this  is  not  done,  they  are  breaking  up 
often,  causing  ruinous  expense  in  money  and  loss  of  time. 

FloujB  Mill  Machinery.— For  each  pair  of  4  feet  stones,  witli  all 
the  necessary  diessuig  machinery,  etc.,  there  is  required  15  horses' 
i>owei.  Stones,  4  ft.  diam.,  120  to  140  revolutions  per  minute. 
Bremmo  Machines,  21  ins.  diam.,  450  to  500  revolutions  per  minute. 


506     jiAciiiNisTs,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

Elevator,  18  ins.  diam.,  40  revolutions  per  minnte.  Creepers,  ?>\  in?! 
pitch,  75  rovolutiona  per  minute.  Screen,  16  ins.  diam.,  300  to  350 
revolutions  per  minute.  788  cubic  feet  o£  water,  discharged  at  a 
velocity  of  1  foot  per  second,  are  necessary  to  grind  and  dress  a  bushel 
of  wheat  per  hour=1.40  horses'  power  per  bushel.  2000  feet  per 
minute  for  the  velocity  of  a  stono  4  feet  in  diam.  may  bo  considered  a 
maximum  speed. 

liocK  Dams  are  incomparably  the  best  in  use,  if  there  is  plenty  of 
material  at  hand  for  building,  and  a  rock  bottom  to  the  stream;  if 
there  is  not  a  roclc  bottom  you  should  dig  a  trench  in  the  bottom,  deep 
enough,  so  that  the  water  cannot  undermine  it.  This  should  bo  tho 
same  as  if  you  Avero  building  tho  fomidation  of  a  large  builduig.  Tho 
Avail  to  be  built  should  be  of  a  small  circular  form,  so  that  tho  back  of 
the  circle  should  bo  next  to  tho  body  of  water,  Avhich  may  by  its 
pressure  tighten  it.  To  secure  tho  Avater  from  leaking  through  at  tho 
ends  of  the  dam,  dig  a  ditch  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  river  ;  then 
fdl  this  Avith  small  pieces  of  rock,  and  pour  in  cement.  This  cement 
i.H  made  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  is  made  of  ono  part  of  cement  to 
five  parts  of  pure  sand.  It  Avill  effectually  stop  all  crevices.  A  rock 
dam  if  Avell  built  Avill  be  perfectly  tight.  Use  as  you  conveniently  can 
move  ;  building  this  Avail  4  to  G  feet  thick,  according  to  the  length  of 
tlie  dam,  with  jam  or  buttressess  every  place  where  they  are  needed 
to  strengthen  it;  make  true  jomts  to  these  rocks,  especially  on  the  ends 
so  that  they  may  join  close  together.  When  you  have  the  outside  Avails 
laid  in  cement  for  every  layer  fill  the  middle  up  with  pieces  of  small 
rock,  pouring  in  your  grout,  so  that  there  may  not  be  a  crevice  but 
Avhat  is  fiUed.  If  there  is  any  crevice  or  hole  left  open,  tho  water  will 
breakthrough,  AA^earing  it  larger  and  larger.  If  the  stream  is  A\dde  and 
large,  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  dam  in  two  sections,  which  should 
be  dividectbya  wasteway,  necessary  for  the  waste,  or  surplus  water, 
to  rim  over,  to  keep  the  head  in  its  proper  place  or  height.  Let  each 
section,  next  to  Avhere  the  Avater  is  to  be  run  over,  be  abutments,  built 
to  strengthen  the  dam.  The  last  layer  of  rock,  on  the  top  where  tho 
waste  wa?  er  runs  over,  should  project  5  or  6  inches  over  the  back  of 
the  dam  iso  that  the  water  may  not  imdermine  it.  This  last  layer 
should  bb  of  large  rocks  and  jointed  true ;  then  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement,  in  proportion  of  1  of  cement  to  3  of  sand.  When  the  dam  is 
guilt,  the  front  should  be  filled  up  with  coarse  gravel  or  clay  ;  this  is 
best  dono  Avith  teams,  for  the  more  it  is  tramped  the  more  durable  it 
becomes. 

Frame-Dams. — ^In  building  a  frame  dam,  commence  with  a  good 
foundation,  laying  the  first  sills  in  the  bottom,  of  sufficient  depth. 
They  should  be  large  square  timbers  that  will  last  in  the  water  with- 
out rotting.  Where  there  is  a  soft  foundation,  the  bottom  should  first 
be  made  level ;  then  dig  trenches  for  the  mudsills,  about  7  or  8  feet 
apart,  lengthways  of  the  stream,  and  10  or  13  feet  long.  Into  theso 
first  sills  other  sills  must  be  framed,  and  put  crosswise  of  the  stream, 
6  or  8  feet  apart,  to  reach  as  far  across  the  stream  as  necessary.  Then 
two  outside  sills  should  be  piled  down  with  2-inch  plank  driven  doAvn 
to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet.  If  this  can  be  done  conveniently,  they  are  to 
be  jointed  as  closely  as  possible.  It  would  be  better  to  line  Avith  somo 
stuff  1  inch  thick  j  then  with  posts  their  proper  length,  about  12  or  14 
.inches  square,  AA'hich  should  be  framed  into  the  uppermost  sill,  in  both 


MACHINISTS,  EXGINEErwS',  &C.,  EECEirTS.  507 

Bides,  nud  all  the  -R-ay  across  the  dam,  from  bank  to  bank,  at  a  distance 
of  6  feet  apart.  Then,  witli  braces  to  each  post,  to  extend  two-thirds 
of  the  length  of  the  post,  where  thc^'  should  be  joined  together  with  a 
lock,  instead  of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  with  an  iron  bolt  1  or  1^  inches 
in  diameter,  going  through  both,  and  tightened  with  a  screw  and  nut. 
When  mortises  and  tenons  arc  used,  they  often  become  rotten  and 
useless  in  a  few  years.  These  braces  should  be  set  at  an  angle  of  50 
or  60°  with  the  other  end  mortised  into  the  mud  sill.  These  braces  re- 
quire to  be  sbout  0  to  8  inches,  and  as  long  as  you  find  necessary  ;  be- 
ing covered  with  dirt  it  will  not  decay  for  a  long  time,  as  the  air  ia 
excluded.  These  posts  should  be  capped  from  one  to  the  other,  plate 
fashion.  The  posts  should  be  lined  with  2  or  2|  inch  plank  on  the  m- 
side,  pinned  to  the  plank,  and  should,  in  the  middle,  be  filled  in  with 
dirt.  v  " 

_  If  the  stream  is  large  and  wide,  the  dam  should  be  built  in  two  sec- 
tions, which  should  be  divided  by  a  waste-way  for  the  surplus  water, 
which  should  be  in  the  centre  of  the  dam,  and  sufficient  for  all  the 
•waste-water  to  run  over.  Let  each  section  of  the  dam  form  an  abut- 
ment next  to  the  waste-way,  placing  cells  or  sills  4  feet  apart  the 
length  of  the  waste-way  ;  in  each  of  these  sills,  posts  should  be  framed 
with  a  brace  for  the  sides.  These  rows  of  posts,  standing  <»  cross  the 
dam,  will  form  the  sectional  abutments  ;  the  middle  one  may  be  con- 
structed by  being  lengthways  of  the  stream,  with  short  braces,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  drift-wood  passing  down  the  stream  ; 
it  being  necessary  for  strong  pieces  for  a  bridge.  Then  cover  the  sills 
with  an  apron  of  2-inch  plank  joined  perfectly  straigiit,  to  extend  30 
or  40  feet  below  the  dam,  to  prevent  imdermining  of  the  dam.  The 
planji:s  wwich  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  lining  the  posts  which 
form  the  abutsnents  of  each  section  of  the  dam,  and  the  ends  of  the 
waste-way,  should  be  truly  pointed,  so  as  to  prevent  any  leakage. 
The  dam  hemg  built,  the  dirt  should  be  filled  in  with  teams,  as  the 
more  it  is  tramped  the  better.  Clay  or  coarse  gravel  is  the  best. 
Then  place  your  gates  on  the  upper  side  of  the  waste-way,  the  size 
that  is  necessary  to  a  level  with  low- water  mark  ;  which  gales  are  not 
to  be  raised  except  in  times  of  high  water,  as  the  proper  height  of  the 
mill-pond  should  be  regulated  by  boards  placed  over  the  gate  for  the 
desired  head,  as  the  water  should  be  allowed  pass  at  all  times  freely 
over  them.  To  strengthen  the  dam,  if  you  think  necessary,  2-inch 
plank  may  be  used  in  lining  the  front  side  of  the  dam,  long  enough  to 
reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  stream  (on  an  inclined  plane,  and  next 
to  the  body  of  water  to  the  top  of  the  dam,  and  filled  up  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  dam  with  clay  or  gravel  well  trampled  down. 

Brush  or  Log  Dams  are  very  often  used  in  small,  muddy  streams 
When  the  bottom  of  the.  stream  is  of  a  soft  nature,  take  a  flat  boat 
where  you  want  to  fix  your  dam,  and  drive  pUes  the  whole  length  of  the 
stream,  about  3  or  4  feet  apart,  as  deep  as  you  can;  Take  young  oak 
saplings  pointed  at  the  end,  for  the  purpose.  If  you  can,  construct  a 
regular  pile-driver,  similar  to  those  in  use  for  making  trestle-work  on 
the  railways.  This  weight  may  be  pulled  up  by  horses  instead  of  an 
engine.  When  you  have  finished  driving  piles,  make  some  boxes  or 
troughs  of  2  or  3  inch  plank,  about  3  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  the 
plank  is.  Sink  these  in  the  water  the  length  of  the  dam,  close  to  the 
piles,  by  loading  them  with  rock,  xmtil  they  are  at  the  bottom  of  tlio 


508        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  r.ECEirTS. 

Btrcam,  fillinpf  in  tho  front  part  of  the  dam  -with  dirt  and  brush,  nearly 
to  tho  lici','lit  you  waut  it.    This  kind  of  a  dam  will  last  a  long  liino. 

Whenever  there  is  a  small  break  in  tho  dam  or  race,  cut  up  sonio 
wilIo>vs  and  brush,  put  them  in  the  break  along  with  some  straw  and 
dirt,  and  ram  them  down  Avith  clay. 

lu  regard  to  the  flume,  the  greatest  care  must  bo  taken  to  insure 
strength  and  durability  combined  with  tightness.  Kvcry  step  tjikeu 
in  its  construction  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  unite  tliese  qualiticjj 
in  the  highest  possible  degree,  otherwise  tho  whole  is,  in  a  manner, 
labor  lost. 

Bkonzing  Co5lTOSITl0^^s,  32  Kinds.  —1.  Silver  ichile  Bronzing  Pow- 
der.— Melt  together  loz.  each,  bismuth  and  tin,  then  add  1  oz.  quick- 
Kilver,  cool  and  powder.  2.  Gold  colored  Bronze.  Powder. — Verdigris, 
8ozs. ;  tutty  powder,  4  ozs. ;  borax  and  nitre,  of  each  2  ozs. ;  bichlorido 
of  mercury,  |  oz. ;  make  into  a  paste  with  oil  and  fuse  them  together. 
Used  in  japaimiug  as  a  gold  color.  3.  BcautifuL  Red  Bronze  Powder. 
\ — Sulphate  of  copper,  100  parts;  carbonate  of  soda,  GO  parts;  ai>ply 
lieat  until  they  unite  into  a  mass.  4.  Acid  Bronze. — Cobalt,  4  lbs. ; 
pulverize;  silt  through  a  fine  sieve;  put  in  a  stone  pot;  add  ^  gal. 
nitric  acid,  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  frequently  for  24  hours;  then  add 
about,  5  gals,  muriatic  acid,  or  until  the  work  comes  out  a  dark  brown. 
5.  Alkali  Bronze. — Dissolve  5  lbs.  nitrate  of  copper  in  3  gals,  of  water; 
and  6  lbs.  pearlash ;  add  1  or  2  pts.  potash  water;  then  add  from  2  to  3 
lbs.  sal  ammoniac  or  xintil  the  work  comes  out  the  required  color.  6. 
Coatinr/  Dip. — Suljihate  of  zinc,  8  lbs. ;  oil  of  vitriol,  5  gals. :  aquafor- 
tis, 'i  gal.  To  use,  warm  up  scalding  hot.  7.  Quick  Bright  JJipping  Acid, 
for  Brass  xchichhas  been  Ormohied. — Sulphuric  acid,  igal. ;  nitric  acid, 
Igal.  8.  Dipping  Acid. — Sulphuric  acid,  12  lbs. ;  nitric  acid,  Ipt. ;  nitre, 
4lbs. ;  soot,  2  liandfuls;  brimstone,  2  ozs.;  pulverize  the  brimstono 
and  soak  it  in  water  1  hour,  add  the  nitric  acid  last.  9.  Good  Dip- 
ping Acid  for  cast  Brass. — Sulphuric  acid,  1  qt. ;  nitre,  1  qt. ;  a  littlo 
muriatic  acid  may  be  added  or  omitted.  10,  Ormolu  Dipping  Acid 
for  Sheet  Brass. — Sulphuric  acid,  2  gals. ;  nitric  acid,  1  pt. ;  niuriatie 
acid,  1  pt;  nitre,  121bs.  ;put  in  the  muriatic  acid  last,  a  little  at  a  time, 
and  stirring  the  mixture  with  a  stick.  11.  Dipping  Acid. — Sulphuric 
acid,  4  gals. ;  nitric  acid,  2  gals. ;  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
1  pt. ;  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  1  qt  12.  Ormolu  Dipping  Acid 
for  cast  Brass. — Sulphuric  acid,  Igal.;  sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  sulphur  (in 
Hour)  1  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  saturated  solution  of  zinc  iJi  nitric 
acid,  1  gal. ;  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  13. 
Vinegar  Bronze  for  Brass. — Vinegar,  10  gals.;  blue  vitriol,  3  lbs.; 
muriatic  acid  3  lbs. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  4  ozs. ;  sal  ammoniac,  2  lbs. ; 
alum,  8  ozs.  14.  Antique  Bronze  Paint. — Sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  cream 
of  tartar,  3  ozs. ;  common  salt,  G  ozs. ;  dissolve  in  1  pt.  hot  water;  then 
add  nitrate  of  co])per,  2  ozs.;  dissolve  in  ^  pt  water;  mix  well  and 
apply  it  to  the  article  in  a  damp  place  with  a  brush.  15.  Bhie  Bronze 
on  Copper. — Clean  and  polish  well,  then  cover  the  surface  with  a  fluid 
obtained  by  dissolving  vermillion  in  a  warm  solution  of  sodium,  to 
which  some  caustic  potasli  has  been  added.  IG.  Bronze  Dip. — Sal 
ammoniac  1  oz. ;  salt  of  sorrel,  (binoxolate  of  potash)  ^  oz. ;  dissolved 
in  vinegar.  17.  Parisian  Bronze  Dip. — Sal  ammoniac,  ^  oz. ;  common 
salt,  ^  oz. ;  spirits  of  hartshorn,  1  oz. ;  dissolved  in  an  English  qt.  of 
vinegar,  a  good  result  'W'ill  bo  obtained  by  adding  ^  oz.  sal  ammoniac 


MACHINISTS,  EXGINEEKS',  liECEirXS.  509 

instead  of  spts.  of  hartshorn;  the  piece  of  metal  being  well  clear .ed 
is  to  be  rubbed  with  one  of  these  solutions,  then  dried  by  friction  witli 
a  fresh  brush.  18.  Green  Dip. — Wine  vinegar,  2  qts. ;  verditer  green, 
2  ozs.;  sal  ammoniac  1  oz. ;  salt,  2  ozs. ;  alum,  ^  oz. ;  Frencli  berries, 
8  ozs. ;  boil  the  ingredients  together.  19.  Aqua  foriis  Dip. — Nitric  acid, 
8  ozs. ;  muriatic  acid,  1  qt. ;  sal  ammoniac,  2  ozs. ;  alum,  1  oz. ;  salt, 
2  ozs.  20.  Olive  Bronze  Dip  for  Brass. — Nitric  acid,  3  ozs. ;  muriatic 
acid,  2  ozs. ;  add  titanium  or  palladium,  when  the  metal  is  dissolved 
add  2  gals,  pure  soft  water  to  each  pt.  of  the  solution.  21.  Brown 
Bronze  Paint  for  Copper  Vessels. — Tinct.  of  steel,  4  ozs. ;  spts.  of  nitro 

4  ozs. ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  water,  ^  pt. ;  mix  in  a  bottle,  apply  it  with 
a  fine  brush,  the  vessel  being  full  of  boilmg  water.  Varnish  after  the 
apphcation  of  the  bronze.  22.  Bronze  for  all  kinds  of  Metal. — Muriate 
of  ammonia,  (sal  ammoniac)  4  drs. ;  oxalic  acid,  1  dr.;  vinegar,  1  pt; 
dissolve  the  oxalic  acid  first;  let  tlie  work  be  clean,  put  on  the  bronze 
with  a  brush,  repeating  the  operation  as  many  times  as  may  bo 
necessary.  23.  Green  Bronze. — Dissolve  2  ozs.  nitrate  of  iron,  and  2 
ozs.  liyposulphate  of  soda  in  1  pt.  of  water;  immerse  the  article  untU 
the  required  shade  is  obtained,  as  almost  any  shade  from  brown  to 
red  can  be  obtained  according  to  the  time  of  immersion,  then  well 
wash  with  water,  dry  and  brush.  24.  Pale  Deep  Olive  Green 
Bronze. — Perchloride  of  iron,  1  part ;  water,  2  parts.  Mix  and  immerse 
tiie  brass.  25.  Dark  Green.— Saturate  nitric  acid  with  copper  and  im- 
merse the  brass.  26.  Dead  Black  for  Brass  Work.— Rub  the  surface 
first  with  tripoli,  then  wash  it  with  a  solution  of  1  part,  neutral  nitrate 
of  tin,  with  2  parts,  chloride  of  gold,  after  10  minutes  wipe  it  off  with 
a  wet  cloth.  27.  Best  Bronze  for  Brass. — Take  1  lb.  of  nitric  acid,  and 
^  lb.  of  white  arsenic,  put  them  into  an  earthen  vessel  and  then  proceed 
in  the  usual  manner.  28.  Another  Bronze  for  Br  a^s. — 1  oz.  muriate 
of  ammonia,  \  oz.  alum,  ^  oz.  arsenic,  dissolve  together  in  1  pt.  of 
strong  vinegar.  29.  Black  Dip  for  Brass. — Hydrochloric  acid  (com- 
monly called  smoking  salts,)  12  lbs.;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  lb.;  and  pure 
Avhite  arsenic  1  lb.  This  dip  is  used  in  all  the  large  factories  in 
lUrraingham,  but  the  dip  used  in  the  London  trade  is  2  ozs.  corrosive 
sublimate,  ui  1  pt,  of  the  best  vinegar,  cork  both  air  tight  in  a  bottle, 
let  it  stand  24  hours;  then  it  is  fit  for  use.  30,  Quick  Bright  Dip  for 
Brass. — Use  strong  nitric  acid  in  sufficient  quantity,  dip  your  brass  in 
the  liquid  for  an  instant,  withdraw,  and  immediately  immerse  it  first 
in  cold  water,  then  in  boiling  water,  for  a  short  time  only  in  each 
bath,  then  allow  it  to  dry,  rei)eat  the  process  if  necessary.  31,  Ap- 
plication of  Bronze  Powder. — The  proper  way  is  to  varnish  the  article 
and  then  dust  the  bronze  powder  over  it  after  the  varnish  is  partly 
dry.  32.  Black  color  for  Brass  Work. — Make  a  strong  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  in  one  dish  and  nitrate  of  copper,  in  another.  Mix 
the  two  together  and  plimge  in  the  brass.  Now  heat  the  brass  evenly 
till  the  required  degree  of  blaclmess  is  acquired.  Unrivalled  as  a 
beautiful  color  on  optical  insruments. 

Graham's  QcncK  Bronzing  Liquids.— l^'or  immediate  action  on 
Copper,  Brass,  or  Zinc. — 1.  Brown  or  Dark  Bronze  for  Copper, 
Brass,  or  Zinc. — ^Dissolve  5  drachms  nitrate  of  iron  inl  pt.  water;  or, 

5  drs.  perchloride  of  iron  in  1  pt.  water.  A  black  may  also  be  ob- 
tained from  10  0Z8.  muriate  of  arsenic  in  2  pts.  permuriate  of  iron, 
and  1  pt.  water.   2.  Brown  or  Bed  Bronzing  for  JSrass.— Dissolve  10 


510      MACHINISTS,  i:ngini:krs',  &c.,  iii:ci:ii*tj. 

drs.  nitrate  of  iron,  and  IG  dm.  liypofiulph.tto  of  goda,  in  1  pt.  water, 
or,  1  dr.  nitric  acid  may  l)c  substituted  for  the  nitrate  of  iron. 
Jted  Brown  Bronzincj  for  Brass. — Dissolve  1  oz.  nitrate  of  copper,  and 
1  oz.  oxalic  acid  in  1  pt.  water,  brought  to  the  boil  and  then  cooled. 
4.  Dark  Brown  Bronzinr/for  Brass. — Mix  1  oz.  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  4  drs.  nitric  acid,  with  1  pt.  water,  5.  lied  Bronzing  for  Brass. 
Mix  30grs.  tersulphatc  of  arsenic,  G  drs.  solution  of  pearlash,  and  1 
pt.  water.  G.  Oranrje  Bronzim/  on  Brass. — Mix  1  dr.  potash  solu- 
tion of  sulphur  witli  1  pt.  water.  7.  Olive  Green  Bronze  for  Brass. — 
Dissolve  1  pt.  permuriate  of  iron  in  2  pts.  water.  8.  Slate-colt>red 
Bronzing  for  Brass. — Dissolve  2  drs.  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  and 
5  drs.  perchloride  of  iron,  in  1  pt.  Avater.  9,  Steel  Grey  Bronzing  for 
Brass. — Mix  1  oz.  muriate  of  arsenic  Avith  1  pt.  water,  and  use  at  a 
heat  not  less  than  180°  Fahr.  10.  Bright  Red  Bronzing  for  Copper. 
Mix  2  drs.  sulphide  of  antimony,  and  1  oz.  pearlash  in  1  pt.  water. 
11.  Bark  Bed  Bronze  for  Copper. — Dissolve  1  dr.  sulphur  and  1  oz. 
'pearlash  in  1  pt.  water.  12.  Copper  Colored  Bronzing  for  Zinc.  Agi- 
tate the  articles  in  a  solution  of  8  drs.  sulphate  of  copper,  and  8  drs. 
liyposulphate  of  soda  in  1  pt.  water.  ■ 

Copper  Plates  or  Rods  may  be  covered  with  a  superficial  coat- 
ing of  brass  by  exposing  to  the  fumes  given  off  by  melted  zinc  at  a 
licht  temperature.  The  coated  plates  or  rods  can  then  bo  rolled  into 
thin  sheets,  or  drawn  into  wire. 

Solution  of  Copper  or  Zinc— Dissolve  8  ozs.  (Troy)  cyanide  of 
potassium,  and  3  ozs.  cyanide  of  copper  or  zinc,  in  1  gal.  of  rain 
water.  To  be  used  at  about  1G0°  F.,  with  a  compoimd  battery  of  3 
to  12  cells. 

Brass  Solution,— Dissolve  1  lb.  (Troy)  cyanide  of  potassium,  2 
ozs.  cyanide  of  copper,  and  1  oz.  cyanide  of  zinc,  in  1  gal.  of  rain- 
water ;  then  add  2  ozs.  of  muriate  of  ammonia.  To  be  used  at  100° 
F.,  for  smooth  work,  with  a  compound  battery  of  from  3  to  12 
cells, 

Brassing  Iron, — ^Iron  ornaments  are  covered  with  copper  or  brass, 
by  properly  preparing  the  surface  so  as  to  remove  all  organic  matter 
which  would  prevent  adhesion,  and  then  plun^mg  them  into  melted 
brass.  A  thin  coating  is  thus  spread  over  the  iron,  and  it  admits  of 
bemg  polished  or  burnished. 

Ormolu  Coloring,  Lacquers,  &c, — 18  kinds, — Ormolu  Color- 
ing.— 1.  Alum,  30  parts ;  nitrate  of  potassa,  30  parts ;  red  ochre,  30 
pails;  sulphate  of  zinc,  8  parts;  common  salt,  1  part;  sulphate  of  iron, 
1  part.  It  is  applied  with  a  soft  brush.  The  articles  are  placed  over 
a  clear  charcoal  fire  until  the  salts,  melted  and  dried,  assume  a 
hrown  aspect.  They  are  then  suddenly  cooled  in  nitric  acid  water, 
containing  3  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid,  afterwards,  washed  in 
abundance  of  water  and  dried  in  sawdust,  2.  To  Prepare  Brass 
Work  for  Ormolu  Dipping. — ^If  the  work  is  oily,  boil  itmley,  andif  itis 
finished  work,  filed  or  turned,  dip  it  in  old  acid,  and  it  is  then  ready 
to  be  ormolued,  but  if  it  is  unfinished  and  free  from  oil,  pickle  it  in 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  dip  in  pure  nitric  acid,  and  then  in  the  old  acid, 
after  which  it  will  be  ready  for  ormoluin^.  3.  To  Repair  Old  Nitric 
Acid  Ormolu  Dips.— It  the  work  after  dipping  appears  coarse  and 
spotted,  add  vitriol  till  it  answers  the  purpose :  if  the  work  after  dip- 
ping appears  too  smooth,  add  muriatic  acid  and  nitre  till  it  gives  the 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  RECEIPTS.  511 

right  appearance.  The  other  ormolu  dips  should  be  repaired  accord- 
ing to  the  receipts,  putting  in  the  proper  ingredients  to  streuglheii 
them.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  settle,  but  should  be  stirred 
often  while  using.  4.  Directions  for  making  Lacquer. — Mix  the  in- 
gredients, and  let  the  vessel  containing  them  stand  in  the  sun,  or  in 
a  place  slightly  warmed,  3  or  4  days,  shaking  it  frequently  till  gum  is 
dissolved,  after  which  let  it  settle  from  24  to  48  hours,  when  the  clear 
liquor  may  be  poured  off  for  use.  Pulverized  glass  is  sometimes  used 
in  maldug  lacquer  to  carry  down  the  impurities.  5.  Lacquer  for  Dip- 
ped Brass.— AXcohol,  (95  per  cent. )  2  gals. ;  seed  lac,  1  lb. ;  gum  copal< 

1  oz. ;  English  saffron,  1  oz. ;  anuatto,  1  oz.  6.  Lacquer  for  Bronzed 
Brass. — To  1  pt.  of  the  above  lacquer  add  gamboge,  1  oz.,  and,  after 
mixing  it,  add  an  equal  quantity  of  the  first  lacquer.  7.  Deep  Gold 
Colored  Lacque7\— Best  alcohol,  4  ozs. ;  Spanish  annatto,  8  ozs. ;  tur- 
meric, 2  drs. ;  shellac,  h  oz. ;  red  sanders,  12  grs. ;  wlieu  dissolved,  add 
spts.  of  turpentine,  30  drops.  8.  Deep  Gold  Colored  Lacquer  for  Brass 
iiot  Dipped. — Alcohol,  4  gals. ;  turmeric,  3  lbs. ;  gamboge,  3  ozs. ;  gum 
pandarac,  7  lbs. ;  shellac,  1^  lbs. ;  turpentine  varnish,  1  pt.  9.  Gold 
Colored  Lacquer,  for  Dipped  Brass. — Alcohol,  36  ozs. ;  seed  lac,  6  ozs. ; 
amber,  2  ozs. ;  gum  gutta,  2  ozs. ;  red  sandal  wood,  24  grs. ;  dragon's 
blood,60  grs. ;  oriental  saffron,  3G  grs. ;  pulverized  glass,  4  ozs.  10. 
Gold  Lacquer,  for  Brass. — Seed  lac,  G  ozs. ;  amber  or  copal,  2  ozs. ;  best 
alcohol,  4  gals. ;  pulverized  glass  4  ozs. ;  dragon's  blood,  40  grs. ;  ex- 
tract of  red  sandal  wood  obtained  by  Avater,  30  grs.  11.  Lacquer,  for 
Dipped  Brass. — Alcohol,  12  gals, ;  seed  lac,  8  lbs. ;  turmeric,  1  lb.  to  a 
gal.  of  the  above  mixture;  Spanish  saffron,  4  ozs.  The  saffron  is  to 
be  added  for  bronzed  work.  12.  Good  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  8  ozs. ; 
gamboge,  1  oz. ;  shellac,  3  ozs. ;  annatto,  1  oz. ;  solution  of  3  ozs.  of 
seed  lac  in  1  pt.  alcohol.  When  dissolved,  add  ^  oz.  Venice  turpen- 
tine, i  oz.  dragon's  blood,  will  make  it  dark.  Keep  it  in  a  warm 
place  4  or  5  days.  13.  Pale  Lacquer,  for  Tin  Plate. — Best  alcohol,  8 
ozs. ;  turmeric,  4  drs. ;  hay  saffron,  2  scrs. ;  dragon's  blood,  4  scrs. ;  red 
sanders,  1  scr. ;  shellac,  1  oz. ;  gum  sandarac,  2  drs. ;  gum  mastic,  2 
drs.,  Canada  balsam,  2  drs.;  when  dissolved,  add  spts.  turoentine, 
80  drops.  14.  Eed  Lacquer  for  Brass. — Alcohol,  8  gals. ;  dragon's 
blood,  4  lbs. ;  Spanish  annatto.  12  lbs. ;  gum  sandarac,  13  lbs. ;  tur- 
pentine, 1  gal.  15.  Pale  Lacquer,  for  Brass. — Alcohol,  2  gals. ;  capo 
aloes,  cut  small,  3  ozs. ;  pale  shellac,  1  lb. ;  gamboge,  1  oz.  16.  Best 
Lacquer,  for  Brass.— Alcohol,  4  gals. ;  shellac,  2  lbs. ;  amber  gum,  1 
lb.  ;  copal,  20  ozs. ;  seed  lac,  3  lbs. ;  saffron  to  color ;  pulverized 
glass,  8  ozs.  17.  Color  for  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  1  qt. ;  annatto,  4 
ozs.   18.  Gilder's  Pickle. — Alum  and  common  salt,  each,  1  oz. ;  nitre 

2  oz. ;  dissolved  in  water,  ^  pt.  Used  to  impart  a  rich  yeUow  color  to 
gold  surfaces.  It  is  best  hixgely  diluted  with  water. 

To  Reduce  Oxide  of  Zinc. — The  oxide  may  be  put  in  quantities 
of  500  or  600  lbs.  weight  into  a  large  pot  over  the  fire;  pour  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  muriatic  acid  over  the  top,  to  act  as  a  flux,  and  tlio 
action  of  the  fire  will  melt  the  dross,  when  the  imre  metal  will  bo 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 

To  Sep  ABATE  Tin  from  Lead.— If  the  lead  and  tin  are  in  solu- 
tion, precipitate  the  former  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  latter  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas.  In  an  alloy  the  lead  Avill  dissolve  in  nitrio 
acid,  leaving  the  tiu  as  an  oxide. 


512        MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


To  FuosT  AND  Cloud  Smali-  Brahs-wokk.— Scour  the  brass 
thoroughly  Avith  strong  ley,  and  hold  the  work  against  a  circular 
S(;ratch-brush  of  line  brass  wire,  secured  in  a  lathe  and  driven  at  a 
high  speed,  as  in  frosting  watch  plates,  seepage  320;  for  clouding 
brass  work,  see  page  515. 

Ckmknt  fok  JlKAss  AND  WooD.— Tlie  best  cement  for  this  pur- 
pose is  a  glue  composed  of  best  gelatine,  1  part;  glacial  acetic  acid,  1 
part.  Soak  the  gelatine  in  cold  water  until  it  has  swollen  up  and  be- 
come quite  soft.  Throw  away  the  water  and  dissolve  the  gelatine  in 
the  acetic  acid,  applying  gentle  heat  if  necessary. 

Yellow  and  Lujht  Ked  Bkonze. — 1.  (Jopper  bronze  powder,  1 
oz. ;  mix  thoroughly  with  japanner's  gold  size,  adding  turi)entine 
during  its  use  sutticient  to  keep  it  at  the  consistency  of  cream.  Mix 
with  a  pallet  knife  on  glass  or  porcelain ;  if  made  too  thin  it  is  liable 
to  be  removed  by  the  brush  as  fast  as  put  on.  Apply  with  a  soft 
brush.  2.  A  gold  bronze  color  is  obtained  by  using  ^  gold  bronze 
and  ^  copper  bronze  powder,  or  other  beautiful  colors  may  be  obtained 
by  varying  the  mixtures.  3.  A  Dark  Broion  Bronze  is  produced  by 
the  addition  of  burnt  umber  to  the  above  named  ingredients.  4.  A 
Dark  Green  Bronze  is  obtained  by  mixing  green  bronze  and  terra  verto 
with  gold  size,  adding  as  much  ivory  black  as  may  be  required  to  im- 
part the  depth  of  tint  required.  Finish  with  a  coat  of  fine  shellac  var- 
nish. 4.  For  a  Verde  Antique  shade,  apply  the  bronze  coat  as  above, 
vaniish  with  shellac,  allow  it  to  get  firm  and  hard;  then  coat  the 
depressed  parts  -with  gold  size  thinned  with  turpentine.  Previous  to 
drying,  dust  the  article  with  dry  jmint,  of  light  yellow  or  blue  color, 
and  gently  remove  all  that  can  be  easily  rubbed  off  with  a  rag  moist- 
ened with  turpentine.  6.  Brown  Bronze  for  Hardware. — ^IMuriatic 
acid,  2  lbs. ;  iron  scales,  2  lbs. ;  arsenic,  2  oz. ;  zinc  (a  solid  mass  to 
be  kept  in  only  when  the  solution  is  in  use),  1  lb.  4  oz.  Previous 
to  immersion  m  the  bath,  cleanse  the  articles  thoroughly  in  acid 
pickle.  7.  Green  Bronze  on  Hardware. — Apply  a  varnish  composed 
of  ground  tin  or  bronze  powder  mixed  up  with  honey  in  gum  water, 
then  wash  with  a  solution  of  vinegar,  1  pt  ;  spts.  hartshorn,  1  oz. ;  sal 
ammoniac,  \  oz. ;  salt,  ^  oz.  Place  the  articles  in  the  sun  for  a  day  or 
two ;  then  give  them  another  coat,  8.  Black  Stain  on  Brass. — ^Water, 
80  parts ;  hydrochloric  acid,  4  parts ;  sulphuric  acid,  1  part.  9.  An- 
other.— Hydrochloric  acid,  12  parts ;  arsenic  by  weight,  4  i)arts ;  apply 
brighten,  dry,  and  lacquer. 

Magic  Polish  for  Brass.— Add  to  sulphuric  acid  half  its  bulk  of 
pulverized  bichromate  of  potash;  dilute  with  an  equal  weight  of 
water,  and  apply  well  to  the  brass,  swill  it  well  immediately  in  water, 
wipe  dry,  and  polish  with  pulverized  rotten  stone. 

To  Bronze  Polished  Steel. — Methylated  spirits,  1  pt. ;  gum 
shellac,  4  oz. ;  gum  benzoin.  ^  oz.  Set  the  bottle  in  a  warm  place, 
with  occasional  agitation.  When  dissolved,  decant  the  clear  part  for 
fine  work,  and  strain  the  dregs  through  muslin.  Now  take  4  oz. 
powdered  bronze  green,  varying  the  color  with  yellow  ochre,  red 
ochre,  and  lampblack,  as  may  be  desired.  Mix  the  bronze  powder 
with  the  above  varnish  in  quantities  to  suit,  and  apply  to  the  work 
after  previously  cleansiing  and  warming  the  articles,  giving  them  a 
second  coat  and  touching  ofE  with  gold  powder  if  required,  prcvipus  to 
varnishing. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS*  513 

Dead  BiiACK  for  the  Brass  Work  of  Lenses. — The  brass 
work  must  be  made  quite  clean  and  the  following  preparation  applied 
witli  a  camel' s-hair  pencil:  bichlorid  of  platinum,  4  drams;  nitrate  of 
eilver,  1  grain;  water,  6  oz.  When  you  gist  the  right  depth,  wasli 
with  clean  water,  dry,  and  finish  witli  plumbago. 

To  Solder  German  Sii.ver.— Dissolve  granulated  zinc  in  spirits 
of  salts  in  an  earthen  vessel.  Cleanse  the  part  to  be  soldered,  and 
apply  the  spirits  of  salts.  Next  put  a  piece  of  pewter  solder  on  the 
joint  and  apply  the  blow-pipe  to  it.  Melt  German  silver,  1  part,  and 
zinc  in  thin  sheets,  4  parts,  then  powder  it  for  solder. 

Silvery  Appearance  on  Iron  Wire.— Suspend  a  piece  of  zinc 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  immerse  the  wire  in  it.  Next,  place  it  in 
contact  with  a  strip  of  zinc,  in  a  bath  of  2  parts  of  tartaric  acid  dis- 
solved in  100  parts  of  water,  to  which  is  added  3  parts  of  tin  salts  and 
3  parts  of  soda.  Let  it  remain  two  hours  in  the  bath ;  then  brighten 
by  polishing  or  drawing  through  a  drawing  iron. 

Permanent  Brassing  on  Iron  Wire.— Place  the  wire,  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  when  it  immedi- 
ately becomes  covered  Avith  a  thin  film  of  coi)per;  now  cover  with  a 
paste  of  pure  oxide  of  tin,  and  heat  hot  enough  to  fuse  the  copper. 

To  Clean  Smooth  Tarnished  Brass. — Use  a  saturated  solution 
of  oxalic  acid  in  water;  apply  with  a  stiff  roll  of  clean  flannel  briskly 
\ised;  then  rinse  the  object  in  pleuty  of  water  to  remove  the  acid. 
After  drying  with  a  w^axm  cloth,  polish  up  with  chamois-skin  and 
prepared  chalk  or  the  finest  whiting. 

To  Clean  Embossed  or  Undercut  Brass. — Boil  the  objects  in 
a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  ley,  and  immerse  them  in  a  mix- 
ture of  hydrochloric  acid,  G  parts;  water,  2  parts;  and  nitric  acid,  1 
part,  until  they  become  covered  with  a  dark  deposit.  Take  them 
from  the  mixture  and  remove  the  black  matter  with  a  fine  scratch- 
brush:  when  thus  cleansed,  swill  in  hot  water  and  dry  in  hot  vsaw 
dust.  A  fine  orange-yellow  tinge  may  be  given  to  the  brass  by  sub- 
stituting an  equivalent  Aveight  of  powdered  alum  for  the  nitric  acid 
in  the  solution. 

Dead  Appearance  on  Brass. — Immerse  the  objects  in  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  aciu,  200  parts;  sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.845,  100  parts; 
common  salt,  1  jiart;  sulphate  of  zinc,  2  parts.  Rinse  thoroughly; 
this  imparts  the  dead  appearance  styled  mat,  by  the  French.  For 
large  work  use  nitric  acid,  3  parts;  sulphuric  acid,  1  part;  water,  1 
part;  sulphate  of  zinc,  ^  part.  Repeat  dipping  and  rinsing  the  objects 
till  the  proper  color  is  brought  out. 

To  Lacquer  Brass.— For  flat  work,  cleanse  thoroughly  by  boil- 
ing the  articles  in  strong  potash  water;  if  you  wisli  to  heighten  the 
color  of  the  brass,  dip  it  in  hydrochloric  acid,  rinse  well  in  cold  and 
hot  Avater  alternately,  using  a  fine  brush  to  remove  any  blackness, 
and  dry  in  hot, sawdust,  burnishing  afterwards  if  desired.  Place  the 
Avork  on  an  iron  plate,  kept  at  a  Ioav  heat,  and  pass  the  lacquer  regu- 
larly and  rapidly  over  the  surface  with  a  good  sized  fine  camel' s-hair 
brush,  keeping  the  iron  plate  warm  until  the  work  is  dry.  Small 
circxdm  work,  after  being  well  cleansed,  and  burnished  if'  need  be, 
and  slightly  heated  in  a  stove  or  over  a  charcoal  fire,  should' have  th« 
lacquer  thinly  and  CA-enly  applied  while  in  motion  in  the  lathe,  hold- 
ing a  charcoal  brazier  under  the  work  for  a  short  time,  to  avoid  cool- 
ing too  soon. 

33 


514        MACHINISTS,  ENGINEKRS',  AO.,  llECICirTS. 

Contrast  Coi.oks  for  Painting  Machinkrv.—I.  Dcc))  blue  and 
golden  brown;  2,  JJlack  and  warm  brown;  .'5,  Chocolate  and  light 
blue;  4,  Violet  and  light  rose  color;  5,  Violet  and  pale  green;  (5,  Deep 
red  and  gray;  7,  Claret  and  buff;  8,  Maroon  and  warm  green;  9, 
chocolate  and  pcagrecn  ;  10,  Deep  blue  and  pink;  11,  Black  and  warm 
green ;  V^,  Maroon  and  deep  blue. 

Varnish  for  Looai  Harness. — Linseed  oil,  2  gals. ;  gum  shellac, 
2h  lbs. ;  red  lead,  1  lb. ;  umber,  1^  lbs. ;  lithsirge,  2  lbs. ;  sugar  of  lead, 
l|  lbs.    ]Mix  and  thoroughly  incorporate  togetlicr. 

Water-proofing  for  Nets  and  Fishing  Lines. — Soak  the  nets 
or  lines  in  a  mixture  of  2  parts  boiled  linseed  oil  and  1  i)art  gold  size ; 
expose  to  the  air,  and  dry.  ' 

Winter  Fishing  on  the  Western  Lakes.— A  small  portable 
house  is  erected  on  large  runners,  like  those  of  a  sled,  with  a  nole  cut 
in  the  centre  of  the  floor.  This  house  is  moved  to  any  desired  spot;  a 
liole  is  cut  in  the  ice,  so  as  to  be  directly  under  the  aperture  in  the 
floor;  the  lines  are  dropped  through  the  hole,  and  the  fish  are  drawn 
in  while  the  fishermen  are  seated  by  a  warm  stove. 

Paint  for  METAiiS,  Proof  against  Hot  Water.— Prepare  the 
metal  by  cleaning  it  with  turpentine,  ley,  or  benzine ;  then  apply  two 
thin  coats  of  a  mixture  of  w^hite  lead,  spts.  turpentine  and  carriage 
varnish,  and  follow  at  once  with  a  thick  coat  of  carriage  varnish  and 
wliite  lead. 

Draughtmen's  Colors  for  MECHANicAii  Drawing. — The  fol- 
lowing are  the  names  of  different  materials,  together  Avith  the  pig- 
ments nsed  to  represent  them:  1,  Red  brick,  Indian  red;  2,  Yellow 
brick,  Indian  yellow  or  cadmium,  tinged  with  white;  3,  Wrovf/ht  iron, 
Prussian  blue  or  cobalt;  4,  Cast  iron,  Paine' s  gray  and  a  little  India 
ink,  or  Prussian  blue  and  India  ink;  5,  Steel,  a  purple  color  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  crimson  lake  and  Prussian  blue;  G,  Gun  metal  or  brass, 
gamboge  or  yellow  cadmium;  7,  Copper,  Indian  red  mixed  withaUttle 
lake;  8,  Wood,^  burnt  umber;  9,  Water,  broken,  irregular  straight 
lines,  with  liquid  copperas ;  10,  Stone  color,  Chinese  white  and  India 
ink,  tinted  Avith  yellow. 

Tracing  Paper,  to  Stand  Washing.— Saturate  writing  paper  with 
benzine,  and  follow  at  once  Avith  a  slight  coat  of  the  foUoAving  varnish: 
Boiled  bleached  linseed  oil,  20  oz.,-  oxide  of  zinc,  5  ozs. ;  lead  shav- 
ings, 1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  i  oz.  Boil  all  for  8  hours,  cool,  and 
add  gum-copal  5  ozs.,  gum  sandarac  I  part. 

Tracing  Paper.— Dissolve  castor  oil  in  strong  alcohol  and  apply 
the  mLxture  to  the  paper  with  a  sponge.  The  alcohol  will  volatilize, 
leaving  the  pa])er  dry.  Proceed  to  finish  your  tracing,  and  then  you 
may,  if  you  wish  to  do  so,  restore  the  paper  to  its  original  state,  bj 
immersion  in  strong  alcohol,  thereby  absorbing  the  castor  oil  from 
the  paper. 

To  Solder  avithout  Heat. — Brass  filings,  2  oz.;  steel  filings,  2 
oz. ;  fluoric  acid,  ^  oz.  Put  the  filings  in  the  acid,  and  apply  the 
golution  to  the  ])arts  to  be  soldered,  after  thoroughly  cleaning  the 
parts  in  contact;  then  dress  together.  Do  not  keep  the  fluoric  acid  in 
glass  bottles,  but  in  lead  or  earthen  vessels. 

Easy  Soldering  of  Brass. — Cut  a  piece  of  tin  foil  the  size  of 
the  surf  ace  to  be  soldered ;  then  pass  over  the  surface  a  solution  of 
sal  ammoniac  for  a  flux,  ])lace  the  tin  foil  between  the  pieces,  and  ap- 
ply a  hot  iron  until  the  foil  is  melted. 


MAcnixiSTS,  engineers',  &c.,  keceipts.  515 

To  Tin  Copper  axd  Brass, — Boil  6  lbs.  crcjira  of  tartar  tml  4 
gals,  of  -water  and  8  lbs.  of  grain  tin  or  tin  shavings.  After  the  mate  - 
rial  has  boiled  a  sufticient  time,  the  articles  to  be  tinned  are  put 
therein  and  the  boiling  continued,  Avhen  the  tm  is  precipitated  on  the 
goods  in  metallic  form. 

Mixture  fob  Silverikg.— Dissolve  2  ozs.  of  silver  -svith  3  grs.  of 
corrosive  sublimate ;  add  tai-taric  acid,  4  lbs. ;  salt,  8  qts. 

To  Separatp::  Silver  tbom  Copper. — Mix  sulphuric  acid,  1 
part;  nitric  acid,  1  part ;  water,  1  part;  boil  the  metal  in  the  mix- 
ture till  it  is  dissolved,  throw  iu  a  little  salt  to  cause  the  silver  to  sub- 
side. 

To  "Write  in  Silver. — Mix  1  oz.  of  the  finest  pewter  or  block  tin, 
and  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  together  till  both  become  fluid,  then  grind  it 
with  gum  water,  and  write  with  it.  The  writing  wiH  then  look  as  if 
done  Avith  silver. 

Tinning  Acid,  for  Brass  or  Zinc— Muriatic  acid,  1  qt. ;  zinc, 
G  ozs.  To  a  solution  of.  this,  add  water,  1  qt.  ;  sal-ammoniac,  2 
ozs. 

To  Glean  and  PoLisn  Brass.— Wash  with  alum  boiled  in  strong 
lye,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  pint;  afterwards  rub  with 
titrong  tripoli.    Not  to  be  used  on  gilt  or  lacquered  work. 

Bronze  Paint,  for  Iron  or  Brass. — Chrome  green,  2  lbs.; 
ivory  black,  1  oz. ;  chrome  yellow,  1  oz. ;  good  jaiian,  1  gill;  grind  all 
together,  and  mix  with  linseed  oil. 

To  Bronze  Iron  Castings, — Cleanse  thoroughly,  and  afterwards 
immerse  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  Avhcii  the  castings  Avill 
acquire  a  coat  of  the  latter  metal.  They  must  be  then  washed  ui 
water. 

Kemoving  Zinc  and  Iron  Trom  J*i,xtmbers'  Solder.— Digest 
the  metal  in  grains  in  diluted  sulphuMc  acid.  The  acid  Avill  dissolve 
the  zinc  first,  the  iron  next,  and  all  traces  of  these  metals  by  subse- 
quent washmg.  .'  J 
(5  Tinning  Cast  Iron.— Pickle  your  castings  in  oil  of  vitriol ;  then 
cover  or  immerse  them  in  muriate  of  zinc  (made  by  putting  a  sufli- 
cient  quantity  of  zinc  in  some  si)irit  %ii  salt):  after  which  dip  it  iu  a 
melted  bath  of  tin  or  solder.  -    -  -  (^^ 

Silvering  ey  Heat. — Di^olve  1  oz,  silver  in  nitric  acid;  add  a 
email  quantity  of  salt;  then  wash  it  and  add  sal-amraoniac,  or  G  ozs. 
of  salt  and  white  vitriol ;  also^oz,  corrosive  sublimate;  rub  them 
together  till  they  form  a  paste;  rub  the  piece  which  is  to  bo  silvered 
with  the  paste;  heat  it  till  the  silver  rims,  after  Avhich  dip  it  in  a 
weak  vitriol  pickle  to  clean  it. 

Zincing,— Copper  and  brass  vessels  may  bo  covered  with  a  firmly 
adherent  layer  of  pure  zinc  by  boiling  them  in  contact  with  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  zinc,  pure  zinc  tuniings  being  at  the  same  time  present 
in  considerable  excess. 

To  Cloud  Metal  Work.— Metal  work  may  be  clouded  by  put- 
ting a  piece  of  fine  emery  paper  under  the  thumb  or  finger  and  work- 
ing it  over  a  surf  aco  of  the  metal  with  a  spiral  motion,  p 

Silvering  Poavder. — Nitrite  of  silver  and  common  salt,  of  each 
."0  grs, ;  cream  tartar,  3J  drs. ;  pulverize  finely  and  bottle  for  use 
Unequalled  for  polishing  copper  and  plated  goods.  ■ 

To  Clean  and  Polish  Brass,— Oil  of  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  sweet  oil,  ^ 


51 G      MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

gill;  nulvcrizcd  rotten  ptono,  1  gill;  rain  \\'atcr,  1^  pts. ;  mix  all 
and  shako  as  used.  Apply  Avith  a  rag  and  i)olish  -with  buckskin  or 
all  woolen,  liottcn  stone,  followed  by  Taris  white  and  rouge  i.s  very 
good  also. 

I'ASTK  FOR  Clkanino  Metals.— Talco  oxalic  acid,  1  part;  rotten 
Ftono,  G  parts;  mix  with  equal  parts  of  train  oil  and  spts.  turpentine 
to  a  paste. 

To  PiiKVEisT  Iron-  or  SxKKii  from  Rustino.— Warm  your  iron 
or  steel  till  you  canuot  bear  your  hands  on  it  without  burning  your- 
self, then  rub  it  with  new  and  clean  white  wax.  Put  it  again  to  the 
liro  till  it  has  soalced  in  the  wax.  When  done  rub  it  over  with  a 
piece  of  serge.   This  prevents  the  metal  from  rusting  afterwards. 

Bronzikg  Liquids  for  Tin  Castings. — AVash  them  over,  after 
being  well  cleansed  and  wiped,  with  a  solution  of  1  i)art  of  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  1  of  sulphate  of  copper,  in  20  parts  of  water;  after- 
wards, with  a  solution  of  4  parts  verdigris  in  11  of  distilled  vinegar; 
leave  for  an  hour  to  dry  and  then  polish  with  a  soft  brush  and 
colcothar. 

Fancy  Colors  on  Metam.— Dissolve  4  ozs.  liypo-sulphite  of 
soda,  1^  pts.  of  water,  and  then  add  a  solution  of  1  oz.  acetate  of  lead 
in  1  oz.  water.  Articles  to  be  colored  are  placed  in  the  mixture, 
which  is  then  gradually  heated  to  the  boiling  point.  This  will  givo 
iron  the  color  of  blue  steel,  zinc  becomes  bronze,  and  copper  or  brass 
becomes,  successively,  yellowish,  red,  scarlet,  deep  blue,  light  blue, 
bluish  white,  and  finally  white,  vfith  a  tinge  of  rose.  2.  By  replac- 
ing the  acetate  of  lead  in  the  solution  by  sulphate  of  copper,  brass 
l)CComes,  first,  of  a  fine  rosy  tint,  then  green,  and  lastly,  of  an  irri- 
desceut  brown  color. 

Coating  Iron  Castings  -with  Gold  or  Silver.— The  articles 
to  be  gilded  are  well  cleaned  and  boiled  m  a  porcelain  vessel,  to- 
gether with  12  parts  of  mercury,  1  of  zinc,  2  of  iron  vitriol,  1|  of  mu- 
riatic acid  of  1.2  specific  gravity,  and  12  parts  of  water;  in  a  short 
time  a  layer  of  mercury  will  deposit  upon  the  iron,  and  upon  this  the 
gold  amalgam  may  be  uniformly  distributed.  Iron  to  be  silvered  is 
first  provided  with  a  coatmg  of  copper,  upon  vjhich  tlio  silver  is  ap- 
plied either  by  means  of  amalgam  or  silver  leaf. 

Brunswick  Black  for  Grates,  &c. — Asphaltum,  5  lbs. ;  melt, 
and  add  boiled  oil,  2  lbs. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal.  Mix. 

Bronze  Paint  for  Iron. — ^Ivory  black,  1  oz. ;  chrome  yellow,  1 
oz. ;  chrome  green,  2  lbs. ;  mix  with  raw  linseed  oil,  adding  a  little 
japan  to  dry  it,  and  you  have  a  very  nice  bronze  green.  If  desired, 
gold  bronze  may  be  put  on  the  prominent  parts,  as  on  the  tips  or 
edges  of  an  iron  railing  where  the  paint  is  not  quite  dry,  using  a  piece 
of  velvet  or  plush  to  rub  on  the  bronze. 

Tinning  Iron. — Cleanse  the  metal  to  be  tinned,  and  rub  with  a 
coarse  cloth,  previously  dipped  in  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid,) 
and  then  rub  on  French  putty  with  the  same  cloth.  French  putty  is 
made  by  mixing  tin  filings  with  mercury. 

Tinning. — 1.  Plates  or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  stannate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  turnings  of  tin,  become, 
in  tlie  course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a  finnly  attached  layer 
of  pure  tin.  2.  A  similar  eiTect  is  produced  by  boiling  the  articles 
with  tin-filings  and  caustic  alkali,  or  cream  of  tartiir.   In  the  above 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEIP'tS.  517 

vray,  chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or  brass  may  bo  easily  and 
licrfectly  tinned. 

New  TiXNixG  rnocESS. — Articles  to  bo  tinned  are  first  covered 
■witli  diluted  sulplmric  acid,  and,  wlien  quite  clean,  are  placed  in  "vvariu 
■water,  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  copper,  and  zinc, 
and  then  plunfjed  into  a  tin  bath  to  ■\vliich  a  small  quantity  of  zinc 
has  been  added.  When  the  tinning  is  finished,  the  articles  are  talam 
out,  and  plunged  into  boiling  water.  The  operation  is  completed  l»y 
placing  them  in  a  very  warm  sand-bath.  This  last  process  softens  the 
iron. 

To  Recover  the  Tix  from  Old  Brttaxnia. — Melttlio  metal,  and 
while  hot  sprinkle  sulphur  over  it  ;  and  stir  it  up  for  a  short  time, 
this  burns  the  other  metals  out  of  the  tin,  Avhich  may  then  bo  used 
for  any  purpose  desired. 

KusTiTiKN's  Metal  for  Tixxino.— ^laUeablo  iron,  1  lb.,  heat 
to  whiteness  :  add  5  ozs.  rcgulus  of  antimony,  and  SIoluccjv  tin, 
24  lbs. 

Galvaxtzixg  Irox. — Tlio  iron  plates  aro  first  immersed  in  a 
cleansing  bath  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid  and  water 
used  warm;  they  are  then  scrubbed  with  emery  or  sand,  to  clean 
them  thoroughly  and  detsich  all  scales  if  any  aro  left;  after  which 
they  are  immersed  in  a  "  preparing  bath  "  of  equal  parts  of  saturated 
BOlutions  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  chloride  of  ammonium,  from  which 
bath  they  are  directly  transferred  to  the  fiuid  "metallic  bath,"  con- 
sisting, by  weight  of  640  lbs.  zinc  to  lOG  lbs.  of  mercury,  to  which  aro 
added  from  5  to  6  ozs.  of  sodium.  As  soon  as  the  iron  has  attiiined 
the  temperature  of  this  hot  fluid  batli,  which  is  080°  Fahr.,  itmay  be  re- 
moved, and  will  then  be  found  thoroughly  coated  with  zinc.  A  littlo 
tallow  on  the  surface  of  the  metallic  bath  will  prevent  oxidation. 

Preventing  of  Rust.— Cast  iron  is  best  preserved  by  rubbing  it 
Kith  blacklead.  For  polished  work,  varnish  with  wax  dissolved  in 
lenzine,  or  add  a  little  olive  oil  to  copal  varnish  and  thin  with  spts. 
turpentine.  To  remove  deep-seated  rust,  use  benzine,  and  polish  off 
with  fine  emery,  or  use  tripoli,  2  parts ;  powdered  sulphur,  1  part. 
Apply  with  soft  leather.   Emery  and  oil  is  also  very  good. 

To  PuRiFiT  Zinc. — Pure  zhic  may  be  obtained  by  precipitating  its 
sulphate  by  an  alkali,  mixing  the  oxide  thus  produced  with  charcoal 
powdered,  and  exposing  the  mixture  to  a  bright  red  heat  in  a  covered 
crucible  in  which  the  pure  metal  will  be  found  as  a  button  at  the 
bottom  when  cold. 

Transparent  Blue  fob  Iron  or  Steel.— Demar  varnish,  ^gal.: 
fine  ground  Prussian  blue,  ^  oz. ;  mix  thorouglily.  Makes  a  spfendid 
appearance.   Excellent  for  bluing  watch-hands. 

Lead  Shot  are  cast  by  letting  the  metjxl  run  through  a  narrow 
slit  into  a  species  of  colander  at  the  top  of  a  lofty  tower  ;  the  metal 
escapes  in  drops,  which,  for  the  most  part,  assume  the  spherical  form 
before  they  reach  the  tank  of  water  into  which  they  fall  at  the  foot 
of  the  tower,  and  this  prevents  their  being  bruised.  They  are  af- 
terwards riddled  or  sifted  for  size,  and  afterwards  churned  in  a  bar- 
rel with  black  lead. 

Black  Bronze  on  Iron  or  Stefx.— The  following  mixtures  are 
employed :  liquid  No.  1.  A  mixture  of  bichloride  of  mercury  and  sal-am- 
moniac. No.  2.  A  mixture  of  perchloride  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper, 


518       MACHINISTS,  engineers'    JcC,  RECEIPTh. 

Wtric  acid,  alcohol  and  water.  No.  3.  Perclilorido  and  protochlorida 
of  mercury  mixed  witli  nitric  .icid,  alcoliol  and  water.  No.  4.  A  weak 
Bolution  ol  sulpliido  of  potassium.  Clean  your  metal  well  and  a])ply 
a.  sliglit  coat  of  No.  1  witli  u  sponge;  when  quite  dry,  applv  another 
coat.  Kemovo  tlie  resultmg  crust  of  oxide  with  a  wire  hrnsfi,  rubtho 
metal  with  a  clean  rag,  and  repeat  this  operation  after  each  applica- 
tion of  tlieso  liquid.s.  Now  apply  several  coats  of  No.  2,  and  also  of 
No.  3,  with  a  full  sponge;  then,  after  drying  for  ten  minutes,  tlirow  tho 
pieces  of  metal  into  water  heated  near  the  boiUng  point;  let  them  re- 
main in  the  water  from  5  to  10  minutes,  according  to  their  size.  After 
Leing  cleaned,  cover  again  with  several  coatmgs  of  No.  3,  afterwards 
with  a  strong  coating  of  No.  4;  then  again  immerse  in  tho  bath  of 
hot  Avater.  liemovo^  from  tho  bath  dry,  and  wipe  the  pieces  with 
carded  cotton  dipped  in  liquid  No.  3,  diluted  each  time  witli  an  in- 
creased quantity  of  water;  then  rub  and  wipe  them  with  a  little  olivo 
oil;  again  immerse  in  a  water  bath  heated  to  140°  Ifahr.,  remove  them, 
rub  briskly  Avith  a  woolen  rag,  and  lastly,  with  oil.  Unequalled  for 
producing  a  beautiful  glossy  black  on  gun-barrels,  Ftcol,  iron,  &c. 

Taint  for  Sheet  Ikox  SxMOKe  PIpe. — Good  v;iniish,  ^  gallon; 
boiled  linseed  oil  ^  gallon;  add  red  lead  sufficient  to  bi  lug  to  the  con- 
pisteucy  of  common  paint.  Apply  with  a  brush.  Ai)plicable  to  any 
kind  of  iron  work  exposed  to  the  we:xther. 

To  Goiter  the  Surface  of  Irox,  Steel,  or  Iron  Wire.— 
Have  tho  article  perfectly  clean,  then  Avash  with  tho  foUowuig  solu- 
tion, and  it  presents  at  onco  a  coi)pered  surface.  Eain  water,  3  lbs. ; 
*ulphatc  of  copper,  11  b. 

To  Join  Broken  Lead  PrPEg  during  Pressure  of  "Water. — 
It  frequently  happens  that  lead  pipes  get  cut  or  damaged  Avhen  tho 
water  is  running  at  a  high  pressure,  causing  much  trouble  to  malco 
repairs,  especially  if  the  Avater  cannot  be  easily  turned  off.  In  this 
case  plug  both  ends  of  the  pipe  at  the  break,  place  a  small  pile  of  bro- 
Iceu  ice  and  salt  around  them.  In  a  few  minutes  the  Avater  in  tho 
pipe  Avill  freeze  ;  next,  withdraw  the  plugs  and  insert  a  ncAV  piece  of 
pipe;  solder  perfectly,  thaAV  the  ice,  and  it  Avill  be  all  right 

To  Repair  small  Leaks  in  Lead  Pipes. — I'laco  the  pomt  of  a 
dull  nail  over  tho  leak,  give  it  a  gentle  tap  Avith  a  hammer  and  tho 
liow  will  cease. 

To  Prevent  Corrosion  in  Lead  Pipes. — ^Pass  a  strong  so- 
lution of  sulphide  of  potassium  and  sodium  through  the  inside  of  the 
pipe  at  a  temperature  of  212°,  and  allow  it  to  remain  about  10  or  15 
minutes.  It  converts  the  inside  of  tho  pipe  into  an  insoluble  sulphide 
of  lead  and  prevents  corrosion. 

To  Bend  Copper  or  Brass  Tubes,— Kun  melted  lead  or  resm 
into  your  pipe  till  full,  and  you  may  then  bend  it  gi-adually  into  any 
desired  shape  ;  the  pipe  may  then  be  heated  and  the  lead  or  resin 
melted  and  run  out. 

To  Join  Lead  Plates.— Tlie  joints  of  lead  plates  for  some  pur- 
poses are  made  as  foUows  :  The  edges  are  brought  together,  ham- 
mered down  into  a  sort  of  channel  cut  of  wood  and  secured  with  a 
few  tacks.  The  hollow  is  then  scraped  clean  with  a  scraper,  rubbed 
over  with  candle  grease,  and  a  stream  of  hot  lead  is  poured  into  it,  the 
surface  beinj?  afterwards  smoothed  with  a  red  hot  plumber's  iron. 

To  Join  Lead  Pipes.— Widen  out  tho  cud  of  one  pipe  with  a  ta^ 


MACHINISTS,  KXGIXEERS',  &C.,  KECEirXS.  5]^ 

♦)csr  wood  rift,  and  scrape  it  clcnn  inside  ;  scrape  the  end  of  the  other 
jipe  outside  a  little  tapered,  and  insert  it  in  the  former  :  then  eoldcr 
It  witli  common  lead  solder  as  before  described  ;  or,  if  it  requires 
to  be  strou?:,  rub  a  little  fcvllow  over,  and  cover  the  joint  -w  ith  .1 
ball  of  melted  lead,  holding  a  cloth  (2  or  3  plies  of  greased  bedtick) 
on  the  under  side  ;  and  smoothing  over  with  it  and  the  plumber  8 
iron. 

TrrrtaNG  Interior  of  Lead  Pipes. — This  invention  consists  in 
applying  a  flux  of  grease  or  muriate  of  zinc  or  any  other  fiux  that  will 
protect  the  lead  from  oxidation,  and  msure  a  perfect  coating  of  tin, 
when  the  tin  is  poured  through  the  pipe  or  the  pipe  dipped  into  tlie 
bath  of  tin  ;  after  the  lead  pipe  has  been  made,  place  the  same  in  a 
vertical  or  nearly  vertical  position,  and  pass  down  through  the  same  a 
strong  cord,  to  which  a  weight  is  attached  to  draw  the  cord  through 
the  pipe ;  and  at  or  near  the  other  end  of  the  cord,  a  sponge  or  piece  of 
other  porous  or  clastic  material,  is  attached  of  a  size  to  flU  the  pipe, 
and  of  any  desired  length,  say  0  inches  more  or  less.  The  sponge  or 
l)orous  wad  being  saturated  with  the  flux,  is  draAvn  through  the  pipe, 
and  by  its  length  ensures  the  covering  of  the  entire  inside  surface  of 
the  inside  of  the  pipes  with  the  flux,  so  that  the  melted  tin,  sub- 
sequently applied,  will  adhere  to  all  parts  with  uniformity  and  firm- 
ness. 

I'd  Prevent  Lead  Exploding. — ^IMany  mechanics  have  had  their 
patience  sorely  tried  when  pouring  melted  lead  around  a  damp  or  wet 
joint  to  find  it  ex]ilode,  blow  out,  or  scatter  from  the  effects  of  steam 

generated  by  the  heat  of  the  lead.  The  whole  trouble  may  be  stopped 
y  putting  a  piece  of  resin  the  size  of  the  end  of  a  man's  thumb  into 
the  ladle  and  allowing  it  to  melt  before  pouring.  Simple  as  the  secret 
is,  many  have  paid  $20  for  the  privilege  of  knowing  it. 

Tabular  View  of  the  Processes  of  Soldering.— JSarcZ  solder* 
inrj.  The  hard  solders  most  commonly  used  arc  the  spelter  solders, 
and  silver  solders.  The  general  flux  is  borax,  marked  A  on  the 
table,  and  the  modes  of  heating  are  the  naked  fire,  the  furnace  01 
muffle,  and  the  blow  pipe,  marked  a,  h,  g,  applicable  to  nearly  all 
metals  less  fusible  than  the  solders;  the  modes  of  treatment  are 
nearly  similar  throughout.  Note.—ThG  examples  commence  with 
the  solders  (the  least  fusible  first)  followed  by  the  metals  for 
which  they  are  commonly  employed.  Fine  gold,  laminated  and 
cut  into  shreds,  is  used  as  the  solder  for  joining  chemical  vessels 
made  of  platinum.  Silver  is  by  many  considered  as  much  the  best 
polder  for  German  silver,  for  silver  solders,  see  Jewellers'  alloys 
Copper  cut  in  shreds,  is  sometimes  similarly  used  for  iron.  Gold 
polders  laminated  are  used  for  gold  alloys,  see  333  and  338. 
Spelter  solders,  granulated  whilst  hot,  are  used  for  iron,  copper, 
brass,  gim  metals,  German  silver,  &c.,  see  below.  Silver  solders 
laminated,  are  employed  for  all  silver  works  and  for  common  gold 
work,  also  for  German  silver,  gilding  metals,  iron,  steel,  brass,  gun 
metal,  &c.,  when  greater  neatness  is  required  than  is  obtained  from 
spelter  solder. 

White  or  button  solders,  granulated,  are  employed  for  the  white 
alloys  called  button  metals;  they  were  introduced  as  cheap  substi- 
tutes for  silver  solder.  Hard  Soldering.— ApjAicahle  to  nearly  all 
the  metals;  the  modes  of  treatment  are  very  different.   The  soft  sol' 


520        BIACIIINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  KECEirXS. 

«lcr  mostly  used  is  two  parts  tin  and  one  of  load;  poinctimes,  from 
iiiotivca  economy,  nmch  more  lead  is  employed,  and  \  \  tin  tol  lead 
is  the  most  fusible  of  the  grou|),  unless  bismuth  is  used.  The  lluxes 
B  to  G,  and  the  modes  of  heating,  a  to  i,  arc  all  used  with  the  t>o£t 
soldera. 

Note. — The  examples  commence  "with  the  metals  to  ho  soldered. 
Thus  in  the  list,  zhic,  8,  c,/,  implies,  that  zinc  is  soldered  with  No.  8 
alloy,  by  the  aid  of  the  muriate  or  chloride  of  zuic  ,  and  the  copper 
bit.  Lea-d,  4  to  8,  F,  d,  e,  implies  that  lead  is  soldered  with  alloys 
varying  from  No.  4  to  8,  and  that  it  is  fluxed  with  tallow,  the  heat 
bein^  applied  by  pouring  on  melted  solder,  and  the  subsequent  use 
of  the  heated  iron,  not  tinned;  but  in  general  one  only  of  the  modes 
of  1  eating  is  selected,  according  to  circumsfcmces.  Iron,  cast-iron 
and  steel,  8,  B,  D,  if  thick,  heated  by  a,  b,  or  c,  and  also  by  r/.  Tinned 
iron.  8,  G,  D,/.  Gold  and  silver  arc  soldered  with  i^uro  tin,  or  else 
Avith  8,  E,  a,  g,  or  h.  Copper  and  many  of  its  alloys,  namely  brass, 
gilding  metal,  gun  metal,  &c.,  8,  B,  C,  D;  when  thick,  heated  by  a, 
h,  c,  e,  org,  when  thin,  by  /,  or  g.  Speculum  metal,  8,  B,  C,  D,  the 
heat  should  be  cautiously  applied ;  the  sand  bath  is  perhaps  the  best 
mode,  Zmc,  8,  C  ,/.  Lead  and  load  pipes,  or  ordinary  plumber's 
worlc,  4  to  8  F,  ^,or  e.  Lead  and  tm  pipes,  8,  D,  and  G,  mixed,  g,  and 
also/.  Britaimia  metal,  C,  'xJ,  g.  Pewters,  the  solders  must  vary  in 
fusibility  according  to  the  fusibility  of  the  metal,  generally  G,  and  i, 
are  used,  sometimes,  also  G,  and  g  or  /.  Lead  is  united  without  sol- 
der by  pouring  on  red  hot  lead,  and  employing  a  rod  hot  iron,  d.  e. 
Iron  and  brass  are  sometimes  burned,  or  united  by  partial  fusion,  by 
l)ouring  very  hot  metal  over  or  around  them. 
Alloys  and  their  Melting  Heats.  Fluxes. 


2fo.  1 

1 

Tin  25  Lead  258  Fahr. 

A.  Borax. 

2 

1 

10 

(( 

541 

B.  Sal-am.  or  raur.  of  amm. 

3 

1 

(( 

5 

(( 

511 

(( 

C.  Muriate  or  chlor.  of  zinc 

4 

1 

3 

(( 

482 

D.  Common  resin. 

5 

1 

(< 

2 

(( 

441 

(( 

E,  Venice  turpentine. 

G 

1 

(( 

1 

370 

F.  Tallow. 

7 

1. 

■ :: 

1 

it 

831 

G.  Gallipoli  oil,  or  common 

8 

2" 

1 

11 

340 

(( 

[sweet  oil. 

1) 

1 

it 

350 

(( 

JfODES  OF  ArPLYlNO  HeAT. 

10 

4 

1 

365 

(( 

a.  Naked  fire. 

11 

5 

a 

1 

378 

(( 

h.  Hollow  furnace  or  muffle. 

12 

(5 

(( 

1 

381 

t( 

c.  Immersion  in  melted  solder. 

13 

4  Lead  4 

Tin  1  Bismuth  320  Fahr.  d.  Melted  solder  or  metal 

poured  on. 

11 

3 

'  3 

1 

310 

"     e.  Heated  iron,  not  tin'd. 

15 

2 

*  2 

1 

(( 

292 

"     /.  Heated    copper  tool, 
tinned. 

10 

1 

'  1 

(C 

1 

(( 

254 

"     <7.  Blow  Pipe  flame. 
"     h.  Flame  alone,  generally 
alchohol. 

17 

2 

'  1 

(( 

2 

C( 

230 

18 

3 

'  5 

<c 

2 

tt 

202 

"      i.  Stream  of  heated  air. 

Che^vp  ISIosQuiTO  Bar.— Drop  a  small  quantity  of  petroleum  or 
kerosene  oil  on  a  piece  of  cotton,  squeeze  out  the  excess  as  much  as 
possible,  then  rub  the  cotton  over  the  face,  hands,  &c.,  and  these  r-ea- 
tiferous  insects  will  not  alight  where  the  scent  has  been  left. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.        i  A 

Solders  32  kinds.— 1.  Plwnbers'  solder.— Lead,  2  parts;  tin,  1 
part.  2.  Tinmen's  solder.— Lend,  1  i^art;  tin,  1  part.  Zinc  solder. 
—Tin,  1  jiart  ;  lead,  1  to  2  parts.  4.  Peivter  solder.— Lca.d,  1  part ; 
bismuth,  1  to  2  parts.  5  Spelter  solder. — Equal  parts  copper  and  zinc. 
C.  Pewterers'  soft  solder. — Bismuth,  2  ;  lead,  4  ;  tin,  3  parts.  7.  An- 
other.— Bismuth,  1 ;  lead,  1 ;  tin,  2  parts.  8.  Another  peivter  solder. 
—Tin,  2  parts  ;  lead,  1  part.   9.  Glazier's  Solder— Tm,  3  parts  ;  lead, 

1  part.  10.  Solder  for  Copper. — Copper,  10  parts  ;  zinc,  9  parts.  11. 
Yelloio  Solder  for  Brass  or  Copper.— Copper,  32  lbs.  ;  zinc,  29  lbs. ; 
tin,  1  lb.  12.  Brass  /SoZder.— Copper,  G1.25  parts  ;  zuic  38.75  parts. 
13.  Brass  Solder  Yellow  and  easily  fusible. — Copper,  45;  zinc,  55 
parts.  14.  Brass  solder,  TF/u^e.— Copper,  57.41  parts;  tin,  14.60 parts; 
zinc,  27.90  parts.  15.  Another  Solder  for  Copper.— £m,  2  parts ; 
lead,  1  part.  When  the  copper  is  thick,  heat  it  by  a  naked  fire  ;  if 
thin,  use  a  tinned  copper  tool.  Use  muriate  or  chloride  of  zinc,  as  a 
flux.  The  same  solder  will  do  for  iron,  cast  iron,  or  steel;  if  tlie 
pieces  are  thick,  heat  by  a  naked  fire,  or  immerse  ui  the  solder.  IG. 
Black  Solder. — Copper,'  2  ;  zinc,  3  ;  tin,  2  parts.  17.  Another. — Sheet 
brass,  20  lbs.  ;  tin,  G  lbs.  ;  zinc,  1  lb.  18.  Cold  Brazing  loithout  Fira 
or  Lamp. — Fluoric  acid,  1  oz. ;  oxy  muriatic  acid,  1  oz. ;  mis  in  a  lead 
bottle.  Put  a  chalk  mark  each  side  where  you  want  to  braze.  This 
mixture  will  keep  about  6  months  in  one  bottle.  19.  Cold  Soldering 
loithout  Fire  or  Lamp. — Bismuth,  |  oz.  ;  quicksilver,  |  oz.  ;  block  tin 
filmgs,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  salts,  1  oz.  ;  all  mixed  together.  20.  To  Solder 
Pron  to  Steel  or  either  to  Brass. — Tin,  3  parts  ;  copper,  39^  parts ; 
zinc,  7^  parts.  When  applied  in  a  molten  state  it  will  firmly  unite 
metalslirst  named  to  each  other,  21.  Plumbers'  <S'oWej\— Bismuth,  1 ; 
lead,  5;  tin,  3  parts;  is  a  first  class  composition.  22.  White  Solder  for 
raised  Britannia  Ware. — Tin,  100  lbs.  ;  hardening,  8  lbs. ;  antimony, 
8  lbs.  23.  Hardening  for  Britannia. — (To  be  mixed  separately  from  the 
otlier  ingredients).  Copper,  2  lbs.  ;  tin,  1  lb.  24.  Best  soft  solder  for 
cast  Britannia  Ware. — ^Tm,  8  lbs.  ;  lead,  5  lbs.   25.  Bismuth  solder. 

Tin,  1  ;  lead,  3  ;  bismuth,  3  parts.  2G.  Solder  for  Brass  that  will 
stand  Hammering. — Brass,  78.2G  parts  ;  zhic,  17.41  parts  ;  silver,  4. 
33  parts  ;  add  a  little  chloride  of  potassium  to  your  borax  for  a  flux. 
27  Solder  for  Steel  Joints. — Silver,  19  parts  ;  copper,  1  part ;  brass, 

2  parts.  Melt  all  together.  28.  Hard  Solder. — Copper,  2  parts;  zinc,  1 
part.  Melt  together.  29.  Solder  for  Brass. — Copper,  3  parts  ;  zinc, 
1  part ;  with  borax.  30.  Solder  for  Copper. — Brass,  6  parts  ;  zmc,  1 
part ;  tin,  1  part  ;  melt  all  together  well,  and  pour  out  to  cool.  31. 
Solder  for  Platina.— Gold  with  borax.  32.  Solder  for  Iron.— Tho 
best  solder  lor  iron  is  good  tough  brass  with  a  little  borax. 

N.  B.  In  soldering,  the^  surfaces  to  be  joined  are  made  perfectly 
clean  and  smooth,  and  then  covered  with  sal  ammoniac,  resin  or  other 
flux,  the  solder  is  then  applied,  being  melted  on  and  smoothed  over 
by  a  tinned  soldering  iron. 

Soldering  Fluid.— Take  2  oz.  muriatic  acid;  add  zinc  till  bubbles 
cease  to  rise;  add  ^  teaspoonful  of  sal-ammoniac. 

Black  Varnish  Fob  Coal  Buckets.— Asphaltum,  1  lb. ;  lamp- 
black, ^  lb. ;  resin,  ^  lb. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  qt.  Dissolve  the 
asphaltum  and  resin  in  the  turpentine,  tlien  rub  up  the  lamp-black 
with  linseed  oil,  only  sufficient  to  form  a  paste,  and  mix  with  the 
othscr.   Apply  with  a  brush. 


522      MAoniNiSTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 


SIZES  OK  TfN-WARE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS. 

{For  Diameters.  &c.  of  Circles  see  Tables.) 


Dippers.  -  --  --  --  --  -  ^  gjil. 

,   1  pt. 

Coffee  Pots.  --.  i  gul. 

"    3  qts. 

Pans.   20  qts. 

"   IG  qts. 

"   14  qts. 

"   10  qts. 

  6  qts. 

  2  qts. 

"  -  3  pts. 

"    -   -   1  pt. 

Pie  Pans  -  --  --  --  --  - 

Large  Wash  Bown  ------ 

Small  Wash  Bowl  ------ 

Milk  Strainer 

Pails  and  Dish  Kettles   -  -  -   -  14  qts. 

"               "          "          -    -    -    -  10  qts. 

"               *'          "          -    -    -   -  (5  qts. 

"  "  "  -  _  .  _  2  qts. 
Oolander. 

2  gal. 
1^  gal. 

Measures  for  Druggists,  Beer,  &c.  \ 

1  pt. 

1  gal. 
h  gal. 
1  qt. 
1  pt. 


Measures  of  other  forms. 


Diam, 
of  bot. 

iiuihcs 
4 

m 

7 
G 
13 

% 

11 
9 
6 

f 

I 

7 


-Size  of  Sheet,  for  from  1  to  100  Gallons. 

For  25  gallons,  30  by  56  inches. 


Tin  Cans.- 
For  1  gallon,    7  by  20  inches. 

3.V     "      10  by  28     "  40  "   "      3G  by  63 

5      "      12  by  40     "  50      "      40  by  70 

G      "      14  by  40     "  75      "      40  by  84  " 

10     "      20  by  42     "  100      "      40  by  98  " 

15     "      30  by  42  " 
This  includes  all  the  laps,  seams,  &c.,  which  will  be  found  sufficiently 
correct  for  all  practical  purposes. 

Patent  Lubricating  Oil. — Water,  1  gal.;  clean  tallow,  3  lbs.; 
palm  oil,  10  lbs. ;  common  soda,  ^  lb.  Heat  the  mixture  to  about 
210°  Fahr. ;  stir  well  until  it  cools  down  to  70°  Fahr.,  when  it  is  fit 
for  use. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 


Eight- Angled  "Ei.now.—Fig.  1. — Strike  out  the  length  and  deptli 
of  the  elbow  as  shown  in  the  above  diagram,  drawing  semicircles  at 
the  end  as  exhibited  above.  Then  draw  seven  liorizontal  lines  as 
iihown  extending  along  the  small  figures.  Divide  the  circumference  or 
length  into  IG  equal  parts  by  drawing  15  vertical  lines  as  in  diagram. 
Now  draAV  a  line  from  htok  and  d ;  directly  opposite  draw  another 
line  along  the  letters  vr  p;  for  the  top  sweep  set  the  compasses  on 
the  fourth  lino  from  the  bottom,  and  sweep  two  of  the  spaces ;  and 
do  the  same  at  the  corner.  On  space  for  the  two  remaining  sweeps 
ret  the  compasses  so  as  to  intersect  in  the  three  corners,  of  the  spaces 
designated  by  the  small  cross  marks.  The  drawing  does  not  include 
fleams  or  laps,  these  must  be  added,  'r  ' 

Elbows  fob  Gutters  for  Eaves  of  Roofs.— Eave  troughs  pos- 
ress  a  form  resembling  the  undivided  half  of  a  pipe  divided  Icngth- 
v/ays,  therefore  by  describing  one  half  of  one  end  of  the  elbow  of  a 
]npe  whose  size  is  equal  to  the  size  of  the  gutter  at  the  top,  you  have 
the  requisite  pattern ;  extra  allowance  to  be  made  for  bead. 

Bronzing  Gas  Fittings. — Boil  the  work  in  a  strong  ley,  and 
scour  it  free  from  all  grease  or  old  lacquer.  Pickle  it  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  until  quite  clean,  and  then  dip  it  into  strong  nitric  acid  to  make 
it  bright,  swilling  it  in  the  Avater  immediately  after.  Sometimes  thia 
latter  dipping  in  strong  acid  requires  to  be  repeated  two  or  three  times, 
but  the  Avork  must  always  bo  rinsed  immediately  after  dipping. 
Bind  it  very  loosely  round  Avith  iron  wire,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few 
minutes  in  the  Av'ater  you  have  used  for  SAvilling.  This  will  de- 
posit a  layer  of  copper  on  the  work.  Again  Avash  well,  dry  in  box- 
Avood  dust,  and  brush  over  Avith  equal  parts  of  blacklead  and  Ba/j- 
ncll's  red  bronze.  ^  .  ^ 

To  Separate  Gold  From  Silver — The  alloy  is  to  be  melted  and 
poured  from  a  height  into  a  vessel  of  cold  Avater,  to  Avhich  rotary  mo- 
tion ie  communicated.  By  this  means  the  alloy  is  reduced  to  a  finely 
granulated  condition,  Tho  metallic  substance  is  then  treated  Avitii 
nitric  acid  and  gently  heated.  Nitrate  of  silver  ie  produced,  Avhich 
can  be  reduced  by  any  of  tho  ordinary  methods;  Avliile  metallic  gold 
remains  as  a  black  mud,  Avhich  must  be  Avashed  and  melted. — Scien- 
tific American. 

.  To  Tin  Copper  Stetv  Dlshes,  fcc— Wash  the  surface  of  the  arti- 


524        MACHINISTS,  ENCJ inkers',  &C.,  llECEirTB. 

cle  to  ho  tinned  -with  r;iili)lmric  aoici,  .nnd  n'lD  iho  r>urf.ico  well,  bo  na 
to  li.iv  Mt  KiHooth  and  free  of  blackness  caused  hy  the  acid;  then 
sprinkle  calcined  and  finely  pulverized  sal-ammoniac  upon  the  sur- 
face, holding  it  over  a  fire,  when  it  will  be  sufficiently  hot  to  melt  a 
bar  of  solder  which  is  to  be  rul)bcd  over  the  surface.  Any  copper 
dish  or  vessel  may  be  tinned  in  this  way. 

Parkek'3  Copper  IIardenino  process  consists  in  introducing  an 
admixture  of  a  minute  quantity  of  phosphorus  into  the  u:ctal. 


To  Strike  out  Common  Flaring  Vessels,  Cones,  &c.—Fif/.  2.— 
Form  a  right  angled  paralellogram  H  K  D  V,  H  K  equal  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  wide  end  of  the  diagram,  and  N  P  equal  to  its  cir- 
cumference at  the  indicated  points,  KD  being  the  elevation ;  draw 
the  right  lines  H  N  R  and  K  P  R;  from  R  as  a  basis  lay  out  arcs  from 
H  to  K  and  N  P,  calculating  proper  allowance  for  backs.  To  Strike 
Out  a  Cone. — Form  a  paralellogram  as  in  the  diagram ;  the  space 
from  Hto  K  equivalent  to  the  diameter  of  the  cone;  Kto  D  equiva- 
lent to  the  elevation;  next  dva^y  linos  from  II  and  K  to  the  centre 


! 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  t!iC,,  RECEIPTS.  525 

of  the  line  T)  V,  and  from  this  as  a  base  or  centre  describe  a  segment 
of  a  circle  from  H  to  K. 

,  Flux  fok  Welding  Copper,— Boracic  acid,  2  parts  ;  phospbato 
of  soda,  1  part;  mix.  This  welding  powder  should  be  strewn  over  the 
surface  of  copper  at  a  red  heat;  the  pieces  should  then  be  heated  up 
to  a  full  cherry  red,  or  yellow  heat,  and  brought  immediately  under, 
the  hammer.  Heat  the  copper  at  a  flame,  or  gas  jet,  where  it  will 
not  touch,  charcoal  or  solid  carbon. 


,  To  Strike  oct  a  Circular  Elbow. — Figs.  3  and  4. — Layout  two 
curv-ed  Ihies  F  land  G  D to  suit  the  desired  length  of  elbow;  the 
fipace  from  F  to  G  equivalent  to  the  intended  diameter  of  the  pipe  ; 
lay  off  the  circles  F  D,  G  I  into  as  many  divisions  as  youdesire;  con- 
otruct  the  paralellogram.  Fig.  4,  the  length  equivalent  to  the  diame- 
ter of  the  pipe  you  are  making,  the  width  equal  to  C  B  in  Fig.  3;  lay 
off  a  segment  of  a  circle  equivalent  in  diameter  to  the  pipe,  touching 
the  point  H;  divide  the  segment  into  any  desired  number  of  equal 
divisions;  draw  lines  across  the  dots  parallel  to  V  V;  open  the  com- 
passes 1^  times  the  diameter  of  the  pipe,  and  describe  the  line  from 
V  to  the  intersection  of  the,  lines  P  P  and  R  R,  draw  curvilinear  lines 
CO  the  crossings  of  the  other  ^  hues  to  the  pouit  H,'this  wiU  furnish 
one  side  of  a  section. 


626 


MACHINISTS,  TNGINEEKS',  itC,  nECKIPTS. 


To  Strike,  out  OvAi.n,  Ovat.  Flatitno  Vessels,  kc.—Fig.  5.— 
Construct  the  piuardlosram  II  K  D  V;  II  K  equivalent  to  the  \ow^ 
aivd  K  D  to  corrcsipond  to  tlie  sliort  dLametor;  divide  it  into  four  equal 
])ai  ts  by  drawing  tiie  lines  P  K  and  N  N ;  niarlc  the  point  L  oue-third 
the  distance  from  N  to  O ;  then  describe  the  arcs  I  S  I,  I  S  I,  and  from 
the  lino  N  N  describe  the  segment  I  N  I.  To  describe  an  egg-shaped 
oval  with  ends  of  unequal  magnitude,  construct  the  frustrum  of  a 
cone  that  will  embrace  the  oval  and  proceed  as  in  Fig.  5.    To  Strike 


out  an  oval  Flaring  Vessel  in  four  subdivisions,  find  the  circumference 
of  the  arcs  I  S I  and  I  N I  for  the  bottom  of  the  pieces;  form  a  paral- 
cUogram  the  length  of  which  shall  be  equal  to  the  circumference  of 
the  top  of  either  division,  and  operate  as  in  Fig.  2.  The  same  allow- 
ance must  be  accorded  for  flare  on  the  side  parts  as  on  the  ends, 
allowing  for  burrs  and  locks. 

Gold  Lacquer  for  Tin— Transparent,  All  Colors.— Alcohol 
in  a  flask,  1  pt. ;  add  gum-shellac,  2  ozs. ;  turmeric,  1  oz. ;  red  Sand- 
ers, 1^  ozs.  Set  the  llask  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently  for  12 
hours  or  more,  then  strain  off  the  liquor,  rinse  the  bottle,  and  return 
it,  corking  tightly  for  use.  When  this  varnish  is  used,  it  must  be  ap- 
plied to  the  work  freely  and  flowing,  and  the  articles  should  be  hot 
Avhen  applied.  One  or  more  coats  may  be  laid  on,  as  the  color  is  re- 
quired more  or  less  light  or  deep.  If  any  of  it  should  become  thick 
from  evaporation,  at  any  time,  thin  it  with  alcohol.  And  by  the  fol- 
lowing modifications,  all  the  various  colors  are  obtained :  1.  RoseColor. 
Proceed  as  above,  substituting  1  oz.  of  finely  ground  best  lake  in  place 
of  the  turmeric.  2.  J3hie.  The  blue  is  made  by  substituting  pulverized 
Prussian  blue,  1  oz.,  in  place  of  the  turmeric.  3.  Purple.  Add  a  littlo 
of  the  blue  to  thejirst.    4.  Green.  Add  a  little  of  the  rose  to  the  first. 

Cracked  Stoves. — ^Equal  parts  of  wood  ashes  and  salt ;  mix 
ito  ft  past©  with  water with  thi^  fiU  tliQ  cracks.  ' 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEEKS  ,  &C.,  KECEIPTG. 


527 


To  Describe  a  UEAnrc—Fig.  6.— Draw  the  straight  lino  H  D  K 

equal  to  the  breadtli  of  tlio 
heart;  layoff  the  segments 
H  D  and  D  K,  then  with  the 
dividers  extended  from  H 
to  K,  describe  the  arcs  H  K 
and  K  Y. 

^  To  find  tho  circum/erenco 
of  a  circle,  the  diameter  be- 
ing known,  multiply  tlie  di- 
ameter by  3.1410,  and  to 
find  the  diameter  of  a  circle, 
the  circumference  being 
known,  divide  the  circum- 
ference by  3.1416. 

To  Strike  out  Ovai, 
Wash  Boiler  Covers. — 
Fifj.  7.— Describe  the  lino 
V  *R  equal  in  extension  to 
half  the  length  of  the  boiler ; 
from  the  central  point  D  lay 
off  the  circle  M  R  N,  equiva- 
lent in  diameter  to  tho 
T)readth  of  the  boiler  outside  the  wire  around  the  rim ;  describe  the 
line  H  K  so  as  to  cross  the  line  V  R  in  tho  manner  show^i  in  diagram ; 
make  V  S  three-eighths  of  an  inch  high  more  or  less  as  you  desire  it 
for  the  pitch  of  the  cover;  place  the  corner  of  the  measuring  square 
on  the  line  H  K,  laying  the  flat  part  touching  the  point  S;  then  de- 
scribe the  lines  H  N,  H  S,  S  K  and  K  M,  which,  with  the  proper  al- 
lowance for  locks  and  edges,  completes  the  cover. 

Japanners'  Gold  Size. —Gum  ammoniac,  1  lb. ;  boiled  oil,  8  ozp. ; 
spirits  turpentine,  12  ozs.  Melt  the  gum,  then  add  the  oil,  and  lastly 
Bpirits  turpentine. 

Japanning. —Nearly  30  formula  for  varnishes  will  be  found  on 
page  283,  among  them  Japanners  Copal  Varnish,  and  this,  together 
with  oil,  alcohol,  shellac,  or  any  other  transparent  varnish,  admits  of 
behig  mixed  witli  coloring  matter  to  produce  different  shades.  1. 
For  Scarlet.  Gromid  vermilion  may  be  used,  but  being  so  glaring  it 
is  not  beautiful  unless  covered  over  with  rose-pink,  or  lake,  which 
have  a  good  effect  when  thus  used,  2.  Bright  Crimson.  Use  saff- 
flower  or  Indian  lake  dissolved  in  alcohol;  in  place  of  this  lake  car- 
mine may  be  used,  as  it  is  more  common.  3.  Yelloxo.  Turmeric  dis- 
solved in  spirits  of  wine,  strained  through  a  cloth,  and  mixed  with 
pure  seedlac  varnish,  makes  a  good  yellow  japan ;  saffron  will  answ- 
er applied  in  the  same  way.  and  chrome  yellow  is  excellent,  Dutch 
pink  forms  a  ch  eap  yellow  japan  ground.  If  dragon' s  blood  be  added 
toth*  yellow  japan,  a  most  beautiful  and  rich  gaimon-colored  varnish 
is  the  result,  varied  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  ingredient  used. 
4.  Orange.  Use  yellow  mixed  with  vermilion  or  carinine,  just  as  a 
bright  or  inferior  color  is  desired,  5,  Purple.  Add  to  the  varnish  a 
mixture  of  lake  and  Prussian  blue,  or  carmine,  or  for  an  inferior 
color,  vermilion,  C.  Blve.  Use  bright  Prussian  blue  ;  it  may  be 
mixQ^  with  shellac  varnish  and  brout^ht  to  a  polishiu.-j  state  by  5  or  G 


528        MACHINISTS,  ENGINEKUS',  i'cC,  UKCKIPTS. 

coats  of  v.iriiish  of  sccdl.ic;  mix  with  tho  purest' varnish  Avhcn  a  Uf/ht 
l)hio  is  dosirod.  7.  liUtck.  rnissian  blue  1  o/-.,  aspluiltiim  2  ozs., 
spirits  tur[)Oiitino  1  pint;  nu^lt  tl»o  asiilialtum  in  tlio  turpentine,  rub 
up  the  l>luc  Avitli  a  little  of  it;  mix  ai  d  strain,  tlien  add  tlic  whole 
to  2  pints  of  the  varnish.  8.  Green.  Mix  equal  parts  of  the  blue  and 
yellow  together,  then  mix  witli  tho  varnish  until  the  color  suits  tho 
fancy.  9.  Pitik.  ]\lix  a  little  of  the  blue  to  more  in  quantity  of  tho 
red  and  then  add  to  the  varnish  till  it  suits.  10.  White.  One  whito 
ground  is  made  by  tho  following  composition:  white  flake  or  lead 
washed  over  and  ground  up  with  a  sixth  of  its  weight  of  starch,  tlieu 
dried  and  mixed  Avith  tho  finest  gum,  ground  up  in  parts  of  1  oz. 
gum  to  \  oz.  of  rectified  turpentine  mixed  and  ground  well  together. 
This  is  to  be  finely  laid  on  the  article  to  be  japanned,  dried  and  then 
varnished  with  5  or  G  coats  of  the  following:  2  ozs.  of  the  whitest 
Beed-lac  to  3  ozs.  of  gum-anime  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  dis- 
solved in  1  qt.  alcohol.  For  a  softer  varnish  than  this,  a  little  turpen- 
tine should  be  added  and  less  of  the  gum. 


.  \  -        I  -  ■ 

;  '          V  -   '  -  ■   '     \         .  'i^ 

■K 

To  Strike  out  Can  Tops  and  Bevel  Covers  foe  Vessels. — 
Fig.  8.— Describe  the  circle  K  K  K  for  the  size  of  the  can  or  cover; 
allow  the  space  between  K  K  K  and  D  D  D  for  edges  to  the  same, 
and  the  distance  between  V  V  V  and  D  D  D  for  tho  flare;  spau  tho 


I 


irAcmxTST3,  engineehg',  ScC,  nr-CEiPTG.  ,'523 

dividers  from  R  to  K  and  divide  the  cnrvilinea,r  line  V  V  V  into  six 
cqunl  divisions ;  cut  out  the  pieces  H  H  H,  D  D  D  leaving  edges  lor 
locks  parallel  to  II V.  For  the  opening  in  the  can  head  or  top,  describe 
the  curvilinear  line  H  H  H  equal  in  magnitude  to  the  circumference 
of  tlie  opening.  To  have  your  can  tops  one-third  pitch,  span  the  di- 
viders two-thirds  of  the  diameter  of  the  can:  lay  out  a  circle  and  uso 


two-thirds  of  it.  For  one-quarter  pitch,  span  the  dividers  three- 
fourths  of  the  diameter  of  the  can,  lay  out  a  circle  and  use  three- 
quarters  of  it.  For  one-Iialf  pitch,  lay  off  the  circle  twice  the  diame- 
ter of  the  can  and  use  half  of  it.  Rcmemher  to  grant  full  allowance 
for  locks  onlJ^ 

Different  Styles  of  Filing.— To  file  a  surface  true,  it  is  neces- 
cary  on  commencing,  to  squeeze  the  file  tightly  between  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers  and  palm  of  your  hand  until  you  become  used  to  it. 
Your  position  in  filing  should  bo  half  left  face  to  your  work,  with 
the  middle  of  your  right  foot  fifteen  inches  behind  your  left  heel ; 
r*nd  to  file  your  work  true  or  square,  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  your 
"tvork  often,  as  by  this  means  you  are  enabled  to  see  tlie  whole  surface 
you  are  filing,  and  see  while  filing  whether  you  are  filing  true  or  not. 
When,  hoAvever,  your  work  is  so  ho^i^y  that  you  cannot  reverse  it 
you  had  better  file  first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left,  as  by  this 
means  you  can  i)lainly  see  the  fiio  marks,  and  this  again  assists  you 
in  filing  true. 

To  Crystallize  Tin.— Sulphuric  acid,  4  ozs. ;  soft  water,  2  to  3 
ozs.,  according  to  strength  of  the  acid;  salt  ozs.  Mix.  Heat  the 
tin  hot  over  a  stove,  then  Avith  a  sponge  api)ly  the  mixture,  then 
Avash  off  directly  with  clean  water.  Dry  the  tin,  and  varnish  with 
demar  varnish 

Compression  of  an  India-Rubbeb  Buffer  of  Three  Inches 
Stroke.— 1  ton,  1.3  inches.    1\  tong,  1^  inches.    2  tons,  2  inchca, 
3  tons,  2-3  inchc3.   5  tons,  2?  inches.    10  tons,  3  iuchea, 
34 


530         MACIIINIST3,  engineers',  i;C.,  RECEIl>Tf3. 


To  Strike  a  Set  op  Patteuns  for  the  Envelope  of  a  Cone. — 
Fig.  9. — ^Lay  off  the  liuos  H  N  aud  KN ;  the  space  from  II  to  K  corres- 
ponding to  the  circiunfercnce 
of  the  cone  at  tlie  largest  end; 
II  N  equal  to  the  sloping 
height;  from  N  as  a  basis  de- 
pcribe  the  segments  II  K,  I)  D, 
V  V,  RK,  and  V  P;  each  of  the 
parts  between  these  segment; 
will  compose  a  section  of  the 
covering  if  allowance  be  made 
for  the  laps.  To  lay  off  tlio 
frustrum  of  a  cone,  see  Fig.  2. 

2o  find  the  Area  of  a  Circle, 
multiply  the  circumference  by 
cue-fourth  the  diameter.  Jo 
find  the  Area  of  a  Section  of  a 
Circle,  multiply  the  length  of 
the  arc  by  half  tho  length  of 
the  radius. 

To  Strike  out  Strainer 
Bucket  and  Coffee  Pot 
Lips  {Eastern  Style).— Fig.  10.— Describe  the  triangle  H  K  D,  H  K 
equivalent  to  the  slanting  height;  from  D  lay  out  the  section  H  K; 

describe  sections  of  circlesi 
from  K  to  D  aud  H  to  D  ac- 
cording to  the  dimensions  of 
the  vessel.  In  coffee  pots, 
the  section  extending  from 
H  to  K  should  be  regulated 
according  to  tho  style  in 
■which  it  is  to  be  constructed. 
In  describing  Tea-kettle 
AND  Tea-pot  Spouts,  pro- 
ceed as  in  Figs.  1  and  4,  mak- 
ing the  breadth  of  the  paral- 
ellogram  commensurate  or 
equal  to  the  angle  you  desire 
to  cut,  and  the  length  equiv- 
alent to  the  circumference  of 
the  spout. 

To  Strike  out  Lips  Fok 
Measures,  &c.~Lay  out  a 
circle  the  dimensions  of  t'lo 
top  of  the  vessel;  describe  a 
Ime  through  the  centre  of  the  circle  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  sec- 
tions; span  the  compasses  on  the  line  one  quarter  the  distance  from 
the  end,  and  descrjloe  a  semi-circle  touching  the  opposite  end  of  tho 
line;  i)ass  the  compasses  the  breadth  of  the  lip  desired,  and  lay  out 
an  arc  until  it  approaches  the  semi-circle;  which  will  allow  the  de- 
sired lip.  The  annexed  Sector  is  appended-  to  enable  mechanics  to 
obtain  angles  when  required : 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  KECEIFTS.  5o1 


Adjusting  Locomotive  Vat^ves.— A  correspondent  of  the  Scieri' 
tific  American  gives  the  following  method  of  setting  slide  valves  of 
locomotives  : — Make  a  steel  tram,  about  5^  in.  long,  vrith  two  points 
at  the  right  angles  with  the  straight  bar,  one  point  to  be  2f  in.  in 
length,  and  the  other  1^  in.  Both  points  are  to  be  sharp.  Take  a 
centre  punch,  and  make  a  centre-mark  on  the  top  of  the  steam-chest 
jiacking-box ;  then  take  a  strip  of  tin  and  put  it  in  the  steam-port. 
Draw  tne  valves  slowly  back  until  3- on  can  just  move  the  tin  be- 
tween the  edge  of  the  A-alves  and  the  edge  of  the  steam-port  (which 
is  now  closed  except  as  to  the  thickness  of  the  strips  of  tin. ) 
Take  the  tram,  place  the  short  point  in  the  centre-mark  on  the 
]iacking-box  ;  then  make  a  scratch  on  the  valve  stem,  and  go 
through  with  the  same  process  with  the  opposite  steam-port.  Kow 
you  have  marks  on  the  valve-stem  just  where  the  valve  begins  to  open. 
The  valve-stem  must  next  be  got  into  radius  (as  we  torm  it),  which 
is  to  show  the  proper  length  for  the  valve-stem.  It  is  done  thus  : 
Cover  the  steam-ports  equally  with  the  valve,  put  the  centre  of  the 
rock  shaft  and  tlie  rocker  pin  at  a  right  angle  with  the  boro  of  the 
cylinder:  and  when  the  valve-stem  is  adjusted  to  this,  it  is  of  the 
proper  length  and  should  not  be  altered.  To  adjust, the  valves  in  for- 
ward motion,  hook  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forwr,rd  notch,  take  the 
dead  points  for  centres,  and  alter  the  eccentric  rods  until  the 
spaces  are  equal  on  the  valve-stem,  which  is  determined  by  the  use 
of  the  tram.  Take  the  forward  centres  and  give  1-lOth.  lead  to  the 
valve,  for  either  passenger  or  freight  engines.  By  adopting  this  plan 
the  engine  will  reverse  her  action  promptly.  ITook  the  reverse  lever 
in  the  back  motion,  and  repeat  as  above.  If  the  job  is  to  be  done 
quickly  and  the  eccentrics  are  in  the  proper  position,  it  can  be  done 
-by  the  travel,  in  this  way  :  Move  the  engine  slowly  forward  with 
steam,  take  the  tram,  and  trace  the  movement  of  the  valve  on  the 
valve-stem  until  the  stem  st0])s ;  then  trace  the  return  movement 
until  that  stops.  Take  a  pair  of  dividers  aud  measure  each  di?ttinco 
from  the  valve  mark  on  the  stem  to  the  extreme  of  the  travel  lino 
(or  where  the  valve  stopped).  Alter  eccentric  rods  until  the  spaces 
are  equal .  Bv  these  means  you  do  not  require  to  take  the  gteara 
chest  covers  off. 


532  FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS. 


Facts  for  Gas  Companies  and  Consumers.— Tho  following 
different  volumes  of  gas  have  been  obtained  from  various  kinds  of 
coal.  Cannel  coal,  15,000  cubic  ft.;  Wigan  cauncl,  15,426;  Boghead 
cannel,  ].'3,334;  Cape  Breton  "  Cow  Bay,  etc.,  1),500;  Pictou  ana  Sid- 
ney, 8000;  English,  mean,  11,000;  Newcastle  from  9,500  to  10,000; 
I'ittsburg,  9,520,  Scotch,  from  10,300  to  15,000;  Wallsond,  12,000,  Vir- 
ginia, 8,%0;  Western,  ;),500.  Pine  wood  will  evolve  11,000  cubic  ft. 
per  ton.  Rosin  15,600.  Oil  and  "grease  23,000  cubic  ft.  Each  retort 
should  produce  about  600  cubic  ft.  of  gas  in  5  hours,  with  a  charge  of 
1^  cwt.  of  coal,  or  2800  cubic  feet  iu  24  hours.  One  ton  of  coal  should 
produce  about  9000  cubic  ft.  of  gas,  1  chaldron  of  coke  and  about  11 
gals,  of  tar,  and  9  of  ammoniacal  liquor.  Dry  purifiers  require  1 
bush,  of  lime  to  10,000  cubic  ft.  of  gas,  and  toe't  jmrifiers  an  admix- 
ture of  water,  48  bushels,  and  lime,  1  bushel  for  each  10,0(X)  cubic  ft. 
of  gas.  One  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  in  gas  diminishes  its  illumin- 
ating power  one-tenth.  Defective  burners  should  be  changed  with- 
out delay,  as  all  smoking,  roaring,  irregular,  ragged,  and  pronged 
flames  caused  a  great  waste  of  gas  with  deficient  light ;  a  smoky 
flame  indicates  loss  of  gas  as  w^ell  as  loss  of  light.  One  good  gas 
light  is  better  economy  than  a  number  of  small  ones.  TJie  standard 
off/as  burninrj  is  a  15  hole  Argand  lamp,  interior  diameter  '44  Ins., 
chimney  7  ins.  high,  consuming  5  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  evolving  a  light 
from  common  coal  gas  of  from  10  to  12  sperm  candles  of  6  to  the 
pound,  with  cannel  coal  from  20  to  24  candles,  and  with  Pennsyl- 
vania coal  from  14  to  16  candles  The  advantage  gained  by  employ- 
ing a  30-hole  argand  instead  of  the  standard  is  a  greater  production 
of  light,  the  increase  being  from  20  to  30  per  cent.,  for  if  the  standard 
consumes  5  ft.  per  hour,  and  evolves  tho  light  of  12  candles,  the  30- 
hole  burner,  consuming  7  ft.  per  hour,  will  give  the  light  of  22  can- 
dles. An  Argand  burner  with  two  chimneys,  one  within  the  other, 
with  air  space  between  in  which  the  air  becomes  heated  during  its 
downward  movement  towards  the  flame,  for  an  equal  amount  of 
light,  causes  a  saving  of  gas  equal  to  33  per  cent. ,  and  for  an  equal 
consumption  of  gas,  the  gain  in  light  is  equal  at  62  per  cent. 

Burners  are  made  so  as  to  j)roduce  all  shapes  of  flame,  and  are  of 
different  materials,  lava,  iron,  steel,  porcelain,  steatite,  brass,  plati- 
num lined,  etc.  The  bore  from  which  the  flame  of  the  gas  issues 
should  be  arranged,  as  regards  its  width,  for  the  quality  of  the  gas 
consumed,  cannel  coal  gas  for  instance,  being  provided  with  narrower 
openings  than  those  for  common  coal  gas.  We  have  single  jet  burn- 
ers, double  jet  burners,  bat's  wing,  flslitail,  cockspur,  and  other 
varieties ;  also  Argand  burners  of  various  sizes,  bored  with  6  to  30  or 
48  holes,  or  as  in  the  Dumas  burner,  a  slit  instead  of  a  hole.  The 
best  gas  burners  are  made  of  lava,  and  the  kind  known  as  fishtail 
burners  consume  from  4  to  5  ft.  of  common  coal  gas  per  hour;  large 
burners  require  from  6  to  10  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  in  proportion  to  size  ; 
sheltered  lights  consume  about  4  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  out  door  lights 
about  5  cubic  ft. ;  street  lamps  in  cities  consume  from  3  to  5  cubic  ft. 
per  hour,  according  to  size  of  burner  used.  A  13  candle-gas,  con- 
sumed in  an  Argand  burner,  evolves  an  illuminating  power  of  13  can- 
dles ;  if  burnt  in  a  batwing  or  fish-tail  burner  the  same  gas  will  pro- 
duce only  the  illuminating  power  of  9  candles.  The  deficiency  of 
light  is  caused  by  an  admixture  of  atmospheric  air  mingling  largely 
with  the  thin  jets  of  gas, increasing  the  heat,  but  dissipating  the  light, 


FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS.  530 


and  imparting  a.  blue  tinge  to  tlie  flame.  Bat-wing  burners  are  the 
best  adapted  lor  all  out-door  lights.  Whenever  economy  in  gas  and 
good  light  are  main  objects,  the  larger  kind  of  bat-wing  burners  are 
preferable  ;  a  bat-wing  burner  consuming  3^  ft.  of  gas  per  hour 
yields  only  the  light  of  6  candles,  whereas  a  burner  consuming  6  ft. 
per  hour  evolves  a  light  equal  to  15^  caudles,  the  pressure  being  4- 
lOths  of  an  inch  at  the  point  of  ignition.  Nearly  the  same  results  are 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  fishtail  burner.  The  carcel  burner,  with 
a  perforated  disc  at  the  lower  ijart,  and  two  orifices  at  the  upper, 
where  the  flames  unite  and  spread  into  one,  each  side  of  this  united 
flame  being  supported  by  two  curved  levers  or  arms,  is  paid  to  be 
equal  if  not  superior  to  the  Argand  or  fishtail  burners  in  the  power 
of  evolving  a  soft,  steady,  mellow  light. 

Loss  TO  THE  Diffusion  of  Gas  Light  by  Glass  Globes. — 
Clear  glass,  12  per  cent. ;  glass  globe  engraved  with  ornaments,  24  per 
cent, ;  half  ground  globe,  35  per  cent. ;  globe  obscured  all  over,  40  per 
cent ;  opal  globe,  60  per  cent. ;  painted  opal  globe,  64  per  cent.  No 
glasses  of  any  kind  are  ever  used  with  the  bat-wing  burner  owing  to 
the  widely  extended  flame,  but  for  fish-tail  burners  they  are  in  com- 
mon use.  Globes  as  usually  made,  are  of  faulty  construction  and 
cause  needless  obscurity  and  a  great  loss  of  light.  The  Trudeau 
globe,  invented  and  patented  by  Mr.  Trudeau,  of  Ottawa,  Canada,  is 
constructed  on  correct  scientific  principles,  with  spacious  and  roomy 
apertures,  which  tend  to  promote  a  low  temperature  in  the  glass, 
thus  preventing  fracture  from  the  lieat,  and  the  accumulation  of 
smoke  and  dust.  The  burner  being  properly  adjusted,  the  height  of  the 
globe  being  low,  and  the  openings  wide,  the  gas  is  easily  ignited,  and 
burns  at  an  exceedingly  low  pressure,  with  a  clear,  steady  flame,  with- 
out flickering,  and  diffuses  a  flood  of  soft,  brilliant  light,  which  for  quan- 
tity and  quality  is  really  surprising  to  one  accustomed  to  the  old  fashion- 
ed globes.  If  1  per  cent,  of  air  is  mixed  with  gas,  the  illuminating  power 
is  diminished  about  6  per  cent;  if  one-fifth  of  air  be  mixed  with  four- 
fifths  of  gas,  no  servicable  light  can  be  derived  from  the  mixture. 
The  greatest  light  and  least  heat  is  produced  when  the  gas  is  not  ex- 
posed to  too  great  a  current  of  outside  air,  and  the  most  heat  and 
least  light  is  evolved  by  permeating  the  gas  largely  with  external  air; 
in  every  case  an  insufflciency  of  air  supply  will  cause  smoke  and  ob- 
scurity of  light  with  any  kind  of  burner.  Large  burners  under  a  low 
pressure  ijroduco  a  greater  amount  of  light  than  small  burners  under 
a  high  pressure,  each  kind  consuming  eqiial  quantities  of  gas  in  a 
given  time,  and  a  greater  volume  of  light  is  emitted  from  a  largo 
burner  than  from  two  small  ones  consuming  the  same  quantity  of  gas 
as  the  one  large.  All  burners,  no  matter  what  the  size  maybe,  re- 
quire a  certain  quantity  of  gas  to  produce  the  largest  amount  of  light, 
whicli  is  as  much  lost  through  the  use  of  too  little  gas  as  by  the  use  of 
a  slirplus. 

Explosion  of  Gas. — Seven  parts  of  air  and  one  of  gas  is  considered 
to  be  the  most  dangerous  compound,  but  much  depends  on  the  purity, 
&c,,  of  the  gas.  Compounds  of  less  than  3of  air  to  1  of  gas,  or  above 
11  of  air  to  1  of  gas,  will  not  explode.  Gas  unmixed  with  oxygen  or 
atmospheric  air,  extinguishes  flame,  and  while  in  this  state  cannot  ex- 
plode. The  terrific  gas  explosion  during  the  summer  of  1870  in  Cin- 
cinnati, was  caused  by  a  lighted  pipe  belonging  to  a  laborer  employed 
on  the  top  of  the  gas  holder;    the  heat  generated  by  the  flash 


b'di  FACTS  FOU  GAS  COMPANIFS  AND  CONSUMERS. 


was  nearly  2,500°,  or  about  iho  tcmpcraturo  of  melted  f^tccl;  one 

Earty  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  from  the  explosion  compared 
is  experience  to  the  inhalation  of  a  stream  of  hot  air  from  a  furnace ; 
the  time  occupied  by  the  explosion  was  about  the  3rd  part  of  a  second. 
An  explosive  mixture  of  gas,  ivhile  mider  pressure,  will  only  ignite  at 
the  exterior  orifice  of  the  pipe  or  holder ;  but  if  the  pressure  is  removed^ 
the  flame  penetrates  to  the  interior,  and  explosion  ensues.  On  per- 
ceiving tlic  odor  of  escaping  gas,  instant  action  should  bo  tfvkcn  to  de- 
tect and  stop  the  leak,  but  there  is  great  temerity  in  applying  a  light 
in  such  cases ;  the  best  way  is  to  turn  off  the  gas  for  3  or  4  hours,  and 
allow  it  full  time  to  dissipate  into  the  open  air  through  the  doors,  win- 
dows, &c,  before  using  flame  in  any  form.  If  a  light  is  required  at 
the  open  end  of  a  pipe  while  making  a  new  connection,  gas-fitters 
should  in  every  case  turn  the  outlet  tap  off,  or  disconnect  the  outlet 
union  of  the  meter,  in  order  to  avoid  the  hazard  of  exj)lodiug  the  me- 
ter. 

PRESSURE, — According  to  Mr.  Haswell,  "The  pressure  with  which 
gas  is  forced  through  iiipes  should  seldom  exceed  2\  inches  at  the 
works,  or  the  leakage,  will  exceed  the  advantages  to  be  obtained  from 
increased  pressure.  When  pipes  are  laid  at  an  inclination  either 
above  or  below  the  horizon,  a  correction  will  have  to  be  made  in  esti- 
mating tlie  supply,  by  adding  or  deducting  1-100  of  an  inch  from  the 
initial  pressure  for  every  foot  of  rise  or  fall  in  the  length  of  the  pipe. 
By  experiment  30,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  sp.  gr.  "42  were  discharged 
in  an  hour  through  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  22.5  feet  in  length, 
and  852  cubic  feet,  specific  gravity  "398  were  discharged  under  a  head 
of  3  ins.  of  water,  through  a  main  4  ins.  in  diam.  and  G  miles  in 
length.  Loss  of  volume  of  discliarge  by  friction,  in  a  jiipe  6  ins. 
diam.  and  1  mile  in  length,  is  (stimated  at  95  per  cent.  In  distilling 
56  lbs.  of  coal  the  volume  of  gas  produced  in  cubic  feet  wdien  tho 
distillation  was  effected  in  3  hours  Avas  41.3,  in  7  hours  37.5,  in  20  hours 
33.5,  and  in  25  hours  31.7."  The  expiration  of  the  breath  from  tho 
lungs  in  the  gentlest  manner,  is  about  equal  to  the  proper  pressure  for 
the  most  favorable  consumption  of  gas,  while  a  slight  blowing  force 
is  equal  to  the  highest  pressure  in  the  mains  of  gas  companies ;  tho 
first  example  is  about  equivalent  to  two  or  three-tenths  pressure,  and 
the  second  to  from  3  to  5  ins.  pressure. 

U"he  orifices  of  gas  burners  should  be  well  xjroportioned,  not  too 
small,  to  require  increased  pressure  to  expel  the  gas,  thus  seriously 
curtailing  the  light,  as  shown  by  the  following  experiments  with  4 
Argands,  all  of  one  size,  each  having  15  holes,  but  the  orifice  of  each 
graduated  so  that  only  5  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  could  pass  under 
the  respective  pressures  liere  intimated: — 

Gas  issitirK)  ivith  Pressure  in  tenths  of  inches. 
1-lOth  yielded  the  light  of  12  candles. 
5-lOths      "  "       G  " 

10-lOths      "  «       2^  " 

40-10th3      "  "      1-G  ,  " 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  orifice  of  an  Argand  burner  is  too  large,  ■ 
the  flame  Avill  smoke  offensively  and  thus  entail  waste  and  loss.  Grade 
the  size  of  the  orifice  by  the  quality  of  the  gas  to  be  consumed ;  for 
poor  gas  the  lioles  may  be  large;  for  good  gas,  smaller  holes  may  bo 
nsed.  In  every  case  be  careful  to  effect  a  correct  adjustment  in  order 
to  obtain  the  best  results. 


FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS.  535 


Volumes  of  Gas  DisciiARftED  peh  Hour  Under  a  Pressure 
OF  Half  ax  Inch  of  Water— Specific  Gravity  of  Gas  -42. 


Diam.  of 
opening. 

Volume. 

Diam .  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Diam.  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Diam.  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Ins. 

I 

Cubic  ft. 
80 
321 

Ins. 

1."* 

Cubic  ft. 
723 
1287 

Ins. 

Cubic  ft. 
1625 
2010 

Ins. 

':!^ 

Cubic  ft. 
288  . 
4G,luO 

Diameter  and  Length  of  Gas  Pipes  to  Transmit  Given  Volume 
OF  Gas  to  Branch  Pipes.— Z)r.  Ure. 


Volume 

Diam- 

Volume 

Diam- 

Volume 

Diam- 

p. hour. 

eter. 

Length. 

p.  hour. 

eter. 

Lenglh. 

p.  hour. 

eter. 

Length 

Cub.  ft. 

Ins. 

Feet. 

Cub.  ft. 

Ins. 

Feet. 

Cub.  ft. 

Ins. 

Feet. 

50 

4. 

100 

1,000 

3.16 

1,000 

2,000 

7. 

6,000 

250 

1. 

200 

1,500 

3. 87 

1,000 

6,000 

7.75 

1,000 

500 

1.97 

COO 

2,000 

5.32 

2,000 

6,000 

9.21 

2,000 

700 

2.65 

1000 

2,000 

6.33 

4,000 

i-,000 

8.95 

1,000 

To  Determine  the  Size  of  Gas  Pipe  Required— London  Rule — 
For  200  lights,  2  inch  tube;  120  lights,  l^/o  inch;  70  lights,  IV4  inch;  50 
lights,  1  inch;  25  lights,  %  inch;  12  lights,' 1/2  "^^h;  6  lights,  %  inch;  2 
lights,  inch. 

Diameter  and  Extreme  Length  of  Tubing  and  Number  of  Burn- 
ers Allowed— American  Standard. 


Diam. 

of 

tube. 

Feet 
in 
lengtb 

No.  of 
burn- 
•■  ers. 

Capac- 
ity of 
met'rs. 

No.  of 
burri- 
ers. 

Diam. 
of  tub- 
ing. 

L'ngtli 
in 
feet. 

No.  of 
burn- 
ers. 

Capac- 
ity of 
met'rs 

No.  of 
burn- 
ers. 

6 

1 

3  lights. 

6 

1 

70 

35 

45  li'ts. 

90 

T 

20 

3 

5  " 

10 

100 

60 

60 

120 

30 

6 

10  " 

2J 

iy2 

150 

100 

100  " 

2!)0 

% 

40 

12 

20  " 

40 

2 

20J 

20,-) 

% 

60 

20 

30  " 

60 

... 

Diamkter  and  Length  of  Pipe  from  the  Main,  together  with 
THE  Number  of  Lights  allowed  in  the  Gas  Service 
FOR  Lamps. 


No.  of 
lamps. 

Dis- 
tance 
from 
mainin 
feet. 

Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 

No.  of 
lamps. 

Dis- 
tance 
from 
main  in 
feet. 

Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 

No.  of 
lamps. 

Dis- 
tance 
from 

main 
in  ft. 

Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 

2 
4 
6 

40 

40  ' 
60 

% 
% 

10 
15 

20 

100 
.  130 
150  J 

%  25 
1  30 
IV4     1  .. 

180 
200 

1% 

NPwPaS !  ""^"i*"  conducted  by  Mr.  Pattinson,  analvtical  cliemist, 
whn^  vv  fb"".'?^  l^Sl^*  equivalent  to  llf  candles 

Sira  ?i  p  Q  ^f^f  quantity  of  gas,  some  burners  gave  only  3|, 
others  5.},  6,  8,  and  9^  candle  light. 


^^^^^>'^yof  illumincitinq  c/as,  the  English  law  enacts  that 
nmn?i        ^       With  respect  to  its  purity,  be  so  far  free  from  am- 
•  "    sulphuretted  hydrogen  that  it  shall  not  discolor  either 
vvSf     ^'^r':  ^'^  paper  Imbued  with  acetate  or  carbonate  of  lead, 
when  these  tests  are  exposed  to  a  current  of  gas,  issuing  for  one  rain- 


536  FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS. 


utc  under  a  prcsHuro  of  five-tciitlis  of  an  inch  of  water,  and  8hall  not 
contain  more  than  20  grains  of  sulphur  in  any  form  in  100  cubic  ft.  of 
g.as."  Tlie  following-  enumeration  sliows  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  common  gas  used  in  various  cities  and  towns  in  (ireat  Britain,  as 
determined  by  Prof,  Frankland,  in  accordance  with  the  Government 
standard:  London,  12  candles,  Liveri)Ool,  22,  Manchester,  22,  Car- 
lisle, 1(),  Birmingham,  15,  Edinburgh,  28,  Glasgow,  28,  Hawick,  30, 
Aberdeen,  35,  Inverness,  25,  Greenock,  28.5,  Paisley,  oO,3.  In  Berlin, 
it  is  15.5,  Paris,  12.3,  Vienna,  9;  and  in  the  United  States  it  varies 
from  12  to  18  candles,  computing  by  the  English  standard.  Gas 
manufactured  from  cannel  coal  emits  a  light  the  standard  of  which  is 
equal  to  20  candles.  This  gas,  in  London,  is  usually  supplied  to  the 
public  buildings  and  the  residences  of  the  wealthy.  *^London  has  now 
(1876)  5,000  miles  of  gas  mains,  54,000  street  lamps,  which  burn 
3,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  each  night ;  on  the  lighting  of  the  lamps 
and  other  lights  the  deoxydation  of  the  atmosphere  caused  thereby  is 
equivalent  to  the  addition  of  500,000  inhabitants  to  the  population. 

The  illuminating  value  of  gas  is  enormously  enhanced  by  causing 
it,  after  it  lias  passed  through  the  meter,  to  enter  a  Carhonizer  or 
Carbureter,  containing  gasoline,  or  other  light  oil,  where  it  becomes 
saturated  and  enriched  by  the  absorption  of  the  carbonaceous  fumes 
and  vapors  generated  from  the  oil  previous  to  emission  into  the  ser- 
vice pipes  of  the  building.  The  apparatus  ought  to  be  of  sufficient 
size,  and  should,  in  its  construction  and  location,  combine  every 
available  appliance  to  ensure  safety,  strength,  simplicity,  and  ease  of 
management,  while  presenting  the  largest  possible  surface  for  the 
proper  evaporation  of  its  contents.  The  economy  of  this  carbureted 
gas  is  such  that  a  two-foot  burner  emits  the  light  of  five  feet  of  com- 
mon gas,  while  the  direct  saving  effected  on  the  consumption  of  the 
latter,  varies,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  gas  used,  from  33  to  43 
per  cent.  Hydrogen,  an  essential  component  of  coal  gas,  is  the 
lightest  substance  in  nature,  being  15  times  lighter  than  air,  and  12,000 
times  lighter  than  water,  and  requires  for  perfect  combustion,  8 
times  its  weight,  or  half  its  volume  of  oxygen  ;  in  its  passage  through 
the  carbureter  above  described,  it  is  simply  the  medium  or  vehicle  to 
transmit  the  particles  of  vaporized  carbon  from  the  generator  to  the 
l)urner,  where  on  ignition  it  attracts  to  itself  a  sufficient  portion  of 
the  surrounding  oxygen,  etc.,  to  effect  illumination.  When  12  lights 
with  5  foot  burners  are  required  to  furnish  the  desired  light  from 
common  gas,  G  lights,  with  3  foot  burners  and  carbureted  gas,  is 
found  to  be  all  sufficient  for  the  same  purpose.  ,  .  , 

Gasoline  being  almost  a  pure  carbon,  may  be  transmitted  m  the 
vaporized  form  in  combination  with  the  coal  gas,  direct  from  the  gas 
works  to  the  consumer.  The  Superintendent  of  the  West  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  Gas  Works,  reports  a  product  of  603,600  cubic  feet  of  20  candle 
,as  from  TObbls,  benzine,  72  gravity,  costing  $1,75  per  bbl,,  being  a 
'.i£»sult  of  8,622  feet  per  bbl.,  at  a  cost,  including  material,  labor,  fuel, 
IK.,  of  about  32  cents  per  1000  cubic  feet.  Crude  petroleum  and 
,..cavy  oil  from  the  refineries,  including  gasoline,  benzine,  etc.,  were 
all  tested  and  used  with  the  greatest  ease,  the  vaporizing  or  carbon- 
izing process  being  produced  by  means  of  superheated  or  other  steam 
passing  through  a  coil  of  pipe  inside  a  tank  or  still  containing  the  oil. 
Proportions  used  were:  14  candle  gas,  50  per  cent,  oil  gas,  30  per  cent, 
air,  15  per  cent.   It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  unusually  large  per- 


FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS.  537 


centage  of  air  did  not  perceptibly  diminish  the  illnminating  p(;wer  of 
the  compound,  used  with  common  coal  gas,  15  per  cent,  of  air  would 
have  produced  great  obscurity  in  the  resultant  light. 

Owing  to  the  cheapness  of  petroleum  and  its  products,  several 
towns  have  commenced  its  exclusive  use  for  the  production  of  illu- 
minating gas,  and  lind  it  much  cheaper  and  better  every  way  than 
the  gas  produced  from  coal.  In  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  elsewhere,  sev- 
eral enterprising  firms  have  taken  a  notable  step  in  utilizing  natural 
gas,  which  is  conveyed  in 'some  instances  many  miles  through  pipe« 
from  the  wells,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  for  illinnhia- 
tion,  the  generation  of  steam  power,  etc.  The  gas,  manufactured  in 
nature's  alembic,  is  most  probably  generated  by  the  action  of  subter- 
ranean heat  operating  on  an  ocean  of  volatile  carbonaceous  matter  at 
a  great  depth  in  the  earth,  from  which  it  frequently  issues  with  ter- 
rific noise  and  irresistable  force  on  the  penetration  of  the  crust  by 
drilling  or  otherwise. 

Gas  machines  for  generating  gas  from  gasoline  are  now  in  exten- 
sive use  for  lighting  factories,  dwelluigs,  offices,  etc.  A  good  illus- 
tration of  a  most  meritorious  invention  of  this  class  can  be  seen  on  the 
next  page.  The  gas  made  by  this  machine,  known  as  carburetted  air 
gas,  is  obtained  by  the  impulsion  of  common  air,  bv  means  of  an  air- 
pump,  into  a  carbureter  containing  gasoline.  In  this  receptacle  the 
air  becomes  saturated  and  impregnated  with  the  carbonaceous  vapors 
from  the  gasoline,  and,  impelled  by  the  action  of  the  air-pump,  it 
transmits  its  burden  to  the  buniers  through  the  service  pipes  of  the 
building,  yielding  a  beautiful,  rich,  bright  flame,  conceded  to  be  fully 
equal  to  that  evolved  by  the  best  coal  gas,  being  free  from  sulphur- 
ous compounds  and  other  impuiities.  Nearly  one  thousand  of  these 
machines  are  now  in  successful  operation  ui  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, etc.,  and  the  saving  effected  by  them  is  almost  incredible.  The 
proprietors  of  the  National  Drover's  Hotel,  cor.  100th  Street  and 
3d  Avenue,  New  York,  certify  that  their  gas  bill  for  one  year,  with  a 
200  light  Gas  Machine,  was  only  $550,  the  light  obtained  jjeing  every 
way  more  desirable,  and  far  superior  to  that  formerly  supplied  by 
the  "  city  gas  "  at  an  annual  cost  of  nearly  $1,400. 
Diameter  and  Extreme  Length  of  Pipe  and  Number  of 

Burners  allowed  for  Carburetted  Gas,  Served  by  Gas 

Machine.   ( Gilbert  &  Barker). 

Greatest  number  of  feet  Size  of  pipe.  Greatest  number  of  buraem 

to  be  run.  to  be  supplied. 

20  feet  ....  I  inch.  ...  2 
30    "      .  ,    .       .       I   "      .      .      .  4 

60  I   "         ...  15 

70   "      .  ,    .      .       1    "      .      .       .  25 

100   "  li  "         .      .      .  40 

150  "  .  .  .  U  "  .  .  .  70 
200  2^  «  ...  140 

300   "      .      .      .       2^  "      .       .      .  225 
400    "  .       .       .       ,    3    "         ...  300 
500    "       .       .       .       4    "       .       .       .  500 
As  to  the  qvalityot  carburetted  air  gas  it  possesses  an  illuminating 
power  of  from  16  to  20  candles,  being  nearly  equal  to  cannel  gas,  and 
is  characterized  by  perfect  combustion,  ease  of  lighting,  large  volume 
of  flame,  and  perfect  combination. 


ON  GAS  METERS,  &C,  589 


Classification  of  Hydrocarbons. —  The  grade  usually  ac- 
cepted by  distillers  stands  as  follows  :  All  above  88°  of  Baume's 
hydrometer  is  styled  chimogeue,  from  88°  to  70°  gasoline,  from  70'^ 
to  G0°  naphtha,  from  00°  to  50°  benzine,  from  50°  to  35°  kerosene, 
from  35°  to  28°  lubricating  oil. 

On  Gas  Meters — In  distmguishing  between  dry  and  wet  meters,  the 
construction  of  the  former  is  briefly  as  follows :  In  a  gas-light  me- 
tallic box  are  placed  2  or  3  bellows  like  vessels,  Avhich  instead  of  being 
inflated  by  air,  are  inflated  by  the  gas  entering  from  the  service  pipes. 
When  inflated  to  some  extent  an  arrangement  of  springs  and  levers, 
forces  the  gas  out  of  the  bellows  again  into  the  exit-pipe  leading  to 
the  burners.  The  cubic  capacity  of  the  chambers  (as  the  bellows  like  ar- 
rangements are  called),  having  been  accurately  adj  usted ,  the  move- 
ments of  their  walls  is  communicated  to  wheel-work,  which  being 
connected  with  dials,  indicate  in  tens,  hundreds  and  tliousands,  tho 
consumption  of  gas  in  cubic  feet. 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  1. 


Dry  meters  are  preferred  on  account  as  well  of  not  being  liable  to 
be  affected  by  frost  as  of  not  causing  the  sudden  extinguishing  of  the 
gas-light  for  want  of  watei*  as  may  occur  Avith  wet  meters.  Wet 
meters  are  constructed  upon  a  plan  devised  in  1817,  by  Clegg,  and  im- 
proved by  Crossley,  and  others.  Figs.  1,  2,  3  and  4,  are  drawings  of 
this  kind  of  mete.r,  which  consists  in  the  first  place  of  an  outer  cylin- 
drical box  of  cast  iron,  closed  on  all  sides.  In  this  box  is  placed  a 
drum  of  pure  block-tin,  divided  into  4  compartments,  bearing  upon  a 
bell-metal  axis,  and  immersed  for  rather  more  than  half  its  circum- 
ference in  water.  By  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  the  ensuing  de- 
pression of  the  water,  the  drum  revolves,  each  of  its  compartments 
becoming  alternately  filled  with  and  emptied  of  gas.  On  the  axis  of 
the  drum  is  an  endless  screw,  which  by  mechanical  means  is  connected 
with  the  wheel- work  of  the  dials.  The  drum  is  very  accurately  adjusted, 
so  that  at  every  complete  revolution  a  certain  cubic  quantity  of  gas 
passes  through  and  is  registered.   Fig.  1  exhibits  the  apparatus  with 


r>io 


ON  GAS  METERS,  «S;C. 


tlio  front  plate  removed;  Fig.  2  shows  tlio  side  of  the  meter;  Fig.  3  is 
sectional  ])lan;  and  Fig.  4i«a  section  through  the  box;  a  is  the  box 
a  tlvc  drum,  b  its  axis,  c  the  endless  screw;  bearing  in  the  wheel  d,  and 
carrying  by  means  of  c  the  movement  of  the  drum  on  to  the  wheel- work 
of  tiie  dials;///  is  the  inlet  pipe  for  the  gas,  which  flows  into  the  valve 
box,  h  and  passing  by  the  valve,  i  (kept  open  as  long  as  the  meter 
contains  sufficient  water  for  action),  flows  through  the  bent  tube,  I 
into  the  bulged  cover  of  the  drum,  or  technically  antechamber  m, 


and  thence  into  the  several  compartments  of  the  drum.  Hence  the 
gas  enters  the  space  n,  to  which  is  fitted  the  outlet  pipe,  o  i  is  tlie 
valve;  p  the  float;  q  the  funnel  tube  for  filling  the  meter  with  water; 
r  the  waste  water  cistern ;  s  the  plug  by  which  the  waste  water  may  be 
run  off.  As  long  as  no  gas  burners  are  in  use,  the  meter  connected 
with  them  is  inactive ;  but  Avhen  the  gas  is  burnt  the  drum  rotates,  and 
by  its  communication  with  the  wheel- work  registers  the  quantity  of 
gas  consumed.  Instead  of  filling  wet  meters  with  water,  they  "may 
be  filled  with  glycerine,  which  does  not  freeze  nor  evaporate,  and 
they  should  be  set  perfectly  level. 

Water  Gas. — The  manufacture  of  water  gas  essentially  consists 
in  forcing  steam  through  iron  or  fire  clay  retorts  filled  with  red-hot 
charcoal  or  coke.  The  steam  is  decomposed,  yielding  a  mixture  of 
hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  and  carbonic  acid  gases,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  marsh-gas.  The  purified  gas,  consisting  essentially  of  carbonic 
oxide  and  hydrogen,  is,  although  not  luminous  when  burnt  by  itself, 
suitable  for  illuminating  purposes  under  the  following  conditions: 
1.  By  placing  on  the  burners  small  platinum  cylinders  which,  by  be- 
coming white-hot,  yield  a  stiong  light— Gengembre's  and  Gillard's 
plan,  2.  By  impregnating  the  gas  with  vapors  of  hydro-carbons,  as 
above  described,  the  original  idea  being  due  to  Jobard  (1832),  of 
Brussels. 

Gas  Wells. — Although  these  remarkable  wells  are  quite  numerous 
in  Pennsylvania,  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to  that  locality.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Fredonia,  NewYork,  a  native  permanent  source 
of  gas  exists,  which  hafing  been  accidentally  discovered  by  th« 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3 


GAS  LIGHTING,  GAS  ENGINES,  &C.  541 

EuUiug  dawn  of  a  mill  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Canadaway, 
as  been,  by  boring  the  bituminous  limestone,  enlarged,  and  a  gas 
holder  constructed.  The  native  gas  now  serves  the  purpose  of  illumi- 
nating the  locality.  In  the  Szlatina  salt  mine,  in  Hungary,  illuminat- 
ing gas  is  constantly  evolved,  at  a  depth  of  90  metres,  in  great  quan- 
tities, and  subserves  the  purpose  of  lightuig  up  the  mine.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  Irabert,  who,  as  a  missionary,  has  travelled  through  China,  states 
that  in  the  province  of  Szu  Tchhouan,  where  many  bore-holes  for  rock 
salt  have  been  made  to  the  depth  of  about  1500  to  1600  feet,  gas  is 
permanently  emitted  and  conveyed  in  bamboo  tubes  to  places  where 
it  is  used  for  lighting  and  heating  purposes,  more  especially  the  heat- 
ing of  salt-pans  in  which  the  brine  is  evaporated.  In  Central  Asia, 
and  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  there  are,  at  several  localities,  so-called 
infernal  fires,  which  are  due  to  the  constant  evolution  of  gas  from 
the  soil.  Similar  jihenomena  exist  at  Arbela,  in  Central  Asia,  at 
Chitta-Gong,  in  Bengal,  and  other  places. 

About  1786,  Earl  Dundonald  made  experiments  on  gas  lighting  at 
Culross  Abbey;  but  it  should  be  observed  regarding  these  experiments 
that  they  were  made  with  the  view  of  obtaining  tar,  the  gas  evolved 
by  the  distillation  of  the  coals  being  regarded  as  a  curiosity.  The 
real  inventor  of  practical  gaslightiug  is  William  Murdock,  who,  in 
1792,  lit  his  shops  at  Redruth,  Cornwall,  with  gas  obtained  from  coals. 
The  first  more  extensive  gas-work  was  established  in  1802,  by  Mur- 
dock, at  the  Soho  Foundry,  nejir  Birmingham,  the  property  of  the 
celebrated  Boulton  &  Watt.  In  1803  he  illuminated  two  cotton  mills 
in  Manchester  the  same  way. 

Gas  Engines. — In  Lenoir's  gas  engine,  now  much  employed  in 
France,  the  source  of  power  is  the  expansion  arisiug  from  the  explo- 
sion of  gas.  Air  and  gas  are  admitted  to  a  cylinder  in  the  proportion 
of  11  to  1;. a  spark  from  a  galvanic  battery  is  sent  through  it;  the 
spark  explodes  the  mixture,  and  the  expansion  consequent  on  this 
explosion  drives  a  piston  to  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder.  Mechanism 
does  all  the  rest;  opens  a  slide  valve  to  permit  exit  to  the  exploded 
mixture,  drives  the  piston  back  by  the  momentum  of  a  flyrwheel,  opens 
tubes  for  the  admission  of  new  air  and  gas,  establishes  connection 
again  with  the  battery,  and  prepares  for  a  renewal  of  the  action,  and 
so  on  continuously.  These  engines  are  costly  in  the  first  instance, 
and  many  precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent  them  being  overheated  ; 
but  they  require  no  fireman,  and  are  rather  cheaper  to  work  than 
steam-engines  ;  consequently  they  are  much  employed  for  2  to  4  horse- 
power purposes. 

Products  of  Cord  of  Pitch  Pine  obtained  bv  Distil- 
lation.— Charcoal,  50  bushels;  Ilhiminatinff  Gas,  about  1000  cubic 
feet;  lUnminating  Oil  and  Tar,  50  gals. ;  Eosin  IJ  bbls. ;  Pyroligneoas 
Acid,  100  gals. ;  Spirits  Turpentine,  20  gals. ;  Tai\l  bbl. ;  Wood  Spirit, 
5  gals. — Haswell. 

To  Mend  Iron  Retorts. — Fire  clay  15  lbs.,  saleratus,  1  lb.,  with 
water  sufficient  to  make  a  thick  paste.  Apply  to  the  broken  part  of 
the  retort  while  at  a  good  working  heat,  then  cover  it  with  fine  coal 
dust,  and  charge  the  retort  for  working. 

To  Stop  Leaks  in  Clay  Retorts  When  at  Working  Heat  : — 
Five  parts  fire  clay,  2  parts  white  sand,  1  part  of  borax  pressed  and 
ground.    Mix  the  whole  together  with  as  much  water  as  may  be  ne- 


512      MAciiiNiSTr,,  i:NGiNK::uy',  &c.,  iieceipts. 


essary  to  brins  it  to  tlic  ronsiiitcnco  of  putty.  Roll  it  in  tlx;  hands  to 
a  proper  Icnytli  and  apply  it  over  the  crack,  pressing'  it  with  a  long 
epntiila  into  the  crack. 

To  Remove  DicrosiT  of  Carbon  from  Clay  Rktorts. — Lcavo 
the  retort  uncharged  for  48  hours,  or  as  long  as  can  be  spared.  Put 
the  lid  on  the  mouth-piece  so  as  to  be  closed  at  top,  and  open  two  or 
three  inches  at  the  bottom.  Take  out  the  stopper  from  stand  pij^e, 
BO  as  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to  pass  through  tlie  retort  and  oxydizo 
tlie  carbon  ;  use  no  bar.  Put  in  a  charge  of  coal  after  the  retort  liaa 
biiu  idle  the  number  of  hours  required,  and  Avhen  it  is  withdrawn  the 
carbon  comes  Avith  it. 

To  Prevent  Gas  Meters  Froji  Freezinc. — Half  a  pint  of  good 
glycerine'is  said  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  1  gal.  Avater,  though  at 
least  double  the  proportion  is  preferable  in  the  country,  whatever 
tho  temperature  in  the  Avinter  may  happen  to  be. 


"  Hovr  To  Read  The  Ga3  Meter.  Tho  figures  on  the  index  attlio 
right  hand  denote  even  hmidreds.  When  the  hand  comi^letes  tho 
entire  circle  it  denotes  ten  hundred,  and  is  registered  by  the  hand  \\\ 
the  centi'e  circle,  pointing  to  one — each  figure  in  the  centre  circle 
being  a  thousand,  this  entire  circle  being  ten  thousand  ;  and  is  re- 
gistered on  the  index  of  the  left  hand  circle  by  the  hand,  there  de- 
noting by  each  figure,  ten  thousand.  v 

The  quantity  of  gas  Avhich  i^asses  through  the  meter,  is  ascertained 
by  reading  from  the  uidex  at  the  time  tho  amount  is  required  to  bo 
Icnown,  and  deducting  therefrom  the  quantity  shown  by  the  index  at 
a  previous  observation.         -■        '  " 

If  the  whole  is  registered  by  tho  hands  on  the  three  circles  aboA-e, 
it  indicates.  49.900 

Amount  at  iDrevioua  obser\'ation,  as  shoAvn  by  the  dotted 
lines  ■  42.500 

Shows  amount  which  passed  through  since  last  taken  off  7.400 

The  register  at  all  times  shows  the  quantity  that  has  passed  through 
since  the  meter  Avas  first  set,  by  deducting  from  Avhich  the  amount 
that  has  been  paid  for  (without  any  regard  to  the  time  Avhen,) 
shows  that  the  difference  remains  unpaid. 

To  Purify  Gas. — The  purifier  is  to  be  filled  with  milk  of  lime, 
made  by  mixing  1  part  of  slaked  lime  with  25  parts  of  water.  A  very 
^reat  improvement  in  the  jjurification  of  gas  has  been  effected  by 
Mr.  Statter,  of  England,  by  the  employment  of  hydrated  clay  along 
with  the  lime  employed  for  this  puii)ose,   Hydrated  clay  unites  with 


MACmXISTS,  ENGIN^EEKS',  SiC,  RECEIPTS.  543 

the  .ammonia  of  the  gas  as  •with  a  base,  and,  at  tlio  same  time  with  its 
Bulphurct  of  ciirbon  as  an  acid,  and  thus  removes  both  of  these  nox- 
ious impurities  from  the  gas  exposed  to  its  influence.  It  assists  also, 
in  conjunction  with  the  lime,  in  removing  tarry  vnpor  and  other 
impurities  from  the  gas.  The  illurainatmg  power  of  tlw  gas  is  posi- 
iively  increased  by  the  clay  purification  from  22  to  33^  per  cent. 
Latterly,  use  is  made  of  hydrated  sesquioxideof  iron  for  purifying  gas. 

To  Avoid  Waste  ok  Gas. — Tunithegas  partly  off  at  the  meter  ; 
much  gas  is  bunicd  to  waste  by  too  great  pressure  in  certain  localities. 
In  buildings  of  any  size  a  good  regulator  will  soon  pay  for  itself.  To 
stop  the  leakage  of  f/as.  Turn  oil  the  gas  back  of  the  meter  ;  then 
take  out  (a  screw  driver  is  all  the  tool  required)  the  plug.  Next  light 
a  wax,  sperm,  or  parafline  candle,  and  drop  the  melted  wax,  sperm, 
or  paraffincupon  the  surface  of  the  ping,  till  it  is  covered  with  a  tlvin 
layer.  Next,  screw  in  the  tap,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  leak 
will  be  stopped,  and  remain  stopj^ed. 

To  Remkdy  Scatteking  Shot  Guns. — Tlie  only  remedy  known 
to  gunsmiths  is  by  choke-boring,  tliat  is,  boring  from  the  breech  of 
the  gun,  so  as  to  have  a  gradual  taper  towards  the  muzzle.  This 
method  of  boring  greatly  improves  the  shooting  qualities  of  the  gun, 
as  the  charge  concentrates  at  the  muzzle.  Large  shot  arc  more  apt  to 
scatter  than  fine,  but  this  depends  on  the  bore  of  the  gun.  A  largo 
bored  gun  does  not  shoot  fine  shot  so  well  as  medium.  A  small 
bored  gnu  throws  fine  shot  with  greater  force  than  a  large  bored 
one.  As  a  general  thing,  a  small  bored  gun  is  not  adapted  to  largo 
shot,  as  it  does  not  chamlDer  them  avcII.  The  length  of  gun  also  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  bore — 28  or  30  inches  for  a  gun  of  from  10  to  14 
gauge;  30  to  34,  of  gims  from  8  to  10 ;  2G  to  28,  of  guns  of  15  to 
18  gauge. 

IJkonzing  Fltjid  for  Guns. — Nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.2  parts; nitric 
ether,  alcohol,  muriate  of  iron,  each  1  part;  mix,  then  add  sulphate 
of  copper,  2  parts,  dissolved  in  water,  10  parts. 

Bluing  on  Revola'ers  and  Gun  Bakrelsi  is  performed  by 
simply  heatmg  the  piece  to  be  blued  in  powdered  charcoal  over  a  firo 
until  the  desired  color  is  obtained. 

Fine  Blue  Finish  for  Gun  Barrels, — Apply  nitric  acid  and  let 
it  eat  into  the  iron  a  little  ;  then  the  latter  will  be  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  oxide.  Clean  the  barrel,  oil  and  burnish.  A  very  fine 
appearance  is  given  to  gun  barrels  by  treating  them  with  dilute 
nitric  acid  and  vinegar,  to  which  has  been  added  sulphate  of 
copper.  The  metallic  copper  is  deposited  irregularly  over  the  iron 
surface  ;  wash,  oil  and  rub  with  a  hard  brush. 

Browning  for  Gun  Barrels.— Spirits  of  nitre,  lib.;  alcohol,  1 
lb, ;  corrosive  sublimate,  1  oz, ;  mix  in  a  bottle,  and  cork  for  use, 
^Directions:  polish  the  barrel  perfect;  then  rub  it  with  quick  lime 
with  a  cloth,  which  removes  grease  and  dirt;  now  apply  the  brown- 
ing fluid  with  a  clean  white  cloth,  apply  one  coat,  and  set  it  in  a  wann 
dark  place  for  from  10  to  20  hours,  until  a  red  rust  forms  on  it;  then 
ca.rd  it  down  with  a  gunmaker's  card,  and  rub  off  with  a  clean  clotlu 
Repeat  the  process  if  you  wish  a  dark  shade. 

Browning  for  Twist  Barrels.— Spirits  of  nitre,  |  oz. ;  tincture 
of  steel,  I  oz. ;  or  use  the  unmedicated  tincture  of  iron  if  the  tincture 
of  steel  cannot  be  obtained;  black  brimstone,  ;i  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  i 


644        .AIAClIliNISTS,  KNG1NEI:R8*,  AC,  KECEIPTS. 

oz. ;  corrosive  Rublimatc,  ^  oz.  ;  nitric  acid,  Idram;  copperas,  J  oz, ; 
mix  with  1^  pints  rain  water,  and  l)ottlo  for  use.  Tins  is  to  bo  ap- 
plied the  "panic  as  tlie  first ;  it  canses  the  twist  of  the  barrel 
to  bo  visible  alter  application,  a  quality  which  the  other  liquid  does 
not  possess. 

Dkowninq  Cojiposition  for  Gun  BARR'Kr.s.— 1.  Blue  vitriol,  4 
oz. ;  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  2  oz. ;  water,  1  qt. ;  disvS0lv6,  and  add 
aquafortis  and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each,  1  oz.  2.  Blue  vitriol 
and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each  1  oz. ;  aquafortis,  ^  oz. ;  water,  1 
pint.  To  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  previously  described  in  thia 
work. 

Varnish  and  ToLisn  for  Gun  Stocks.— Gum  shellac,  10  ozs.; 
glim  sandarac,  1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  dr. ;  98  per  cent,  alcohol, 
1  gal.;  shake  the  jug  occasionally  for  a  day  or  two,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Apply  a  few  coats  of  this  to  your  gun  stocks,  polish  by  rub- 
bing smooth,  and  your  work  is  complete. 

Boring  Gun  Barrels.— Take  a  piece  of  rod,  cast  steel,  I  inch 
smaller  than  the  interior  of  the  barrel,  and  a  few  inches  longer,  beat 
one  end  up  somethmg  larger  than  the  size  of  the  bore,  then  turn  or 
file  it  in  the  shape  of  an  egg,  leaving  the  swell,  or  centreing  part 
l-20th  of  an  inch  larger  than  the  bore.  With  a  saw  file,  cut  longi- 
tudhial  cuts,  J  inch  apart,  laying  them  the  same  angle  as  a  rose  bit 
countersink,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  periphery  of  the  tool; 
harden  and  temper  to  straAv  color. 

DAaiAscus  Twist  and  Stub-Twist  Gun-B.vrret.s.— The  twisted 
barrels  are  made  out  of  long  ribbands  of  iron,  wound  spirally  around 
a  mandril,  and  welded  on  their  edges  by  jumping  them  on  the  ground, 
or  rather  on  an  anvil  embedded  therein.  The  plain  stub  barrels  are 
made  in  this  manner,  from  iron  manufactured  from  a  bundle  of  stub- 
nails,  welded  together,  and  drawn  out  into  ribbands,  to  insure  tho 
possession  of  a  material  most  thoroughly  and  intimately  worked. 
The  Damascus  barrels  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  stub-nails  and 
clippings  of  steel  in  given  proportions,  puddled  together,  made  into  a 
bloom,  and  subsequently  passed  through  all  tho  stages  of  the  manu- 
facture of  iron,  in  order  to  obtain  an  iron  that  shall  be  of  an  unequal 
quality  and  hardness,  and  therefore  display  different  colors  and 
markings  when  oxidized  or  browned.  Other  twisted  barrels  are 
made  in  the  like  manner,  except  that  the  bars  to  form  the  ribbands 
are  twisted  whilst  red  hot,  like  ropes,  some  to  the  right,  others  to  tho 
left,  and  which  are  sometimes  lamuiated  together  for  greater  divers- 
ity. They  are  subsequently  again  drawn  into  the  ribbands  and 
wound  upon  the  mandril,  and  frequently  two  or  three  differently  pre- 
pared pieces  are  placed  side  by  side  to  form  the  complex  and  orna- 
mental figures  for  the  barrels  of  fowling-pieces,  described  as  stub- 
tioist,  loire-tioist,  Damascus-tioist,  &c.  Sometimes  Damascus  gmi- 
barrels  are  formed  by  arranging  twenty-five  thin  bars  of  iron  and 
mild  steel  in  alternate  layers,  welding  the  whole  together,  drawing 
it  down  small,  twisting  it  like  a  rope,  and  agam  welding  three  such 
rop«s,  for  the  formation  of  the  ribband,  which  is  then  spirally  twisted 
to  form  a  barrel,  that  exliibits,  wlien  finished  and  acted  upon  by 
acids,  a  diversified,  laminated  appearance,  resembling,  when  proi)- 
erly  managed,  an  ostrich  feather. 

i).iULASKEENiNa.— This  is  tho  art,  now  in  a  great  measure  lost,  of 


\  MACUINISTS,  EKGINEERS',  &C.,  RKCEIPTS.  545 

jproduciu^  a  watered  or  Trary  appearance  on  the  sfccl  sAvord-bLidcs, 
armour,  &c.,  or  of  inlaying  and  encrusting  steel  -with  gold  and  silver, 
originally  practised  at  Damascus.  Various  metliods  of  damaskeen- 
ing were  practised,  but  the  most  common  seem  to  have  been  those  of 
welding  two  different  kinds  of  steel,  or  steel  and  iron,  together,  or  of 
cutting  lines  on  the  surface  of  the  steel  and  filling  them  with  gold  or 
silver,  which  was  either  forced  into  the  incised  lines  and  brought  to  a 
level  witli  the  surface  of  the  steel,  or  remained  in  relief  above  it. 
When  the  former  method  was  used,  a  light  pattern,  generally  in  many 
lines,  was  produced  on  a  dark  ground,  or  vice  versa,  and  the  junction 
of  the  metals  caused  the  pattern  to  run  througli  the  entire  thick- 
ness of  the  blade,  so  that  it  could  not  be  obliterated  even  by  grind- 
ing. 

02f  Wood  Cuts  and  New  Wood  Tytes.— Wood  cuts  should  never 
be  washed  with  lye  or  water,  benzine  or  campheno  only  should  bo 
used.  Large  wood  letters  when  new  should  bo  soaked  in  a  mixture 
of  turpentine  and  thin  boiled  linseed  oil  over  night,  and  Liken  out  of 
the  bath  in  the  morning,  and  then  wiped  clean.  Let  them  stand 
awhile  to  absorb  what  oil,  etc.,  may  not  have  been  removed  by 
wiping,  then  ink  them  well.  After  they  stand  a  few  hours  wash  them 
with  benzine. 

Printers'  Rollers.— JVb.  1.  UZocfe  Composition,  very  durable  and 
clastic.  Genuine  Irish  or  Buffalo  glue  10^  lbs.,  black  sugar  cane,  or 
best  maple  molasses,  1  gal.,  purified  Lidia  rubber  shavings,  1  lb., 
Carolina  tar,  2  ozs.,  glycerine,  12  ozs.,  strong  vinegar.  4  ozs.  Soak 
the  glue  oveir  night  and  drain  in  the  moniing  by  means  of  a  covered 
Tlander.  Boil  molasses  and  skim  for  20  minutes.  Add  the  rubber 
fonavin^s  and  stir  until  it  combines  with  the  molasses,  add  the  glue 
and  boil  G  or  7  minutes,  and  pour.  If  purified  rubber  cannot  be  pro- 
cured add  1^  lbs.  more  glue  and  4  ozs.  more  glycerine.  Ko.  1  glue,  2 
>bs.  ;  Baeder's  glue  2  lbs.  ;  best  sugar  house  molasses,  1  gal.  ;  gly- 
cerine, \  pt.  For  Winter  use,  reduce  each  glue  ^  to  §  of  a  lb.  Soak 
the  glues  wrapped  up  separately  in  woolen  cloths  about  three  hours. 
Boil  the  molasses  45  or  50  minutes,  skimming  thoroughly.  Then  add 
the  glues  drained  of  superfluous  water.  Boil  the  whole  for  15  or  20 
minutes,  add  the  glycerine,  boil  and  stir  3  to  5  minutes  then  pour  off. 
No.  3.  Strong  Middle  Weather  Rollers.  Temp.  00°  to  70°  Fahr. 
Coopers  best  glue,  8^  lbs. :  extra  syrup,  2  gals.  ;  glycerine,  1  pt.  ; 
Venice  turpentine,  2  ozs.  Steep  the  glue  in  rain  water  until  pliant, 
and  drain  it  well.  Then  melt  it  over  a  moderate  fire,  but  do  not 
"  cook  it."  This  wiU  take  from  15  to  25  minutes.  Next  put  in  the 
nyrup,  and  boil  |  of  an  hour,  stirring  it  occasionally  and  slumming  oil 
impurities  arising  to  the  surface.  Add  the  glycerine  and  turi^eutino 
a  few  minutes  before  removing  from  the  fire,  and  pour  slowly. 
Slightly  reduce  or  increase  the  glue  as  the  weather  becomes  colder  or 
warmer. 

Silvering  Solution  for  Electrotype  Plates.— Nitrate  of 
Bilver  2  drs.  ;  distilled  water,  37  drs.  Dissolve,  and  add  sal  ammon- 
iac, 1  dr.  ;  hydrophosphite  of  soda,  4  drs. ;  precipitated  chalk.  4  drs. 
Agitate  the  preparation  occasionally  for  12  hours,  when  it  will  bo 
leady  for  use.    Apply  with  a  fine  sponge. 

Printing  on  Glass.— A  Frenchman,  named  Wilbaux,  has  taken  out 
a  patent  to  use  An  clastic  typo  for  printing  on  glass,  with  fluorspar 
35 


»>1G       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  liECKIPTS. 

rendered  .adhcsivo  by  some  such  material  as  mucilage  or  printcri^ 
liik  ;  Bulpliuric  acid  of  suitable  temperature  is  then  allowed  to  act  on 
that  portion  of  tlie  glass.  Tlio  hydrofluoric  acid  generated  iu  tliia 
way  would  etch  the  glass  on  tlie  places  printed  on.  When  completed, 
tlie  Avholo  is  washed  oil  witli  warm  water  and  lye. 

Liquid  for  Brigiitenino  Comlmon  Qualities  of  Black  or 
Colored  Inks. — Domar  varnish,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  lir,  ^  oz.  ;  oil  bcr- 
gamot,  25  drops  ;  balsam  of  copaiba,  35  drops  ;  creosote,  10  drops  ; 
copal  varnish,  50  drops.  Use  in  small  quantities.  The  whites  of 
fresh  eggs  are  also  brighteners  of  colored  inks,  but  they  must  be  ap- 
pUcd  a  little  at  a  time,  as  they  dry  very  hard,  and  arc  apt  to  fciko 
away  the  suction  of  rollers  if  used  for  any  extended  period. 

Good  Reducing  Dryer.— Brown's  (genuine)  Japan.  Use  in  small 
quantities.  Hardening  Gloss  For  Inks. — Gum  Arabic  dissolved  in 
alcohol  or  a  Aveak  dilution  of  oxalic  acid.  Use  iu  small  quantities, 
and  mix  with  the  ink  as  the  latter  is  consumed. 

To  GIVE  D.VBK  Inks  a  Bronze  or  Changeable  Hue. — ^Dissolve 
Ih  lbs.  gum  sheUac  in  1  gal.  C5  per  cent  alcohol  or  cologne  spirits  for 
24  hours.  Then  add  14  ozs.  aniUne  red.  Let  it  stand  a  few  hours 
longer,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Add  this  to  good  blue,  black, 
or  other  dark  ink,  as  needed  in  quantities  to  suit,  when  if  carefully- 
done  they  will  be  found  to  have  a  rich  bronze  or  changeable  hue. 

Quick  Dryer  for  Inks  used  on  Bookbinders'  Cases. — Bees- 
wax, 1  oz.,  gum  arable  (dissolved  in  sufficient  acetic  acid  to  make  a 
thin  mucilage),  J  oz.,  Brown  Japan,  ^  oz.  Incorporate  Avith  1  lb.  of 
good  Cut  ink.  To  Renew  a  Hard  Roller. — ^^Vash  the  roller  carefully 
with  Ij^o  cover  the  surface  with  a  thin  layer  of  molasses  and  lay  it 
aside  till  the  next  morning,  then  wash  it  with  water,  and  let  it  hang 
till  dry  enough  for  using.  - 

Savage's  Printing  Intc.— Pure  balsam  of  copaiba,  9  ozs. ;  lamp- 
black, 3  ozs. ;  indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  each  5  drams ;  Indian  red,  | 
oz. ;  yellow  soap,  3  ozs.   Mix,  and  grind  to  the  utmost  smoothness. 

Printing  Ink. — Set  on  a  fire  in  a  large  iron  pot  12  gals,  of  clear 
linseed  oil,  boil,  and  stir  until  it  smokes,  then  ignite  it,  remove  it  from 
the  fire  and  let  it  bum  untn  a  sample  will  draw  into  strings  between 
the  fingers.  Put  the  lead  on  to  extinguish  the  flame,  then  add  1  lb. 
of  rcsm  to  each  qt.  of  oil ;  dissolve,  and  add  gradually  in  slices  1|  lbs. 
of  soap;  heat  the  pot  until  the  solution  is  complete,  when  the  varnish 
is  ready.  Two  sorts  are  kept,  one  thick,  and  the  other  thin,  so  as  to 
mix  when  required;  the  difference  is  caused  in  the  boiling  and  firing 
being  kept  up  for  different  periods.  For  large  printing  type  a  thin  is 
required,  as  thick  ink  would  only  print  in  patches ;  for  small  tyjpe  very 
gtil'f  ink  is  used,  to  prevent  it  running  off.  For  making  black  ink, 
mix  together  mineral  lampblack,  8  lbs. ;  vegetable  black,  7  lbs. ;  in- 
digo and  Prussian  blue  of  each  5  ozs.  Indian  red,  2  ozs. ;  grind  this 
with  sufficient  varnish,  gradually  adding  as  the  grinding  goes  on. 
For  colored  ink  use  colored  pigments,  according  to  tlie  required  shade. 

Gum  for  Backing  Labels. — Mis  pure  dextrine  Avith  boiling 
water  until  it  assumes  the  consistency  of  ordinary  mucilage.  Apply 
with  a  full  bodied,  evenly  made  camel  s  hair  brush.  The  paper  should 
not  bo  too  thin  or  unsized.  It  will  dry  quickly  and  adhere  when 
slightly  wet. 

.   PBOr.  BoTTGEii's  PoKTABLB  Ink. — ^IMake  the  strongest  possible 


MAcniNisTS,  engineers',  &c.,  keceipts.  :  547 

Bolution  of  aniline  Llack  iu  water  or  alcohol,  and  soalc  thick  unsized 
paper  thoroughly  to  imbibe  mixture,  and  then  dry.  Tut  in  a  botttlo 
sind  add  water  as  required. 

Coloring  aijd  Sizikg  of  Paper. — Paper  is  adulterated  with  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  30  per  cent.,  to  increase  the 
weiglit.  lirown  paper  is  mixed  witli  oclire  and  clay,  the  manufac- 
turers say,  to  give  it  a  nice  brown  color,  but  doubtless,  the  true  reason 
is,  to  make  it  heavier.  AVhite  soap,  glue,  starch,  and  dissolved  resin 
with  a  few  pounds  of  alum,  form  a  good  size  for  printmg  paper  to  mix 
with  the  pulp.  Four  or  five  poimds  oxide  of  cobalt  (smalts),  give  a 
beautiful  blue  tinge  to  fine  writing  paper,  when  added  to  100  lbs.  of 
the  rags.  Writing  paper  is  sized  by  being  dipped  5  or  6  sheets  at  a 
time  into  a  composition  made  from  skins  and  other  animal  substances, 
a  large  pile  of  it  being  afterwards  pressed  to  force  out  the  superfluity, 
although  machines  now  exist  malting  fine  writing  paper,  sized  with 
gelatine,  dried,  and  cut  mto  sheets,  at  the  rate  of  GO  feet  a  minute  iu 
length,  and  70  inches  wide.  Almost  any  desired  shade  may  be  im- 
parted to  paper  by  the  use  of  several  of  the  coloring  pigments  mention- 
ed on  page  132.  'it  requires  great  skill  and  judgment  to  rightly  pro- 
liortion  the  various  ingredients  for  coloring  the  pulp. 

To  Pulp  Straw  for  Paper  Making. — The  straw  is  placed  in  a 
boiler,  with  a  large  quantity  of  strong  alkali,  and  with  a  pressure  of . 
steam  equal  to  from  120  to  150  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  extreme 
heat  being  attained  iu  superheatmg  the  steam  after  it  leaves  the 
boiler,  by  passing  it  through  a  coiled  pipe  over  a  fire,  and  thus  the 
Bilica  is  destroyed,  and  the  straw  softened  to  pulp,  which,  after  behig 
freed  from  the  alkali  by  workmg  it  iu  cold  water,  subsequently 
bleached  and  beaten  in  the  ordinary  rag  macliiue. 

To  Trai^sfer  Pictures  FRoai  Paper  to  Wood  for  Re-ex- 
graving. — Soak  the  print  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alcohol  and  white 
caustic  potash  to  soften  the  ink,  then  transfer  to  the  block  under  rol- 
ler pressure. 

To  Transfer  Prints,  &c. — ^Take  of  gum  sandarac,  4  ozs. ;  mastic, 
1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. ;  alcohol,  15  ozs.  Digest  iu  a  bottle, 
frequently  shaking,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Directions:  use,  if  pos- 
sible, good  plate  glass  of  the  size  of  the  picture  to  be  transferred,  go 
over  it  with  the  above  varnish,  beginning  at  one  side,  press  down  the 
picture  firmly  and  evenly  as  you  proceed,  so  that  no  air  can  possibly 
lodge  between ;  i)ut  aside,  and  let  dry  perfectly,  then  moisten  the 
paper  cautiously  with  water,  and  remove  it  i^iecemeal  by  rubbing 
carefully  with  the  fingers;  if  managed  nicely,  a  comi)lete  transfer 
of  the  picture  to  the  glass  will  be  effected. 

Paper  for  Draughtsmen,  &c. — Powdered  tragacanth,  1  part; 
■water,  10  parts;  dissolve  and  straLu  through  clean  gauze;  then  lay  it 
smoothly  upon  the  paper  previously  stretched  upon  a  board.  This 
paper  will  take  either  oil  or  water  colors. 

To  Apply  Decalcomine  Pictures.— Varnish  the  pictures  care- 
fully with  the  prepared  varnish  (which  can  be  obtained  with  the  pic- 
tures), with  an  ornamenting  pencil,  being  careful  not  to  get  the  var- 
nish on  the  white  paper.  In  a  few  minutes  the  picture  will  be  ready 
to  lay  on  the  panel,  and  the  paper  can  be  removed  by  wetting  it,  and 
when  thoroughly  dry,  it  should  be  varnished  like  an  oil  painting.  Be 
particular  to  purchase  only  these  transfer  pictures  which  are  covered 


548       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  liECEirXS. 

with  ,1  golfl  loaf  on  tlio  back,  for  thoy  will  phoAv  plainly  on  any 
colored  surface,  while  the  pUviii  iiicturca  are  used  only  ou  white  or 
light  ground. 

KxGKAViNG  ON  WooD. — In  ordcr  to  mako  thiB  subject  rightly  un- 
derstood we  Avill  state  that  the  log  of  box  is  cut  into  transverse  slices, 
1  inch  in  depth,  in  order  that  the  face  of  the  cut  may  bo  ou  a 
level  with  tlie  surface  of  the  printers'  type,  and  receive  the  samo 
:iuiount  of  pressure ;  the  block  is  then  allowed  to  dry,  the  longer  tho 
better,  as  it  prevents  accidents  by  warping  and  splitting,  which  some- 
times happens  after  the  cut  is  executed,  if  too  green.  The  slice  is  ul- 
timately trimmed  into  a  square  block,  and  if  the  cut  is  large,  it  is  made 
in  various  pieces  and  strongly  clamped  and  secured  together.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  wood  is  carefully  prepared,  so  that  uo  inequal- 
ities may  appear  upon  it,  aud  it  is  then  consigned  to  the  draughts- 
man to  receive  the  drawing.  He  covers  tho  surface  with  a  light  coat 
of  flake  Avhite  mixed  with  weak  gum  water,  and  the  thinner  the  coat 
the  better  for  the  engraver.  The  French  draughtsmen  use  an  abun- 
dance of  flake  white,  but  this  is  ILable  to  make  the  drawing  rub  out  un- 
der the  engraver's  hands,  or  deceive  him  as  to  the  depth  of  line  he  is 
cutting  iu  the  wood.  The  old  drawings  of  the  era  of  Durer  seem  to 
Lave  bceu  carefully  drawn  with  pen  and  mk  on  tho  wood;  but  tho 
modern  drawing  beuig  very  finely  drawn  with  the  pencil  or  silver 
point  is  obhterated  easily,  and  there  is  no  "^ode  of  "setting"  or 
securing  it.  To  obviate  'this  danger  the  wood  engraver  covers  tho 
block  with  paper,  and  tears  out  a  small  piece  to  work  through,  oc- 
casionally removing  the  paper  to  study  the  general  effect.  It  is  now 
his  business  to  produce  iu  relief  the  whole  of  the  drawing  ;  with  a 
great  variety  of  tools  he  cuts  away  the  spaces,  however  minute,  be- 
tween each  of  the  pencil  lines,  and  should  there  be  tints  wanted  ou 
the  drawing  to  rej^resent  sky  and  water,  ho  cuts  such  parts  of  tho 
block  into  a  series  of  close  lines,  which  will,  as  near  as  lie  can  judge, 
j)rint  the  same  gradation  of  tint;  should  he  find  ho  has  not  done  so 
completely,  he  can  re-enter  each  line  with  a  broader  tool,  cutting 
away  a  small  shaving,  thus  reducing  their  width  and  consequently 
their  color.  Should  he  mako  some  fatal  error  that  canuot  otherwise 
be  rectified,  ho  can  cut  out  the  part  iu  the  wood,  and  wedge  a  plug  of 
fresh  wood  iu  the  place,  when  that  part  of  the  block  can  be  re-en- 
graved. An  error  oi  this  kind  in  a  wood-cut  is  a  very  troublesome 
thuig;  iu  copper  ejigravingit  is  scarcely  any  trouble,  a  blow  with  a 
hammer  on  the  back  will  obUterate  the  error  on  the  face,  and  produce 
a  new  surface,  but  iu  wood  the  surface  is  cut  entirely  away  except 
where  the  lines  occur,  aud  it  is  necessary  to  cut  it  deep  enough  not  to 
touch  the  paper,  as  it  is  squeezed  through  the  press  upon  the  lines  iu 
printing.  To  aid  the  general  effect  of  a  cut,  it  is  soinetimes  usual  to 
lower  the  surface  of  the  block  before  the  engraving  is  executed,  iu  such 
parts  as  should  appear  light  and  delicate;  they  thus  receive  a  mere 
touch  of  the  paper  in  the  press,  the  darker  parts  receiving  the  whole 
pressure  aud  coming  out  with  double  brilliancy.  When  careful  print- 
ing is  bestowed  ou  cuts  it  is  sometimes  usual  to  insure  this  good  effect 
by  laying  thiu  pieces  of  card  or  paper  on  the  tympan,  of  the  shape 
needed,  to  secure  pressure  on  the  dark  parts  only. 

Die  Sinking. — ^When  a  die  is  required  for  a  coin  or  medals,  the 
engraver  takes  a  piece  of  soft  steel  of  suitable  dimensions,  generally 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  649 

3  or  4  inches  in  length,  and  about  an  inch  greater  in  diameter  than 
the  coin  or  other  article  required,  on  this  he  hollows  out  the  exact 
form  of  the  desired  impression  by  cutting  away  the  steel  by  degraas, 
with  small,  well-tempered,  case-hardened  tools.  As  soon  as  this  work 
is  thoroughly  accomplished  the  steel  is  hardened  by  being  heated  red 
hot  in  a  crucible  with  charcoal  and  oil  or  bone-dust,  and  then  plunged 
into  cold  water.  When  a  great  number  of  coins  of  one  sort  are  re- 
quired, the  original  die  is  termed  the  matrix,  and  copies  are  made 
from  it  by  taking  impressions  from  it  in  soft  steel,  which  is  in  relief, 
and  is  called  the  puncheon,  and  from  which,  when  it  has  been  hard- 
ened, other  dies  are  produced  by  pressure,  exactly  similar  to  the 
matrix,  and  in  intaglio,  which  are  case-hardened  in  their  turn  before 
they  are  fit  to  transmit  an  impression  to  any  metal  used  for  money. 
The  metal  used  for  our  coinage,  whether  gold,  silver,  copper,  or 
bronze,  is  stamped  in  a  cold  and  solid  state ;  but  medals  and  casts  can 
also  be  produced  by  a  method  called  casting  en  cliche,  in  which  the 
metal  is  used  in  a  soft  state.  For  this  purpose  an  alloy  is  used,  con- 
sisting of  3^  lead,  }^  tin,  and  X  bismuth,  which  fuses  readily  at  the 
boiling  point,  312°  JFah.  When  the  metal  is  soft,  resembling  paste  in 
consistency,  the  die  is  placed  upon  it,  and  the  impression  produced  by 
a  smart  blow  from  a  mallet ;  the  surface  of  the  metal  sets  instantly, 
from  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  die,  and  thus  readUy  retains 
the  form  that  has  been  given  to  it.  Copies  of  medals  may  be  readily 
made  in  this  way,  but  each  face  will  be  obtained  in  a  separate  piece, 
and  these  must  be  joined  to  give  representations  of  the  coin  in  a  com- 
plete form.  Ornamental  work  is  produced  in  thin  metal  for  gas  fit- 
ting, cornices,  parts  of  cruet-stands,  trays,  «fec.,  by  means  of  a  pair  of 
dies,  on  one  of  which  the  pattern  is  formed  in  relief,  and  on  the  other 
in  intaglio,  the  metal  being  placed  between  them,  and  brought  into 
the  desired  shape  by  pressure.  Dies  are  also  made  in  metal  for  form- 
ing articles  in  gutta-percha  and  leather,  and  producing  embossed 
figures  on  the  cloth  covers  of  books,  as  well  as  on  cardboard, 
paper,  &c. 

Steelplate  Engraving. — As  regards  steelplate  engraving,  it  has 
proved  immensely  superior  to  the  old  copper  plate  system.  A  soft 
steel  plate  is  first  engraved  with  the  required  subject  in  the  most  fin- 
ished style  of  art  either  by  hand  or  mechanically,  or  the  two  com- 
bined, and  the  plate  is  then  hardened ;  a  softened  steel  cylinder  is 
then  rolled  over  the  hardened  plate,  with  great  pressure  by  powerful 
machinery,  until  the  engraved  impression  appears  in  relief,— the  hol- 
low lines  of  the  original  becoming  ridges  upon  the  cylinder,  the  roller 
is  re-converted  to  the  condition  of  ordinary  steel,  and  hardened,  after 
which  it  serves  for  returning  the  impression  to  any  number  of  decar- 
bonized plates,  every  one  of  which  becomes  absolutely  a  counterpart 
of  the  original,  and  every  plate,  when  hardened,  would  yield  the 
enormous  number  of  150,000  impressions,  without  any  perceptible 
difference  between  the  first  and  the  last.  In  one  instance,  from  one 
engraving  of  the  Queen's  head  on  the  postage  stamp,  over  6,000  plates 
were  produced  from  the  original,  and  plates  for  bank-note  printing 
are  multiplied  in  the  same  way.  Great  caution  must  be  used  in  the 
various  processes  of  annealing  and  hardening,  as  only  slight  care- 
lessness would  result  in  ruining  the  most  costly  plates.  The  method 
in  use  in  the  Bank  of  England  is  as  follows  :  the  work  to  be  hardened 


550       MACHINISTS,  engineers',  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

is  enclosed  in  a  wrought-iron  box  with  a  loose  cover,  a  false  bottom, 
and  with  three  cars  projecting  from  its  surface  about  midway ;  the 
steel  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  carbon  from  leather,  driven  in 
hard,  and  the  cover  and  bottom  are  carefully  luted  with  moist  clay  ; 
thus  prepared,  the  case  is  placed  in  the  vertical  position,  in  a  bridge 
fixed  across  a  great  tub,  which  is  then  filled  with  water  almost  to 
touch  the  flat  bottom  of  the  case ;  the  latter  is  now  heated  in  the 
furnace  as  quickly  as  will  allow  the  uniform  penetration  of  the  heat. 
When  sufficiently  hot,  it  is  removed  to  its  place  in  the  hardening  tub, 
the  cover  of  the  iron  box  is  removed,  and  the  neck  or  gudgeon  of 
the  cylinder  is  grasped  hencath  the  surface  of  the  carbon^  with  a  long 

fiair  of  tongs,  upon  which  a  couplet  is  dropped  to  secure  the  grasp, 
t  only  remains  for  the  individual  to  hold  the  tongs  with  a  glove 
whilst  a  smart  tap  of  the  hammer  is  given  to  their  extremity  ;  this 
knocks  out  the  false  bottom  of  the  case  and  the  cylinder,  and  the 
tongs  prevent  the  cylinder  from  falling  on  its  side,  and  thus  injuring 
its  delicate  but  still  hot  surface.  For  square  plates,  a  suitable  frame 
is  attached  by  four  slight  claws,  and  it  is  the  frame  which  is  seized 
by  the  tongs ;  the  latter  are  sometimes  held  by  a  chain  which  re- 
moves the  risk  of  accident  to  the  individual.  The  steel  comes  out  of 
the  water  as  smooth  to  the  touch  as  at  first,  and  mottled  with  all  the 
tints  of  case-hardened  gunlocks. 

Writing  Inscriptions  on  Metals. — Take  i  lb.  of  nitric  acid  and 
1  oz.  of  muriatic  acid.  Mix,  shake  well  together,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Cover  the  place  you  Avish  to  mark  with  melted  beeswax  ;  when 
cold,  write  your  inscription  plainly  in  the  wax  clear  to  the  metal  with 
a  sharp  instrument ;  then  apply  the  mixed  acids  with  a  feather,  care- 
fully filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  from  1  to  10  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  appearance  desired ;  then  throw  on  water,  which  stops  the 
process,  and  remove  the  wax. 

Etching  Fluids. — F(y>'  copper. — Aquafortis,  3  ozs. ;  water,  5  ozs. 
For  steel— lodiine,  1  oz. ;  iron  filings,  X  dr. ;  water,  4  ozs.  Digest  till 
the  iron  is  dissolved.  For  fine  touches.— Disso\\e  4  parts  each  of  ver- 
digris, sea  salt,  and  sal-ammoniac,  in  8  parts  vinegar,  add  16  parta 
water ;  boil  for  a  minute,  and  let  it  cool. 

Engravers'  Border  Wax.— Beeswax,  1  part;  pitch,  2  parts; 
tallow,  1  part.  Mix.  Engravers'  cement.— Rosin,  1  part ;  brick  dust, 
1  part.    Mix  with  heat. 

Moulds  and  Dies. — Copper,  zinc,  and  silver  in  equal  proportions; 
melt  together  under  a  coat  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  mould  into  the 
form  you  desire.  Bring  them  to  nearly  a  white  heat,  and  lay  on  the 
thing  you  would  take  the  impression  of,  press  with  sufficient  force, 
and  you  will  get  a  perfect  and  beautiful  impression. 

Cast  Engravings.— Take  the  engraved  plate  you  wish  to  copy 
and  arrange  a  support  of  suitable  materials  round  it,  then  pour  on 
it  the  following  alloy  in  a  state  of  perfect  fusion :  tin,  1  part ;  lead,  64 
parts;  antimony,  VZ  parts.  These  "cast  plates"  may  be  worked  off 
on  a  common  printing  press,  and  offer  a  ready  mode  of  procuring 
cheap  copies  of  the  works  of  our  celebrated  artists. 

Black  Stencil  Ink.— Triturate  together,  1  pt.  pine  soot  and  2  pts. 
Prussian  blue  with  a  little  glycerine,  then  add  3  pts.  gum  arable  and 
sufficient^glycerine  to  form  a  thin  paste. 
Indelible  Stencil  Inks.    1.  Varnish,  such  as  is  used  for  ordi- 


3IACIIIN1STS,  ENGIXTIERS',  &C.,  KECEirTS.  551 

nary  printing  inlc,  1  lb. ;  black  snlpluirct  of  mercury,  1  lb. ;  nitrate  of 
siJver,  1  oz. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  oz. ;  lampblack,  2  tablespoonfuls. 
Grind  all  -well  together;  thin  with  f»pts.  turpentine  as  desired.  2. 
Sulphate  of  manganese,  2  parts;  lampblack,  1  part;  su^ar,  4  parts; all 
in  fine  powder  and  triturated  to  a  paste  in  a  little  water.  Permanent 
^e(?.— Vermilion,  4  parts;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  part;  dryuig  oil  to  mLx. 
Any  other  color  Avill  answer  besides  red. 

llLUR  RuLTxr,  IxK. — Good  vitriol,  4  ozs. ;  indigo,  loz. ;  pulverize 
the  indigo,  add  it  to  tlie  vitriol,  let  it  stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  G 
daj'^s,  or  until  dissolved;  then  fill  the  pots  with  cliaik,  add  fresh  gall, 
^  gill,  boiling  it  before  use. 

Black  Ruli>'g  Ink. — Take  good  black  ink,  and  add  gall  as  for 
Ijlue;  do  not  cork  it,  as  it  prevents  it  from  turning  black.  See  IG 
different  inks  on  page  215. 

To  Pjiint  a  riCTURE  FKOJi  THE  PuiNT  Itself.— The  page  or 
picture  is  soaked  in  a  solution,  first  of  potassa,  and  then  of  tartaric 
acid.  This  produces  a  perfect  diffusion  of  crystals  of  bitartarate  of 
potassa  through  the  texture  of  the  unprinted  part  of  the  paper.  As 
this  salt  resists  oil,  the  ink  roller  may  now  be  ]\assed  over  the  sur- 
face, without  transferring  any  part  of  its  contents  except  to  tho 
printed  part. 

To  Clean  Old  Oil-Patntings.— Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
in  stale  urine;  dip  a  woollen  cloth  in  tlie  mixture,  and  rub  the  paint- 
ings over  with  it  till  they  are  clean ;  then  wash  them  with  a  sponge 
and  clean  water;  dry  them  gradually,  and  rub  them  over  with  a,  clean 
cloth.  Should  the  dirt  not  be  easily  removed  by  tho  above  prcpara 
tion,  add  a  small  qujintity  of  soft  soap.  Be  very  careful  not  to  rul> 
the  paintings  too  hard. 

To  Renew  Old  Oil-Paintings. — The  blackened  lights  of  old  pic- 
tures may  be  instantly  restored  to  their  original  hue  by  touching  them 
with  deutoxide  of  hydrogen  diluted  with  six  or  eight  times  its  weight 
of  water.  The  part  must  be  afterwards  washed  with  a  clean  sponge 
and  water. 

Magic  Paper. — ^Take  lard  oil,  or  sweet  oil,  mixed  to  the  consist- 
ence of  cream,  with  either  of  the  following  paints,  the  color  of  which 
is  desired:  Prussian  blue,  lampblack,  Venetian  red,  or  chrome  green, 
either  of  which  should  be  rubbed  with  a  knife  on  a  plate  or  stone  un- 
til smooth.  Use  rather  thin  but  firm  paper;  put  on  vrith  a  sponge, 
and  wipe  off  as  dry  as  convenient;  then  lay  them  between  un colored 
paper,  or  between  newspapers,  and  press  by  laying  books  or  some 
other  flat  substance  upon  them  until  the  surplus  oil  is  absorbed,  when 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

Rubber  Hand  Stamps.— Set  up  the  desired  name  and  address  in 
common  type,  oil  the  type  and  place  a  guard  about  \  inch  high  around 
the  form  ;  now  mix  plaster  of  Paris  to  the  proper  consistence,  pour  in 
and  allow  it  to  set.  Have  your  vulcanized  rubber  all  ready,  as  made 
in  long  strips  3  inches  wide  and  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  cut  off  tlie 
size  of  the  intended  stamp,  remove  the  plaster  cast  from  the  type,  and 

Elace  both  the  cast  and  the  rubber  in  a  screw  press,  applying  sufficient 
eat  to  thoroughly  soften  the  rubber,  then  turn  down  the  screw  hard 
and  let  it  remain  until  the  rubber  receives  the  exact  impression  of  the 
cast  and  becomes  cold,  when  it  is  removed,  neatly  trimmed  with  a 
sharp  knite,  and  cemented  to  the  handle  ready  for  use. 


502       3U.CIIINISTS,  ENGINEERST&C.,  IIECEII  TS. 

To  Make  Door  Plates.— Cut  your'glass  the  right  tsizc,  and  make 
it  perfectly  clean  -with  alcohol  or  soap;  then  cut  a  strip  of  tin- foil  suf- 
ficiently long  and  ■wide  for  the  name,  and  -with  a  piece  of  ivory  or 
other  huniiaher  rub  it  len^jthwise  to  make  it  smooth;  now  wet  the 
glass  with  the  tongue  (as  sahva  is  the  best  stickuig  substance),  or  if 
the  glass  is  very  large,  use  a  weak  solution  of  gum  arable,  or  the 
white  of  an  egg  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and  lay  on  the  foil,  rubbing 
it-down  to  the  glass  with  a  bit  of  cloth,  then  also  with  the  burnisher; 
the  more  it  is  burnished  the  better  it  will  look;  now  mark  the  width 
on  the  foil  which  is  to  be  the  height  of  the  lette  r,  and  put  on  a  straight 
edge,  and  hold  it  firmly  to  the  foil,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  the 
foil,  and  take  off  the  superfluous  edges;  then  either  lay  out  the  let- 
ters on  the  back  of  the  foil  (so  they  snail  read  correctly  on  the  front) 
by  your  own  judgment,  or  by  means  of  pattern  letters,  which  can  bo 

Surchascd  for  that  purpose;  cut  with  the  knife,  carefully  holdmg 
own  the  pattern  or  straight  edge,  Avhichever  you  use;  then  rub 
down  the  edge  of  all  the  letters  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  or  edge  of 
the  burnisher,  which  prevents  the  black  paint  or  japan,  which  you 
next  put  over  the  back  of  the  plate  from  getting  under  the  foil;  hav- 
ir^g  put  a  lino  above  and  one  below  the  name,  or  a  border  around  the 
plate  or  not,  as  you  bargain  for  the  job.  The  japan  is  made  by  dis- 
.solving  asphaltum  in  just  enough  turpentbie  to  cut  it;  apply  with  a 
brush,  as  other  paint,  over  the  back  of  the  letters,  and  over  the  glass 
forming  a  background.  This  is  used  on  the  iron  plate  of  the  frame 
also,  putting  it  on  when  the  plate  is  a  little  hot,  and  as  soon  as  it  cools, 
it  is  dry.  A  little  lampblack  may  be  rubbed  into  it  if  you  desire  it 
any  blacker  than  it  is  without  it. 

Keliablb  Formula  for  Photographers. — No.  1.  Silver  Bath  for 
Albumen  Paper,  for  Summer  use. — Crystal  nitrate  of  silver,  40  grains  ; 
jjitrate  of  ammonia,  35  grains  ;  filtered  rain  water,  1  oz.  ;  saturated 
solution  bicarbonate  of  soda,  about  8  or  10  drops,  or  enough  to  make 
the  bath  slightly  alkaline.  No.  2.  For  lointer  use.  Nitrate  of  silver 
24  ozs.  ;  nitrate  of  soda  2  ozs.  ;  glycerijie  3  ozs.  ;  pure  water  40  ozg. 
Make  it  a  little  alkaline  with  aquas  ammonia.  No.  3.  Another  Silver 
Bath.  Silver,  from  40  to  45  grs.  (according  to  temperature  ;)  nitrate 
of  ammonia,  20  grs.  ;  distilled  or  ice  water,  1  oz.  Float  45  seconds  to 
1  minute.  No.  4.  Sal  Soda  Toninrj  Bath.  Distilled  or  melted  ico 
water  G4  ozs.  ;  acid  solution  chloride  of  gold,  (4  grs.  to  theoz.)l  oz.  ; 
saturated  solution  of  sal  soda,  ^  oz.  Make  it  a  full  half  hour  before 
you  wish  to  use  it,  and  during  the  cold  weather  use  the  water  slightly 
warm.  No.  5.  Chloride  of  Lime  Bath.  Water,  40  ozs. ;  chloride  of 
lime,  5  grains  ;  chloride  of  gold,  4  grs.  No.  6.  Bicarbonate  of  Soda 
Bath.  Chloride  of  gold  solution  (1  gr.  to  the  oz.  of  water, )  1  oz. ;  luke 
warm  water,  16  ozs.  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  (saturated  solution,)  10 
minims.  Make  up  fresh  every  time  you  prepare  to  tone.  Make  half 
an  hour  before  using.  Precipitate  the  gold  ra  the  old  solutions  with 
protosnlphateof  iron.  No.  7.  Fixing  Bath.  Hyposulphite  of  soda, 
1  part  to  8  of  water,  and  if  the  paper  blisters  in  the  washing,  soap  the 
prints  for  5  minutes  in  a  solution  of  common  salt.  No.  8.  Bath  for 
Salting  the  Paper.  Pure  rainwater,  60  ozs.  ;  chloride  of  ammonium, 
360  grs.  ;  gelatine,  120  grs. 

Photograph  Painting  in  Oiij  Colors.— Tints  for  the  First 
Painting.— Flesh.— TF7w7e  and  Light  J?ecZ.— Wliite,  Naples  yellow, 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEEKS*,  AC,  EECEIPTS.  555'. 

and  verrailiou.  Wliite,  vermilion,  and  light  red.  Grarj,  Pearly, 
and  Half  Twi^s.— White,  vermilion,  and  black.  White  and  terrg^ 
verde.  White,  black,  Indian  red,  and  raw  umber.  Deep  Shades.— < 
Light  red  and  raw  umber. — ^Indian  red,  lake  and  black.  Carnations. 
—White  and  Indian  red  (powerful  color).  AVhite  and  rose  madder. 
White  and  lake.  Kair.— Light  Hair.— White  and  yellow  ochre. 
White  and  Roman  ochre.  White  and  Vandyke  brown  for  the  dark 
parts.  White  and  raw  umber  for  the  dark  parts.  Dark  Brown  Hair. 
— ^Raw  and  burnt  umber.  White  and  raw  umber.  White  and  Van- 
dyke brown.  Tints  FOB  THE  Second  AND  Thied  Painting.  High. 
Lights.  White  and  Naples  yellow.  Carnations.  Rose  madder  and 
white.  Indian  red,  rose,  madder,  and  white.  Green  Tints. — ^^Vhite 
and  ultramarine,  with  any  of  the  yellows.  White  and  terre  verte, 
with  the  addition  of  a  little  raw  umber.  The  above  green  tints  may 
be  converted  into  green  grays.  Gray  Tints. — Ultramarine,  light  red, 
and  white.  Indian  red,  lake,  black  and  white.  White,  ultramarine,, 
liidian  red,  and  raw  umber,  Pu.iplQ  Tints. — Any  of  the  lakes  or  red 
madders,  with  ultramarine  and  white.  Powerful  Shadoio  Tints.  In- 
dian red,  purple  lake,  and  black.  Indian  red,  raw  umber,  and  black. 
Strong  Glazing  Colors. — ^Light  red  and  lake.  Brown  madder.  Van- 
dyke brown,  Indian  red,  and  lake  asphaltum.  Draperies.— Back 
Ground  Colors. — Pearly. — ^^Vhite,  vermilion,  and  blue.  White, 
vermilion,  and  black.  White  and  black.  Gray. — ^Wliite,  Venetian 
red  and  black.  Yelloiv.  Yellow  ochre  and  wliite.  Olive. — ^Yellow 
ochre,  terre  verte,  and  umber.  Stone. — Raw  umber  and  yellow. 
Black,  white,  and  raw  umber.  Sky. — French  blue  and  white.  French 
blue,  vermilion,  and  white.  Edges  of  Clouds. — ^Yellow  ochre  and 
white.  Clouds. — Indian  red,  lake,  and  wliite.  Brown  madder,  French 
blue,  and  white. 

Photograph  Water  Colors.— Filesh  Tints,  Kg.  1.  Fair  Com- 
plexion.— Light  red,  a  little  carmine  or  vermilion,  and  Indian  yellow. 
Be  careful  in  using  tlie  latter,  and.  in  the  flesh  tints  of  very  fair  chil- 
dren, allow  the  vermilion  to  predominate  ;  carnations,  rose  madder, 
and,  if  the  face  be  full  of  color,  add  a  little  vermilion  to  it.  2.  Mid- 
dling Complexion. — Much  the  same  as  No.  1,  saving  that  the  light  red 
must  be  in  excess  over  the  other  colors — carnations,  rose  madder,  and 
lake.  3  Dark  Complexion. — Light  red  and  Indian  yellow,  or  light 
red  and  Roman  ochre,  and,  if  the  complexion  be  generally  ruddy,  you 
may  add  a  little  Indian  red,  but  it  must  be  sparingly  used,  as  it  is  a 
powerful  color,  and  likely  to  impart  a  purple  tone  to  the  flesh.  Car- 
mtions  chiefly  lake,  but  if  the  complexion  be  warm,  lake  and  a  little 
yellow.  The  carnations  for  children's  portraits  are  rose  madder  and 
vermilion,  incluiing  more  to  the  latter  tint.  Aged  persons  have  rose . 
madder,  and  a  little  cobalt  to  give  a  cold  appearance  to  the  color  in 
their  cheeks  and  lipg.  These  tints,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  are  indispensable 
as  general  washes,  for  the  purpose  of  receivmg  the  other  colors, 
which  are  to  bo  worked  over  them  to  bring  up  the  complexion  to  the 
life._  Uncolored  photographic  portraits  vary  so  much  in  tone,  that  the 
beginner  will,  perhaps,  find  some  diflSculty  in  mixing  up  the  tints  for 
the  washes.  He  must  note  that  the  warm-toned  ones  do  not  require 
so  much  Indian  yellow  as  the  cold  ones  do. 

Kerosene  OR  Carbon  Oil  Manufacture. — ^Petroleum,  or  rock 
oa,  is  a  liauid  substance,  of  a  dark  color,  exuding  from  the  earth  and 


554    •  MACHINISTS,  UNGINEEIIS',  &C.,  llKCEirXS. 

containing  certain  liquid  and  solid  hydrocarbons  bucIi  as  benzole,  or 
benzine,  kerosene,  parafline,  asphaltum,  &c.,  in  a  state  of  solution, 
in  different  proportions.  It  differs  greatly  in  composition,  some  sam- 
ples containing  solid  paratlinc  and  benzole  in  largo  quantities,  Avliilo 
others  do  not.  rctrolcum  is  separated  from  its  different  products  by 
careful  distillation  at  different  temperatures.  The  crude  niaterial  is 
first  heated  in  a  retort  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Fah.  This 
causes  a  light  oil  of  a  strong  odor  to  pass  over  into  tlie  condenser. 
The  residue  is  then  distilled  at  about  120°  to  100°,  the  result  being 
burning  oil.  AVlien  this  is  distilled  off,  steam  is  forced  into  the  retort 
and  a  heavy  oil,  lit  for  lubricating  purposes,  comes  over,  a  black, 
tarry  mass  being  left  behind.  The  light  oil  is  now  used  for  mineral 
turpentine,  and  as  a  grease  solvent.  It  is  often  of  a  dark  color,  "which 
is  easily  removed  by  agitation,  first  with  sulphuric  acid  and  afterwards 
with  Boda-ley  and  water.  In  many  instances  this  light  oil  (benzine) 
is  sold  for  illuminating  purposes  under  the  name  of  Sunlight  Oil, 
Combination  Burning  Fluid,  Lightning  oil,  &c.  I  knew  a  gentle- 
man in  Philadelphia  who  paid  one  man  over  $3000  for  the  receipt  for 
making,  together  with  the  sole  right  to  manufacture,  vend  and  sell, 
a  compound  of  this  kuid  in  that  city.  The  curious,  or  those  interest- 
ed, will  find  the  receipt  under  thename  of  the  "  Northern  Light "  un- 
der the  Grocer's  Department  in  this  work.  Truth  requires  me  to 
6tate  that  this  article  requires  to  bo  handled  with  great  caution  when 
used  for  lighting  purposes — many  lamentable  accidents  having  re- 
sulted from  a  careless  use  of  it.  The  heavy  lubricating  oil,  when 
cooled  down  to  30°  Fah.,  often  yields  parafflnc  in  largo  quantities, 
which  is  separated  by  straining  and  pressure.  The  asphaltum  may  bo 
used  for  pavements,  or  mixed  with  grease  as  a  lubricant  for  heavy 
machinery.  The  most  important  product  is,  however,  the  burning 
oil,  which  is  now  used  as  a  cheap  and  efficient  illuminating  agent 
in  nearly  every  household  in  this  country.  An  average  sample  of  pe- 
troleum contains,  according  to  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  20  per  cent,  of  ben- 
zine or  mineral  turps,  65  per  cent  of  burning  oil,  22  per  cent  of 
lubricating  oil,  and  8  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous  and  tarry  matter. 

To  Deodorize  Benzene. — Shake  repeatedly  with  plumbate  of  soda 
(oxide  of  lead  dissolved  iu  caustic  soda),  and  rectify.  The  following 
plan  is  said  to  be  better.  Shake  repeatedly  with  fresh  portions  of 
metallic  quicksilver  ;  let  it  stand  for  2  days,  and  rectify. 

To  PuBiFY  Petroleum  or  Kerosene  Oil.— The  distillate  or 
crude  burning  oil  is  converted  into  ordinary  bummg  oil  by  being 
placed  into  a  tank  when  it  is  violently  agitated  by  forcing  air  through 
it,  and  while  thus  agitated,  1§  to  2  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  is  added,, 
after  which  the  agitation  is  continued  15  or  30  minutes.  The  oil  is 
then  allowed  to  settle,  when  the  acid  and  impurities  are  removed, 
and  any  acid  remaining  in  the  oil  is  neutralized.  It  is  then  taken  to 
shallow  bleaching  tanks,  where  it  is  exposed  to  light  and  air,  and  al- 
lowed to  settle.  It  is  next  heated  by  means  of  a  coil  of  steam  pipe 
numing  through  it,  to  expel  all  gaseous  vapors  which  will  ignite  at 
a  temperature  below  110°  Fahr.  The  oil  is  now  called  a  ^re  test  oil, 
and  is  ready  to  be  barreled  and  sent  to  market.  Kerosene  oil  is  de- 
colorized,  by  stirruig  it  up  with  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  oil  of  vitriol,  which 
will  carbonize  the  colloiing  matter,  then  with  some  milk  of  lime  or 
Bome  other  caustic  alkali,  settling,  and  re-distiUiug. 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  keceipts.  555 

To  Bleach  Fixed  Oils.— Shake  strongly  for  some  minutes,  300 
parts  of  the  oil  with  40  parts  Avatcr  containing  1  part  pcrmangatc  of  pofcis- 
sa ;  alloAit  the  mixture  to  stand  in  a  -svarm  place  for  some  hours,  and  th  en 
filter.  This  renders  the  oil  colorless.  To  pvrify  oil.  Into  1000  parts 
by  weight  of  oil,  put  a  mixture  of  0  parts  solution  of  ammonia  and  G 
parts  water,  agitate  the  barrel  well  until  the  alkali  is  perfectly  mixed, 
which  may  be  done  in  15  minutes.  The  barrel  is  then  sealed  henmet- 
ically,  and  after  3  days'  repose,  the  oil  is  decanted  and  filtered.  Tlio 
residue  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soap.  To  Clarify  Coal  Oil. 
— Place  in  a  close  vessel  100  lbs.  crude  coal  oil,  25  qts.  water,  1  lb. 
chloride  of  lime,  1  lb.  soda,  and  ^  lb.  oxide  of  manganese.  The  mix- 
ture is  \iolently  agitated,  and  allowed  to  rest  for  24  hours  when  the 
clear  oil  is  decanted  and  distilled.  The  100  lbs.  coal  oil  are  to  bo 
mixed  with  25  lbs.  resiu  oil;  this  is  one  of  the  principal  points  in  the 
manipulation;  it  removes  the  gummy  parts  from  the  oU,  and  renders 
them  inodorous.  The  distillation  spoken  of  may  terminate  the  pro- 
cess, or  the  oDs  may  be  distilled  before  they  are  defecated  and  preci- 
pitated. 

Oil  for  Fine  Mechanism.— Oil  for  lino  mechanism  can  be  pre- 
pared by  putting  zinc  and  lead  shavings,  in  equal  parts,  into  good 
Florence  olive  oil,  and  placing  in  a  cool  place  until  the  oil  becomes 
colorless.   Unequalled  for  sewing  machines,  &c. 

To  Make  Linseed  and  Cotton  Seed  Oils. — ^In  making  linseed 
oil  quite  a  variety  of  machinery  is  used,  more  or  less  expensive  ac- 
cording to  the  enterprise  and  capital  of  the  manufacturer.  The  seed 
is  first  passed  through  iron  rollers,  to  be  crushed  or  ground,  one  of 
the  rollers  is  made  to  revolve  more  rapidly  than  the  other,  which  sub- 
jects each  seed  to  a  pulling,  as  well  as  to  a  crushing  process.  The 
meal  is  taken  from  the  mill  to  the  "  chasers,"  when  it  is  subjected  to 
another  crushing  process,  more  severe  than  the  first.  The  chasers 
are  two  large  circular  stones  about  5  feet  diameter,  and  18  inches 
thick,  rolling  upon  a  third  stone  in  the  manner  of  an  old-fashioned 
bark  or  cider  mill.  These  heavy  stones  start  the  oil  from  the  seed, 
md  to  keep  it  from  adhering  to  the  chasers  it  is  moistened  with  water. 
The  meal  is  next  put  into  an  iron  cylinder,  wliich  is  kept  revolving 
over  a  fire  until  tlie  water  is  evaporated.  Much  of  the  skill  of  making 
oil  depends  upon  this  heating  process.  It  must  not  be  scorched,  and 
yet  it  must  be  brought  up  to  a  high  temperature,  so  that  it  will  readi- 
ly give  out  its  oU.  The  presses  are  of  various  structure,  some  of 
them  are  patented,  and  others  not  open  to  public  inspection.  In  one, 
the  vats  or  hoops  holding  about  2  bushels  each,  were  placed  opposite 
each  other  against  two  immense  beams  or  uprights,  made  fast  in  tie 
foundations  of  the  building.  The  followers  were  forced  down  upon 
the  meal  by  2  large  levers  worked  by  hydraulic  power.  The  meal  in 
kept  under  pressure  about  an  hour,  and  the  two  presses  work  up 
about  92  bushels  of  seed  every  24  hours,  the  miU  being  kept  runnhig 
night  and  day.  The  product  is  not  far  from  2  gals,  of  oil  from  a 
bushel  of  seed,  a  little  more  or  less,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
seed  and  the  skill  in  pressing.  The  cakes,  as  taken  from  the  press, 
are  generally  sold  by  the  ton  without  grinding,  and  are  generally  ex- 
ported in  this  form,  but  when  there  is  a  market  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mill,  the  cakes  are  put  under  the  chasers,  ground  into  meal,  bagged 
and  sent  to  the  feed  stores.   The  price  of  the  cake  is  from  $30  to  §40 


o5G     MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

per  toil ;  ground  into  meal  it  retails  at  about  $2  per  100  lbs.  The  pro* 
cess  of  making;  the  cotton  seed  oil  and  cake  is  nearly  the  same.  The 
seed  of  tlio  upland  cotton  is  surrounded  with  a  liusk,  to  whicji  the  cot- 
ton adliercs.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  soft  down  after  it  leaves  the 
gin,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  purchased  from  the  planter.  The  seed 
makes  better  oil  and  better  meal  when  it  is  deprived  of  this  liull  and 
down.  The  yield  of  oil  is  about  90  gallons  per  100  bushels  of  the  fcjca 
Island,  or  2  gals,  to  50  lbs.  of  the  hulled  cotton  seed. 

To  Make  Coal  Oil.— Break  the  coal  or  shale  into  small  pieces 
and  put  from  10  to  10  cwt.  in  an  iron  retort,  heated  to  a  dull  red  color 
Lute  the  retort  door  and  keep  up  the  retort  for  24  hours.  By  thb 
process  a  vapor  is  thrown  off  which  passes  through  ranges  of  cistenu 
until  it  condenses,  when  it  is  run  into  cisterns.  This  crude  oil,  wlven 
refined  and  purified,  is  sold  as  paraffine  oil,  and  solid  parafflno  for 
making  candles  is  made  from  it. 

Neat's  Foot  Oil. — After  the  hair  and  hoofs  have  been  removed 
from  the  feet  of  oxen,  they  yield,  when  boiled  with  water,  a  peculiar 
fatty  matter,  which  is  known  as  Neat's  Foot  Oil ;  after  standing,  it 
deposits  some  solid  fat,  which  is  separated  by  filtration;  the  oil  theu 
does  not  congeal  at  32°,  and  is  not  liable  to  become  rancid.  It  is  often 
mixed  with  other  oils.  This  oil  is  used  for  various  purposes, 
such  as  harness  dressing,  oiling  tower  clocks,  &c.  Tallow  Oil. — ^The 
oil  is  obtained  from  tallow  by  pressure.  The  tallow  is  melted,  and 
whea  separated  from  the  ordinary  impurities  by  subsidence,  is  poured 
into  vessels  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly  to  about  80°,  when  the  stearine 
separates  in  granules,  which  may  be  separated  from  the  liquid  part  by 
straining  through  flannel,  and  is  then  pressed,  when  it  yields  a  fresn 
portion  of  liquid  oil.  It  is  used  in  soap  manufacture,  &c.  Lard  oil  ia 
obtained  from  hog's  lard  by  pressure,  when  the  liquid  part  separates, 
while  the  lard  itself  becomes  much  harder.  According  to  Braconet, 
lard  yields  0.62  of  its  weight  of  this  oil,  which  is  nearly  colorless.  It 
is  employed  for  greasmg  wool,  and  other  purposes. 

Economic  Lubricators. — 1.  India  rubber,  4  lbs.;  dissolved  in 
spts.  turpenthie;  common  soda,  10 lbs. ;  glue,  1  lb.;  water,  10  gals.; 
oil,  10  gals.  Dissolve  the  soda  and  glue  in  the  water  by  heat,  then 
add  the  oil,  and  lastly  the  dissolved  rubber.  2.  To  Lessen  Friction  in 
Machinery. — Grind  together  black  lead  with  4  times  its  weight  of 
lard  or  tallow.  Camphor  is  sometimes  added,  7  lbs.  to  the  hundred 
weight.  3.  Anti-Friction  Grease. — ^I'allow,  100  lbs. ;  palm  oil,  70  lbs. ; 
boil  together,  when  cooled  to  80=",  strain  through,  a  sieve,  and  mix 
with  28  lbs.  soda,  and  1^  gals,  water.  For  winter  take  25  lbs.  more 
oil  in  place  of  the  tallow.  4.  Booth's  Railway  Axle  Grease. — ^Water, 
1  gal. ;  clean  tallow,  3  lbs. ;  palm  oil,  G  lbs. ;  common  soda,  ^  lb. ;  or 
tallow  2  lbs. ;  palm  oil,  10  lbs.  Heat  to  about  212°,  and  stir  well  until 
it  cools  to  70°.  5.  Drill  Lubricator. — ^I^^or  wrought  iron,  use  1  lb. ' 
soft  soap  mixed  witli  1  gal.  of  boiling  water.  '  It  insures  good  work 
and  clean  cutting. 

To  Remedy  Slit  of  Driving  BELTS.—Dab  on  a  little  of  the 
gticlcy  oil  which  oozes  away  from  the  bearings  of  machijiery. 

Blasting  Powders. — Keduce  separate??/  to  powder,  2  p?j-ts  chlorate 
of  potassa  and  1  part  red  sulphuret  of  arsenic  ;  mix  very  lightly  to- 
gether, or  powder  separately,  5  parts  chlorate  of  potassa ;  2  parts 
red  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  and  1  part  ferrocyanide  of  iDCtassjun; 


MACHINISTS,  ENGIXEEKS*,  AC,  RECEIPTS.  557 
»  ' 

(prnssiato  of  potassa) ;  mix  carefully,  or,  mix  carefully  as  before, 
alter  having  separately  reduced  to  powder  equal  parts  chlorate  of  po- 
tiissa  aud  ferrocyanide  potassium.  These  possess  eight  times  the  ex- 
plosive force  of  gunpowder  and  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  cau- 
tion. 

BijSlStijig  Rocks,  &c.— In  small  blasts,  1  lb.  of  powder  will  loosen 
about  4i  tons.  In  large  blasts,  1  lb.  of  powder  will  loosen  about  2^ 
tons ;  60  or  GO  lbs.  of  powder,  enclosed  in  a  resisting  bag  hung  or 
propped  up  against  a  gate  or  barrier,  will  demolish  any  ordinary  con- 
struction. One  man  can  bore,  with  a  bit  1  inch  in  diameter,  from 
50  to  60  inches  per  day  of  10  hours  in  granite,  or  300  to  400  ins,  per 
day  in  limestone.  Two  strikers  and  a  holder  can  bore  with  a  bit  2 
ins.  in  diameter  10  feet  per  day  in  rock  of  medium  hardness. 

To  MAKE  DuALiN. — Dualin  is  made  from  paper  stock,  saturated 
with  nitrate  of  potassium  and  dried  in  a  furnace.  Then  ground  and 
mixed  with  nitro-glj'^cerine.  Component  parts  of  niiro-r/Iycerine. 
To  4|  lbs.  concentrated  sulphuric-acid  and  2J  lbs.  of  concentrated 
nitric  acid,  add  1  lb.  of  glycerine. 

Labor  on  Embankments. — Single  horse  and  cart.  A  horse 
with  a  loaded  dirt  cart  employed  in  excavation  and  embankment,  will 
make  100  lineal  feet,  or  200  feet  in  the  distance  per  minute,  while 
moving.  The  time  lost  in  loading,  dumphig,  awaiting,  etc,  =4  min- 
utes per  load.  A  medium  hilx^rer  will  load  with  a  cart  in  10  hours, 
of  the  following  earths;  measured  in  the  bank  :  Gravely  earth  10. 
TA)am  12,  and  Sandy  earth  14  cubic  yards;  carts  are  loaded  as  follows: 
Descending  haxiling,  ^  of  a  cubic  yard  in  bank;  Level  hauling  2-7 
of  a  cubic  "yard  in  bank;  Ascending  hauling,  ^  of  a  cubic  yard  in  bank, 
Loosening,  &c.  In  loam,  a  three-horse  plow  will  loosen  from  250  to 
800  cubic  yards  per  day  of  10  hours.  The  cost  of  loosening  earth  to 
bo  loaded  will  be  from  1  to  8  cents  per  cubic  yard,  when  wages  are 
105  cents  per  day.  The  cost  of  trimming  and  bossing  is  about  2  cents 
per  cubic  yard.  Scooping.  A  scoop  load  will  measure  1-10  of  a  cu- 
bic yard,  measured  in  excavation.  The  time  lost  in  loading,  imload- 
ing  and  trimmmg,  per  load,  is  IJ  minutes.  The  time  lost  for  every  70 
feet  of  distance,  from  excavation  to  bank,  and  returning  is  1  ramute. 
In  Double  Scooping,  the  time  lost  in  loading,  turning,  &c.,  will  bo  1 
miuute ;  and  in  Single  Scooping,  it  will  bo  1^  minutes.  {.Ellwood 
Morris. 

Hauling  Stone. — A  cart  drawn  by  horses  over  an  ordinary  road 
Trill  travel  1.1  miles  per  hour  of  trip.  A4-horse  team  will  haul  from 
25  to  3G  cubic  feet  of  lime  stone  at  each  load.  The  time  expended  in 
loading,  unloading,  &c.,  including  delays,  averages  35  minutes  per  trip. 
The  cost  of  loading  and  unloading  a  cart,  usmg  a  horse  cram  at  tJie 
quarry,  and  unloading  by  hand,  when  labor  is  $1.25  per  day,  and  a  horse 
75  cents,  is  25  cents  per  perch=24.75  cubic  feet.  The  work  done  by 
an  animal  is  greatest  when  the  velocity  with  v/hich  he  moves  is  |  of  the 
greatest  with  which  he  can  move  when  not  impeded,  and  the  force 
then  exerted  .45  of  the  utmost  force  the  animal  can  exert  at  a  dead  pulL 

IL\.Y.— 270  cubic  feet  of  new  meadow  hay,  and  210  and  243  from 
large  or  old  stacks,  will  weigh  a  ton,  297  to  324  cubic  feet  of  dry 
clover  weigh  a  ton. 

Ice. — ^To  compute  the  number  of  tons  an  ice-house  will  contain,  cal- 
culate the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  an  ice-house,  and  divide  by  35 ; 


558       MACHINISTS,  ^ENGINEE11S',^&C.,  IIECEIPTS. 

this  gives  tlio  num'ber'of  tons  the  lcc-lioiVsewill"contain  it  if  u  closely 
packed.  V 

Eaiitii  DiGcmo. — Number  of  cubic  feet  of  earth  in  a  ton.  Looso 
CJirth  24  ;  coarse  sand  18.G.  Clay  18.G.  Earth  with  gravel  17.8.  Chiy 
Avitli  gravel,  14.4.  Common  soil  15.0.  The  volume  of  eartli  and  sand 
in  bank  exceeds  that  in  embankment  in  the  loUowuig  proportions  ; 
sand  1-7,  clay  1-9,  gravel  1-11,  and  the  volume  of  rock  in  embank- 
ments quarried  in  Large  fragments  exceeds  that  in  bank  fully  ono 

half.  ,  .  ..ii^-.-^.- 

Weight  of  Earth,  Rock,  &c.— A  cubic  yard  of  sand  or  ground 
■weighs  about  30  cwt. ;  mud,  25  cwt.  ;  marl,  2G  cwt.  ;  clay,  31  cwt. ; 
chalk,  3G  CAvt.  ;  sandstone,  39  cwt.  ;  shale,  40  cwt.  ;  quartz,  41  cwt  ; 
granite,  42  cwt.  ;  trap,  42  cwt. ;  slate,  43  cwt.    -      -  • 

To  Determine  Weight  of  Live  Cattle.— Measure  in  inches  the 
girth  around  the  breast,  just  behind  the  shoulder  blade,  and  the 
length  of  the  back  from  the  tail  to  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder  blade. 
Multiply  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  divide  by  144.  If  the  girth  is 
less  than  3  feet,  multiply  the  quotient  by  11.  If  between  3  and  5  feet, 
multiply  by  16.  If  between  5  and  7  feet,  multiply  by  23.  If  between 
J  and  9  feet,  multiply  by  31.  If  the  animal  is  lean,  deduct  1-20  from 
the  result,  or  take  the  girth  and  length  in  feet,  multiply  the  square  of 
the  girth  by  the  length,  and  multiply  the  product  by  3.3G.  The  result 
will  be  the  answer  in  pounds.  The  live  weight  multiplied  by  G.05,  gives 
a  near  approximation  to  the  net  weight.  »^     i^sK*^..,  »r  ■ 

Gaugikg  Stkeajms. — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  cube  of  the 
height  in  inches  of  the  water  on  the  sill  of  the  weir  or  gauge  by  the 
constant  17.13,  which  will  give  the  number  of  gallons  per  minute. 
If  the  water  has  any  initial  velocity  it  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment, and  in  that  case  multiply  the  square  of  the  height  by  the  square 
of  the  velocity,  and  by  0.8 ;  to  the  product  add  the  cube  of  the 
height,  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum,  and  multiply  by  17.13  as 
before.  - — »■    ■*■  ■*~ii^>^ 

Stowage  of  Coals.— The  following  Information  will  be  valuable 
to  many  coal  dealers  and  consumers  who  may  be  in  doubt  as  to  the 
capacity^  of  their  coal  bins.  A  box  4  feet  long,  3  ft.,  5  in.,  wide,  and 
2  ft.,  8  in.,  deep,  has  a  capacity  of  362^  cubic  feet,  and  will  contaia 
2000  lbs.,  or  one  ton  of  Beaver  Meadow  or  Lehigh  (American)  coal. 
The  sx)aces  occupied  by  one  ton  of  the  imdermentioned  English  coals, 
economic  weight  are: — ^Haswell's  Wallsend,  45'25  cubic  feet.  North 
Percy,  Hartley  (Newcastle)  46-96  cubic  feet.  Balcarras  Arley  (Lan- 
cashire) 44-35  cubic  feet.  Cannel  (Wigan,  Lancashire)  46-37  cubic 
feet.  Duffryn  (Welsh)  42-09  cubic  feet.  Pontypool  (Welsh)  40-22 
cubic  feet.  Hence,  a  shed  16  feet  high,  20  feet  broad,  and  30  feet  long, 
will  hold  over  212  tons  of  Haswell's  Wallsend  (Newcastle)  coals^, 
about  207  tons  of  Cannel,  and  228  of  Duffryn.  The  average  space 
occupied  by  one  ton  of  Newcastle  coal,  economic  weight,  is  44  cubic 
feet,  that  of  one  ton  of  Lancashire  coal,  44^  cubic  feet,  and  that  of  1 
ton  of  Welsh  coal,  41  cubic  feet.  Therefore  a  shed  of  the  above 
dimensions,  would,  on  the  average,  hold  217  tons  of  Newcastle  coal, 
216  of  Lancashire,  and  234  of  Welsh.  From  the  above  data,  any  in- 
tending purchaser  can  easily  calculate  the  capacity  of  his  coal  bins, 
sheds,  &c.,  and  in  many  cases  secure  a  good  bargain  by  laying  in  'i 
largo  stock  when  coals  are  cheap.  : 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  559 


Composition  Tacks  for  Muntz  Metal  on  Ships,— Copper  87 
parts,  zinc  4  parts,  tin  9  parts. 

RESULTS  OF  J.  H,  CHEEVERS'  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  YULCANIZED 
RUBBER  BELTING  AND  LEATHER,  DITTO. 

Rubber.  Leather. 

Lbs.  I  Lbs.  ^ 

"Belt  slipped  on  Iron  pulley  at   90   Belt  slipped  on  Iron  pulley  at  48  ' 
"  Leather   "      128  "      Leather   "  64 

"         "      Rubber  183      "         "      Rubber   "  128 

Deductions  from  the  above :  Rubber  belts  for  equivalent  resistances 
with  leather  belts,  may  be  reduced  respectively  40, 50  and  30  per  cent. 

Vulcanized  Rubber  belting  has  greater  endurance  than  leather,  its 
resistance  to  slipping  being  from  50  to  84  per  cent,  greater. 

Mill  for  Spinning  Wool  and  Weaving  Merinos.— Nineteen 
machines  to  prepare  the  combed  wool,  having  together  360  rollers;  IG 
mules  with  3,400  spindles;  one  winding  machine  of  60  rollers  to  pre- 
pare the  warp ;  2  warping  machines ;  2  self-acting  feeders ;  100-power 
looms;  2  lathes  for  wood  and  iron,  and  one  pump  require  in  all 30 
horsepower.  Produce:  13,600  cops  of  woolen  thread,  of  45  cops  to 
the  pound,  each  measuring  32  yards.  The  looms  make  115  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  and  produce  daily  4  pieces  of  double  width  merino 
of  68  yards  each,  and  4  pieces  of  simple  merino  of  1.2  to  1.4  yard 
broad,  and  each  88  yards  long. 

Cotton  Factory.— Co?i(Zensm(7  Engine,  Cylinder,  37  in.  diara. 
Stroke  of  piston,  7  ft.  Volume  of  piston  space,  53.6  cubic  ft.  Average 
pressure  of  steam,  16.73  lbs.  per  square  inch.  Revolutions,  17  per 
minute.  Friction  of  Engine  and  Shafting,  (indicated)  4.75  lbs.  per 
sq.  inch  of  piston.  Indicated  Horses  power,  125.  Total  power^l. 
Available,  deducting  friction=717. 

(The  foregoing  has  reference  to  an  English  mill,  for  driving  22,060  Hand 
mule  spindles,  with  preparation,  and  260  looms,  with  common  sizing.) 

Remarks,— Each  additional  horse's  power  will  di-ive  305  hand- 
mule  spindles,  loith  preparation, 
or  230  self-actmg  " 
or  104  throstle  " 
or  10.5  looms  with  common  sizing. 

Including  preparation : 

1  throstle  spindle=3  hand-mule,  or  2.25  self-acting  spindles. 
1  self-acting  spindle=l,2  hand-mule  spindles. 
Exclusive  of  preparation,  taking  only  the  spindle: 

1  throstle  spindle=3.5  hand-mule,  or  2.56  self-acting  spindles. 
1  self-acting  spindle=1.375  hand-mule  spindles. 

The  throstles  are  the  common,  spinning  34  twist  for  power  loom 
weaving  ;  the  spindles  revolve  4,000  times  per  minute.  The  self- 
acting  mules  are,  one  half  spinning  36' s  weft,  spindles  revolving  4, 800; 
the  other  half  spinning  36's  twist,  spindles  revolving  5,200.  The 
hand-mules  spinning  about  equal  quantities  of  36's  weft  and  twist. 
Weft  spindles  4,700,  and  twist  spindles  5,000  rev.  per  minute.  Aver- 
age breadth  of  looms  37  ins.  (weaving  37  ins.  cloth),  making  123 
picks  per  minute.  All  common  calicoes  about  60  reed,  Stockport 
count,  and  68  picks  to  the  inch.  N^o  power  consumed  by  t\iS  sizing. 
When  the  yarn  is  dressed  instead  of  sized,  one  horse's  power  cannot 


560    .  MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

drive  so  many  looms,  as  the  dressing  macliino  will  al^sorb  from  17  ti) 
.14  of  the  power. 

Size  icon DuESsiNG  Cotton  Yakn  ok  Wakps.— Flour  280  lbs  ;  tal- 
low I  lb.  ;  add  ^  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  Hour  employed  of 
l)aranino.  The  parafline  may  be  made  to  rexjlaco  tlie  whole,  or  apart 
of  the  tallow  employed. 

BKAUTiFur.  Sizing  fou  Linton. — Crystallized  chrbonate  of  soda,  1 
part ;  white  wax.  4  to  G  parts  ;  steariue  4  to  G  parts  ;  pure  white  soap, 
4  to  6  parts  ;  fine  Paris  white  or  carbonate  of  magnesia  20  parts  ;  po- 
tato starch,  40  i^arts  ;  fine  Avhqat  starch,  100  parts  ;  boU  with  sufFicif^nt 
water  to  form  IGOO  parts  altogether,  adding,  if  desired,  some  ultra- 
marine to  counteract  the  yellow  tint  of  the  linen.  The  Imen  is  starched 
with  this  preparation,  afterwards  steamed  and  dried,  then  sprinkled 
with  soap-water  and  placed  in  the  stamping  mill,  afterwards  steamed 
and  calendered. 

The  Mariner's  Cojipass.— The  needle  or  magnet  is  said  to  point 
always  to  the  north,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  the  other  points,  as 
east,  west,  &c.,  are  easily  found  by  the  needle  pointing  north  and 
south.  In  certain  parts  of  the  world,  however,  the  needle  does  not 
point  to  the  north,  but  is  drawn  considerably  to  the  right  or  left  of 
true  north.  This  is  called  the  variation  of  the  compass,  and  must 
be  known  accurately  by  the  navigator  in  order  to  correct  and  steer 
the  right  course.  For  instance  in  crossing  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
the  .variation  of  the  compass  amounts  in  sailing  vessels  to  2^  or  2^ 

{)oints  westerly,  and  the  course  steered  must  be  corrected  according- 
y.  Say  that  you  wish  to  make  a  due  east  course,  you  must  steer 
2^  or  2|  points  south  of  that  or  to  the  right  hand  in  order  to  make  a 
direct  course. 

Off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  strange 
enough,  the  variation  of  the  compass  in  ships  bound  to  India  or  Aus- 
tralia is  2|  points  easterly,  and  in  order  to  make  it  due  east  course  it  is 
necessary  to  steer  2^  to  the  north  or  left  of  her  course,  while  again  to- 
wards the  equator  or  centre  of  the  globe  there  is  hardly  any  percept- 
ible variation  of  the  compass  at  all.  The  way  of  finding  out  how 
much  the  compass  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  is  by  obser- 
vations of  tlie  sun  taken  with  the  compass,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween the  true  and  magnetic  or  compass  bearing  is  the  variation, 
which  must  be  applied  as  a  correction  to  the  course  steered.  We 
have,  however,  in  iron  ships  or  steamers  what  is  called  the  deviation 
of  the  compass  to  attend  to  besides  the  variation.  This  is  the  local 
attraction  caused  by  the  iron,  and  must  be  carefully  understood  be^ 
fore  steamers  or  iron  ships  attempt  to  go  to  sea.  As  in  steamers  ot 
theAllanor  Cunard  line,  each  vessel  before  proceeding  on  her  first 
voyage  must  be  carefully  swung,  and  magnets  fixed  to  the  deck,  be- 
sides small  chains  placed  on  each  side  of  the  compasses  in  boxes,  in 
order  to  counteract  the  attraction  of  the  iron.  Thus  the  compasseb 
are  so  nicely  balanced  with  the  magnets  and  iron,  that  it  is  rare  in-= 
deed  at  this  day  that  they  get  out  of  order  on  a  trans-Atlantic  passage. 
The  consequences  to  either  steamer  or  sailing  ship  whose  compasses 
are  astray  would  be  terrible  to  contemplate,  even  if  it  were  but  one- 
half  point,  on  dark  winter  nights  approaching  the  land.  These  difti.= 
culties  are  now  happily  obviated  by  the  discoveries  of  modern  science, 
and  tbflix  application  in  coi]:ecting  the  compass  at  am* 


MACHINISTS,    engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS 


561 


Heat  op  TVatee  nsr  Steam  Boixeks,  Warming  of  nxjiLsr^jsoh.  -Sc. 
—The  following  table  shows  the  temperature  of  water  by  Fahieulieit's 


atmosphere  : — 

Pressure  of 

Steam  iu 

Tempera- 

Tempera- 

Atmospheres. 

,  ture. 

ture. 

F. 

C. 

F. 

C. 

1 

212° 

100.° 

13 

381° 

155.0 

1.5 

230 

112  2 

14 

387 

157.7 

2 

251 

12l!2 

15 

393 

200 !  5 

2.5 

261 

128.8 

16 

398 

203.1 

3 

275 

125. 

17 

401 

206.2 

3.5 

285 

140.5 

18 

409 

209.4 

4 

29i 

145.5 

19 

414 

212.2 

4.5 

300 

148.8 

20 

418 

214.4 

5 

308 

153.1 

21 

423 

217.2 

6.5 

314 

156.2 

22 

427 

219.4 

6 

320 

160. 

23 

431 

221.2 

6.5 

326 

163.1 

24 

436 

224.4 

7 

332 

166.2 

25 

439 

226.1 

7.5 

3.37 

169.4 

30 

457 

236.1 

8 

342 

172.2 

35 

473 

245.1 

9 

351 

177.2 

40 

487 

252.7 

10 

369 

181.2 

45 

491 

2.55. 

11 

367 

186.1 

50 

511 

2C6.1 

12 

374 

WO. 

US' S3  3 

P  o  ^  M  o 


(3)  (5J  ©  (S  ft  I 

H  II  U  U  H  U 


5h 

'^1 


|2| 
15=3 

'it 

run 

>-  03  3 

>S  si 
S  a 


Value  of  Fuel. — The  evaporative  power  of  Cb2;e  in  the  hirnace 
of  a  steam  boiler,  and  under  pressure,  is  from  7^  to  9  lbs.  of  fresb 
water  per  lb.  of  coke  ;  that  of  charcoal  5^  lbs.  of  fresh  water  per  lb. 
The  evaporative  power  of  1  cubic  foot  of  \Axi&  wood  is  equal  to  that  or 
1  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water  ;  or,  in 
the  f  nrnace  of  a  steam  boiler,  and 
under  pressure,  it  is  4|  lbs.  fresh 
water  for  1  lb.  of  wood.  One  cord 
of  hardwood  and  1  cord  of  soft 
wood,  such  as  the  general  average 
in  Canada,  is  equal  in  evaporative 
effects  to  2000  lbs.  of  anthracite  I 
coal.  One  cord  of  the  kind  of ' 
wood  used  by  American  river 
steamers  in  the' West,  is  equal  to 
n  bushels  (960  lbs.)  of  Pittsburg 
«oal  ;  9  cords  cotton,  ash  and  cypress  wood  are  equal  to  7  cords  yellow 
pine.  'The  densest  Woods  give  the  greatest  heat,  as  charcoal  gene- 
rates more  heat  than  flame.  The  evaporative  power  of  peat  in  the 
^urnace  of  a  steam  boiler,  and  under  pressure,  is  3^  to  5  lbs.  of  fresh 
water  for  every  lb.  of  fuel.  Bituminous  coal  is  13  per  cent,  more  ef- 
fective than  coke  io£  equal  weights,  and  in  England  the  effects  ars 
alike  for  equal  costs.  In  an  experiment  under  a  pressure  of  30  lbs. 
lb.  pine  wood  evaporated  3.5  to  4.75  lbs.  water,  1  ib.  Lehigh  coaL 
2.25  to  8.75  HiJS"    The  least  consumptioD.  of  coal  yet  attained  is 


Return  Flue  Boiler. 


5G2        MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS. 

per  indicated  liorse-power.  It  usually  varies  in  different  engines  from 
2  to  8  lbs..  Railway  experiments  demonstrate  1  ton  of  Cumberland 
coal,  (2240  lbs.)  to  bo  equal  in  evaporating  effect  to  1.25  tons  of  an- 
thracite coal,  and  1  ton  of  antliracitc  to  bo  equal  to  1.75  cords  pine 
wood;  also  tliat  2000  lbs.  Laclcawanna  coal  are  equal  to  4500  11  )s.  best 

i)inc  Avood.  Much  depends  on  the  kind  of  boiler  used,  Tlie  It  tarn 
Yiue  Boiler  gives  very  good  results  in  economizing  heat.  See  diagraru 
above. 

Specific  Gravity, — 1^  the  density  of  fJie  matter  of  wliicli  any 
body  is  composed,  compared  with  the  density  of  anotlier  body  as- 
sumed as  the  standard,  or  1000,  This  standard  is  pure  distilled  water 
for  liquids  and  solids,  and  atmospheric  air  for  gaseous  bodies  and 
vapors.  Thus  as  gold  is  19,  and  silver  10  times  heavier  than  water, 
those  numbers  19,  and  10  are  said  to  represent  the  specific  gi-avity  of 
gold  and  silver.   The  heaviest  known  substance  is  iridium,  used  for 

f)ointing  gold  pens ;  its  specific  gravity  is  23.  The  lightest  of  all  liquids 
las  a  specific  gravity  of  0.6,  it  is  called  chimogene,  and  is  made  from 
petroleum,  it  is  exceedingly  volatile  and  combustible,  being  in  fact 
a  liquefied  gas.  Carbonic  acid  gas  or  choke  damp  is  500  times  lighter 
than  water,  common  air  800,  street  gas  about  2000,  and  pure  hydro- 
gen the  lightest  of  all  substances,  12,000  times.  The  heaviest  substance 
has  thus  23+12,000,  or  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  times  moro 
weight  than  an  equal  bulk  of  the  lightest;  and  the  substance  of  which 
comets  consist,  has  by  astronomers  been  proved  to  be  even  Fcveral 
thousand  times  lighter  than  hydrogen  gas. 

ArrEOVED  Friction  Matches, — About  the  "best  known  prepara- 
tion for  friction  matches  consists  of  gum  arable,  10  loarts  by  weight ; 
phosphorus,  9  parts  ;  nitre,  14  parts;  peroxyde  of  manganese,  in 
powder,  10  parts.  The  gum  is  first  made  into  a  mucilage  with  water, 
then  the  manganese,  then  the  phosphorus,  and  the  whole  is  heated 
to  about  130°  Fah.  When  the  phosphorus  is  melted  the  nitre  is  ad- 
ded, and  the  whole  is  thoroughly  stirred  until  the  mass  is  a  imiform 
paste.  The  wooden  matches  prepared  first  with  sulphur,  are  then 
dipped  in  this  and  afterward  dried  in  the  air.  Friction  papers,  for 
carrying  in  the  pocket,  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  and  by 
adding  some  gum  benzoin  to  the  mucilage  they  will  have  an  agree- 
able order  when  ignited.  , .« t  ^  l3 

Impkoved  CoLOiiED  FiBES.—TF7wte,— Saltpetre,  2  parts;  sulphur, 
2  parts;  antimony,  2  parts.  Red.  Nitrate  of  strontia,  20  parts; 
chlorate  of  potash,  5  parts;  sulphur,  6^  parts ;  charcoal,  Ipart.  Blue. 
Chlorate  of  potash,  9  parts;  sulphur  3  parts;  carbonate  of  copper,  3 
parts.  Yellow. — Nitrate  of  soda,  24  parts;  antimony,  8  parts,  sul-* 
phur,  6  parts;  charcoal,  1  part.  Green. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  26  parts; 
chlorate  of  potash,  18  parts;  sulphur,  10  parts,  Violet. — Nitrate  of 
strontia,  4  parts ;  chlorate  of  potash,  9  parts;  sulphur,  5  parts;  car- 
bonate of  copper,  1  part;  calomel,  1  part,         • '  -s 

'J'o  Re-cover  Hammers  in  Pianos,— Get  felt  of  graduated  thick- 
ness, cut  it  in  strips  the  exact  width,  touch,  only  the  two  ends  with 
glue,  not  the  part  striking  the  strings.^Hold  iu  iDlace  with  springs  of 
narrow  hoop  iron.  '  ^        .  '  , 

Water. — Fresh  Water. — The  component  parts  by  ^  weight  and 
measure  is,  Oa;?/f/en,  88,9  by  weight,  and  1  by  measure,  Ji?/(Zro(/ew, 
11,1  by  weight,  and  2  by  measure.  One  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water 
at  its  maximum  density  of  39°,  83,  the  barometer  at  30  inches,  weighs 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  563 

.-^ 

252.6937  grs.  A  cubic  foot  weighs  62.5  lbs.  Rated  by  the  British 
Imperial  standard,  a  cubic  It.  of  water  at  62''  weighs  998.224  ozs., 
35.84:  cubic  ft.  of  water  weigh  1  ton,  39.14  cubic  ft.  of  ice  weigh 
Iton.  Sea- Water.  1  cubic  ft.  weiglis  64.3126  lbs,;  34.84  cubic  ft. 
weigh  1  ton  and  contains  from  4  to  5|  ozs.  of  salt  per  gal.  varying  in 
different  parts  of  the  globe ;  carbonic  acid,  62  parts  in  every  1000  of 
water.  The  saline  matter  in  the  Dead  Sea  is  21.722  parts  in  every 
100.  Dr.  Scoresby's  observations  of  the  height  of  waves  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean  record  24  ft.,  30  ft.,  the  highest  43  ft.,  and  the 
mean  18  ft.  in  western  gales.  French  observers  in  tlie  Bay  of  Biscay 
Btate  a  height  of  wave  of  36  ft. ;  Captain  Wilkes  writes  of  36  ft.  intho 
Pacific  and  Sir  J.  Ross  of  22  ft.  in  the  Sonth  Atlantic.  Heights  of 
waves  in  northwest  gales  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  have  been  com- 
puted at  40  ft.,  those  off  Cape  Horn  at  32  ft.,  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  at  15  ft,  and  in  the  German  Ocean  at  14  ft.,  but  in  the  British 
Avaters  they  are  only  found  to  average  8  to  9  ft.  The  velocity  of 
ocean  storm  waves  was  observed  by  Dr.  Scoresby  in  the  North 
Atlantic  to  be  about  32  miles  per  hour  ;  Capt.  Wilkes  records  it  at 
26^  miles  in  the  Pacific,  and  French  mariners  in  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay at  60  miles  an  hour.  Dr.  Scoresby  has  estimated  the  distance 
between  or  breadth  of  his  Atlantic  storm  waves  at  about  600  feet 
from  crest  to  crest  which  is  only  about  half  of  that  stated  by  some 
others,  and  Dr.  S.  states  tliat  the  waves  of  30  ft.  height  move  at 
the  rate  of  32  miles  per  hour.  The  mean  force  of  the  Atlantic 
waves  for  the  summer  months  is  over  600  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.,  during 
winter  2086  lbs.  During  a  severe  gale  6383  lbs.  per  square  ft.  has 
been  noted.  Corrosive  effects  of  Sea-  Water  on  Metals,  per  square 
foot.  Steel  39  grs.,  iron'  38,  copper  9,  zinc  8,  galvanized  iron  1.6, 
tin  2.  t 
Brazing  Cast  Ikok. — There  are  two  ways  of  joining  cast  iron. 

1.  Fit  the  broken  pieces  exactly  together  in  moulding  sand  and  pour 
melted  iron  over  the  parts  to  be  joined.  When  cold  chip  off  the 
euperfiuous  metal  and  you  will  have  a  joint  scarcely  to  be  detected. 

2.  Well  tin  the  parts  to  be  joined,  fit  together  in  saaid  as  above,  and 
pour  melted  brass  over  them. 

Macintosh  Cloth. — The  material  is  merely  two  layers  of  cotton 
cemented  with  liquid  India  rubber;  but  the  junction  is  so  well  effect- 
ed that  the  three  become,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  one.  The  stout 
and  well-woven  cloth  is  coiled  upon  a  horizontal  beam  like  the  yard 
beam  of  a  loom  ;  and  from  this  it  is  stretched  out  in  a  tight  state  and 
a  nearly  horizontal  direction  ;  a  layer  of  liquid  or  rather  paste-like 
solution  is  applied  with  a  spatula,  to  a  considerable  thickness,  and 
the  cloth  is  drawn  under  a  knife  edge  which  scrapes  the  solution  and 
diffuses  it  equally -over  every  part  of  the  cloth,  which  may  be 
30  or  40  yards  long.  The  cloth  is  then  extended  out  on  a  horizontal 
framework  to  dry;  and  when  dried  a  second  coating  is  applied  in  the 
same  way,  and  a  third  or  fourth  coat  if  necessary.  Two  pieces,  thus 
coated,  are  next  placed  face  to  face  with  great  care  to  prevent  creasing 
or  distortion  ;  and  being  placed  between  two  wooden  rollers,  they  are 
CO  thoroughly  pressed  as  to  unite  durably  and  permanently.  Cloth, 
thus  cemented  and  doubled  and  dried,  may  be  cut  and  made  into 


564       MACHINISTS,  engineers*,  AC,  RECEIPTS. 

Rjinncnts  which  will  bear  many  a  rough  trial,  and  many  a  deluging, 
before  rain  or  water  can  penetrate. 

To  Pktrifv  Wood— Gum  salt,  rock  alum,  white  vinegar,  chalk 
and  ]iebbles  powder,  of  each  an  equal  quantity.  Mix  well  togctlicr. 
If,  after  the  ebullition  ig  over,  you  throw  into  this  liquid  any  wood  or 
l)orous  substance,  it  will  petrify  it. 

To  Construct  ax  tEolian  llAnr.— J[ako  a  box  with  the  top,  bot- 
tom, and  sides  of  thiu  wood,  and  the  ends  1.^  inch  beech,  form  it 
the  same  length  as  the  width  of  the  window"  iu  which  it  is  to  bo 
placed.  Tlic  "box  should  be  3  or  4  inches  deep,  and  G  or  7  inches 
wide.  In  the  top  of  the  box,  wliicli  acts  as  a  sounding  board, 
make  3  circular  holes  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  an  equal 
distance  apart.  Glue  across  the  sounding  board,  about  2.^  inches 
from  each  end,  2  pieces  of  hard  wood  ''^  incli  thick,  and  |  inch 
high,  to  serve  as  bridges.  You  must  now  procure  from  any  musi- 
cal instrument  maker  twelve  steel  pegs  similar  to  those  of  a  piano- 
forte, and  12  small  brass  pins.  Insert  them  iu  the  following  man- 
ner into  the  beech  :  first  commence  with  a  brass  pin,  then  insert  a 
steel  peg,  and  so  on,  placing  them  alternately  ^  in,  apart  to  the 
number  of  twelve.  Now  for  the  other  end,  which  you  must  com- 
mence with  a  steel  peg,  exactly  opposite  the  brass  pin  at  the  other 
end,  then  a  brass  pin,  and  so  on,  alternately,  to  the  number  of  12  ;  by 
this  arrangement  you  have  a  steel  peg  and  a  brass  pin  always  oppo- 
site each  other,  which  is  done  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  strings  on 
the  instrument  shall  be  imiform.  Now  string  the  instrument  with  12 
first  violin  strings,  making  a  loop  at  one  end  of  each  string,  which 
put  over  the  brass  pins,  and  wind  the  other  ends  romid  the  oppo- 
site steel  pegs.  Tune  them  in  unison,  but  do  not  draw  them  tight. 
To  increase  the  current  of  air,  a  thin  board  may  be  placed  about 
2  inches  above  the  strings,  supported  at  each  end  by  2  pieces  of 
wood.  Place  the  instrument  iu  a  partly  opened  wiudow,  and  to 
increase  the  draft,  open  the  opposite  door. 

To  Construct  a  Metronome. — Take  a  cheap  clock  movement 
and  substitute  foa?  the  pendulum  a  wire  with  a  sliding  weight,  mark- 
ing the  Avire  with  a  file  at  the  different  points  of  graduation.  Used  to 
indicate  the  proper  time  in  music. 

To  Bend  Glass  Tubes. — Hold  the  tube  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  revolving  it  slowly  between  the  fingers  :  when 
red  hot  it  may  be  easily  bent  into  any  desired  shape.  To  soften  large 
tubes  a  lamp  with  a  double  current  of  air  should  be  used,  as  it  gives 
a  much  stronger  heat  than  the  simple  lamp. 

Black  Lead  Pencils. — The  best  pencils  are  made  by  grinding 
the  black  lead  into  a  fine  impalpable  powder,  then  forming  it  into 
blocks  by  compression  without  any  cementmg  substance,  and  finally 
sawing  it  up  into  the  square  prisms,  which,  when  placed  in  grooves  in 
wood,  form  the  black  lead  pencils  of  commerce.  The  color  can  bo 
graduated  to  any  desired  tinge  by  the  intermixture  of  very  finely 
ground  clay.  By  the  process  of  Prof.  Brodie,  the  most  intractable 
graphite  may  be  reduced  to  the  finest  powder  with  great  ease.  The 
miueral  is  coarsely  powdered  and  mixed  with  l-15th  of  chlorate  of 
potash,  to  which  mixture  is  added  twice  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Chloric  acid  is  disengaged,  and,  after  the  mass  has  cooled,  it  is  well 
washed,  dried,  and  heated  to  redness.   During  the  latter  operation, 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  j&C,  RECEIPTS.  5^5 

tlie  black  load  swells  and  becomes  reduced  to  so  fine  a  powder  that 
it  -will  sAvini  upon  -water,  a  little  fluoride  of  eodium  is  used  to  dissolve 
tlie  silicious  impurities.  The  finest  quality  is  found  near  Burrowdale 
in  Cumberland,  England.  It  is  nearly  pure  carbon,  and  perfectly 
free  from  giit.  It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pen- 
cils, tlie  coarser  quality  being  used,  -svlieu  ground,  for  polishing  iron 
■work,  glazing  gunpowder,  as  a  lubricator  for  machinery,  compounded 
with  four  times  its  weight  of  lard  or  tallow,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
crucibles  for  melting  metals,  as  it  is  very  intractable  in  an  intense 
heat, 

PHiLLir's  FiRF.  A>'>finiLATOR.— Consists  of  a  case  "containing 
water,  within  which  is  a  smaller  case  contiiinijig  chlorate  of  potash 
and  sugar.  Dipped  in  the  latter  is  a  small  tube  containing  sulphuric 
acid;  when  this  tube  is  broken  the  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar  be- 
come ignited,  throwing  oil  large  quantities  of  mixed  gases  which  are 
non-supporters  of  combustion;  the  action  is  maintained  by  the  water 
in  the  outer  case  becoming  heated.  The  gases  are  conveyed  to  the 
fire  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube  fitted  with  a  proper  nozzle  and  stop- 
cock. I  have  seen  still  another  kind  constructed  of  copper  in  quite 
an  elegant  style,  fitted  with  shoulder  straps,  &c.,  for  easy  transporta- 
tion, in  which  the  gases  were  generated  by  means  of  chemicals  on  the 

1)rinciple  of  what  may  be  seen  every  day  in  the  effervescence  of  car- 
)onic  acid  gas  from  uxe  iutermixturo  of  seidlitz  powders  in  water. 
The  chemicals  being  introduced  from  white  and  blue  paper  packages 
into  the  water  contained  in  the  copper  case. 

Majsttfacture  of  Corn  Starch. —  Watt's  Patent. — Tlie  com  is 
steeped  m  water,  ranging  in  temperature  from  70°  to  liO°  Fah., 
for  about  a  week,  changing  the  water  at  least  once  in  24  hours.  A 
certain  amount  of  acid  fermentation  is  thus  produced,  causing  the 
starch  and  refuse  of  the  corn  to  be  easily  separated  afterwards. 
The  swollen  corn  is  ground  in  a  current  of  clear  soft  water,  and 
Ihe  pulp  passed  through  sieves,  Avith  the  water  into  vats.  In  these 
jlie  starch  gradually  settles  to  the  bottom,  the  clear  water  is  then 
run  ofl  by  a  tap,  and  the  starch  gathered  and  dried  in  a  i)roper 
apartment  for  the  purpose. 

liKFiNiNG  OF  Sugar. — Both  cane  and  beet-root  sugar  arc  refined 
on  the  same  x^rinciple,  by  mixture  with  liinewater,  boUing  with 
animal  charcoal,  and  filtration  through  twilled  cotton.  In  some 
establishments  bullock's  blood  is  used  to  aid  in  the  clarifyuig. 
The  albumen  of  the  serum  becomes  coagulated  on  the  application 
of  heat,  forming  a  network,  which  rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquor, 
carrying  with  it  a  great  part  of  the  impurities.  The  reddish  eyrup 
obtamed  by  the  first  filtration  is  next  passed  through  filters  into 
large  vats,  twelve  or, fourteen  feet  deep,  upon  which  are  laid  coarse 
ticking,  coarsely  ground  animal  charcoal,  and  a  second  layer  of 
ticking.  The  sjnaip  is  allowed  to  flow  over  the  surface  of  the"  filter, 
and  runs  slowly  through  the  charcoal,  coming  out  j)erfectly 
colorless.  The  concentrated  syrup  is  then  boiled  in  vacuo,  by  means 
of  which  two  important  results  are  arrived  at.  The  viscid  liquid 
would  boil  in  air  at  230°  Fah.,  at  which  temperature  a  quantity  of 
uncrystallizable  sugar  would  be  formed.  By  performing  the  ope- 
ration in  a  vacuum-pan  the  boiling  point  is  brought  down  to  15(P 
or  1G0°,  no  formation  of  uncrystallizablo  sugar  takes  place,  smQ 


560       MACHINISTS,  KNGINEERS',  AC,  IlECEIPTS. 

a  great  saviiii;  in  fuel  is  effected.  When  tlio  concentration  reachod 
i\  certain  point,  tlio  syrup  is  transferred  to  a  vessel  lieatcd  by  steam 
to  170°,  and  forcibly  aii^itated  with  Avooden  beaters,  until  it  forms 
thick  and  granular.  From  the  lieating-vats  it  is  transferred  into 
inverted  conical  moulds  of  the  well-knowu  shape,  at  the  bottom  of 
each  of  which  is  a  movable  plug.  The  syrup  is  well  stirred  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  air-bubbles,  and  then  left  at  rest  for  several 
liours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  plug  is  removed,  and  the 
iincrystallized  syrup  runs  out.  The  loaves  are  further  freed  from 
nil  colored  matter  by  a  portion  of  perfectly  colorless  syrup  being 
run  through  them.  They  are  then  dried  in  a  stove  and  finished 
for  market  by  being  turned  in  a  lathe.  Crushed  or  granulated  sugar 
13  made  by  causing  the  granular  syrup  to  revolve  in  a  i^erforated 
drum,  by  which  means  the  uncrystallizablo  portion  is  separated 
from  the  crystals  by  centrifugal  force. 

Button  MAmrFACTURE.— Metal  buttons  are  fonned  of  an  inferior 
liind  of  brass,  pe^\  Ler,  or  other  metallic  compositions.  For  button 
metal,  see  a  variety  of  alloys  on  pages  291  and  292.  Buttons  with 
shanks  are  usually  made  of  these  compositions,  which  is  supplied 
to  the  manufacturers  in  sheets  of  the  required  thiclaiess.  By  means 
of  fly  presses  and  punches,  circular  disks  called  blanks,  are  cut  out 
of  these  sheets.  This  is  mostly  performed  by  females,  who  can 
furnish  about  30  blanks  per  minute,  or  12  gross  per  hour.  Hand 
punching  is  the  general  mode  of  cutting  out  blanks,  but  more 
complicated  machines,  which  cut  out  8  or  10  blanks  at  a  time,  arc 
in  use.  After  bemg  punched^  the  edges  of  the  blanks  are  very 
sharp,  and  require  to  be  smoothed  and  rounded.  Their  surfaces 
are  then  planished  on  the  face  by  placing  them  separately  in  a  die 
under  a  small  stamp,  and  allowing  them  to  receive  a  small  blow 
from  a  polished  steel  hammer.  In  this  state  they  are  ready  to 
receive  tlie  shanks  or  small  metal  loops  by  which,  they  are  attached 
to  the  dress.  They  are  made  by  a  machine  in  which  a  coil  of  wire 
is  gradually  advanced  towards  a  pair  of  shears  which  cuts  o£E  short 
pieces.  A  metal  finger  then  presses  against  the  middle  of  each 
piece,  first  bending  it  and  then  pressing  it  into  a  vice,  when  it  is 
compressed  so  as  to  form  a  loop  ;  a  hammer  then  strikes  the  two 
ends,  spreading  them  into  a  flat  surface,  and  the  sliank  is  pushed 
out  of  the  machine  ready  for  use.  Tlie  shanks  are  attached  to  the 
Wanks  by  women,  with  iron  wire,  solder  and  rosin.  They  are  then 
put  into  an  oven,  and  when  firmly  united,  form  plam  buttons.  If 
fi  crest  or  inscription  is  wanted,  it  is  placed  in  a  die  and  stamped. 
Buttons  are  gUded  by  gold  amalgam,  by  being  put  into  an  earthen 
pan  with  the  proper  quantity  of  gold  to  cover  them,  amalgamated 
with  mercury  in  the  following  manner  :  the  gold  is  put  into  an 
iron  ladle  in  thin  strips,  and  a  small  quantity  of  mercury,  say  1 
part  of  mercury  to  8  of  gold,  added  to  it,  the  ladle  is  held  over 
the  fire  till  the  gold  and  mercury  are  perfectly  united.  This  amal- 
gam being  put  into  the  pan  with  the  buttons,  as  much  aquafortis, 
dUuted  with  water,  as  will  wet  them  all  over,  is  thrown  in,  and 
they  are  stirred  up  with  a  brush  till  the  acid,  by  its  affinity  to  the 
copper  in  the  buttons,  carries  the  amalgam  to  every  part  of  their 
surface,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  silver ;  this  done,  the  acid  ia 
Trashed  away  with  clean  water.    Thia  is  called  the  quicking  pro- 


MACniNISTS,  ENGINEEKS',  &C.,  RECEirTS.  567 

eess.  In  drying  off,  the  pan  of  buttons  is  lieated  by  a  charcoal  fire 
expellmg  the  mercury  in  the  form  of  a  vapor,  which,  imder  the 
improved  system,  is  conducted  into  on  oblong  iron  flue  or  gallery, 
gently  sloped  do^vuwards,  having  at  its  end  a  smaU  vertical  tubo 
dipped  into  a  Avater  cistern,  for  condensing  the  mercury,  and  a 
large  vertical  pipe  for  promoting  the  draught  of  the  products  of 
the  combustion.  The  gold  thus  deposited  in  an  exceedmgly  thin 
film  upon  the  buttons,  presents  a  duU  yeUow  color,  and  must  now 
be  burnished  ;  this  is  effected  by  a  piece  of  hematites,  or  bloodstone, 
fixed  on  a  handle  and  applied  to  the  button,  as  it  revolves  in  the 
lathe. 

To  BENDER  Wood  Indestructible. — Robbins'  Process.  The 
apparatus  used  consists  of  a  retort  or  still,  which  can  be  made  of  any 
size  or  form,  in  which  resin,  coal  tar,  or  other  oleaginous  substances, 
together  with  water,  are  placed  in  order  to  subject  them  to  the  heat. 
Fire  being  applied  beneath  the  retort  containing  the  coal  tar,  &c,, 
oleaginous  vapor  commences  to  rise,  and  passes  out  through  a  con- 
necting pipe  mto  a  large  iron  tank  or  chamber  (Avhich  can  also  be 
built  of  any  size),  containing  the  timber,  &c.,  to  be  operated  upon.  The 
heat  acts  at  once  upon  the  wood,  causing  the  sap  to  flow  from  every 
pore,  which,  rising  in  the  form  of  steam,  condenses  on  the  body  of 
the  chamber,  and  discharges  through  an  escape  pipe  in  the  lower  part. 
In  this  process  a  temperature  of  212°  to  250°  Fahr.  is  sufficient  to 
remove  the  surface  moisture  from  the  wood;  but  after  this  the  tem- 
perature should  be  raised  to  300°  or  more,  in  order  to  completely 
saturate  and  permeate  the  body  of  the  wood  with  the  antiseptic  vapors 
and  heavier  products  of  the  distillation.  The  hot  vapor  coagulates  tlio 
albumen  of  the  wood,  and  opens  the  pores,  so  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  oily  product  or  creosote  is  admitted;  the  contraction  resultmg 
from  the  cooling  process  hermetically  seals  them,  and  decay  seems  to 
bo  almost  impossible.  There  is  a  man-hole  in  the  retort,  used  to 
change  or  clean  out  the  contents;  and  the  wood  chamber  is  furnished 
with  doors  made  perfectly  tight.  The  whole  operation  is  completed 
in  less  than  one  hour,  rendering  the  wood  proof  against  rot,  parasites, 
and  the  attacks  of  the  Teredo  navilis  or  naval  worm.  German  Stone 
Coating  for  Wood. — Chalk,  40  parts;  resin,  50  parts;  linseed  oil  4 
parts;  melt  together.  To  tliis  add  1  part  of  oxide  of  copper,  afterwards 
1  part  of  sulphuric  acid;  add  this  last  carefully;  apply  with  a  brush. 

Iron  Tube  Manufacture.— In  the  present  method  of  manufac- 
turing the  patent  welded  tube,  the  end  of  the  skelp  is  bent  to  the 
circular  form,  its  entire  length  is  raised  to  the  welding  heat  in  an  ap- 
propriate furnace,  and  as  it  leaves  the  furnace  almost  at  the  point  of 
fusion,  it  is  dragged  by  the  cham  of  a  draw-bench,  after  the  man- 
ner of  wire,  though  a  pair  of  tongs  with  two  bell-shaped  jaws;  these 
are  opened  at  the  time  of  iutroducmg  the  end  of  a  skelp,  which  is 
Avelded  without  the  agency  of  a  mandril.  By  this  ingenious  arrange- 
ment wrought  iron  tubes  may  be  made  from  the  diameter  of  6  inches 
internally  and  about  1-8  to  3-8  of  an  iuch  thick,  to  as  small  as  1-4  of 
an  inch  diameter  and  1-10  bore,  and  so  admirable  is  the  joining  effected 
In  those  of  the  best  description  that  they  will  withstand  the  greatest 
jn'essure  of  water,  steam,  or  gas  to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  and 
tiiey  admit  of  being  bent  both  in  the  heated  and  cold  state,  almost 
with  impunity.   Sometimes  the  tubes  are  made  one  upon  the  othci 


5G8  ,  BiACuiNiSTS,' engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

wheu  great  thickness  is  reciuircd ;  but  those  stout  pipes,  and  those  larger 
tlian  3  inches,  are  but  seldom  required.  The  wrought  iron  tubes  of 
hydrostiitic  presses  which  measure  about  J  an  inch  internally,  and  ^  to 
f  of  an  inch  thiclc  in  tlie  metal,  are  frequently  subjected  to  a  pressure 
of  four  tons  on  each  square  inch. 

BiiAss  TuiiEs. — Brass  or  other  tubes  are  formed  of  rolled  metal 
which  is  cut  to  the  desired  width  by  means  of  revolving  discs;  in  the 
large  bIkcs  of  tubes,  tlie  metal  is  partially  curved  in  its  length  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  rolls,  when  in  this  condition  it  is  passed  tlirough  a 
steel  hole  or  a  die,  a  plug  bein<^  held  in  such  a  position  as  allows  the 
metal  to  pass  between  it  and  tlie  interior  of  the  liole.  Oil  is  used  to 
lubricate  the  metal,  the  motion  is  communicated  by  power,  the  draw- 
ing apparatus  being  a  pair  of  huge  nippers,  which  holds  the  brass, 
and  is  attached  to  a  chain  and  revolves  round  a  windlass  or  cylmder. 
The  tube  in  its  unsoldered  state  is  annealed,  bound  round  at  intervals 
of  a  few  inches  with  iron  wire,  and  solder  and  borax  applied  along  tlio 
seam.  The  operation  of  soldering  is  completed  by  passing  the  tubes 
through  an  air  stove,  heated  with  "  cokes  "  or  "  breezes"  which  melts 
the  solder,  and  unites  the  two  eyes  of  tlie  metal,  and  forms  a  perfect 
iiube;  it  is  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  remove 
Sjcaly  deposits  on  its  surface,  the  wire  and  extra  solder  having  been 
previously  removed;  it  is  then  drawn  through  a  "finishing  hole 
plate"  when  the  tube  is  completed.  Mandril  drawn  tubes  are  drawn 
upon  a  very  accurately  turned  steel  mandril,  by  this  means  the  in- 
ternal diameter  is  rendered  smooth.  The  tubes  drawn  by  this  pro- 
cess are  well  adapted  for  telescopes,  syringes,  small  pump  cylinders, 
&c.  The  brass  tubes  for  the  boilers  of  locomotive  enguies  are  now 
made  by  casting  and  drawing  without  being  soldered,  and  some  of 
them  are  drawn  taper  in  their  thickness.  Tubes  from  1-10  inch  in- 
ternal diameter  and  8  or  ten  inches  long,  up  to  those  of  two  or  threo 
inches  diameter  and  4  or  5  feet  long,  are  drawn  vertically  by  means 
of  a  strong  chain  wound  on  a  barrel  by  wheels  and  pinions,  as  in 
a  crane.  In  Donkin's  tube  drawing  machine,  which  is  applicable  to 
making  tubes,  or  rather  cylinders,  for  paper-making  and  other  ma- 
chinery, as  large  as  20^  inches  diameter,  and  6^  feet  long,  a  vertical 
screw  is  used,  the  nut  of  which  is  turned  round  by  toothed  wheels 
driven  by  six  men  at  a  windlass.  The  fluted  tubes  of  pencil  cases  are 
drawn  through  oramental  plates,  with  elevations  and  depressions 
corresponding  to  ttie  impressions  left  on  the  tube. 

Lead  Pipe,  is  made  by  forcing  lead,  while  heated  to  a  plastic  state, 
over  a  J  annular  mandnl  or  die  to  form  the  core,  by  means  of  hy- 
drauUc  pressure. 

CuTiiEKY  MANUFACTUKE.--There  are  three  kinds  of  steel  employed 
in  manufacture  of  different  articles  of  cutlery,  common  steel,  shear 
steel,  and  cast  steel.  All  edge  tools  which  require  to  be  tenacious 
without  being  very  hard,  are  made  of  shear  steel.  The  best  scissors, 
razors,  penknives,  &c.,  are  made  from  cast  steel,  which  is  able  to 
take  a  very  fine  polish,  common  steel  is  only  used  in  making  cheap 
articles  of  cutlery.  In  making  good  table-knives,  shear  steel  and 
cast  steel  are  generally  preferred.  In  the  ordinary  method  of  mak- 
ing knives,  the  blades  are  cut  out  of  a  sheet  of  steel,  and  the  backs, 
shoulders  and  tangs  of  wrought  iron,  are  attached  to  the  steel 
Wades  by  welding  at  the  forge.  The  iiiife  la  then  .ground  to  th« 


MACnrXiSTS,  EN^GINEEBS,'  AC,  RECEirTS.  569 

proper  shape,  and  the  blaSe  polished  and  hardened.  The  fork 
manufacture  is  a  distinct  branch  of  industry,  and  the  manufacturers 
of  table  knives  generally  buy  their  forks  from  the  fork  makers 
ready  to  be  put  into  their  handles.  In  making  table  knives,  two 
men  are  generally  employed  ;  one  is  called  the  foreman,  or  maker, 
and  the  other  the  striker.  Pen  knives  are  usually  forged  by  a  smgle 
hand,  with  hammer  and  anvil  simply  ;  they  are  hardened  by  heating 
the  blades  red-hot,  and  dipping  them  into  water  up  to  the  shoulder. 
Razors  are  also  liardened  in  tlie  same  manner.  The  grinding  and 
polishing  of  cutlery  are  generally  performed  by  machinery,  the  busi- 
ness of  the  grinders  is  divided  into  grinding,  glazing  and  polishing. 
Grmding  is  performed  upon  stones  of  various  dimensions.  Those  ar- 
ticles which  require  temper  bemg  ground  on  wet  stones.  Glazing  Is 
a  process  by  which  lustre  is  given  to  cutlery  ;  it  is  performed  with  a 
glazier,  consisting  of  a  circular  piece  of  wood,  sometimes  covered 
with  leather,  or  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin  ;  it  is  fixed  on  an  axis  like  a 
grindstone.  The  polishing  process  is  the  last,  and  is  performed  on  a 
similar  piece  of  wood  covered  with  buff  leather.  Only  articles  of 
cast  steel,. which  have  been  hardened  and  tempered  are  subjected 
to  this  operation. 

,  On  Needle  Manufacture,  Tesiperin-g,  &c.— This  smaU  but  im- 
portant implement  has  to  go  through  the  hands  of  about  120  work- 
men during  the  process  of  manufacture.  The  steel  wire,  being  drawn 
to  the  proper  size,  is  submitted  to  various  tests  to  ascertain  its  qual- 
ity, and  is  then  cut  into  proper  lengths  by  shears,  which,  by  striking 
21  blows  in  a  minute,  cut  in  10  hours  fully  400,000  ends  of  steel  wire, 
Avhich  produce  about  800,000  needles.  These  are  passed  on  for  fur- 
ther manipulation  to  other  workmen,  who  straighten  and  point  the 
pieces  of  wire.  After  pointing  they  are  cut  in  two,  so  as  to  form  two 
separate  needles  of  equal  len^h  and  quality.  For  each  different  size 
a  small  copper  plate  is  employed.  It  is  nearly  square,  and  has  a 
tumed-up  edge  on  two  of  its  sides,  the  one  is  intended  to  receive  all 
the  points,  while  the  other  resists  the  pressure  of  the  shears.  On 
this  plate  a  certain  number  of  wires  are  put  with  their  points  in  con- 
tact with  the  border,  and  they  are  cut  together  flush  with  the  plate, 
by  means  of  a  small  pair  of  shears  moved  by  the  knee  of  the  work- 
man. These  even  wires  are  now  taken  to  the  head-flattener.  This 
workman,  seated  over  a  table  with  a  block  of  steel  before  him  about 
3  inches  cube,  takes  up  from  20  to  25  needles  between  his  finger  and 
thumb,  spreading  them  out  like  a  fan,  with  the  points  under  the 
thumb,  he  lays  the  heads  on  the  steel  block,  and,  with  a  small  flat- 
faced  nammer  strikes  a  few  successive  blows  upon  them  so  as  to 
flatten  them  in  an  instant.  The  heads,  having  become  hardened  by 
hammering,  are  now  annealed  by  heating  and  slow  coonng,  and  arc 
handed  to  the  piercer,  generally  a  child,  who  forms  the  eye  in  a 
second  by  laying  the  head  upon  a  block  of  steel,  and  by  drivuiga 
small  punch  through  one  side  with  a  smart  tap  of  the  hammer,  and 
then  exactly  opposite  on  the  other.  The  eyes  are  then  trimmed  by 
driving  the  punch  through  them  again  on  a  lump  of  lead  and,  after 
laying  the  needle  with  the  punch  stickmg  through  it,  upon  the  block 
of  steel,  hammering  the  head  on  the  sides,  which  causes  it  to  take 
the  form  of  the  punch.  Tne  next  operator  makes  the  groove  at  the 
eye  and  roimds  the  head,  which  he  does  with  a  small  file.  The 


570        MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS*,  AC,  KECEU'TS 

uecdles,  "being  thus  prepared,  .'iro  thrown  by  the  workmen  pell-mell 
into  a  sort  of  drum  or  box,  in  which  they  are  made  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  parallel  lines  by  means  of  a  few  dexterous  shakes  of  tlio 
workman's  arm.  They  arc  now  ready  to  bo  tempered,  for  which 
purpose  they  are  ranged  on  sheet-iron  plates,  about  30  lbs.  weight  at 
a  time,  cont'iiniug  from  250,000  to  500,000  needles,  and  arc  placed  in  a 
proper  furnace,  Avherc  they  are  heated  to  a  bright  redness  for  the 
larger  needles,  and  to  a  less  intense  degree  for  the  smaller  ;  tliey  are 
then  removed,  and  inverted  suddenly  over  a  bath  of  cold  water  in 
such  a  way  that  all  the  needles  may  be  immersed  at  the  same  time, 
yet  separate  from  each  other.  This  has  the  effect  of  making  them 
■very  hard  and  brittle.  The  water  being  run  off,  the  needles  are  re- 
moved lor  further  operations.  Some  manufacturers  heat  the  needles 
by  means  of  immersion  in  melted  lead,  others  throw  them  into  a  pan 
along  with  a  quantity  of  grease,  which,  being  placed  on  the  fire,  the 
oily  matter  soon  ignites,  and  after  it  burns  out,  the  needles  are  found 
to  be  in  the  proper  temper  ;  those  which  are  twisted  in  the  temperin£f 
being  afterwards  straightened  by  the  hammer  on  the  anvil. 

Polishing  is  the  next  and  most  expensive  and  prolonged  operation. 
This  is  effected  on  bundles  containing  500,000  needles  intermixed  with 
quartzoze  sand,  and  a  little  rape-seed  oil.  Tliirty  of  those  bundles 
are  exposed  to  the  vibratory  pressure  of  wooden  tables,  which  makp 
about  20  horizontal  double  movements  per  minute,  causing  tho 
bundles  to  run  over  2  feet  each  time,  or  800  feet  per  liour.  This 
agitation  is  kept  up  about  18  or  20  hours,  causing  such  a  move- 
ment and  attrition  as  to  polish  tho  needles  in  the  bags  or  bundles. 
They  are  then  removed  from  the  packets  into  wooden  bowls  and 
mixed  with  sawdust  to  remove  the  grease  and  other  impurities, 
placed  in  a  cask,  which  is  turned  by  a  winch  ;  more  sawdust  is 
introduced  as  required,  and  the  turning  is  continued  until  tho 
needles  become  clean  and  bright.  They  are  then  winnowed  by  a 
fan  to  clean  them  from  the  sawdust  and  refuse  matter,  and  "are 
subsequently  arranged  in  regular  order  on  a  small,  somewhat  con- 
cave, iron  tray.  The  operation  of  malting  up  tho  rolls  or  bags, 
polishing,  winnowing  and  arranging  them,  have  to  be  repeated  ten 
times  on  the  best  needles.  It  is  found  that  emery  powder  mixed 
with  quartz  and  mica  or  pounded  granite  is  preferable  to  anythmg 
else  for  polishing  needles  by  friction  in  the  bags  at  the  first,  emery 
mixed  with  olive  oil,  from  the  second  to  the  seventh  operation, 
putty,  or  oxide  of  tin  for  the  eighth  and  ninth,  putty  with  very  little 
oil  for  the  tenth,  and  lastly  bran  to  give  a  finish.  In  this  mode  of 
operating,  the  needles  are  scoured  in  a  copper  cask  studded  in  the 
interior  with  raised  points  to  increase  the  friction  and  a  quantity  of 
hot  soap  suds  is  introduced  occasionally  to  keep  them  clean.  The 
cask  must  be  slowly  turned  upon  its  axis  for  fear  of  injuring  the 
mass  of  needles  it  contains.  They  are  finally  dried  in  the  wooden 
cask  by  attrition  with  saw  dust,  then  Aviped  with  a  linen  rag  or 
soft  leather — the  damaged  ones  being  thrown  aside.  The  sorting 
is  performed  in  dry  apartments,  where  all  the  points  are  first  laid 
the  same  way,  and  the  needles  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  polish 
with  gicat  rapidity.  The  workman  places  2000  or  3000  needles 
in  an  iron  ring  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  sets  all  their  heads  in 
one  plane,  then,  on  looking  carefully  at  their  points,  he  easily  re- 


MACniXISTS,  engineers',  AC,  RECEIPTS.  571 

cognizes  the  "broken  ones  and  removes  them  -with  an  instrument 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  These  defective  needles  pass  into  the 
hands  of  tlie  pointer  in  order  to  be  ground  again,  when  they  form 
articles  of  inferior  value.  Those  needles  bent  in  the  polishing  must 
now  be  straightened,  and  the  whole  are  finally  arranged  by  the 
tact  of  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  sorter,  and  weighed  out  into 
quantities  for  packing  into  blue  papers.  The  bluer  puts  the  final 
touch  to  them  by  taking  25  needles  at  a  time  between  his  fore-finger 
and  thumb,  and  pressm^  their  pomts  against  a  small  hone-stone 
of  compact  micaceous  schist,  quadrangular  in  form,  mounted  in  a 
small  lathe,  turning  them  briskly  round,  giving  the  points  a  bluish 
cast,  while  he  polishes  and  improves  them. 

Oif  FiiiE  Manufacture  Files  are  made  of  bars  of  steel,  rendered 

doubly  hard  by  a  process  called  double  conversion,  drawn  the  re- 
quired size  at  the  tilt  hammer,  and  then  shaped,  the  square  and  flat 
ones  by  the  hammer  and  common  anvil  only,  but  those  of  round, 
half-round,  and  three-angled  forms,  by  means  of  bosses  and  dies  mado 
in  the  above  shapes,  which  fit  into  a  groove  left  for  them  in  the  anvil. 
The  steel  blanks  having  been  thus  formed,  are  next  annealed,  or 
softened,  to  render  them  capable  of  being  cut,  by  placing  a  number 
of  them  together  in  a  brick  oven,  rendered  air-tiglit  by  filling  up  all 
the  interstices  with  sand  (to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  steel,  to 
which  it  is  very  liable,  if  air  be  admitted,)  and  then  making  a  fire 
play  as  equally  as  possible  all  round  until  they  are  red  hot,  when  the 
heat  is  discontinued,  and  the  steel  allowed  to  cool  gradually  before  it  is 
uncovered.  The  surface  to  contain  the  teeth  is  now  rendered  as 
smooth  as  possible  by  grinduig  or  filing;  the  teeth  are  then  cut  with  a 
carefully  ground  chisel,  each  incision  being  made  separately.  The 
next  and  last  process,  that  of  hardening,  is  performed  m  various  ways 
by  different  makers,  the  ordinary  method,  however,  is  to  cover  the 
files  witli  a  kind  of  composition  or  protecting  vaniish  to  prevent  oxi- 
dation and  scalding  of  the  steel  when  heated;  and,  lastly,  they  are 
plunged  in  cold,  fresh  water  to  cool  them  as  quickly  as  possible,  Somo 
file-makers  coat  their  files,  before  tempering,  with  a  composition  of 
cow-dung,  or  pig-flour,  wliich  not  only  protects  the  sharp  angles  of 
the  cuttings  from  the  action  of  the  fire,  but  furnishes  a  highly  azotized 
substance,  which  conduces  greatly  to  still  further  harden  and  steelify 
the  finished  work.  I  know  several  file  manufacturers  who  make  use 
of  a  bath  of  melted  lead  for  tempering  purposes.  The  files  are  first 
coated  with  a  greasy  composition  to  prevent  any  oxide  adhering,  then 
introduced  for  a  short  time  into  melted  lead,  or  the  "metallic  bath", 
as  it  is  called,  and  then  plunged  into  the  tempering  liquid.  The  melt-( 
ed  lead  may  be  kept  covered  with  charcoal,  or  other  suitable  ingredi- 
ents, to  prevent  oxidation.  In  some  manufactories  a  charcoal  fire  is 
kept  burning  on  the  suijf  ace  of  the  melted  lead. 

Pen  Making. — ^Pens  should  be  made  of  the  best  steel  that  can  bo 
got,  as  peculiar  elasticity  is  required  m  them,  which  could  not  be  ob- 
tained if  poor  steel  were  used.  The  steel  is  cut  into  slips  some  3  feet 
long  and  4  inches  broad;  these  slips  are  then  plunged  into  a  pickle  of 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  so  as  to  remove  the  scales  from  the  surface  ; 
next  it  is  passed  between  heavy  rollers  by  which  it  is  reduced  to  the 
thickness  required,  and  made  fit  to  undergo  the  first  process  in  pen 
making.   This  is  performed  by  a  girl,  who,  seated  at  a  stamping* 


572     MACHINISTS  "  engineers',  receipts 


press  provided  with  a  bed  and  corresponding  punch, speedily  cuto  out 
the  blank,  wluch  is  perfectly  flat.  The  next  step  is  to  perforate  the 
liolc  which  terminates  the  slit,  and  to  remove  any  superfluous  steel 
which  might  interfere  with  the  elasticity  of  the  pen.  The  embryo 
pens  arc  then  annealed  in  a  muffle,  and  the  maker's  name  stamped 
upon  them.  The  pens  are  next  transferred  to  another  class  of  work- 
men, who,  by  means  of  a  press,  either  make  the  pens  concave,  if  tliey 
are  merely  to  be  nibs,  or,  if  they  are  to  be  barrel  pens,  they  roll  the 
barrel  together,  n  The  next  process  is  termed  the  hardcninf/,  and  con- 
sists in  placing  a  number  of  pens  in  an  iron  box  which  is  introduced 
into  a  muffle.  After  they  become  of  a  deep  red  heat  they  are  plung- 
ed into  a  tank  of  oil,  and,  when  they  get  cool,  the  adhering  oil  is  re- 
moved by  agitation  in  circular  tin  barrels ;  tempering  is  the  next  step, 
by  heating  to  the  necessary  elasticity  in  a  warm  bath  of  oil;  and,  fln- 
aily,  the  whole  number  of  pens  are  placed  in  a  revolving  cylinder 
along  with  sand,  ground  crucible,  and  other  cutting  substances,  whiclr 
tends  to  brighten  them  up  to  the  natural  color  of  the  steel-  next  the 
nib  is  ground  down  finely,  with  great  rapidity,  by  a  girl,  who  picks  it 
up  with  a  pair  of  pliers,  and,  with  a  single  touch  on  an  emery  wheel, 
perfects  it  at  once.  The  slit  is  now  made  by  means  of  a  press.  A 
chisel,  or  wedge,  with  a  flat  side,  is  affixed  to  the  bed  of  the  press, 
and  the  descending  screw  has  a  corresponding  chisel-cutter,  which 
passing  down  with  the  greatest  accuracy  on  the  pen,  which  had  been 
placed  on  the  chisel  aflflxed  to  the  bed,  and  the  slit  is  made  and  the 
pen  complete.  They  are  next  colored  brown  or  blue,  by  placing  them 
in  a  revolving  metal  cylinder,  under  which  is  a  charcoal  stove,  and, 
by  watching  narrowly  the  different  gradation  of  color,  the  requisite 
thit  is  speedily  attained;  a  brilliant  polish  is  subsequently  imparted 
by  immersing  the  pens  in  lac  dissolved  in  naphtha;  they  are  then 
dried,  counted,  selected  and  placed  into  boxes  for  sale. 

Gold  Pens. — Gold  pens  are  made  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
!:teel,  with  this  important  difference,  that,  as  they  cannot  be  tempered 
in  the  same  way  that  steel  is,  the  necessary  elasticity  is  imparted  to 
them  by  hammering,  and  by  rubbing  them  with  a  small  hard  stone 
and  water,  instead  of  the  tempering,  &c.,  in  oil.  As  gold  is  too  soft 
of  itself  to  make  a  durable  pen,  it  is  found  necessary  to  attach  a  min- 
ute portion  of  an  alloy  of  irridium  and  osmium,  by  soldering  to  tho 
tips.    This  makes  an  extremely  hard  and  durable  point. 

Tinning  Small  Articles. — Dissolve  as  much  zinc  scraps  in  mu- 
riatic acid  as  it  will  take  up,  let  it  settle,  then  decant  the  clear,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use.  Next  prepare  a  suitable  iron  vessel,  set  it  over 
the  fire,  put  your  tin  therein,  and  melt  it,  and  put  as  much  mutton 
or  beef  tallow  as  will  cover  the  tin  about  ^  inch  thick.  This  prevents 
the  oxidation  of  the  metal;  but  be  very  careful  that  the  tallow  does 
not  catch  fire.  The  iron,  or  any  other  metal  to  be  tinned,  must  bo 
well  cleaned,  either  with  scraping,  filing,  polishing  with  sand,  or  im- 
mersion in  diluted  vitriol.  Proceed  to  wet  the  articles  in  the  zinc  so- 
lution, then  carefully  immerse  them  in  the  tallow  and  melted  tin;  in  a 
very  short  time  they  will  become  perfectly  tinned,  when  they  may  be 
taken  out. 

To  Tin  Iron  Wire. — Glean  the  wire  thoroughly  in  a  pickle  made 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  Avater  (acid,  1  part,  water,  2  parts'^  cover  it  with 
a  solution  oi  muriate  of  zinc,  and  dip  in  melted  tin. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.  573 


MODERN  OCEAN  STEAMSHIP. 


In  its  wonderful  design,  vast  power,  and  nice  adaptation  to  successfully 
encounter  the  most  tremendous  forces  in  nature,  the  modern  ocean  steam- 
ship is  justly  entitled  to  rank  as  the  proudest  achievement  of  man  in  the  line 
of  modern  enginearing.    For  the  ModelUnp  of  Vessels,  see  page  429. 

Engineers  of  ateamshipa  have  found  that  the  best  lubricants  are  glyceririe 
for  the  cylinders  and  oastor-oil  for  the  bearings.  When  castor-oil  is  used, 
the  main  bearing?  ssldom  become  heated.  Only  the  best  glycerine  can  be 
employed  with  advantage ;  bat  when  it  is  of  a  high  grade,  the  results  leave 
little  to  be  desired. 

Comparative  Weight  of  Iron  and  Wood  Hulls. — An  iron  hull 
weighs  nearly  45  per  cant,  less  than  a  wood  hull.  The  weight  of  hull  of  a 
vessel  with  an  iron  frame  and  oak  planking,  compared  with  a  hull  entirely 
of  wood,  is  as  8  to  15. 

LuBRiCANX  FOR  TuKNlNO  TooLS.  — It  Is  said  that  steel  annealed  to  a  straw  color  can 
be  easily  turned  by  using  a  mixture  of  petroleum  and  turpentine  as  a  lubricant.  AlIoj'S 
which  resisted  th3  best  tempered  tools  have  been  turned  by  the  use  of  petroleum  alone. 

Planer  Tools. — For  common  planing,  use  a  half  side  tool,  stout  and  short,  and 
with  the  point  turned  up,  like  a  common  diamond  point;  for  planing  under,  as 
in  slide  rests,  &c.,  use  tools  sharpened  up  to  a  point,  with  the  fcharp  end  turned  up 
with  a  taper  from  thel  point  to  the  thick  part  of  about  2  inches.  Tor  squaring  up,  use 
a  round  point  tool,  cutting:  from  the  side. 

The  United  States  G-ovebnment  Tempering  Secret. — The  following  process 
and  mixtures,  patented  by  Q-arman  and  Siegfried,  and  owned  by  the  Steel  Refining 
aa  i  Tempering  Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  cost  the  U.  S.  Government  f 10,000  for  the 
right  of  using  in  their  shops,  and  is  said  to  impart  extraordinary  hardness  and 
durability  to  the  poorest  kinds  of  steel.  Siegfried's  specification  reads  as  follows : 
"  I  first  heat  the  steel  to  a  cherry  r'ed  in  a  clean  smith's  fire,  and  then  cover  the  steel 
with  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  purifying  the  fire  also  by  throwing  in  salt. 
I  work  the  steel  in  this  condition,  and  while  subjected  to  this  treatment,  until  it  is 
brought  into  nearly  its  finished  form.  I  then  substitute  for  the  salt  a  compound 
composed  of  the  followIng,ingreaients,  and  in  about  the  following  proportions :  One 
part  by  weight  of  each  of  the  followin?  substances  :  chloride  of  sodium  (salt),  sulphate 
of  copper,  sal-ammoniac,  and  sal-soda,  together  with  part  by  weight  of  pure 
nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  said  ingredients  being  pulverized  and  mixed ;  I  alter- 
nately heat  the  steel  and  treat,  it  by  covering  with  this  mixture  and  hammering  it 
until  it  is  thoroughly  refined  and  brought  into  its  finished  form.  I  then  return  it  to 
the  fire  and  heat  it  slowly  to  a  cherry  red,  and  then  plunge  it  into  a  bath  composed 
of  the  following  ingredients,  in  substantially  the  following  proportions  for  the 
required  quantity :  of  rainwater,  1  gal.,  alum,  sal-soda,  sulphate  of  copper,  of  each  1 3.^ 
OZ3.;  of  nitrate  oC  potassa  (saltpetre),  1  oz.,  and  of  chloride  of  sodium  (salt), 
6  OZ3.  These  quantities  and  proportions  are  stated  as  being  what  I  regard  as  practically 
the  best,  but  it  is  manifest  that  they  may  be  slightly  changed  without  departing  from 
the  principles  of  my  invention.", 


574 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEKRH',  &C.,  KKCEir'i'3. 


OLIVER  EVAKS,  the  Watt  op  America. 
Inventor  of  the  Higti- Pressure  Steam  Engine.] 

In  1T93,  Oliver  Evans,  a  native  of  Newport,  Delaware,  invented  the  Higk- 
pressnre  Engine,  and  in  1804  he  constrncted  an  engine  in  Philadelphia,  working 
on  the  high-pressure  system,  and  placed  it  on  a  large  scow  mounted  on  wheels, 
as  shown  in  the  following  cut.  Although  the  whole  weight  was  equal  to  2Q0 
barrels  of  flour,  yet  his  small  engine  propelled  it  up  Market  street  and  round  the 
circuit  to  the  Water  Works,  where  it  was  launched  into  the  Schuylkill,  A  paddle- 
wheel  was  then  applied  to  its  stern,  and  it  thus  sailed  down  that  river  to  the 
Delaware,  a  distance  of  16  miles,  in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  spectators.  , 

In  milling  appliances,  he  invented  the  grain  elevator,  the  conveyer,  the  drill, 
the  descender,  and  the  hopper-box,  besides  other  labor-saving  inventions  of  great 
utility  to  the  miller.  He  also  wrote  the  "  Young  Steam  Engineer's  Guide,"  and 
a  highly  valuable  work  entitled  "The  Young  Millwright's  Guide."  Although 
equally  deserving  of  fame,  he  failed  to  reap  the  substantial  honors  accorded  to 
Watt  in  England. 

Papieb  Ma  CHE,  is  used  for  fancy  articles,  such  as  the  covers  for  album?,  ink- 
stands, blotting  books,  paper  knives,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  the  cells  of  galvanic 
batteries.  It  is  obtained  from  old  paper  made  into  a  pulp  with  a  solution  of  lime, 
and  gum  or  starch,  pressed  into  the  form  required,  coated  with  linseed  oil,  baked 
at  a  high  temperature,  and  finally  varnished.  The  pulp  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
clay,  sand,  chalk,  etc.,  and  other  kinds  arc  made  of  a  paste  of  pulp  and  lime, 
and  used  for  ornamenting  wood,,  inlaying,  etc.  -  — 


EYANS'  LOCOMOTIVE,  SUNDRY  ITEMS.  575 


■  Priming  Powder  for  pERcyssiON.  CAPS.—Rednce  40  parts  of 
gunpowder  to  very  fine  dust;  mixfto  a  thin  paste  with  water,  next  add 
chlorate  of  potassa,  21  parts,  previously  reduced  to  a  very  fine  poAvder; 
make  the  paste  rather  thin  and  deposit  a  small  drop  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cap.  The  mixture  is  liable*  to  explode  if  incautiously  handled, 
Bai-loon  Varnish. — Melt  Inilia  rubber  in  small  pieces  with  it^ 
weight  of  linseed  oil,  and  tliin  with  spirits  tttJpentiiie. 
J, Artificial  Coral. — Yellow' resin,  4  parts  j  vermilion,  Ipart;  melt 

'very  fine  for  ornamental  work,  &c. 

Gold  Beater's  Skin  is  prepared  by  extending  the  peritoneal 
membranes  of  cjBCura,  washing  them  first  Avith  plain  water,  tlien  with 
a  solution  of  alum  and  lastly  with  a  solution  of  isinglass  and  spices. 

Home-made  Microscope.— Remove  the  bottom  from  a  common 
pill  box  and  insert  a  piece  of  window  glass,  paiiit  the  inside  black,  and 
make  a  small  eye  hole  in  the  lid.  In  this  hole  insert  a  single  drop  of 
Canada  balsam  and  allow  it  to  ^cool.    It  possesses  magnifying  power. 

To  Remove  Tin  from  Copper  Vessels,  immerse  the  article  in 
a  solution  of  blue  vitriol.  To  remove  tin  from  plates  without  acid, 
boil  the  scrap  tin  with  soda  ley  iri  presence  of  litharge. 

Sound. — In  dry  air  at  82°  sound  travels  1,142  ft.  per  second,  or 

nbout  775  miles  per  hour;  in  water,  4,900  ft.  per  second;  in  iron, 
17,500  ft. ;  in  copper,  10,378  ft. ;  aind  in  wood  from  12  to  16,000  ft.  per 
second.  In  water,  a  bell  heard  at  45,000 It.,  could  be  heard  in  the  air 
out  of  the  water  but  656  ft.     In  a  balloon  the  barking  of  dogs  can  be 

.  hea,rd  on  the  ground  at  an  elevation  of  4  miles.    Divers  on  the  Avreck 

,of  the  Hussar  frigate,  100  ft.  ujider  water,  at  Hell  Gate,  near  New 
York,  heard  the  paddle  wheels  o:^  distant  steamers  hours  before  they 
hove  in  sight.  The  report  of  a:  rifle- on  a  i?till  day  may  be  heard  a1 
5,300  yds. ;  a  military  band  at  5,200  yds.  The  fire  of  the  English  on 
landing  in  Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles.  Dr.  Jamieson  says 
he  heard,  during  calm  Aveather,  every  w-ord  of  a  sermon  at  a  distance 
of  2  miles.  The  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  Montreal,  Que.,  weighs  28,560 
lbs. ;  that  of  the"  Citv  Hall,  N.  Y.,  22,300  lbs.;  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 

- 11,470;  "  Big  Ben,"  Westminster,  30,350;  "  Great  Tom."  of  Oxford, 
18,000^  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  18,607;  Rouen,  France,  40,000;  St.  Ivan's, 
Moscow,  127,830;  one  unhung  at  Mos'eoAV,  440,000,  and  one  iu  China 
■weighs  120,000  lbs.  . 


576 


FOREIGN  WEIGHTH  aND  MKi.BURii^. 


TABLE  OF  FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

KEDUCED  TO  THE  STANDARD  OF  THE  TTCaTED  STATES. 
(The  two  right  hand  figures  are  the  hundredth  parts  of  a  whole  liumb«:)i.) 


Fkance. 

Metre   3-28  feet. 

Decimetre  (1-lOlh  metre)  3"94  inches. 

Velt   2-00  galls. 

Hectolitre   26-42  galls. 

Decalitre   2-64  galls. 

Jjitre   2"11  pints. 

Kilolitre   35-32  feet. 

Hectolitre   2-84  bush. 

Decalitre   9-08  quarts. 

Millier   2-205  lbs. 

Quintal   220-54  lbs. 

Kilogramme   2-21  lbs. 

AMSTERDAM. 

100  lbs.  1  centner   108*93  lbs. 

Last  of  grain   85*25  bush. 

Ahm  of  wine   41-00  galls, 

Amsterdam  foot   0-93  foot. 

Antwerp  foot   0-94  foot. 

Khineland  foot   1-03  feet. 

Amstersdam  ell   2-26  feet. 

Ell  of  the  Hague   2-28  feet. 

Ell  of  the  Brabant   2-30  feet. 

NKTHERLANDS. 

Ell   3-28feet. 

Mudde  of  Zak   2-84  bush. 

"V  at  hectolitre   26-425galls. 

Kan  litre   2-11  pints. 

Pond  kilogramme   2-21  lbs. 

HAMBUKO. 

Last  of  grain   89-64  bush. 

Ahm  of  wine  * . . . .  38-25  galls. 

Hamburg  foot   0-96.foot. 

Ell....   1-92  feet. 

PRUSSIA. 

100  lbs,   of  2  Cologne 

marks  each  lOS'll  lbs. 

Quintal,  110  lbs  113-42  lbs. 

Sheffel  of  grain   1-56  bush. 

Eimarofwine   18-14  galls.' 

Ell  of  cloth   2-19  feet. 

Foot   1-03  *eet. 

DENMARK. 

too  lbs.  1  centner  110-28  lbs. 

Barrel  or  toende  of  corn,    3-95  bush. 

Viertel  of  wine   2-04  galls, 

Copenhagen    or  Rhine- 
land  foot   1-03  feet. 

SWEDEN. 

100  lbs.  or  5  lispunds          73-76  lbs. 

Kan  of  corn   7-42  bush. 

Last   75-00  bush. 

Cann  of  wine   69-09,galls. 

Ell  of  cloth   1-95  feet, 

RUSSIA. 

100  lbs.  of  32  laths  each...  90-26  lbs. 

Chertwert  of  grain . . ;          5-95  bush. 

Vedro  of  wine   3. 25  galls. 

Petersburgh  foot . .  .\   1*18  feet. 

Moscow  foot   1-10  feet. 

Pood  36-00  lbs. 


SPAIN. 

Quintal,  or  4  arrobaa  JOi  44  Ibt, 

Arroba   25-3t  lbs. 

Arroba  of  wine...,  4  4.'i  g'e*U& 

Fanega  of  grain  «  I  GO  b..ch, 

PORTTJOAIi. 

100  lbs  101-19  )b£ 

22  lbs.  (1  arroba)   22*26  lbs 

4  arrobas  of  22  lbs.  (1  quin- 
tal)  „  89-05  Tk/S. 

Alquiere   4-?5  bush. 

Mojo  of  grain   23-03  bush. 

Last  of  salt   70  00  bush. 

Almude  of  wine ...........   4-37  galls. 

SICILY. 

Cantar  ogroso  192-50  lbs. 

Cantaro  sottile  175-00  lbs. 

100  lbs   70-00  lbs, 

Salma  grossa  of  grain   9  77  bush. 

Salma  generale   7-85  bush. 

Salma  of  wine   23  06  galls. 

NAPLES. 

Cantaro  groso  196-50  lbs. 

Cantaro  picolo  106-00  lbs. 

Carro  of  grain   52-24  bush. 

Carro  of  wine  ,  264-00  galls. 

ROME. 

Rubbio  of  grain   8-36  bush. 

Barih  of  wine   15-31  galls. 

GENOA. 

100  lbs.  or  peso  groso   76-87  lbs. 

100  lbs.  or  peso  sottile          69  8 9  lbs. 

Mina  of  grain   3-43  hush. 

Mezzarola  of  wine.  •  ■   39-22  galls. 

FLORENCE  AND  LEGHORN. 

100  lbs.  or  1  cantaro   74-86  lbs- 

Moggioof  grain   16-59  bufih- 

Barile  of  wine   12-04  galls. 

VENICE. 

100  lbs.  peso  groso  105*18  lbs. 

100  lbs.  peso  sottile   64-04  lbs. 

tMoggio  of  grain   9-08  bush. 

Anifora  of  wine  137-00  galls. 

TRIESTE. 

100  lbs   .123-60  lbs. 

Stajo  of  grain   2-34  bush 

Orna  or  eimer  of  wine         14-94  galls. 

Ell  for  woolens   2-22  feet. 

Ell  for  silk   2-10  feet 

MALTA. 

1.00  lbs.  1  cantar  174-50  lbs. 

Salma  of  grain ..^   8-22  busli. 

Foot   0*85  foot. 

SMYRNA. 

100  lbs.  (1  quintal)  129-48  lbs. 

Oke  ^   2-83  lbs. 

Quillot  of  grain  i   1*46  bush. 

Quilloll  of  wine   13-50  galls. 

CHINA. 

Tail..  1-33  0Z. 

16  tails  1  catty   1-33  lbs. 

1  100  catties  1  p'icul   138-25  lbs. 


PRINTERS  AND  PUBLISHERS  TABLE.  577 


PAPER  TABLE  FOR  PRINT- 
ERS' AND  PUBLISHERS' 
USE, 

Showing  tha  quantity  of  paper  re- 
quired for  printing  looo  copies,  (in- 
cluding 56  extra  copies  to  allow  for 
wastage),  of  any  usual  sized  Book 
from  8vo.  down  to  32mo.  If  the 
quantity  required  is  not  found  in  the 
Table,  double  or  treble  some  suita- 
ble number  of  pages  or  quantity  of 
paper. 


S 

6  S 

d  S 

£  « 

0  li 

1  " 

1000 
Cop's. 

CO  1^ 

M  A< 

M  Mi 

Rs.Qs 

{ 

jf 

Zi 

33 

I 

16 

24 

32 

45 

64 

2 

4 

30 

40 

72 

96 

3 

6 

A 

32 

aK 

f^A 
Di| 

128 

4 

8 

5 

40 

6c 

80 

160 

5 

10 

6 

^8 

72 

14^ 

192 

6 

12 

7 

k6 

5" 

84 

1 68 

224 

14 

55 

64 

128 

192 

250 

8 

16 

9 

72 

108 

144 

216 

288 

9 

i3 

10 

80 

120 

240 

320 

88 

170 

352 

12 

2 

12 

06 

144 

192 

288 

3 '-'4 

13 

4 

13 

10^ 

156 

208 

312 

416 

14 

6 

14 

112 

168 

224 

336 

448 

15 

8 

»S 

120 

180 

240 

360 

480 

16 

10 

16 

128 

192 

256 

384 

17 

12 

^7 

136 

204 

272 

408 

18 

14 

j8 

144 

216 

288 

432 

19 

16 

19 

^52 

228 

304 

456 

20 

18 

20 

160 

240 

320 

480 

22 

21 

168 

252 

336 

504 

23 

2 

22 

176 

264 

352 

24 

4 

23 

184 

276 

368 

2S 

6 

24 

192 

288 

384 

26 

8 

25 

2GO 

300 

400 

27 

ID 

25 

208 

3'2 

416 

28 

12 

27 

216 

324 

432 

29 

14 

28 

224 

336 

448 

30 

16 

29 

232 

348 

464 

31 

iS 

50 

240 

360 

480 

33 

31 

248 

372 

496 

34 

2 

52 

256 

384 

512 

35 
36 

4 

43 

264 

396 

528 

6 

^4 

272 

408 

544 

37 

8 

35 

280 

420 

560 

38 

10 

36 

288 

432 

576 

39 

12 

37 

296 

444 

592 

io 
41 

14 

38 

304 

456 

60S 

• 

16 

39 

312 

468 

42 

18 

40I 

320 

4S0 

44 

NAMES  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF 
VARIOUS  SIZES  OF  PAPER. 


PRINT. 

Medium  19  x 

Royal,  (20  X  24)   20  x 

Super  Royal  22  x 

Imperial  22  x 

Medium  and  a  half  24  x 

Small  Double  Medium  24  x 

Double  Medium  24  x 

Double  Royal  26  x 

Double  Super  Royal  28  x 

Double  Super  Royal  29  x 

Broad  Twelves  23  x 

Double  Imperial  32  x 

FOLDED. 

Billet  Note   6  x 

Octavo  Note   7  x 

Commercial  Note   8  x 

Packet  Note   9  x 

Bath  Note   Sj4x 

Letter  10  x 

Commercial  Letter  11  x 

Packet  Post  ii%x 

Foolscap   i2j^x 

FLAT. 

Legal  Cap  13  x 

Flat  Cap  14  X 

Crown  15  X 

Double  Flat  Letter  16  x 

Demy  16  x 

Folio  Post  17  X 

Check  Folio  17  x 

Double  Cap  17  x 

Extra  Size  Folio  ig  x 

*Medium  18  x 

*Royal  19  X 

*Super  Royal  20  x 

*Imperial  22  'x 

Double  Demy  21  x 

Elephant  22^x 

Columbier  23  x 

Atlas  26  X 

Double  Elephant  26  x 


22 
24 

23 

23 
23 
24 

2$ 

30 

3'  , 
27H 
3 1 3^ 
33 
40 


N.  E.— The  weight  of  a  ream  of  paper 
and  the  price  per  pound  being  given,  the 
cost  per  ream  or  quire  may  be  known  at 
once  by  consulting  the  Ready  Reckonbk 
Table. 


37 


578 


rASTEBOARD,  TULP  COLORS,  &C. 


To  REMOVE  Puintrr's  Ink  form  Paper  Pulp.— Potash  4 lbs;  dis- 
solvo  in  as  little  boiling  water  as  possible,  and  add  3^  lbs.  tallow,  boil 
for  .'niours,  and  add  while  coolijig  and  stirring,  3  gals,  rain  water. 
Hoil  the  paper  pulp,  keeping  it  covered  with  water,  and  to  eacli  20  gals, 
pulp,  add  1  gal.  of  the  above  mixture;  beat  and  stir  thorouglily,  and 
the  black  printing  ink  will  rise  to  the  surface;  skim  it  off  as  long  as  it 
continues  to  rise. 

CoLOREP  Paper. — The  papers  made  from  colored  mgs  are  the 
brown  i)acking  paper  and  coarse  colored  paper,  such  as  sugar  and  pin 
papers.  According  to  Wagner,  colored  pin  paper  requires  to  every 
50  kilos  (see  the  French  measures  and  their  English  equivalents 
described  elsewhere)  of  dry  pulp  the  several  under-mentioned  sub- 
stances : — 


Ultra  marine  and  aniline  blue  are  also  used  in  coloring.  In  varie- 
gated paper  chemical,  mineral  and  vegetable  colorings  are  used  ac- 
cording to  the  desired  colors.  Body  colors  are  rendered  fluid  by  a 
solution  of  gum  arable  or  alum  in  the  size,  which  can  be  applied  by 
a  brush  or  sponge  when  only  one  side  is  to  te  colored.  Variegated 
and  tapestry  papers  are  an  important  part  of  the  manufacture. 

French  Composition  for  Printer's  Rollers. — For  a  24-incli 
roller,  take  Russian  isinglass,  i  oz;  gelatine  |  oz;  when  the  usual  com- 
position, compounded  of  glue,  1  lb ;  molasses  1  pt.  is  ready  for  iDouring 
add  the  above  to  it;  let  all  boil  15  minutes  longer,  then  cast  in  the 
usual  way. 

Pasteboard  and  other  Papers. — Pasteboard  is  made  in  3  ways : 
1,  By  placing  the  pulp  in  a  form ;  form-board.  2.  By  pj-essing  several 
damp  sheets  to  foim  a  thick  card;  elastic  pasteboard.  '  3.  By  pasting 
together  the  finished  paper  sheets ;  sized  pasteboard.  1.  Form-board 
is  an  inferior  kind  employed  for  ordinary  purposes  of  packing,  book- 
binding, etc.  It  is  made,  from  waste  paper,  refuse  rags,  and  the 
coarse  parts  of  the  pulp.  Clay  or  chalk  is  sometimes  present  to  25 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  this  pasteboard.  It  is  made  in  a  coarse , 
ribbed  form,  goes  through  the  same  process  of  knotting  as  the  paper 
sheet,  and  is  dried  and  dressed  under  a  roller. 

2.  Elastic  pasteboard  is  of  better  material,  and  presents  a  smoother 
surface ;  6  to  12  sheets  of  paper  previously  dampened  are  placed  to- 
gether and  pressed  into  one  compact  sheet.  A  separate  and  harder 
kind  of  pasteboard  is  the  thick  elastic  board,  used  for  binding  books. 
The  inner  layer  is  made  of  coarse  stuff,  saAV  dusit,  etc.  3.  Size  paste- 
board, or  cardboard  is  made  of  2  to  15  sheets  of  sized  paper,  pressed 
and  satined.  There  are  varieties  of  this  cardboard,  such  as  Bristol- 
board,  London-board,  the  former  being  extensively  used  for  water- 
color  drawings,  mounting-board,  ornamental-board,  etc. 


Green 

Violet. 
Rose. . 

Buff.. 


Yellow. 


Blue. 


2.05  Kilos  Acetate  of  Lead, 

0.45  "  Bichromate  of  Potash, 

2.05  "  Sulphate  of  Iron, 

1.05  "  Ferrocyanide  of  Potash, 

3.00  "  Blue, 

1.05  "  Yellow, 

1.05  *'  Extract  of  Logwood, 

6.00  "  Extract  of  Brazil  Wood, 

[3.00  "  Oil  of  Vitriol, 

I  3.00  "  Chloride  of  Lime. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEEKS',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  579 

Bronze  Pri2^ting.— Take  a  small  portion  of  strong  lithographic 
varnish  and  grind  with  York  Brown,  when  well  ground,  thin  down 
with  thin  varnish  and  gold  size  equal  parts.  This  will  do  for  letter 
press  or  lithograph  printing,  for  paper,  cloth,  silk,  &c. 

Another  Way. — Print  as  with  common  printers'  ink,  then  dust  on 
or  rub  over  with  good  pale  or  other  colored  bronze  powder,  allow  it 
to  set,  then  shake  or  brush  o££  the  superfluous  bronze  with  a  light 
soft  brush. 

Gold  Printing. — Have  gold  leaf  cut  the  proper  form  to  suit  your 
job,  and  use  gold  size  instead  of  ink  as  in  the  usual  way  on  the  type. 
Apply  the  gold  leaf  to  the  size  until  the  impression  is  covered,  using 
a  gilders  tip,  or  by  a  dexterous  use  of  the  thumb,  and  forefinger  of 
the  right  hand  slightly  moistened,  raise  the  gold  leaf  with  the  ac- 
companying paper  and  apply  to  the  size.  When  all  is  covered  dab  it 
down  gently  with  a  ball  or  soft  cushion  of  cotton  or  other  proper 
material,  and  remove  tlie  superfluous  gold  with  a  soft  brush,  and  if 
the  size  has  been  well  applied  it  will  assume  a  splendid  ai)pearance. 
Use  a  good  firm  roller  for  gold  and  bronze  printing. 

Colored  Inks  for  Printers. — 21  Tints. — In  every  case  use  good 
varnish,  the  greatest  cleanliness,  a  good  marble  slab,  a  good  muller 
for  grinding,  and  never  compound  a  surplus  quantity  over  and  above 
the  present  requirements.  Grind,  blend,  and  finely  pulverize  tho 
ingredients,  in  each  and  every  instance.  Good  work  demands 
smooth  good  ink,  free  from  gritty  particles.  For  a  good  Red,  grind 
in  English  vermilion,  with  a  little  lake.  Deep  Red  use  Indian  red 
and  lake.  Bright  Red,  add  carmine  to  pale  vermilion.  Deep 
Scarlet,  add  a  little  portion  of  vermilion  to  carmine.  Blue, 
Prussian  blue.  Bright  Pale  Blue,  cobalt,  also  verditure  and  indigo 
for  other  shades  of  blue.  Green,  to  pale  chrome  add  Chinese  blue; 
vary  the  colors  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  different  pigments. 
Emerald  Green,  grind  "pale  blue  with  a  little  Chinese  blue,  then 
add  the  emerald  until  the  color  suits.  Deep  Bronze  Blue,  Chinese 
blue.  Deep  Brown,  burnt  umber,  with  a  small  quantity  of  scarlet 
lake.  Pale  Brown,  burnt  sienna  with  a  little  scarlet  lake.  Deep 
Lilac,  add  a  little  carmine  to  cobalt  blue ;  for  a  pale  lilac,  reverse 
the  proportions  of  each.  Bright  Pink,  crimson,  lake  or  carmine  as 
you  i)refer.  Blue  and  black  inks  intermixed,  will  evolve  a  Deep 
Blue  Ink;  carmine  and  blue,  Avill  yield  a  Purple  Ink;  yellow  and 
blue,  a  Green  Ink;  yellow  and  carmine,  a  Vermilion  Ink;  yellow 
and  black,  a  Bronze  Green;  yellow,  blue,  and  black,  a  Deep 
Green  Ink;  carmine,  yellow  and  black,  a  Brown  Ink. 

Copper  Plate  Printer's  Ink  is  made  by  adding  Frankfort 
black  in  proper  quantity  to  the  usual  linseed  oil  burnt  as  for  common 
printing  ink.  See  page  545. 

Gold  Leap. — According  to  the  color,  gold  leaf  is  demoninated 
deep,  medium,  fine,  red,  pale  red,  deep  orange,  lemon,  pale  white,  &c. 
Deep  gold  admits  very  little  alloy,  the  qua!ntity  being  usually  about 
2^  of  silver  and  2^  copper,  making  5  in  all.  A  medium  kind  is  made  of 
42  parts  pure  gold,  12  silver  and  G  copper.  The  gold  is  first  made  in- 
to small  ingots  1^  x  £  in.  and  3-16  in.  thick.  The  ingot  is  passed 
repeatedly  between  2  polished  steel  rollers,  until  it  becomes  a  long 
ribbon  only  1-800  in,  thick.  The  ribbon  being  cut  into  inch  square 
pieces,  150  of  these  are  interleaved  with  thick  paper,  and  enclosed  in 
a  parchment  case  called  a  kxUch.  The  kutch  is  subjected  to  a  long 
continued  series  of  blows  administered  with  a  IG  lb.  hammerj  raid  tQ 


580        MACHINISTS,  i:n(jineers',  &c.,  receipts. 


all  pjirt3  of  both  surfaces  equally.  When  each  piece  has  been  stretch- 
ed out  by  this  beatiug  to  4  in.  square,  tiio  kutch  is  opeued,  the  pieces 
arc  cut  into  4  of  2  in.  square  each,  and  these  arc  interleaved  in  a 
book  of  gold-beater's  skin  called  a  shoder,  the  150  pieces  being  now 
600.  Another  beating  witli  a  9  lb.  haunner  spreads  out  these  as  be- 
fore and  another  cutting  augments  the  number  from  GOO  to  2400. 
These  are  separated  into  3  packets  of  800  each,  and  each  of  theso 
packets  is  again  beaten  in  a  book  of  gold  beater' s  skin  called  a  mould ; 
this  beating,  lasting  4  hours,  is  done  with  a  7  lb.  hammer.  The  leaves 
of  gold  now  reduced  to  the  proper  thickness,  aie  cut  into  in.  square 
which  are  interleaved  in  books  and  made  up  in  packs.  Leaf  gold  ia 
the  thinnest  substance  produced  in  the  mechanical  arts,  being  only 
the  280.000  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  a  single  grain  covering  56  square 
ins.   Dentist's  gold  is  thicker  than  the  ordinary  leaf  gold. 

Aktificial  Writing  Slate.— Sand  (fine),  82  parts;  lampblack, 
8  parts;  boiled  linseed  or  cotton  seed  oil,  10  parts;  boil  thoroughly 
together,  then  add  spirits  turpentine  in  order  to  reduce  the  mixture 
for  easy  application  to  a  thin  piece  of  paste-board.  When  dry,  apply 
another  coat,  dry  again,  give  it  a  third  coat  and  finish  off  by  rubbing 
smooth  with  a  piece  of  cotton  waste  soaked  in  spirits  turpentine. 
Makes  most  superb  memorandum  books,  &c. ;  use  a  slate  pencil. 

The  DitUMMOND  Light  is  produced  by  directing  a  jet  of  mixed 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  upon  a  pencil  of  pure  lime,  the  gases  being 
conveyed  in  separate  tubes  or  pipes,  to  within  a  very  short  distance 
from  the  aperture  at  which  they  are  to  be  delivered,  and  the  flowing 
together  and  mixing  in  a  very  minute  quantity  before  combustion 
takes  place.  This  arrangement  is  adopted  to  ensure  safety.  The 
gases  are  used  in  the  proportion  of  2  of  hydrogen  to  1  of  oxygen, 
which  form  a  dreadfully  explosive  mixture. 

To  Engrave  on  Copper.  Nev^  Method. — Coat  the  copp^  with 
any  of  the  silvering  solutions  described  in  this  work,  cover  this  with, 
colored  varnish,  then  draw  the  lines  with  a  sharp  point  in  the  manne:: 
of  using  a  diamond  for  stone  engraving,  and  etch  them  in  with  pe*- 
chloride  of  iron. 

To  Enamel  Copper  Vessels.— Pulverize  finely  12  parts  of  fluor 
spar,  12  parts  unground  gypsum,  and  1  part  borax,  and  fuse  together 
in  a  crucible;  when  cold,  mix  with  water  to  a  paste,  and  apply  to  tho 
interior  with  a  paint  brush ;  when  dry  the  vessel  should  be  thoroughly 
baked  in  a  muffle  or  furnace. 

Tempering  Points  of  Tools. — After  being  tempered  the  volume 
of  the  tool  is  slightly  increased,  and  consequently  its  specific  gravity 
is  decreased.  As  the  expansion  or  increase,  of  volume  is  so  very 
slight,  it  is  quite  immaterial  which  is  plunged  into  the  liquid  first ; 
however,  every  moment  the  edge  is  kept  out  it  is  cooling,  and  tho 
tempering  may  be  rendered  defective  thereby.  Mercury  tempers 
the  hardest,  then  water,  then  salt  water,  then  oil  of  various  kinds — 
as  whale  oil.  As  oil  cools  the  metal  more  slowly,  it  is  not  tempered 
so  hard  but  the  tenacity  is  increased. 

Hard  Tinning  Compound. — An  alloy  of  nickel,  iron  and  tin  has 
been  introduced  as  an  improvement  in  tinning  metals,  by  the  firm  of 
Blaise  &  Co.,  Paris.  In  an  experiment  to  shov/  the  tenacity  of  the 
nickel,  a  piece  of  cast  iron  tinned  with  the  compound  was  subjected 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &,C.,  RECEIPTS.  581 

for  a  few  minutes  to  a  wliite  heat  under  the  "blast,  and,  although  the 
tin  ^^■as  consumed,  the  nickel  remained  as  a  permanent  coating  upon 
the  iron.  The  proportions  of  nickel  and  iron  mixed  "with  the  thi,  in 
drder  to  produce  the  best  tinning,  are  10  ozs.  of  the  best  nickel  and  7 
ozs.  of  sheet  iron,  to  10  lbs.  ot  tin.  These  metals  are  mixed  in  a 
crucible  to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  tin  by  the  high  temperature 
necessary  for  the  fusion  of  the  nickel ;  the  metals  are  coyercd  with  1 
oz.  of  borax  and  3  ozs.  pounded  glass.  The  fusion  is  complete  in  half 
an  hour,  when  the  composition  is  run  off  through  a  hole  made  in  th? 
flux.  In  tinning  metals  with  this  composition  the  Avorkman  proceedo 
in  the  ordinary  maimer. 

To  Eecoveb  Gold  fko^m  Quartz.— rulverize  the  quartz  rock  as 
usual,  and  fuse  the  mass  -with  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  When  fused, 
immerse  thm  plates  of  wrought  iron  in  the  mixture.  The  plates 
soon  become  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  gold,  and  are  then  Avith- 
drawn  and  immersed  in  a  bath  of  melted  lead,  whicli  removes  the 
adhering  gold,  when  the  plates  can  at  once  be  returned  to  the  fused 
quartz  and  the  operation  repeated  as  frequently  as  the  case  may- 
require.  Another  method,  Avhen  the  metal  is  disseminated  through 
quartz  pyrites  or  lead,  is  to  pulverize  the  ore  as  usual  and  wash  the 
whole  with  a  stream  of  Avatcr,  which  carries  away  the  lighter 
portions  of  sand,  leaving  the  heavy  metals  behind.  It  is  farther 
freed  from  impurities  by  being  am.algaraated  wit?  quick-silver, 
which  is  afterwards  distilled  off.  In  this  state  it  generally  contains 
from  2  to  10  per  cent,  of  silver  or  tellurium.  It  ia  further  refined 
by  bemg  finely  granulated  and  boiled  Avilh  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  until  every  other  constituent  is  boiled  out.  Gold  by  beiug 
alloyed,  loses  much  of  its  ductility  and  malleability,  but  gains  iii 
fusibility  and  hardness.  Gold  alloys  are  assayed  in  two  ways, 
first,  by  rubbing  the  article  on  a  touchstone  (which  is  a  A^elvety,  « 
black  flinty  A-ariety  of  jaspar)  so  as  to  make  a  metallic  streak, 
which  is  touched  w  ith  aqua  regia,  and  th'^  effect  is  compared  with 
that  of  a  similar  streak  made  by  an  alloy  <S  known  composition.  By 
this  means  an  experienced  operator  cm  estimate  the  amount  of 
alloy  in  any  mixture  correctly  AAdthin  one  per  cent.  Full  informa- 
tion regarding  tlic  second  process  can  be  seen  under  the  article  on 
Kkfiking  Gold  and  Sxla'er. 

Gold  Minixg  m  Colokado. — From  the  veins  of  Gilpin  County 
alone  nearly  GOO  tons  of  ore  are  raised  daily,  or  180,000  tons  annually. 
Nearly  500  lodes  have  been  assayed  or  mapped  in  a  circle  of  three 
miles  in  diameter  ;  fully  a  thousand  lodes  liaA-e  been  recorded,  and 
more  or  less  work  performed  on  each.  From  fifteen  to  twenty  miles 
of  reputable  lodes  are  known  to  exist,  upon  which  there  is  not  less 
than  8  miles  of  sliafting,  the  deepest  being  800  feet.  There  is  not  less 
than  20  miles  of  drifting  on  these  veins,  following  the  ore  deposit  in 
the  crevices,  and  the  official  assays  show  the  ore  to  be  worth  from 
$40  to  $130  per  ton.  Tlie  tailings,  or  refuse  of  ore  put  tlirougli  the 
gtamps,  are  found  to  be  worth  $20  per  ton,  notwithstanding  from  10 
to  20  per  cent,  of  the  precious  metal  passes  down  the  stream.  Tl.e 
average  shipments  of  bullion  from  this  one  county  verges  on  $2,600,- 
000  annually.  The  machinery  required  for  this  immense  production 
consists  of  83  stamp  mills,  185  engines  in  place,  4367  horse  power, 
and  1597  stamps,  of  which  there  arc  OA'cr  800  in  use,  requiring  170 j 


582       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEEKS',  &C.,  RKCEIPTS. 

horse  power.  There  are  30  engines  used  at  the  shafts  of  mhios  for 
raising  ore  from  the  veins  and  keei)ing  tlicm  free  from  water.  Tlicso 
mills  contain  from  5  to  50  stami)s,  mostly  driven  l)y  steam.  Tho 
ore,  broken  into  fragments,  is  fed  into  a  battery  in  which  the  starrqjs 
are  raised  and  allowed  to  fall,  crushing  the  ore  fme  enough  to  flow 
through  a  screen  placed  in  front.  ]\lercury  is  fed  in  this  battery,  and 
the  pulverized  ore  raLx;ed  with  sufficient  water  is  then  made  to  flow 
over  wide  plates  of  copper  amalgamated  with  quicksilver.  The  gold, 
or  part  of  it,  adheres,  forming  an  amalgam  with  the  mercury,  which 
is  afterwards  scraped  off,  squeezed  hard,  and  the  lump  retorted  iu 
a  close  retort  of  iron  for  the  purpose  of  vaporizing  the  meAiury  and 
getting  the  gold  almost  pure  ;  the  retorts  being  subsequently  shipped 
to  the  East  for  minting.  Each  stamp  is  calculated  to  do  from  i  to  | 
of  a  ton  in  24  hours,  requiring  about  one  horse  power  to  each  stamp 
Iiead.  Most  of  the  ore  is  reduced  in  leased  mills  abandoned  by  com- 
panies. These  mill  men  charge  their  customers  between  $3  and  $4 
per  ton  for  doing  this  work  and  returning  the  retort  of  gold.  Tho 
tailings  are  partially  caught  in  the  best  mills  on  blankets,  and 
reworked  at  a  profit ;  the  bulk,  however,  passes  outside,  a  portion 
stopping  to  be  shovelled  into  a  pile,  the  balance  going  on  to  the  stfeam. 
The  waste  is  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  the  gross  yield  in  bullion. 
The  most  profitable  branch  of  vein  mining  and  reduction  by  tlio 
smeliinfj  }-)rocess  was  undertaken  by  Prof.  Hill  in  1867,  in  connection 
■with  some  Boston  and  Providence  capitalists,  and  is  managed  with 
much  ability,  energy  and  skill,  compensated  by  enormous  profits,  of 
which  the  outside  public  know  little  or  nothing,  from  the  vigilance 
"With  which  all  such  information  is  suppressed.  From  the  road  sido 
you  see  from  20  to  30  piles  of  ore  sending  forth  sulphurous  emanation;} 
uito  the  air.  These  pUes  are  first  started  on  a  layer  of  wood,  and 
are  run  up  in  a  pyramid  form  some  5  to  6  feet,  with  diameter  at  baso 
of  from  16  to  20  feet,  and  then  fired,  the  sulphur  affording  the  only 
fuel,  after  the  exhaustion  of  the  wood,  to  keep  the  fire  going  from 
four  to  six  weeks.  This  ore  has  been  passed  through  the  sampling 
works  and  been  paid  lor,  the  amount  lying  thus  in  piles  at  one  time 
amoimting  to,  perhaps,  ^80,000.  After  roasting  sufficiently  to  drivo 
off  the  sulphur,  and  oxidize  a  portion  of  the  iron,  these  piles  are 
cooled  and  the  ore  carried  to  the  smelting  furnaces,  where  under  a 
heavy  heat,  more  sulphur  is  driven  off,  and  the  silica  or  gangue  mat- 
ter is  made  to  unite  with  the  oxide  of  iron  to  form  a  slag.  At  the  end 
of  the  smelting  some  8  or  10  tons  are  thus  reduced  to  one  called 
"  matte,"  containing  from  $1,500  to  $2,000  in  the  precious  metals,  and 
from  40  to  GO  per  cent  of  copper.  This  product  is  then  shipped  in  bags 
to  Swansea,  England,  for  separation  into  the  several  metals  contained. 
The  establishment  confciins  three  smelting  furnaces  and  three  calcin- 
ing furnaces,  capable  of  reducing  from  20  to  25  tons  of  ore  per  day. 
The  tailings  which  are  concentrated  along  the  streams,  and  are  also 
sold  to  this  establishment,  average  from  $35  to  $40  per  ton.  These 
works  are  doubtless  tlie  most  profitable  of  the  kind  known  in  the 
world.  In  working  tolerably  hi^h  grade  sulphuretted  ores,  if  the 
facilities  do  not  admit  of  sending  them  to  England,  the  best  way  is  to 
erect  a  common  furnace,  having  the  fire  surfaces  of  good  soap  stone ; 
then,  to  every  150  lbs.  of  ore,  put  in  one  bushel  of  charcoal  and  10 
per  cent  of  salt.   Tho  ore  will  readily  melt  to  a  slag,  and  ^vill  be 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  583 

pretty  well  degulplinrizcd.  The  slag  can  be  drawn  off,  and  wlieu 
cold  can  be  broken  up,  and  worked  like  free  gold  ore. 

Recovering  Silver  by  the  Patio  Process. — The  operation 
known  by  this  name  is  sometimes  conducted  on  an  immense  scale. 
In  one  instance  at  the  hacienda  of  Regla  near  Real  de  INIonte,  there  is 
an  establishment  the  floor  of  which  is  1^  acres  in  extent,  built  in  the 
most  substantial  manner,  slightly  sloped  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  water. 
The  flooring  consists  of  weil  matched  pme  boards,  and  this  vast  re- 
ceptacle sometimes  contains  as  much  as  1000  tons  of  argentiferous 
slime,  30  tons  of  salt,  3  tons  sulphate  of  copper,  and  18,000  lbs.  of 
mercury  in  various  stages  of  the  amalgamating  process.  The  reason 
why  this  takes  place  in  the  well  known  manner  is  because  there  is  au 
affinity  between  the  different  ingredients  employed  in  the  operation. 

Ox  Correspondences. — The  aflinity  above  referred  to  as  existing 
between  different  materials,  arises  from  a  nature  inseminated  or  im- 
planted in  each  substance  by  the  Creator,  by  virtue  of  which  such 
a  mutual  affinity  exists  between  them  that  when  an  intermixture 
takes  place,  they,  as  it  were  attract  each  other,  and  rush  together  in 
mutual  embrace.  Closely  comiected  with  these  affinities,  as  sliowmg 
the  cause  of  their  existence  and  origin,  we  have  in  the  science  of  cor- 
respondences a  most  wonderful  and  instructive  study,  entering  in 
its  varied  ramifications,  so  deeply  into  the  inherent  nature  of  every 
created  thing,  that  there  is  nothing,  and  can  be  nothing  in  the  universe 
but  what  comes  Avithin  its  consideration.  The  transcendent  import- 
ance of  the  subject  is  such  that  it  is  deserving  of  vastly  more  elaborate 
consideration  than  the  transient  notice  of  a  single  paragraph,  but  as  it 
would  be  a  violation  of  order  to  enter  into  an  extended  explanation  in 
this  place,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  appendix  for  further  illustration. 

Mercury  or  Quicksilver. — The  ore  is  cinnabar  of  a  bright  ver- 
milion color.  Its  specific  gravity  is  8098.  It  is  produced  in  immenso 
quantities  at  the  New  Almadeii  mine  in  Santa  Clara  County,  12  miles 
from  the  town  of  San  Jose,  which  is  54  miles  from  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Tlie  process  by  which  the  fluid  metal  is  extracted  is  one  of  great  sim- 
plicity. There  are  6  furnaces,  near  which  the  ore  is  deposited  from 
the  mine,  and  separated  accordin*^  to  its  quality;  the  larger  masses 
are  first  broken  up  and  then  all  is  piled  up  under  sheds  near  tho 
furnace  doors.  The  ore  is  next  heaped  on  the  furnaces,  and  a  steady 
though  not  a  strong  fire  is  applied ;  as  the  ore  becomes  heated  tho 
quicksilver  is  sublimed,  and  being  condensed  it  falls  by  its  own  weight, 
and  is  conducted  by  pipes,  which  lead  along  the  bottom  of  the  furnace 
to  small  pots  or  reservoirs  imbedded  in  the  earth,  each  containing  from 
1  to  2  gallons  of  the  metal.  The  furnaces  are  kept  going  night  and 
day,  while  large  drops  or  minute  streams  of  tho  pure  metal  are 
constantly  trickling  down  into  the  receivers;  from  there  it  is  car- 
ried to  the  store  house  and  deposited  in  large  cast  iron  tanks  or 
vats,  the  largest  of  which  is  capable  of  contahiing  20  tons  of 
quicksilver.  Seven  or  eight  days  are  required  to  fill  the  furnaces, 
extract  the  quicksilver  and  remove  the  residuum.  The  miners  and 
those  who  merely  handle  the  quicksilver  are  not  injured  thereby, 
but  those  who  work  about  the  furnaces  and  inhale  the  fumes  of 
the  metal  are  seriously  affected.  Salivation  is  common,  and  the 
attendants  on  the  furnaces  are  compelled  to  desist  from  their 
labour  every  three  or  four  weeks,  when  a  fresh  set  of  hands  is  put 


684       MACHINISTS;  ENGINKKKS',  AC,  Ki:Ci::i'T;j. 

on.  TliG  horses  and  nuilcs  aro  also  Kalivatcd,  and  from  20  to  00  of 
tliera  die  every  year  from  tlio  clfccts  of  the  mercury. 

Smelting  ov  Coiteji. — After  the  ore  is  raised  from  the  mine,  it  is 
freed  from  its  matrix  and  sorted,  the  jmrcst  portions  hchv^  broken 
into  pieces  the  size  of  a  nut.  The  first  calcination  is  cflcctcd  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace,  the  lieat  not  being  raised  too  At  tlio 

end  of  12  hours  tlie  ore  is  converted  hito  a  black  powder,  contaiji- 
ing  sulphide  of  copper,  oxide  and  sulphide  of  iron,  and  earthy 
impurities.  The  roasted  ore  is  next  fused  with  a  quantity  of  silicious 
Blag,  by  which  means  it  is  converted  uito  a  fusible  slag,  consisting 
of  silicate  of  iron  and  sulphides  of  iron  and  copper,  which  eink 
through  the  slag,  forming  at  the  bottom  a  heavy  mass^  termed  a 
matt.  The  matt  thus  procured  is,  while  melted,  run  mto  water, 
by  which  it  is  granulated.  The  product  obtained  is  called  coarse 
metal.  It  is  roasted  once  more  for  twenty-four  hours,  by  which 
means  the  larger  proportion  of  the  sulphide  of  iron  is  converted 
into  oxide.  It  is  then  calcined  with  some  copper  ore  known  to 
contain  oxide  of  copper  and  silica.  The  oxide  of  copper  transforms 
any  remaining  sulphide  of  iron  into  oxide,  "which  is  taken  up  by  the 
silica  to  form  a  slag,  through  which  the  sulphide  of  copper  sinks. 
This  matt  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  fine  metal.  It  is  cast  into  pigs,  the  lower  portions 
of  which  contain  most  of  the  impurities  ;  the  metal  extracted  from 
the  upper  portions  being  Icnown  in  the  market  as  best  selected 
copper.  The  fine  metal  lias  now  to  be  freed  entirely  from  sulphur 
by  a  final  calcination,  at  a  heat  just  short  of  that  required  to  fuse 
it.  During  the  process  the  metal  becomes  oxidized  at  the  surface. 
The  oxide  thus  formed  decomposes  the  rest  of  the  sulphide,  sul- 
phurous acid  escaping,  the  metallic  copper  remaining  behind.  The 
metal  obtained  is  run  oft  into  moulds,  forming  ingots  full  of  bub- 
bles, from  the  escape  of  the  sulphurous  acid  gas.  These  ingots, 
■which  are  known  as  pimple,  or  blistered  copper,  from  their  peculiar 
appearance,  have  now  to  undergo  the  process  of  refining.  They 
are  placed  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  kept  in  a  melted  state 
for  upwards  of  20  hours,  to  oxidize  the  last  traces  of  foreign 
metals.  Slags  are  formed  on  tlie  surface  and  skimmed  off,  and  a 
great  deal  of  oxide  is  produced  which  is  absorbed  by  the  metal.  To 
reduce  this  oxide,  the  surface  of  the  melted  metal  is  covered  with  an- 
thracite or  charcoal,  and  towards  the  last  a  young  tree  is  thrust  in. 
Tliis  process,  wliich  is  c<alled  poling,  disengages  the  whole  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  oxide  diffused  through  the  mass.  The  above  is,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  the  method  of  copper-smeltmg,  as  employed  in 
England,  the  processes  adopted  in  Saxony  and  North  America  being 
nearly  indentical  with  it,  the  difference  merely  being  modifications 
to  suit  the  various  impurities  contained  in  the  ore.  When  the  ore  con- 
sists of  oxide  or  carbonate  of  copper  only,  it  is  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state  by  simple  fusion  with  charcoal  and  subsequent  poling. 

SMEiiTiNG  OF  Lead. — The  ore  having  been  brovight  to  the  surface, 
is  first  sorted  by  hand,  the  purest  portions  being  set  aside  ready  for 
smelting.  The  rest  is  broken  by  hammers  into  lumps  as  large  as  a 
walnut,  and  agahi  sorted.  The  "remainder  is  then  crushed  in  a  mUl, 
and  sifted  through  coarse  sieves,  the  coarser  portions  being  set  aside 
for  the  stampers,  and  the  finer,  being  subjected  to  the  process  oijirj- 


MACtllNISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  6Sl 


fjlnj.  This  consists  in  plungiu!?  a  sieve  containing  the  ore  into  water, 
and  shaking  it  dexterously,  so  that  the  smallest  particles  pass  through 
leaving  the  larger  pieces  in  the  sieve,  with  the  lightest  and  least  me- 
tallic portions  uppermost.  If  the  sorted  galena  be  tolerably  free 
from  gangue,  about  1^  tons  of  the  ore  is  mixed  with  l-15th  to  l-40th 
its  Aveight  of  lime,  and  heated  to  dull  redness  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, through  which  a  current  of  air  is  passing.  By  this  means  a 
large  portion  of  the  sulphur  is  burnt  off  as  sulphurous  acid,  oxide  of 
lead  and  sulphate  of  lead  being  formed,  and  much  of  the  ore  re- 
maining undecomposed.  When  the  roasting  has  been  carried 
sufficiently  far,  the  furnace  doors  are  shut  and  the  heat  is  raised. 
The  sulphate  and  oxide  of  lead  re-act  on  the  undecomposed  sulphide, 
a  large  quantity  of  sulphurous  acid  is  formed  which  passes  off,  leav- 
ing lai'ge  quantities  of  metallic  lead  behind.  The  fire  is  noAv  damped, 
and  a  quantity  of  lime  thrown  in,  Avhich  forms  a  Very  infusible  slag, 
allowing  the  metallic  lead  to  be  drawn  off  into  moulds.  This  is 
Bmelted  with  an  additional  portion  of  ore.  Lead  is  refined  by  being 
melted  in  a  shallow  pan  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  By  this  operation 
any  tin  or  antimony  it  may  contain  is  oxidized  and  removed.  When 
a  ladlef  ul  of  the  lead  under  this  operation  cools  with  a  peculiar  crys- 
talline surface;  the  process  is  discontinued,  and  the  metal  is  run  off 
into  pigs.  For  some  purpose,  such  for  instance  as  the  making  of  red 
lead  for  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass,  it  is  necessary  that  the  lead 
should  be  almost  chemically  pure,  as  a  proportion  of  copper  for  in- 
stance, amounting  only  to  a  few  grains  per  ton,  would  color  the  glass  and 
spoil  the  batch.  Silver  may  be  profitably  extracted  from  lead,  even 
Avhen  it  contains  only  three  or  four  ounces  to  the  ton,  by  Pattinson's 
l)rocess.  This  process  depends  upon  the  fact  that,  as  lead  solidifies, 
the  first  portions  that  crystallize  are  pure  lead.  The  operation  is, 
therefore,  performed  by  melting  the  metal  in  an  iron  pot  and  al- 
lowing it  to  cool  gradually  ;  as  it  cools,  the  crystals  of  i^ure  lead  are 
removed  by  a  perforated  ladle,  and  the  process  continually  repeated 
with  fresh  portions  of  lead  until  the  mass  contains  about  300  ounces 
to  the  ton.    It  is  then  submitted  to  cvpcllation. 

To  Construct  a  Barometeh. — Get  a  strong  glass  tube  34  inches 
long  and  of  a  smooth  even  bore.  Close  one  end  by  means  of  a  spirit 
lamp  and  blow  pipe,  or  Bunsen  burner,  and  fill  the  tube  with  pure, 
clean,  dry  mercury,  excluding  all  bubbles  of  air.  Now  place  your 
finger  over  the  open  end  of  the  tube,  and  cautiously  insert  it  in  a 
small  cistern  or  vessel  partially  filled  with  mercury.  Do  not  remove 
your  finger  until  the  end  of  the  tube  which  it  covers  is  safely  below 
the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel.  When  the  tube  is  thus  in- 
serted remove  your'finger  and  the  contents  will  fall  until  the  height 
of  the  mercury  is  nearly  30  ins.  above  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the 
cistern  beneath.  In  the  barometer  the  mercury  never  rises  above 
31  inches  and  seldom  falls  below  27.  The  tube  may  be  fitted  into  a 
grooved  wooden  case,  the  scale  attached  in  the  iiroper  place,  and  the 
final  adjustment  made  by  comparison  with  a  correct  instrument. 

Smelting  of  tin. — To  extract  the  metal,  the  ore  is  first  stamped  or 
washed  to  get  rid  of  the  lighter  ])articles  of  sand  or  earth  adhering  to 
it.  It  is  then  roasted  to  free  it  from  arsenic  and  sulphur,  and  again 
Avashed  to  carry  off  the  sulphate  of  copper  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  wash- 
ed ore  is  mixed  Avith  from  one-fifth  to  one-eighth  its  Aveight  of  poAvder- 
cd  anthracite,  or  charcoal,  and  a  small  portion  of  lime  to  form  a  fusible 


58G        MACIIIXTSTS,  ENGINEKRS',  AC,  RKCKIPTS." 

ping  -with  any  of  tho  remaining  gangnc.  Tlio  charge  in  placed  in  tlio 
lieailli  of  a  low  crowned  rcvei'beratory  luniacc,  and  tlio  doors  arc 
closed  up.  Heat  is  applied  very  gradually  for  live  or  six  hours,  cai  e 
being  taken  to  raise  the  temperaiuro  high  enough  to  cause  tlie  carbon 
to  reduce  the  tin  without  nielting  the  silicious  gangue,  which  would 
form  with  the  binoxide  an  enamel  too  troublesome  to  remove.  When 
nearly  all  the  tin  is  reduced,  the  heat  is  raised  considerably,  the  slags 
being  thus  rendered  fluid  and  capable  of  floating  ou  the  surface  of  tiio 
melted  metal.  The  tin  is  then  run  oH  into  cast  iron  pans  from  Avhich 
it  is  ladled  off  into  moulds  to  form  ingots.  The  tin  thus  procured  is 
far  from  being  pure,  it  is  therefore  submitted  to  the  process  of  lignation, 
which  consists  in  heating  the  ingots  to  incipient  fusion.  By  this 
means  the  purer  tin,  which  fuses  at  a  comparatively  low  heat,  separates, 
running  down  and  leaving  the  impure  portions  behind.  ^  The  less  fusi- 
ble portion,  when  remelted,  forms  block  tin,  and  the  part  which  has 
ruil  out  is  again  melted  and  run  out  with  wet  stakes.  The  steam  thus 
formed  bubbles  up  to  the  surface,  carrying  with  it  all  the  mechanical 
impurities  contained  in  the  tin.  Tlie  mass  is  then  skiinmed  and  allowed 
to  cool.  When  just  about  to  set,  the  upper  half  is  ladled  out,  the  other 
metals  and  impurities  having  sunk  into  the  bottom  hftlf,  from  the  ten- 
dency that  this  metal  has  to  separate  from  its  alloys.  Th  e  finest  quality 
of  tin  is  frequently  heated  to  a  temperature  just  short  of  its  melting 
point.  At  this  heat,  it  becomes  brittle,  and  is  broken  up  into  masses, 
showing  the  crystals  of  the  metal,  and  forming  what  is  known  as 
grain  tin.  The  formation  of  crystals  is  to  some  extent  a  guarantee 
of  its  purity,  since  impure  tin  does  not  become  brittle  in  this  way. 
English  tin  generally  contains  small  quantities  of  arsenic,  coxjper,  iron 
and  lead.  Tin  fuses  at  442°  Fahr. ,  but  it  is  not  sensibly  volatilized  at 
that  or  any  higher  temparature.  For  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate  the 
best  soft  charcoal  iron  is  obliged  to  be  used.  After  it  has  been  rolled 
and  cut  to  the  requisite  size,  its  surface  is  made  chemically  clean  by 
immersion  for  a  few  mmutes  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  sheets  arc 
then  heated  to  a  red  heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  withdrawn,  al- 
lowed to  cool,  hammered  flat,  passed  between  polished  rollers,  and 
are  now  washed  in  dilute  acid.  This  preparation  is  needed  to  free  the 
surface  of  the  iron  from  the  slightest  portion  of  oxide,  to  which  the 
tin  woxUd  not  adhere.  In  order  to  tin  them  they  are  plunged  one  by 
one  into  a  vessel  of  tallow,  from  which  they  are  transferred  to  a  bath 
of  tin.  From  this  they  are  taken,  after  a  certain  time,  allowed  to 
cTraiu,  and  dipped  again.  The  superfluous  tin  at  the  edge  of  the  plate 
is  removed  by  dipping  it  in  the  melted  tin  once  more,  and  detaching 
it  by  giving  the  plate  a  sharp  blow. 

Royal  Bkitish  Washing  Powder.— Soda  ash,  10  lbs ;  carbonate 
of  soda  (ordinary  soda),  10  lbs. ;  crush  into  coarse  grains.  Have  a 
thin  solution  of  glue,  or  decoction  of  linseed  oil  ready,  into  which  pour 
the  soda  until  quite  thick,  and  spread  out  on  boards,  in  a  warm  apart- 
ment, to  dry,  then  pack  up  into  nice  square  packages  for  sale,  label- 
ling neatlv.  Used  to  soften  hard  Avater;  finds  a  ready  sale  at  a  good 
profit.  Another  Way  to  soften  Hard  Water.  Stir  1  oz.  fresh  lime  in 
a  bucket  of  water,  pour  all  into  a  barrel  of  water,  rummage  well; 
when  it  settles,  the  water  will  be  soft,  pure,  and  fit  for  use.  Seltzer 
Aperient.  Calcined  magnesia,  1  lb. ;  tartaric  acid,  in  crystals,  IJ  lbs. ; 
loaf  sugar,  1^  lbs. ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  lb.   Powder  all  carefully, 


:.:AeniNiST3,  engineers',  &c.,  keceipts.  587 

dry  separately,  mix,  and  add  of  ess.  lemon  and  orange,  Ox  each,  ^  fl. 
dr.    Cork  tightly  ir.  warm  dry  bottles,  after  passing  through  a  tino 
Bieve.    1  tahlespoonful  to  a  tumbler  of  water  acts  as  a  mild  cathartic. 
Liquid  Black  Lead  Polish. — A  good  and  reliable  substitute  for 

fiOTvdered  stove  polish,  can  be  thus  made:  black  lead,  pulverized,  2 
bs. ;  spts.  turpentine,  2  gills;  -water,  2  gills;  sugar,  2  ozs. ;  mix. 

USEFUL  ITEMS  FOR  D.\JLY  REMEMBRANCE. 

LEGAii  Brevities. — A  note  dated  on  Sunday  is  void.  A  note  op- 
tained  by  fraud,  or  from  one  intoxicated,  is  void.  If  a  note  be  lost 
or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the  maker,  he  must  pay  it.  An  endorser 
of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability,  if  not  served  with  notice  of  its  dis- 
honor within  24  hours  of  its  non-payment.  A  note  by  a  minor  is 
void.  Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated.  Principals  are  re- 
sponsible for  their  agents.  Each  individual  in  partnership  is  respon- 
Bible  for  the  whole  amount  of  the  debts  of  the  firm.  Ignorance  of  the 
law  excuses  no  one.  It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud.  It  is  illegal  tc 
compound  a  felony.  The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 
An  agreement  without  a  consideration  is  void.  Signatures  in  lead 
pencil  are  good  in  law.  A  receipt  for  money  is  not  legally  conclusive. 
The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the  others.  Contracts  made  on  Sun- 
day cannot  be  enforced.  A  contract  with  a  minor  is  void.  A  con- 
tract made  with  a  lunatic  is  void.  Written  contracts  concerning  lani 
must  be  under  seal. 

A  TABLE  OF  DAILY  SATI^^GS  AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST. 

Cents  pel- Day         l\r  Year  In  Ten  Years         Fifty  Year* 

2i  §10  $130  $  2,900 

Cl   20   260   5,800 

11  '   40   520   11,600 

2n   100   1,300    29,000 

55:   200   2,600    58,000 

1.10    400    5,200   116,000 

1.37    500    6,500   145,000 

By  the  above  table  it  appears  that  if  a  mechanic,  or  clerk  saves  2| 
cents  per  day  from  the  time  he  is  21  till  he  is  70,  the  tobil  with  in- 
terest will  amount  to  $2,900,  and  a  daily  saving  of  27^  cents  reaches 
the  important  sum  of  $29,000.  Save  all  you  can  in  a  prudent  man- 
ner for  a  time  of  possible  want,  but  act  justly  by  paying  your  debts^ 
and  liberally  by  assisting  those  in  need,  and  helpmg  in  a  gooG 
cause. 

On  Profane  Swearing. — Let  every  man  do  his  best  to  discoun- 
tenance this  abominable  habit,  and  shun  it  as  an  accursed  sin  in  every 
possible  way.  No  respectable  person  Avill  allow  himself  to  be  guilty 
of  it.  Business  men  who  make  a  practice  of  it  will  find  themselves 
avoided  by  the  best  class  of  customers,  for  I  know  that  some  persons 
can  suffer  no  mental  punishment  equal  to  that  inflicted  by  being  com- 
pelled to  listen  to  profane  language.  Besides,  every  man  known  as  a 
profane  swearer,  will  not  be  credited  by  those  whose  good  opinion  is 
worth  having,  even  when  he  may  be  speaking  the  truth. 

Act  Well  Your  Part,  Don't  be  Selfish.— Remember  that  it 
is  by  imparting  happiness  to  others,  and  making  ourselves  useful, 


688     MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &c.,  receipts. 

that  vro  receive  happiness.  Stand  by  this  trutli,  live  it  out,  and  al- 
ways keep  doing  sometliin<?  useful  for  the  common  good,  doing  it  well, 
and  acting  sincerely.  Endeavour  to  keep  your  heart  in  the  attitude  of 
cherishing  good  Avill  to  all,  thinking  and  speaking  evil  of  no  one,  and 
always  with  a  kind  word  for  every  body.  Selfisliness  is  its  own  curse ; 
it  is  a  starving  vice.  The  man  who  docs  no  good  gets  none.  He  is 
like  the  heath  in  the  desert,  neither  yielding  fruit  nor  seeing  Avhen 
good  Cometh,  a  stunted  dwarfish,  miserable  shrub.  Let  all  your  in- 
llucnce  be  exerted  for  the  pur^ioso  of  doing  all  you  can  for  the  com- 
mon good  and  individual  welfare  of  every  one. 

Married  Life,  its  Joys  axd  Sorrows.— A  good  wife  is  the 
greatest  earthly  blessing.  A  wife  never  makes  a  greater  mistake 
than  when  she  endeavours  to  coerce  her  hubaud  with  other  weapons 
than  those  of  love  and  affection.  Those  Aveapons  arc  a  sure  pull  if 
lie  has  any  thing  human  left  iu  him.  Forbear  mutual  upbraidings. 
In  writing  letters,  during  temporary  separation,  let  nothing  contrary 
to  love  and  sincere  affection  be  expressed ;  such  letters  from  a  wife 
liave  a  most  powerful  emotional  effect,  sometimes  little  understood 
by  those  who  write  them.  It  is  the  mother  Avho  moulds  the  character 
and  destiny  of  the  child  as  to  the  exteriors,  therefore  let  calmness, 
peace,  affection,  and  firmness  rule  her  conduct  towards  her  children. 
Children  are  great  imitators,  whether  they  have  scolding  or  peaceful 
mothers,  they  are  generally  sure  to  learn  from  the  examples  set  before 
them,  and  thus  the  consequent  joy  or  sorrow  is  transferred  to  other 
families,  therefore  let  mothers  take  heed  to  their  conduct.  It  is  not 
possible  to  exercise  judgment  and  prudence  too  much  before  entering 
on  the  married  life.  Be  sure  that  the  affections  on  both  sides  are  so 
perfectly  intertwined  around  each  other,  that  the  two  as  it  were,  form 
one  miiid  ;  this  requires  time,  and  a  thorough  mutual  knoAvledge  on 
both  sides.  Marry  in  your  own  religion,  and  into  a  different  blood 
and  temperament  from  your  own.  Bend  your  whole  powers  to  avoid 
depreciatory  remarks,  jibing  and  anger  in  every  form,  and  spec- 
ially avoid  everlastingly  dishing  up  any  unsuccessful  past  action  that 
was  done  from  a  good  motive  and  with  the  best  intentions  at  the  time. 
Let  nothing  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  love  and  mutual  affection  inters^ene 
to  cause  distance  between  husband  and  wife  ;  to  this  end  let  self-de- 
nial rule  over  each,  and  reciprocal  unselfishness.  Avoid  habitual 
fault-finding,  scolding,  &c.,  as  you  would  perdition  itself ;  many  men 
tremble  as  they  cross  their  threshold  into  the  presence  of  scolding  wives. 
Let  husband  and  wife  cultivate  habits  of  sobriety,  and  specially  avoid 
drunkenness  in  every  form.  What  a  dreadful  spectacle  it  is  to  see  a 
husband  transformed  into  a  demon,  tottering  homeward  to  a  broken- 
hearted wife,  whose  noble  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  him  seems  to 
partake  more  off  the  nature  of  heaven  than  of  earth.  Never  part,  even 
for  a  journey,  without  kind  and  endearing  words,  and  as  a  kiss  sym- 
bolizes union  from  interior  affection,  do  not  dispense  with  it  on 
such  occasions,  repeating  it  when  you  return.  In  one  word,  let 
love  rule  supreme. 

In  all  your  dealings  with  woman,  take  a  lesson  from  the  cooing  dove, 
speak  softly,  deal  gently,  kindly  and  considerately  with  her  in  every 
way.  Let  every  husband  and  every  wife  cherish  for  each  other  the 
heavenly  flame  of  affection,  and  let  no  rude,  harsh,  or  embittered  ex- 
pression on  either  side  chill  the  sacred  firo.   If  ever  adoration  of  the 


MACHINISTS,  engineers',  &C.,  RECEIPTS.  589 

creature  may  hope  for  pardon,  surely  the  worship  rendered  by  man 
to  a  kind,  pure,  affectionate  and  loving  wife,  heaven's  best  gift,  may 
invoke  forgiveness.  What  countless  millions  of  women  have  sac- 
rificed health,  strength  and  life  in  attendance  on  sick  and  djdng  hus- 
bands, children  and  strangers  ?  How  many  have  perished  by  rush- 
ing through  lire  and  water  to  save  their  children,  and  starved  them- 
gelves  that  tliey  might  live  ?  In  how  many  hospitals  has  she  proved 
herself  an  angel  of  mercy,  and  her  sweet  voice  uttered  words  of 
comfort  and  cfieer  ?  Therefore  let  woman  have  her  full  rights,  even 
that  of  votmg  if  she  desires  it,  for  a  good  woman's  influence  will  ever  be 
used  for  a  good  purpose;  but  let  woman  act  towards  man  as  indi- 
cated in  the  above  advice  for  man  to  act  towards  woman,  and  she  would 
be  all  but  omnipotent,  for  man  in  a  manner  would  move  heaven  and 
earth  to  serve  her,  and  would  do  unspeakably  more  for  her  than  can 
ever  be  done  by  all  the  fussy  croakers,  old  maids,  and  woman's  rights 
associations  and  lecturers  in  the  creation.  Love  in  the  family  is  tho 
one  thing  needful  to  regenerate  the  earth  and  cause  the  wilderness  to 
become  as  Eden,  and  the  desert  to  blossom  as  the  rose.  Reversed 
love  and  discord  have  broken  more  hearts,  and  caused  more  sorrow, 
estrangement,  and  downright  death,  than  war,  pestilence  and  all  other 
causes  combined.  It  palsies  energy  and  amljition,  engenders  gloom 
and  despair,  and  transforms  manhood  into  an  icicle.  Statistics  prove 
that  the  married  live  longer  on  the  average  by  several  years,  than 
the  unmarried,  a  most  satisfactory  proof  that  the  married  state  is  pre- 
eminently the  life  designed  for  man,  therefore  let  all  interested  do 
their  utmost  to  make  it  the  happiest. 

In  reference  to  the  maintenance  of  h2alth,  many  valuable  prescriptions 
and  much  good  advice  will  be  found  under  the  Medical  Department 
in  this  work,  but  truth  requires  us  to  state  that  for  the  purpose  of 
mitigating  the  pains  and  labour  incident  to  woman  at  the  most  event- 
ful and  critical  periods  of  her  life,  nothing  within  the  whole  compass 
of  nature  will  compare  with  water,  in  its  varied  applications.  This 
intimation  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  directing  enlightened  and  in- 
telligent action  on  the  subject  as  necessity  may  call  for  it.  Past  ex- 
perience sustains  us  when  we  say  that  all  may  enjoy  the  great  bless- 
ing of  good  health  in  the  free  use  of  the  bath,  the  temperate  use  of 
proper  diet,  plenty  of  exercise,  pure  air,  warm  clothing  and  ab- 
stinence from  every  excess  ioimical  to  health.  ^ 
Children  and  Home  Conversation.— Children  hunger  perpetu- 
ally for  new  ideas.  They  will  learn  with  pleasure  from  the  lips  of 
parents  what  they  deem  drudgery  to  learn  from  books,  and  even  if 
they  have  the  misfortune  to  be  deprived  of  many  educational  ad- 
vantages they  will  grow  up  intelligent  if  they  enjoy  in  childhood  the 
privilege  of  listening  to  the  conversation  of  intelligent  people.  Let 
them  have  many  opportunities  of  learning  in  this  way.  Be  Icind  to 
them,  and  don't  think  it  beneath  you  to  answer  their  little  questions, 
for  they  proceed  from  an  implanted  faculty  which  every  true  man  and 
woman  should  take  a  great  dehght  in  gratifying. 

Home  after  Business  Hours. — ^Happy  is  the  man  who  can  find 
that  solace  and  that  poetry  at  home.  AVarm  greetings  from  loving 
hearts,  fond  glances  from  bright  eyes,  and  welcome  shouts  of  merry 
hearted  children,  the  many  thousand  little  arrangements  for  comfort 
and  enjoyment,  that  silently  tell  of  thoughtful  and  expectant  love, 
these  are  the  ministrations  that  reconcile  us  to  the  prose  of  life. 


690       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS^,  AC,  RECEIPTS. 


Think  of  this  yo  -wives  and  danghters  of  business  men  !  Think  of  the 
toils,  tlio  anxieties,  the  mortification  and  wear  tliat  fatlicrs  undergo 
to  secure  for  you  comfortable  homes,  and  compensate  them  for  their 
toils  by  making  tliem  happy  by  their  own  fireside, 

Wkll  Wokthy  of  Imitation. — A  worthy  Qualter  thus  wrote  : — 
*'  I  expect  to  ]mss  througli  this  Avorld  but  once.  If,  therefore,  tliero 
be  any  kindness  I  can  do  to  any  fellow  being,  let  me  do  it  now,  lot 
me  not  defer  nor  neglect  it,  for  I  will  not  pass  this  way  again.  " 
"VN'ere  all  to  act  thus  how  many  would  be  made  happy  ! 

Another  Sensible  Quaker. — A  Quaker  lately  propounded  tho 
momentous  question  to  a  fair  Quakeress,  as  follows  :  "  Hum  !  yea 
and  verily;  Penelope,  the  spirit  urgeth  and  moveth  me  wonderfully 
to  beseech  thee  to  cleave  unto  me,  flesh  of  my  flesh,  and  bone  of  mv 
bone."  "Hum  !  truly,  Obadiah,  thou  hast  wisely  said.  Inasmuch 
as  it  is  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone,  lo,  I  will  sojourn  with  thee." 

Ta^le  Conversation. — Instead  of  swallowing  your  food  in  sullen 
silence,  or  brooding  over  your  business,  or  severely  talking  about 
others,  let  the  conversation  at  the  table  be  genial,  kind,  social  and 
cheering.  Don't  bring  any  disagreeable  subject  to  the  table  in  your 
conversatien,  any  more  than  you  Avould  in  your  dishes.  Avoid 
scandalizing  people,  and  never  cherish  a  jubilant  feeling  over  the 
infirmities  or  misfortunes  of  others.  The  more  good  company  you 
have  at  your  table  the  better.  Hence  the  intelhgence,  refinement  and 
appropriate  behaviour  of  a  family  given  to  hospitality.  Never  feel  that 
intelligent  visitors  can  be  anything  but  a  blessing  to  you  and  yours.  « 

Keep  the  House  Clean  and  Well  Ventilated. — A  neat,  clean, 
fresh  aired,  sweet,  cheerful,  well  arranged  house,  exerts  a  moral  in- 
fluence over  its  inmates,  and  makes  the  members  of  a  family  peace- 
able and  considerate  of  each  other's  feelings;  on  the  contrary,  a  filthy 
squalid,  noxious  dwelling,  contributes  to  make  its  inhabitants  selfish, 
sensual,  and  regardless  of  the  feelings  of  others.  Never  sleep  iii  a 
small  close  bedroom,  either  during  summer  or  winter,  without  free 
ventilation  from  door  or  windows,  unless  otherwise  supplied  with 
abundance  of  fresh  air.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  person's  house  usually 
corresponds  with  his  character. 

Safe  Business  Rules. — Business  sien,  in  business  hours,  attend 
ONLY  to  business  matters.  Social  calls  are  best  adapted  to  the 
SOCIAL  CIRCLE.  Make  your  business  known  in  few  words,  without 
loss  of  time.  Let  your  dealings  Avith  a  stranger  be  most  carefully 
considered,  and  tried  friendship  duly  appreciated.  A  mean  act 
will  soon  recoil,  and  a  man  of  honour  will  be  esteemed.  Leave 
"  Tricks  of  trade"  to  those  whose  education  was  never  completed. 
Treat  all  with  respect,  confide  in  few,  aVrong  no  man.  Be  never 
afraid  to  say  No,  and  always  Prompt  to  acknowledge  and  rectify  a 
wrong.  Leave  nothing  for  to-morrow  that  should  be  done  to-day. 
Because  a  friend  is  polite,  do  not  think  his  time  Is  valueless.  Have 
a  PLACE  for  everything,  and  every  thing  in  its  place.  To  preserve 
LONG  friendship,  keep  A  short  credit^  the  way  to  get  credit  is  to 
be  punctual ;  the  way  to  preserve  it  is  not  to  use  it  much. 
Settle  often;  have  short  accounts.  Trust  no  man's  .appearances, 
they  are  often  deceptive,  and  assumed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
credit.  Rogues  generally  dress  well.  The  rich  are  generally  plain 
MEN.  Be  WELL  SATISFIED  before  you  give  a  credit,  that  Ihose  TO 
whom  you  give  it  are  safe  men  to  be  trusted. 


ITEMS  FOR  DAILY  REMEMBRANCE. 


591 


Habits  of  a  Man  of  Business. — A  sacred  regard  to  the  princi- 
ples of  justice  forms  the  basis  of  every  transaction,  and  regulates  the 
conduct  of  the  upright  man  of  business.  1.  He  is  strict  in  keeping  his 
engagements.  2.  Does  nothing  carelessly  or  in  a  hurry.  3.  Employs 
nobody  to  do  what  he  can  easily  do  himself.  4.  Leaves  nothing  un- 
done that  ought  to  be  done,  and  which  circumstances  permit  him  to 
do.  5.  Keeps  his  designs  and  business  from  the  views  of  others,  yet 
he  is  candid  with  all.  G.  Is  prompt  and  decisive  witli  his  customers, 
and  does  not  overtrade  his  capital.  7.  Prefers  short  credit  to  long 
ones;  and  cash  to  credit  at  all  times,  either  in  buying  or  selling;  and 
small  profits  in  credit  cases  with  little  risk,  to  the  diance  of  better 
gains  with  more  hazards.  8.  He  is  clear  and  explicit  in  his  bargains. 
9  Leaves  nothing  of  consequence  to  memory  which  he  can  and  ought 
to  commit  to  Avriting.  10.  Keeps  copies  of  all  his  important  letters 
which  he  sends  away,  and  has  every  letter,  invoice,  &c.,  belonging 
to  his  business,  titled,  classed  and  put  away,  11.  Never  suffers  his 
desk  to  be  confused  by  many  papers  lying  upon  it.  12.  Keeps 
everything  in  its  proper  place.  13.  Is  always  at  the  head  of  his  busi- 
ness, Avell  knowing  that  if  he  leaves  it,  it  will  leave  him.  14.  Holds 
it  as  a  maxim,  that  he  whose  credit  is  suspected  is  not  to  be  trusted. 
15.  Is  constantly  examining  his  books,  and  sees  through  all  his  affairs 
as  far  as  care  and  attention  will  enable  him.  IG.  Balances  regu- 
larly at  stated  times,  and  then  makes  out  and  transmits  all  his  accounts 
current  to  his  customers,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  17.  Avoids  as 
much  as  possible  all  sorts  of  accommodation  in  money  matters  and 
law-suits  where  there  is  the  least  hazard.  18.  He  is  economical  in 
his  expenditure,  always  living  Avithin  his  income.  19.  Keeps  a  memo- 
randum book  in  his  pocket,  in  Avhich  he  notes  every  particular  relative 
to  appointments,  addresses,  and  petty  cash  matters.  20.  Is  cautious 
how  he  becomes  security  for  any  person.  21.  And  is  generous  when 
urged  by  motives  of  humanity.  Let  every  man  act  strictly  to  these 
habits;  when  once  begun  will  be  easy  to  continue  in,  ever  remember- 
ing that  he  had  no  profits  by  his  pains  whom  Providence  does  not 
prosper,  and  success  will  attend  his  efforts.  Let  him  also  remember 
that  the  true  achievements  of  life  do  hot  consist  in  making  startling 
strikes,  but  in  the  solid  performance  of  daily  duty. 

How  TO  Make  a  Fortune. — Cornelius  Vauderbilt,  on  being  inter- 
rogated as  to  the  best  way  to  make  a  fortune,  is  rei)orted  to  have  said 
in  reply,  "  There  is  no  secret  about  it,  all  you  liave  to  do  is  to  attend 
to  your  business  and  go  ahead."  "  There  is  nothing,"  said  George 
Law,  "so  easy  as  maldng  money  when  you  have  money  to  make  it 
with ;  the  only  thing  is  to  see  the  crisis  and  take  it  at  its  flood."  Alex- 
ander T.  Stewart,  the  millionaire  merchant  prince  of  New  York,  who 
died  April  10,  1876,  once  said  to  an  anxious  enquirer,  "I  consider 
honesty  and  truth  great  aids  in  making  a  fortune."  This  was  ster- 
ling advice,  and  when  it  is  supplemented  hy  good  management, 
ardent  apj)lication  to  business,  and  strong  self-reliance,  as  it  was  in 
an  eminent  degree  in  INIr.  Stewart's  own  case,  it  cannot  fail  to  tell 
with  irresistable  power  in  favor  of  the  man  who  follows  it. 

True  Charity. — Mr.  Stewart's  idea  of  charity  was  that  in  ordei* 
to  help  men  you  must  assist  them  to  get  work  to  help  themselves, 
and  not  cherish  in  them  a  spirit  of  cringing  dependence  by  giving 
them  money  for  uothiug.    "Himself  a  man  of  strong  self-reliance, 


592 


ITEMS  FOR  DAILY  REMEMBRANCE. 


he  believed  that  the  best  service  yon  could  do  men  was  to  teach  them 
to  rely  on  tlicnisclves— to  ])resent  tliem  oi)portiniitics  which  only 
could  bo  improved  by  individual  effort.  He  had  no  charity  for  idle- 
ness, or  the  ambition  to  reap  when  you  have  not  sown."  As  observ- 
ed by  his  executor,  Jnd.i^o  Hilton,  '"'  It  is  more  charitable  to  furnish 
employment  to  men  and  women,  than  it  is  to  destroy  their  self-respect 
by  giving  them  money,  as  to  paupers.  Mr.  Stewart  never  believed  in 
lielping  people  to  live  without  work.  We  have  9,000  persons  on  the 
pay  roll  of  A.  T.  Stewart  &.  Co.,  and  I  think  that  I  will  best  carry  out 
Mr.  Stewart's  views,  and  be  practically  charitable  by  maintaining  the 
business  which  will  keep  those  9,600  persons  in  honorable  employ- 
ment, so  that  they  can  support  themselves  and  the  thousands  of  fami- 
lies dependent  upon  them."  Of  Mr.  Stewart's  honesty  and  rigidly  fair 
dealing  there  are  numerous  accounts.  ' '  What  do  yoii  mean  by  sayino- 
what  you  know  to  be  untrue,"  he  once  demanded  of  a  clerk  who  was 
trying  his  best  to  convince  a  woman  that  a  piece  of  calico  would  not 
fade.  "The  calico  won't  wash,  she'll  demand  her  money  back  and 
she'll  be  right.  I  don't  want  goods  represented  for  Avhat  they  are 
not."  It  was  this  perfect  honesty  towards  his  customers  that  was  Mr. 
Stewart's  leading  characteristic  ;  and  it  was  his  invariable  custom, 
when  questioned  as  to  his  explanation  for  his  success,  to  reply  with 
much  emphasis.  "  Truth,  truth  is  the  tahsmanic  word ;  and  if  I  have 
one  earthly  wish  or  desire  greater  than  another,  it  is  that  in  this 
respect  my  example  may  be  commended  and  followed  by  young  men 
entering  into  business,  and  especially  by  young  merchants."  On  this 
firm  basis  of  truth  and  integrity  he  conducted  his  colossal  business, 
not  by  reckless  risks  or  bargains,  but  by  steady  adherence  to  business, 

erfect  system,  and  close  attention  to  the  least  details  as  well  as  the 

irgest. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Stewart  did  not,  during  his 
long  and  most  successful  business  career,  see  fit  to  inaugurate  and 
carry  out  to  completion  any  such  system  of  public  beneficence  as  was 
at  all  commensurate  with  the  ample  means  at  his  command,  and  that 
the  performance  of  such  important  offices  should  be  delegated  or  in- 
trusted in  an  optional  way,  to  another.  Every  man,  prospered  and 
blest  with  the  almost  boundless  prosperity  meted  out  to  Mr.  Stewart, 
owes  a  duty  to  society  which  should  never  be  neglected  in  this  way. 
The  generous  conduct  of  that  great  and  good  philanthrophist,  George 
Peabody,  is  in  this  respect  most  worthy  of  double  honor,  and  his  es- 
teemed name  will  be  deservedly  and  gratefully  remembered  by  gen- 
erations yet  unborn,  for  the  memorable  services  which  he  rendered 
in  his  princely  bequests  to  the  industrious  poor  of  London,  and  the 
education  of  the  colored  population  of  the  South . 

The  following  extracts  from  a  letter  written  by  Dr.  Franklin  to  the  . 
Rev.  George  Wiiitefield  (in  response  to  a  letter  of  thanks  for  relief  ' 
derived  by  the  latter  from  the  application  of  electricity  in  a  case  of 
paralysis)  very  clearly  defines  the  mutual  duty  of  mankind  to  each 
other.   The  following  is  the  first  part  of  Franklin's  letter  : — 

Philadelphia,  June  6, 1753. 

Sib  :  I  received  your  kind  letter  of  the  2d  inst.,  and  am  glad  to 
hear  that  you  increase  in  strength.  I  hope  you  will  continue  mend- 
ing till  you  recover  your  former  health  and  firmness.   Let  me  know 


ITEMS  FOR  DAILY  REMEMBRANCE. 


593 


whether  you  still  use  the  cold  bath,  and  what  effect  it  has.  As  to  the 
kindness  you  mention,  I  wisli  it  could  have  been  of  greater  service  to 
you.  But  if  it  had,  the  only  thanks  I  should  desire  is,  that  you  would 
always  be  equally  ready  to  serve  any  other  person  that  may  need 
your  "assistance,  and  so  let  good  offices  go  round,  for  mankind  are  all 
of  a  family.  For  my  own  part,  when  I  am  employed  in  serving 
others,  I  do  not  look  upon  myself  as  conferring  favors,  but  on  paying 
debts. 

In  my  travels  and  since  my  settlement,  I  have  received  much 
kindness  from  men,  to  whom  I  shall  never  have  any  opportunity  of 
making  the  least  direct  return,  and  numberless  mercies  from  God, 
wlio  is  infinitely  above  being  benefited  by  our  services.  Those  kind- 
nesses from  men  I  can  therefore  only  returti  on  their  fellow-men  and 
I  can  only  show  my  gratitude  for  those  mercies  from  God,  by  a  readi- 
ness to  help  his  otiier  children  and  my  brethren.  For  I  don't  think 
tliat  thanks  and  compliments,  though  repeated  weekly,  can  discharge 
our  real  obligation  to  each  other,  and  much  less  those  to  our  Creator. 
You  will  see  in  this  my  notion  of  good  works,  that  I  am  far  from  ex- 
pecting to  merit  heave'n  by  them.  By  heaven  we  understand  a  state 
of  happiness  infinite  in  degree  and  eternal  in  duration  ;  I  can  do 
nothing  to  merit  such  rewards.  He  that  for  giving  a  draught  of 
water  to  a  thirsty  person,  should  expect  to  be  paid  with  a  good  planta- 
tion, would  be  modest  in  his  demands,  compared  with  those  who 
tliinlc  they  deserve  heaven  for  the  little  good  they  do  on  earth.  Even 
the  mixed  imperfect  pleasures  we  enjoy  in  this  world,  are  rather 
from  God's  goodness  than  our  merit !  how  much  more  such  happiness 
of  heaven  !  for  my  part,  I  have  not  tlie  vanity  to  think  I  deserve  it, 
the  folly  to  expect  it,  nor  the  ambition  to  desire  it,  but  content  myself 
hi  submitting  to  the  will  and  disposal  of  that  God  Avho  made  me,  who 
has  hitherto  preserved  and  blessed  me,  and  in  whose  fatherly  good- 
ness I  may  well  confide,  that  he  will  never  make  me  miserable,  and 
that  even  the  afflictions  I  may  at  any  time  suffer,  shall  tend  to  my 
benefit. 

Correspondence  or  Sv-mbolig  Meaning  of  Colors.— TFAite 
was  the  emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  faith,  joy  and 
life.  In  the  judge,  it  indicates  integrity,' in  the  sick,  humility,  in  the 
woman,  chastity. 

Red,  the  ruby,  signifies  fire,  divine  love,  heat  of  the  creative 
power,  and  royalty.  White  and  red  roses,  express  love  and  wisdom. 
Tlie  red  color  of  the  blood  has  its  origin  in  the  action  of  tlie  heart, 
which  corresponds  to,  or  symbolizes  love.  In  a  bad  sense,  red  cor- 
responds to  the  infernal  love  of  evil,  hatred,  etc. 

Blue,  or  the  sapphire,  expresses  heaven,  the  firmament,  truth  from 
a  celestial  origin,  constancy  and  fidelity. 

Yellow,  or  gold,  is  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the  goodness  of  God, 
of  marriage,  and  faithfulness.  lu  a  bad  sense,  yellow  siguifies  in- 
constancy, jealousy  and  deceit. 

Green,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  the  spring,  of  hope,  particularly 
of  the  hope  of  immortality  and  of  victory,  as  "the  color  of  the  laurel 
and  palm. 

Violet,  the  amethyst,  signifies  love  and  truth,  or  passion  and  suf- 
fering. Purple  and  scarlet  signify  things  good  and  true  from  a  celes- 
tial origin. 


594 


ITEMS  FOR  DAILY  REMEMBRANCE. 


lilack  corresponds  to  (losi):ur,  darliiicss,  carthlincss,  mourning, 
ncg:ition.  wickedness  and  de;itli. 

Tjik-  liKST  Till Ncs.— The  best  tlicology— a  pure  and  beneficent 
life.  The  best  phih)s()pliy — a  contented  mind.  Tlie  best  hiw — tlic 
golden  rule — The  best  education — self-knowledge.  The  best  state- 
inanshii) — self-government.  The  best  medicine  cheerfulness  and 
temperance.  The  best  art — i)ainting  a  smile  on  the  brow 
of  childhood.  The  best  science — extracting  sunshine  from  .a 
cloudy  wray.  The  best  war — to  war  against  internal  evils  and 
selfishness.  The  best  music — the  laughter  of  an  innocent  child.  The 
best  journalism — printing  the  true  and  the  beautiful  only  on  mem- 
ory's tablet.  The  best  telegraphing— flashing  a  ray  of  sunshine  into 
a  gloomy  heart.  The  best  biograpliy — the  life  which  writes  charity 
in  the  largest  letters.  The  best  mathematics — that  which  doubles  the 
most  joys  and  divides  the  most  sorrows.  The  best  navigation— steer- 
ing clear  of  the  lacerating  rocks  of  personal  contention.  The  best 
diplomacy — effecting  a  treaty  of  peace  with  one's  own  conscience. 
The  best  engineering — building  a  bridge  of  love,  faith,  and  trust,  in 
the  Divine,  over  the  river  of  death. 

Save  a  Little. — Every  man  who  is  obliged  to  work  for  his  liv- 
hig,  should  make  a  point  to  lay  up  a  little  money  for  that  "  rahiy 
day  "  which  we  are  all  liable  to  encounter  when  least  expected.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  to  open  an  account  with  a  savings  bank.  Ac- 
cumulated money  is  always  safe  ;  it  is  always  ready  to  use  when 
needed.  Scrape  together  five  dollars,  make  your  deposit,  receive 
your  bank  book,  and  then  resolve  to  deposit  a  given  sum,  small 
though  it  be,  once  a  month,  or  once  a  week,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Nobody  knows  without  trying  it,  how  easy  a  thing  it  is  to 
save  money  when  an  account  with  a  bank  has  been  opened.  With 
such  an  account  a  man  feels  a  desire  to  enlarge  his  deposit.  It  gives 
him  lessons  in  frugality  and  economy,  Aveans  him  from  liabits  of  ex- 
travagance, and  is  the  very  best  guard  in  the  world  against  intemper- 
ance, difisipation  and  vice.  Thelollowing  table  is  appended  in  order 
to  exhibit  the  time  required  by  money  to  double  itself  when  loaned  at 
the  designated  rates  of  interest : — 


Time  in  which  a  Sura  will  double. 


Rate  per  cent. 


Simple  Interest. 


Compound  Interest 


2 

2  1-2 
3 

3  1-2 
4 

4  1-2 


50  years. 
40  years. 


35  years  1  day. 
28  years  26  days. 
23  years  1G4  days. 
20  years  54  days. 
17  years  246  days. 
15  years  273  days. 
15  years  75  days. 
14  years  327  days. 
10  years  89  days. 

9  years    2  days. 

8  years  16  days. 

7  years  100  days. 


33  years  4  months 
28  years  208  days. 
25  years. 


5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


22  years  81  days. 
20  years. 


16  years  8  months 
14  years  104  days. 
12  1-2  years. 


11  years  40  days 
10  years. 


WAGES  TABLE. 


SALARIES  AND  WAGES  BY  THE  YEAR,  MONTH,  WEEK  OR  DAY,  SHOW- 
ING WHAT  ANY  SUM  FROM  $20  TO  $1600  PER  ANNUM,  IS  PER 
MONTH,  WEEK  OR  DAY.  


Per  Year 

Per  Month. 

Per  Week. 

Per  Day. 

Per  Year. 

Per  Month 

Per  Week. 

Per  Daj 
 . 

9 

$  c. 

$  c. 

$  c. 

*   oo«  • 

$  c. 

«  c. 

* 

20  is 

1.67 

.38 

.05 

280  IS 

23.33 

5.37 

.77 

25 

2.08 

.48 

.07 

285 

23.75 

5.47 

.78 

30 

2.50 

.58 

.08 

290 

24.17 

5.56 

.79 

35 

2.92 

.67 

.10 

295 

24.58 

5.66 

.81 

40 

3.33 

.77 

.11 

300 

25.00 

5.75 

.82 

45 

3.75 

.86 

.12 

310 

25.83 

5.95 

.85 

50 

4.17 

,96 

.14 

320 

26.67 

6.14 

.88 

55 

4.58 

1.06 

.15 

325 

27.08 

6.23 

-  .89 

60 

5.00 

1.15 

.16 

330 

27.50" 

6.33 

.90 

65 

5.42 

1.25 

-18 

340 

28.33 

6.52- 

.93 

70 

5.83 

1.34 

.19 

350 

29.17 

6.71 

.90 

75 

6.25 

1.44 

.21 

360 

30.00 

6.90 

.99 

80 

6.67 

1.53 

.22 

370 

30.83 

7.10 

1.01 

85 

7.08 

1.63 

.23 

375 

31.25 

7.19 

1.03 

90 

7.50 

1.73 

.25 

380 

31.67 

7.29 

1.04 

95 

7.92 

1.82 

.26 

390 

32.50 

7.48 

1.07 

100 

8.33 

1.92 

.27 

400 

33.33 

7.67 

1.10 

105 

8.75 

2.01 

.29 

425 

35.42 

8.15 

1.16 

110 

9.17 

2.11 

.30 

450 

37.50 

8.63 

1.23 

115 

9.58 

2.21 

.32 

475 

39.58 

9.11 

1.30 

120 

10.00 

2.30 

.33 

500 

41.67 

9.59 

1,37 

125 

10.42 

2.40 

.34 

525 

43.75 

10.07 

1.44 

130 

10.83 

2.49 

.36 

550 

45.83 

10..55 

1.51 

135 

11.25 

2.59 

.37 

575 

47.92 

11.03 

1.58 

140 

11.67 

2.69 

.38 

600 

50.00 

11.51 

1.64 

145 

12.08 

2.78 

.40 

625 

52.08 

11.99 

1.71 

150 

12.50 

2.88 

.41 

650 

54.17 

12.47 

1,78 

155 

12.92 

2.97 

.42 

675 

56.25 

12.95 

1.85 

160 

13.33 

3.07 

.44 

700 

58.33 

13.42 

1.92 

165 

13,75 

3.16 

.45 

725 

60.42 

13.90 

1.99 

170 

14.17 

3.26 

.47 

750 

62.50 

14.38 

2,05 

175 

14.58 

3.36 

.48 

775 

64.58 

14.86 

2.12 

180 

15.00 

3.45 

.49 

800 

66.67 

15.34 

2.19 

185 

15.42 

3.55 

.51 

825 

68.75 

15.82 

2.26 

190 

15.83 

3.61 

.52 

850 

70.83 

16.30 

2.33 

195 

16.25 

3.74 

.53 

875 

72.92 

16.78 

2.40 

200 

16.57 

3.84 

.55 

900 

75.00 

17.26 

2,47 

205 

17.08 

3.93 

.56 

925 

77.08 

17.74 

2.53 

210 

17.50 

4.03 

.58 

950 

79.17 

18.22 

2.60 

215 

17.92 

4.12 

.59 

975 

81.25 

18.70 

2.67 

220 

18.33 

4.22 

.60 

1000 

83.33 

19.18 

2.74 

225 

18.75 

4-31 

.62 

1050 

87.50 

20.14 

2.88 

230 

19!l7 

4.41 

!63 

1100 

9K67 

21.' 10 

3.01 

235 

19.58 

4.51 

.64 

1150 

95.83 

22.06 

3.15 

240 

20.00 

4.60 

,66 

1200 

100.00 

23.01 

3.29 

245 

20.42 

4.70 

.67 

1250 

104.17 

23.29 

3.42 

250 

20.83 

4.79 

.69 

1300 

108.33 

24.93 

3.56 

255 

21.25 

4.89 

.70 

1350 

112,50 

25.89 

3.70 

260 

21.67 

4.99 

.71 

1400 

116.67 

26.85 

3,84 

265 

22.08 

5.08 

.73 

1450 

120.84 

27.80 

3.98 

270 

22.50 

5.18 

.74 

1500 

125.00 

28.77 

4,11 

275 

22.92 

5.27 

.75  • 

1600 

133,34 

30.68 

4.38 

Note,— If  the  desired  sum  is  not  in  the  table,  double  some  number  ;  for 
instance  if  the  salary  or  wages  is  $2000,  double  the  sums  opposite  §1000,  and  so 
on  with  the  rest. 


WAGES  TABLE. 


WAGES   TAP.LE,  caloulatkd  os  a  scai.k   of  TEN  HOURS  r,Ar,on 
ricit  DAY'.   TiiK  TIME,  IS  HOLTRS   and  DAYS  is  notkd  in  thk 

liKFT  HAND  COLUMN,  AND  THK  AMOUNT  OF  AVAOES  UNDEH  THE 
KESPKCTIVE  HEADIN<;.S  AS  NOTED  IJELOW- 


WaRcs. 

$1.50 

$2.00 

$2.,'H) 

$.•5.00 

$.!..«r 

$4.00 

$4.,'->0 

$5.(KJ 

$5.50 

$ii.OI) 

.1 

1% 

.1% 

.2 

~^2 

3 

•3% 

.2% 

.4y2 

.4% 

.5 

1  1 

.3% 

.5 

6 

.6% 

.8% 

.9-2 

.10 

w  2 

.6% 

•8y3 

.10 

■131/3 

.15 

•16% 

.18% 

.20 

3 

.5 

.71/2 

.10 

.12  j4 

.15 

1772 

.20 

.22% 

.25 

,27% 

.30 

4 

ifr 

.10 

.131/0 

.16% 

.20 

23% 

.262/, 

,30 

,33% 

.362^ 

.40 

5 

.121/2 

.16% 

.21 

.25 

29  H 

.33% 

.371/2 

.41% 

.46 

.50 

6 

.10 

.15 

.20 

.30 

CO 

.40 

.45 

.50 

.55 

.60 

7 

.11% 

.1772 

.23% 

^291/2 

.35 

41 

.4 

'% 

.52^2 

.58% 

M% 

.70 

8 

.131/3 

.20 

.26% 

.33% 

.40 

40% 

.53% 

.60 

.662/3 

.731/, 

.80 

9 

.15 

.221/2 

.30 

.37^ 

.45 

521/2 

.6 

) 

.67% 

.75 

.82^/2 

,90 



Days. 

1 

- . 

.15% 

OK 

.rfdV3 

412/ 
.41^3 

.OU 

.58% 

.66 

% 

.75 

,80% 

.912/, 

1.00 

2 

.331/3 

.50 

.66% 

.831/3 

1.00 

1.16% 

1.3C 

Va 

1.50 

1.66% 

1.83% 

2.00 

3 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

1  or; 

1.50 

1.75 

2.0c 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 

3.00 

4  ' 

.66% 

l'J|2 

1  I*?!/ 

l-^-J  73 

1.66% 

2.00 

2-33% 

2.662/, 

3.00 

3.. 33% 

3.662/3 

4.00 

5 

.831/3 

1.25 

1.66% 

2.08% 

2.. 50 

2.91% 

3.3C 

% 

3.75 

4.I62/3 

4.58% 

5.00 

6 

[,  CU 

1.50 

2(00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

00 

5.50 

6,00 

$G.50 

$7.00 

$7.50 

$8.00 

$9.09 

$10.00 

$11.00 

$12.00 

$13.00 

$14.00 

S  V2 

.51/2 

.6 

.6% 

.6% 

.772 

.8% 

.9 

.10 

.11 

.12 

~"l2% 

3  1 

.11% 

.12^ 

.13% 

.15 

.16% 

.18% 

.20 

.22 

.23% 

.25 

«  2 

'21% 

.231/3 

.25 

.26% 

.30 

.331^ 

.3( 

5% 

.40 

.43% 

.46% 

,.50 

3 

.321/2 

.35 

.371^ 

.40 

.45 

.50 

.55 

.60 

.65 

.70 

,75 

4 

.431/3 

.46% 

.50 

.53% 

.60 

.662/, 

.731/3 

.80 

.862/3 

.93% 

1.00 

5 

.5i% 

.581/3 

.621/2 

.66% 

.75 

.831/^ 

.91% 

1.00 

1.08% 

1.162/, 

1,25 

6 

.65 

.70 

.80 

.90 

1.00 

1.10 

1.20 

1.30 

1.40 

1..50 

7 

.76 

.81% 

•871/2 

.93% 

1.05 

1,16% 

1.28% 

1.40 

1.52 

1.63% 

1.75 

8 

.86% 

.93% 

1.00 

1.06% 

1.20 

1.33% 

1.46% 

1.60 

1.731/3 

1.862/3 

2.00 

9 

.97^/2 

1.05 

1.121/2 

1.20 

1.35 

1.50 

1.65 

1.80 

1.95 

2.10 

2,25 

Days. 

"1l 

1,08% 

1.16% 

1.25 

1,33% 

1.50 

1,662/, 

1,83% 

2,00 

2.17 

2.33% 

2.50 

2 

2,162/3 

2.33% 

2.50 

2.662/3 

3.00 

3,33% 

3.662/3 

4.00 

4,34 

4,662/3 

5.00 

3 

3,25 

3.50 

3,75 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

6,00 

6.51 

6.992/3 

7.50 

4 

4.33% 

4,662/3 

5,09 

5.33% 

6.00 

6.662/, 

7.33% 

8.00 

8.68 

9.33 

10.00 

5 

5.41% 

5.83% 

6.25 

6.662/3 

7.00 

8,331/3 

9.I62/3 

10.00 

10.85 

11.66% 

12,50 

G 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

9.00 

10,00 

11.00  ■ 

12,00 

13.00 

14.00 

15-00 

If  the  desired  number  of  days  or  amount  of  wages  is  not  in  the  table, 
double  or  treble  any  suitable  number  of  days  or  amount  of  money  as  the  case 
may  be,  until  you  obtain  the  desired  number  of  days  and  the  wages  to 
correspond. 

To  Reduce  the  Price  of  Wheat,  tn  Sterling,  per  Imperial 
Quarter,  to  Dollars  and  Cents, — Reduce  the  shillings  per  quarter 
into  dollars  and  cents,  at  24.2  cts.  per  shilling,  and  divide  by  9^,  the  num-. 
ber  of  United  States  bushels  in  an  imperial  quarter. 

Example, — Required  the  price  of  wheat  per  U,  S,  bushel  in  Liverpool, 
when  it  fetches  58s,  6d.  per  imperial  quarter,  58s.  6d,  equals  $14  15, 
which,  divided  by  9-|,  gives  ^1.51h,  the  price  per  bushel. 

596 


INTEREST  TABLE, 


SIX  PER  CEXT.,  IN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  FROM  ONE  DOLLAR  TO 
TEN  THOUSAND, 


1  day. 

7  days. 

15  days. 

1  mo. 

3  nios. 

G  mos. 

12  mos. 

5 

$  c. 

§  c. 

§  c. 

$  c. 

§  c. 

§  c. 

$  c. 

1 

00 

00 

ooy4 

00% 

01% 

03 

03 

2 

00 

ooy4 

00% 

01 

03 

06 

12 

3 

00 

ooy. 

00% 

01% 

0iV2 

09 

18 

4 

00 

00% 

01 

02 

06 

12 

21 

5 

00 

ooyj 

oiy4 

02% 

07% 

15 

30 

G 

00 

00% 

01% 

03 

09  " 

18 

36 

7 

00 

003/^ 

10% 

21 

42 

8 

00 

01 

02 

04 

12 

21 

48 

9 

CO 

01 

021/4 

OlVo 

27 

51 

13 

00 

02% 

05'" 

15 

30 

GO 

20 

00V4 

021/2 

05 

10 

30 

CO 

1  20 

SO 

ooy, 

00% 

15 

45 

90 

1  80 

40 

oiy, 

06 

10 

20 

CO 

1  20 

2  40 

fiO 

01 

12% 

25 

1  50 

3  00 

100 

oiy. 

31% 

25 

50 

1  5i) 

3  00 

G  00 

roo- 

05  ' 

23yo 

50 

1  00 

3  00 

6  00 

12  00 

soo 

05 

35 

75 

1  50 

4  50 

9  00 

18  00 

400 

07 

40% 

1  00 

2  00 

6  00 

12  00 

24  00 

500 

08 

58% 

1  25 

2  50 

7  50 

15  00 

30  00 

1000 

17 

1  10% 

2  50 

5  00 

15  00 

30  00 

60  00 

20oa 

35 

2 

5  00 

10  00 

30  00 

GO  00 

120  00 

cOOO 

50 

3  50 

7  50 

15  00 

45  00 

90  00 

180  00 

4000 

67 

4  GQYo 

10  00 

20  00 

60  00 

120  00 

240  00 

cooo 

83 

5  83% 

12  50 

15  00 

75  00 

150  00 

300  00 

10000 

1  67 

11  6G% 

25  00 

50  00 

150  00 

300  00 

GOO  00 

A.T  SEVEN  PER  CENT.,  IN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  FROM  ONE  DOLLAR 


1 

00 

2 

00 

3 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

6 

00 

7 

00 

8 

00 

9 

00 

10 

001/4 

20 

ooy. 

30 

001/2 

40 

003/4 

50 

01 

100 

02 

200 

01 

300 

03 

400 

08 

500 

10 

1000 

39 

2000 

3000 

58 

4000 

78 

5000 

97 

10000 

1  9-1 

1  36 

2  721/4 

4  08% 

5  44% 
801^ 

13  61 


01% 

03% 
07 

07 

03% 

14 

051/4 

ioy2 

21 

07 

14 

28 

08% 

17% 

35 

10% 

21 

42 

121^ 

21% 

49 

14 

28 

5a 

15% 

31% 

63 

35  " 

70 

35 

70 

1 

40 

52% 

1 

05 

2 

10 

70 

1 

40 

2 

80 

87% 

1 

75 

3 

50 

1  75 

3 

50 

7 

00 

3  50 

7 

00 

14 

00 

5  25 

10 

50 

21 

00 

7  00 

14 

00 

28 

00 

8  75 

17 

50 

35 

00 

17  50 

35 

00 

70 

00 

35  00 

70 

00 

140 

00 

52  50 

105 

00 

210 

00 

70  00 

140 

00 

280 

00 

87  50 

175 

00 

350 

00 

175  00 

350 

00 

700 

00 

t3  8 

$  cts. 
30.00 

«  0 

V  8 

"^......a,,8|yS88S,^W 

mi 
m 

1t 

^^0 

-AM 

iinm 

Si 

8K^f? 

!l 

M  ci  «  ^  4  4  i;>0       t^.:^      0  0  M  rj 

2d^J 

5^858cg^8 

"--^■--5  0-0^0jno^0^0^0^0j.0jno^ 

«Mc;r;r;,t;>44^oot:.f^«5c<5ooo 

-^'"2:?fr;5^^2>8  2,8S>8  2> 

w   M   N   N  <^  m 

8  5,8  2.8  3,8  2>8  2.8  a 
^4^^oo  t^t:-«5ci  00 

M  co^co  rj  OCO  no  00  no  g  0  ^  0  0  g  0  O  0  0  0  0^ 

----------------- 

58 

«  -  -"o  ou.-  -^j.o^  0  0  0^  2  §.g.8  2 

i; 

"  ^  -  ""^^      g  J?  J?  2,   8  J?  2,  K  8    2,  ic:  8  J?  S.   8  s,\i; 

^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^^^^4444 

i8 

i8 

: 

:  «  M  „  co^^u...o  .00  -0  ;oo  ^0  ;;;o^O  jno^^O^ 

:   ^xnco  0  j^^co  0  jo         0  «  jn<^  O  5  ^co 

:  j  :  :  -  «  M  «  H  r.,^.r,^oo  <>o  M  „2-^r^«2  2^0  - 

i 

i 


1 


^    |SJraS,?.=8  2.8  8  8  8  8|8  8|§§^||yy||§ 


cr,9 


READY  IlECKONER. 

HEADY  HECKONER,  to  fmd  tho  IMico  of  .any  Nnnibnr  of  rouiidr-,  Yards 

riecos,  or  Jiiisluils,  from  2  cciitH  to  $;}.()0. 
Tho  first  column  coiitaiiiH  tho  M  UMIilOR,  tho  top  columns  the  PRICES. 


Nos 

2  ct. 

3ct. 

4ct. 

5ct. 

6  ct. 

GV4  ct. 

7ct. 

8  ct. 

Oct. 

10  ct. 

11  ct. 

2 

.  4 

.  () 

.  8 

.10 

.12 

.121/2 

.14 

.16 

.18 

.20 

.22 

3 

.  () 

.  9 

.12 

.15 

.18 

Mi 

.21 

.24 

.27 

.30 

.33 

4 

.  8 

.12 

.16 

.20 

.24 

.25 

.28 

.32 

.36 

.40 

.44 

5 

.10 

.15 

.20 

.25 

.30 

.311/4 

.35 

.40 

.45 

.50 

.55 

() 

.12 

.18 

.24 

.30 

.36 

.371/2 

.42 

.48 

.54 

.60 

•66 

7 

.14 

.21 

.28 

.35 

.42 

.433^ 

.49 

.56 

.63 

.70 

.77 

8 

.l'-. 

.24 

.32 

.40 

.48 

.56 

.64 

.72 

.80 

.88 

9 

.18 

.27 

..36 

.45 

.54 

.561/4 

.63 

.72 

.81 

.90 

.99 

10 

.20 

.30 

.40 

.50 

•GO 

.621/2 

.70 

.80 

.90 

1.00 

1.10 

11 

.22 

.33 

.44 

.55 

•66 

.683/4 

.77 

.88 

.99 

1.10 

1.21 

12 

.24 

.36 

.48 

.60 

.72 

.75 

.84 

.96 

1.08 

1.20 

1.32 

13 

.26 

.39 

.52 

.65 

.78 

.8II/4 

.91 

1.04 

1.17 

1.30 

1.43 

14 

.28 

.42 

.50 

.70 

.84 

.87iZ 

.98 

1.12 

1.26 

1.40 

1.54 

15 

.30 

.45 

.60 

.75 

.90 

.9334 

1.05 

1.20 

1.35 

1.50 

1.65 

16 

.32 

.48 

.64 

.80 

.96 

1.00 

1.12 

1.28 

1.44 

1.60 

1.76 

17 

.34 

.51 

.68 

.85 

1.02 

1.061/4 

1.19 

1.36 

1.53 

1.70 

1.87 

18 

.36 

.54 

.72 

.90 

1.08 

1.12^^ 

1.26 

1.44 

1.62 

1.80 

1.98 

19 

.38 

.57 

.76 

.95 

1.14 

1.1  83^ 

1.33 

1.52 

1.71 

1.90 

2.09 

20 

.40 

.60 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.25 

1,40 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

2.20 

25 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.  5 

30 

•60 

.90 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

2.10 

2.40 

2.70 

3.00 

3,30 

40 

.80 

1.20 

1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

2.50 

2.80 

3.20 

3.00 

4.00 

4.40 

50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.121/2 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5..50 

GO 
70 

1.20 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

3  60 

3.75 

4.20 

4.80 

5.40 

6.00 

6.60 

1.40 

2.10 

2.80 

3.50 

4.20 

4.371/2 

4.90 

5.60 

6.30 

7.00 

7.70 

80 

1-60 

2.40 

3.20 

4.00 

4.80 

5.00 

5.60 

6.40 

7.20 

8.00 

8.80 

90 

1.80 

2.70 

3.60 

4.50 

5.40 

5.621/2 

6.30 

7.20 

8.10 

9.00 

9.90 

100 

2.00 

3.00 

4.00 

5.00 

6.00 

625 

7.00 

8.00 

9.00 

10.00 

11.00 

Nos 

12  ct. 

12y2Ct. 

13ct. 

14  ct. 

15  ct. 

16  ct. 

18  ct. 

183^ct. 

19  ct. 

20  ct. 

21  ct. 

2 

.24 

.25 

.26 

.28 

.30 

.32 

.36 

.371/2 

.38 

.40 

.42 

3 

.30 

.371/2 

.42 

.45 

.48 

.54 

.56I/4 

.57 

.CO 

.63 

4 

.48 

.50 

!52 

.56 

.60 

.64 

.72 

.75 

.76 

.80 

.84 

5 

.60 

.621/2 

.65 

.70 

.75 

.80 

.90 

.933/4 

.95 

1.00 

1,05 

r> 

.72 

.75 

.78 

.84 

.90 

.96 

1.08 

1.121/2 

1.14 

1.20 

1-26 

7 

.84 

.871/2 

.91 

.98 

1.05 

1.12 

1.26 

1.31% 

1.33 

1.40 

1,47 

8 

.96 

1.00 

1.04 

1.12 

1.20 

1.28 

1.44 

1  50 

1,52 

1.60 

1.68 

9 

1.08 

1.121/2 

1.17 

1.26 

1.35 

1.44 

1.62 

1.6834 

l!71 

I'.SO 

l!89 

10 

1.20 

1.25 

1.30 

1.40 

1.50 

1.60 

1.80 

1.87i| 

1,90 

2.00 

2.10 

11 

1.32 

1.371^ 

1.43 

1.54 

1.65 

1.76 

1.98 

2.06% 

2,09 

2.20 

2.31 

12 

1.44 

1.50 

1.56 

1.68 

1.80 

1.92 

2.16 

2.25 

2.28 

2.40 

2.52 

13 

1.56 

1.621/2 

1.69 

1.82 

1.95 

2.08 

2..34 

2.4334 

2.47 

2.60 

2.73 

14 

1.68 

1.75 

1.82 

1.96 

2.10 

2.24 

2.52 

2.621/2 

2.66 

2.80 

2.94 

15 

1.80 

1.871/2 

1.95 

2.10 

2.25 

2.40 

2.70 

2.8I14 

2.85 

3.00 

3.15 

16 

1.92 

2.00 

2.08 

2.24 

2.40 

2.56 

2.88 

3.00 

3,04 

3.20 

3.30 

17 

2.04 

2.121/2 

2.21 

2.38 

2.55 

2.72 

3.06 

3.18% 

3.23 

3.40 

3.57 

18 

2.16 

2.25 

2.34 

2.52 

2.70 

2.88 

3.24 

3.371/2 

3.42 

3.60 

3.78 

19 

2.28 

2.371/2 

2.47 

2.66 

2.85 

3.04 

3.42 

3.561/4 

3.61 

3.80 

3.99 

20 

2.40 

2.50 

2.60 

2.80 

3.00 

3.20 

3.60 

3.75 

3.80 

4.00 

4.20 

25 

3.00 
3.60 

3.121/2 
3.75 

3.25 
3.90 

3.50 
4.20 

3.75 
4.50 

4.00 
4.80 

4.50 
5.40 

4.68% 

4,75 

5.00 

5.25 

30 

5.621/2 

5,70 

6.00 

6.30 

40 

4.80 

5.00 

5.20 

5.60 

6.00 

6.40 

7.20 

7.50 

7.60 

8.00 

8.40 

50 

6.00 

6.25 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

9.00 

9.371/2 

9,50 

10.00 

10.50 

60 

7.20 

7.50 

7.80 

8.40 

9.00 

9  60 

10.80 

11.25 

11.40 

12.00 

12,60 

70 

8.40 

8.75 

9.10 

9.80 

10.50 

11.20 

12.60 

13.121/2 

13.30 

14.00 

14,70 

80 

9.60 

10.00 

10.40 

11.20 

12.00 

12.80 

14.40 

15.00 

15.20 

16.00 

16.80 

90 

10.80 

11.25 

11.70 

12.60 

13.50 

14.40 

16.20 

16. 871/2 

17.10 

18.00 

18.90 

100 

12.00 

12.50 

,  13.00 

11.00 

15.00 

16,.00 
600 

18.00 

18,75 

19.00 

20.00 

21.00 

READY  RECKONER. 

The  first  column  on  the  left  contains  the  NUMBER  of  the  Article,  and  th» 
column  on  the  tops  of  the  tables  the  PRICE. 


Nosi22  ct, 


2 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
•25 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 


.44 

.66 
.88 
1.10 
1.32 
1.54 
1.76 
1 

2.20 
2.42 
2.64 
2.86 
3.08 
3.30 
3.52 
3.74 
3.96 
4.18 
4.40 
5.50 
6.60 
8.80 
11 


.69 
.92 
1.15 
1.38 
1.61 
1.84 
2.07 
2.30 
2.53 
2.76 
2.99 
3.22 
3.45 
3.68 
3.91 
4.14 
4.37 
4.60 
5,75 
6.90 
9.20 


15.40 
17 

19.80  20.70 
22.00  23.00 


24  ct.  25ct.  26ct.  27  ct.  28  ct, 


.48 
.72 

1 

1.44 
1.68 
1.9 
2.16 
2.40 
2.64 
2.88 
3.12 
3.36 
3.60 
3.84 
4.08 
4.32 
4.56 
4.80 
6.00 
7.20 
9.60 
12.00 
14.40 
16.80 
19.20 
21.1 
24.00 


.50 
.75 
1.00 
1.25 
1.50 
1.75 
2.00 
2.25 
2.50 
2.75 
3.00 
3.25 
3.50 
3.75 
4.00 
4.25 
4.50 
4.75 
5.00 
6.25 
7.50 
10.00 
12.50 
15.00 
17.50 
20.00 
22.50 
25.00 


.52 
.78 
1.04 
1.30 
1..56 
1.82 
2.08 
2.34 
2.60 
2.86 
3.12 
3.38 
3.64 
3.90 
4.16 
4.42 
4.68 
4.94 
5.20 
6.50 
7.80 
10.40 
13.00 
15.60 
18.20 
20.80 
23.40 
26.00 


.54 
.81 
1.08 
1.35 
1.62 
1.89 
2.16 
2.43 
2.70 
2.97 
3.24 
3.51 
3.78 
4.05 
4.32 
4.59 
4.86 
5.15 
5.40 
6.75 
8.10 
10.80 
13.50 
16.20 
18.90 
21.60 
24.30 
27.00 


.56 
.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.24 
2.52 
2.80 
3.08 
3.36 
3.64 
3.92 
4.20 
4.48 
4.76 
5.04 
5.32 
5.60 
7.00 
8.40 
11.20 
14.00 
16.80 
19.60 
22.40 
25.20 
28.00 


29  ct.  30  ct.  31  ct.  3iy4Ct 


.58 
.87 
1.16 
1.45 
1.74 
2.03 
2..32 
2.61 
2.90 
3.19 
3.48 
3.77 
4.06 
4.35 
4.64 
4.93 
5.22 
5.51 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
11.60 
14.50 
17.40 
20.30 
23.20 
26.10 
29.00 


.60 
.90 
1.20 
1.50 
1,80 
2.10 
2.40 
2.70 
3.00 
3.30 
3.60 
3.p0 
4.20 
4.50 
4.80 
5.10 
5.40 
5.70 
6.00 
7.25 
9.00 
12.00 
15.00 
18.00 
21.00 
24.00 
27.00 
30.00 


.62 
.93 
1.24 
1.56 
1.86 
2.17 
2.48 
2.79 
3.10 
3.41 
3.72 
4.03 
4.34 
4.55 
4.96 
5.27 
5.58 
5.89 
6.20 
7.75 
9.30 
12.40 
15.60 
18.60 
21.70 
24.80 
27.90 
31.00 


.621/2 
.9334 
1.26 
1.56^/4 
1.87i| 
2.18% 
2.60 
2.811/4 
3.12y, 
3.433^ 
3  75 
4.061/4 

4.683^ 

6.00 

6.311/4 

5.6214 

5.933^ 

6.25 

7.8II/4 

9.3714 

12.50 

15.621/2 

18.75 

21.871/2 

25.00 

28.121/4 

31.25 


Nos 


90 
100 


32  ct, 

.64 
.96 
1.28 
1.60 
1.92 
2.24 
2.56 
2.88 
3.20 
3.62 
3.84 
4.16 
4.48 
4.80 
5.12 
5.44 
5.76 
6.08 
6.40 
8.00 
"-^0 


33i/2Ct. 


.99 
1.32 
1.65 
1.98 
2.31 
2.64 
2.97 
3.30 
3.63 
3.96 
4.29 
4.62 
4,95 
5.28 
5.61 
6.94 
6.27 
6.60 
8.26 


1.00 
1.331/, 
1.662| 
2.00 
2.331/3 
2.6624 
3.00 
3.331/3 
3.6621 
4.00 
4.33% 
4.662^ 
6.00^' 
-5.331/, 
5.662Z 
6.00^' 
6.331/, 
6.662/„ 
8.33i| 


9.90  10.00 
13.80  12,20  13.331/3 
16.00  16.50  I6.6624 
19.20  19.80  20,00 
22.40  23.10  23.3314 
25.60  26.40  26.662Z 
28.80  29.70  30.00 
32.00  33.00 133.331/3 


1.02 
1.36 
1.70 
2.04 
2.;38 
2.72 
3.06 
3.40 
3.74 
4.08 
4.42 
4.76 
5.10 
6.44 
5.78 
6.12 
6.46 
6.80 
8.50 
10.20 
13.60 
17.00 
20.40 
23.80 
27.20 
30.60 
34.00 


35  ct. 

.70 
1.05 
1.40 
1.75 
2.10 
2.45 
2.80 
3.16 
3.50 
3.85 
4.20 
4.56 
4.90 
5.25 
5.60 
6.95 
6.30 
6.66 
7.00 
8.76 
10.60 
14.00 
17.50 
21.00 
24.50 
28.00 
31.50 
35.00 


36  ct. 


37  ct. 


37i/2Ct, 


38  ct 


39  ct.  40  ct 


.72 
1.08 
1.44 

1.80 
2.16 
2.62 
2.88 
3.24 
3.60 
3.96 
4.32 
4.68 
5.04 
6.40 
5.76 
6.12 
6.48 
6.84 
7.20 
9.00 
10.80 
14.40 
18.00 
21.60 
25.20 
28.80 
32.40 
36.00 
601 


.74 
1.11 

1.48 
1.85 
2.22 
2.59 
2.96 
3.33 
3.70 
4.07 
4.44 
4.81 
5.18 
5.55 
5.92 
6.29 


7.40 
9.25 
11.10 

14.80 
18.50 
22.20 
25.90 
29.60 
33.30 
37.00 


.75 

1.12% 

1.60 

1.871/2 

2.26 

2.621/2 

3.00 

3.371/2 

3.76 

4.121/2 

4.50 

4.871/2 

5.25 

6.621/2 

6.00 

6.371/2 

6.75 

7.121/2 

7..50 

9.371/2 
11.25 
15.00 
18.75 
22.60 
26.25 
30.00 
33.75 
37.50 


.76 
1.14 
1.52 
1.90 
2.28 
2.66 
3.04 
3.42 
3.80 
4.18 
4.56 
4.94 
5.32 
5.70 
6.08 
6.46 
6.84 
7.22 
7.60 
9.60 
11.40 
15.20 
19.00 
22.80 
26.60 
30.40 
34.20 
38.00 


.78 
1.17 

1.56 
1.95 
2.34 
2.731 
3.12' 
3.51 
3.90 
4.29 
4.68 
5.07 
6.46 
5.85 
6.24 
6.63 
7.02 
7.41 
7.80 
9.75 
11.70 
16.60 
19.50 
23.40 
27.30 
31.20 
36.10 
39.00 


1.20 
1.60 
2.00 
2.40 
2.80 
3.20 
3.60 
4.00 
4.40 
4.80 
6.20 
5.60 
6.00 
6.40 
6.80 
7.20 
7.60 
8.00 
10.00 
12.00 
16.00 
20.00 
24.00 
28.00 
32.00 
36.00 
40.00 


READY  RECKONER. 

Tlio  first  column  on  tho  left  contains  the  NUMBER  of  the  Article,  anil 
the  colmnn  on  the  toi)8  of  the  Tables  the  PRICE. 


41  ct. 

42  ct. 


43  ct. 

44  ct. 

45  ct. 

46  ct. 

47  ct. 

48  ct. 

49  ct. 

50  ct. 


51  ct. 

2 

.82 

.84 

.86 

.88 

.90 

.92 

.94 

.96 

.98 

1.00 

1.02 

3 

1.23 

1.26 

1.29 

1.32 

1.35 

1.38 

1.41 

1.44 

1.47 

1.50 

1.53 

4 

1.61 

1.68 

1.72 

1.76 

1.80 

1.84 

1.88 

1.92 

1.96 

2.00 

2.04 

5 

2.05 

2.10 

2.15 

2.20 

2.25 

2.30 

2.35 

2.40 

2.45 

2.50 

2.55 

6 

2.46 

2.52 

2.58 

2.61 

2.70 

2.76 

2.80 

2.88 

2.94 

3.00 

3.06 

7 

2.87 

2.94 

3.01 

3.08 

3.15 

3.22 

3.29 

3.36 

3.43 

3.50 

3.57 

8 

3.28 

3,36 

3.44 

3.52 

3.60 

3.68 

3.76 

3.84 

3.92 

4.00 

4.08 

9 

3.69 

3.78 

3.87 

3.96 

4.05 

4.14 

4.23 

4.32 

4.41 

4.50 

4.59 

10 

4.10 

4.20 

4.30 

4.40 

4.50 

4.60 

4.70 

4.80 

4.90 

5.00 

5.10 

11 

4.51 

4.62 

4.73 

4.84 

4.95 

5.06 

5.17 

5.28 

5.39 

5.50 

5.61 

12 

4.92 

5.04 

5.16 

5.28 

5.40 

5.72 

5.64 

5.76 

5.88 

6.00 

6.12 

13 

5..33 

5.46 

5.59 

5.72 

5.85 

5.98 

6.11 

6.24 

6.37 

6.50 

6.63 

14 

5.74 

5.88 

6.02 

6.16 

6.30 

6.44 

6.58 

6.72 

6.86 

7.00 

7.14 

15 

6.15 

6.30 

6.45 

6.60 

6.75 

6.90 

7.05 

7.20 

7.35 

7.50 

7.65 

16, 

6.i56 

6.72 

6.88 

7.04 

7.20 

7.36 

7.52 

7.68 

7.84 

8.00 

8.16 

17 

6.97 

7  14. 

(.It 

t.oi. 

7  48 

7  65 

7  82 

7  99 

8.16 

8  33 

8  50 

8  67 

18 

7^38 

7.56 

7.74 

7.92 

8!lO 

8^28 

8!46 

8!64 

8!82 

9!oo 

9!l8 

19 

7.79 

7.98 

8.17 

8.30 

8.55 

8.74 

8.93 

9.12 

9.31 

9.50 

9.69 

20 

8.20 

8.40 

8.60 

8.80 

9.00 

9.20 

9.40 

9.60 

9.80 

10.00 

10.20 

25 

10.25 

10.50 

10  75 

11.00 

11.25 

11.50 

11.75 

12.00 

12.25 

12.50 

12.75 

30 

12.30 

12.60 

12.90 

13.20 

13.50 

13.80 

14.10 

14.40 

14.70 

15.00 

15.30 

40 

16!  40 

16.80 

17.20 

17!  60 

18!  00 

18*40 

18!80 

19.20 

19.60 

20.00 

2o!40 

50 

20.50 

2i!oo 

21^50 

22.00 

22!  50 

23!  00 

23.50 

24.00 

24.50 

25.00 

25.50  • 

60 

24.60 

25.20 

25.80 

26!  40 

27.00 

27.60 

28.20 

28.80 

29.40 

30.00 

30.60 

70 

28:70 

29.40 

30.10 

30.80 

31.50 

32.20 

32.90 

33.00 

34.30 

35.00 

35.70 

80 

32.80 

33.60 

34.40 

35.20 

36.00 

36.80 

37.60 

38.40 

39.20 

40.00 

40.80 

90 

36.90 

37.80 

38.70 

39.60 

40.50 

41.40 

42.30 

43.20 

44.10 

45.00 

45.92 

100 

41.00 

42.00 

43^00 

44.00 

45.00 

46.00 

47.00 

48.00 

49.00 

50.00 

51.00 

Nos 

52  ct. 

53  ct. 

— '■  

54  ct. 

55  ct. 

56  ct. 

57  ct. 

58  ct. 

59  ct. 

60  ct. 

61  ct. 

62  ct. 

2 

1.04 

1.06 



1.08 



1.10 



1.12 

1.14 

1.16 

1.18 

1.20 

1.22 

1.24 

3 

1.56 

1.59 

1.62 

1.65 

1.68 

1.71 

1.74 

1.77 

1.80 

1.83 

1.86 

4 

2.08 

2.12 

2.16 

2.20 

2.24 

2.28 

2.32 

2.36 

2.40 

2.44 

2.48 

5 

2.60 

2.65 

2.70 

2.75 

2.80 

2.85 

2.90 

2.95 

3.00 

3.05 

3.10 

6 

3.12 

3.18 

3.24 

3.30 

3.36 

3.42 

3.48 

3.54 

3.60 

3.66 

3.72 

7 

3.64 

3.71 

3.78 

3.85 

3.92 

3.99 

4.06 

4.13 

4.20 

4.27 

4.34 

8 

4.16 

4.24 

4,32 

4.40 

4.48 

4.56 

4.64 

4.72 

4.80 

4.88 

4.96 

9 

4.68 

4.77 

4.86 

4.95 

5.04 

5.13 

5.22 

5.31 

5.40 

5.49 

5.58 

10 

5.20 

5.30 

5.40 

5.50 

5.60 

5.70 

6.80 

5.90 

6.00 

6.10 

6.20 

11 

5.72 

5.83 

5.94 

6.05 

6.16 

6.27 

6.38 

6.49 

6.60 

6.71 

6.82 

12 

6.24 

6.36 

6.48 

6.60 

6.72 

6.84 

6.96 

7.08 

7.20 

7.32 

7.44 

13 

6.76 

6.89 

7.02 

7.15 

7.28 

7.41 

7.54 

7.67 

7.80 

7.93 

8.06 

14 

7.28 

7.42 

7.56 

7.70 

7.84 

7.98 

8.12 

8.26 

8.40 

8.54 

8.68 

15 

7.80 

7.95 

8.10 

8.25 

8.40 

8.55 

8.'70 

8.85 

9.00 

9.15 

9.30 

16 

8.32 

8.48 

8.64 

8.80 

8.96 

9.12 

9.28 

9.44 

9.60 

9.76 

9.92 

17 

8.84 

9.01 

9.18 

9.35 

9.52 

9.69 

9.86 

10.03 

10.20 

10.37 

10.54 

18 

9  36 

9  54 

9.72 

9.90 

10  08 

10.26 

10.44 

10.62 

10.80 

11.16 

19 

9'.88 

io!o7 

lo!26 

lo!45 

10!64 

10.83 

11.02 

11.21 

11.40 

11.59 

11.78 

20 

10.40 

10.60 

10.80 

11.00 

11.20 

11.40 

11.60 

11.80 

12.00 

12.20 

12.40 

25 

13.00 

13.25 

13.50 

13.75 

14.00 

14.25 

14.50 

14.75 

15.00 

15.25 

15.50 

30 

15.60 

15.90 

16.20 

16.50 

16.80 

17.10 

17.40 

17.70 

18.00 

18.30 

18.60 

40 

20.80 

21.10 

21.60 

22.00 

22.40 

22.80 

23.20 

23.60 

24.00 

24.42 

24.80 

59 

26.00 

26.50 

27.00 

27.50 

28.00 

28.50 

29.00 

29.50 

30.00 

30.50 

31,00 

60 

31.20 

31.80 

32.40 

33.00 

33.60 

34.20 

34.80 

35.40 

36.00 

36.60 

37.20 

70 

36.40 

37.10 

37.80 

38.50 

39.20 

39.90 

40.60 

41.30 

42.00 

42.70 

43.40 

80 

41.60 

42.40 

43.20 

44.00 

44.80 

45.60 

46.40 

47.20 

48.00 

48.80 

49.60 

90 

46.80 

47.70 

48.60 

49.50 

50.40 

51.30 

52.20 

53.10 

54.00 

54.90 

55.80 

100 

52.00 

53.00 

54.00 

55.00 

56.00 

57.00 
602 

58.00 

59.00 

60.00 

61.00 

62.00 

Rl^ADY  RECKONER, 
rf  the  Number  required  is  not  found  in  the  Tables,  add  two  Numbers  to. 
gether  ;  for  instance,  if  35  bushels  are  required,  add  the  prices  opposite 
30  and  5  together ;  and  so  for  365  bushels — treble  the  value  of  100,  and 
add  CO  and  5  together. 


Nos  62y2Ct.  63  ct.  64ct.  65  ct.  66  ct.  66%ct.  67  ct, 


1.25 
1.871/2 
2.50 
3.121/0 
3.75  *■ 
4.371/2 
5.00 
5.621/2 
6.25 
6.871/2 
7.50 
8.121/2 
8.75 
9.371/2 
10.00 

10.621/2 

11.25 

11.871/2 

12.50 

15.621/2 

18.75 

25.00 

31.25 

37.50 

43.75 

50.00 

51.25 


100  62.50 


1.26 
1.89 
2.52 
3.15 
3.78 
4.41 
5.04 
5.67 
6.30 
6.93 
7.56 
8.19 
8.80 
9.45 
10.08 
10.71 
11.34 


12.60 
15.75 
18.90 


1.28 
1.92 
2.56 
3.20 
3.84 
4.48 
5.12 
5.76 
6.40 
7.04 
7.68 
8.32 
8.96 
9.60 
10.24 
10.88 
11.52 


11.97  12.16 


12.80 
16.00 
19.20 


25.20  25.60 
32.00 
37.80  38.40 
44.10  44.80 
50.40  51.20 
56.70  57.60 
63.00  64.00 


1.30 
1.95 
2.60 
3.25 
3.90 
4.55 
5.20 
5.85 
6.50 
7.15 
7.80 
8.45 
9.10 
9.75 
10.40 
11.05 
11.70 
12.35 
13.00 
16.25 
19.50 
26.00 
32.50 
39.00 
45.50 
52.00 
58.50 
65.00 


1.32 
1.98 
2.64 
3.30 
3.96 
4.62 
5.28 
5.94 
6.60 
7.26 
7.92 


9.24 


.33% 
9.90  10.00 
10.56  10.66% 
-  -  11.331/3 

12.00 
12.54  12.662/g 
13.20  13.33% 
16.50  16.66% 
19.80  20.00 
26.40  26.66% 
33.00  33.33% 
39.60  40.00 


52.80  53.331/ 
59.40  60.00 
66.66V 


1.331/3 

2.00 

2.662/, 

3.33% 

4.00 

4.662/, 

5.33% 

6.00 

6.662/, 

7.33% 

8.00 


1.34 
2.01 
2.68 
3.35 
4.02 
4.69 
5.36 
6.03 
6.70 
7.37 
8.04 
8.71 
9.38 
10.05 
10.72 
11.39 
12.06 
12.73 
13.40 
16.75 
20.10 
26.80 
33.50 
40.20 
46.90 
53.00 
60.30 
67.00 


68  ct.  69  ct. 


1.36 
2.04 
2.72 
3.40 
4.08 
4.76 
5.44 
6.12 
6.80 
7.48 
8.16 
8.84 
9.52 
10.20 
10.88 
11.56 
12.24 
12.92 
13.60 
17.00 
20.40 
27.20 
34.00 
40.80 
47.60 
54.40 
61.20 
68.00 


1..38 
2.07 
2.76 
3.45 
4.14 
4.83 
5.52 
6.21 
6.90 
7.59 
8.28 
8.97 
9.  66 
10.35 
11.04 
11.73 
12.42 
13.11 
13.80 
17.25 
20.70 
27.60 
34.50 
41.40 
48.30 
55.20 
62.10 


Nos 


72  ct.  73  ct.  74  ct, 


1.44 
2.16 
2.88 
3.60 
4.32 
5.04 
5.76 
6.48 
7.20 
7.92 
8.64 
9.36 
10.08 
10.80 
11.52 
12.24 
12.96 
13.68 
14.40 
18.00 
21.60 
28.80 
36.00 
43.20 
50.40 
57 

64.80 
72.00 


1.46 
2.19 
2.92 
3.65 
4.38 
5.11 
5.84 
6.57 
7.30 
8.03 
8.76 
9.49 
10.22 
10.95 
11.68 
12.41 
13.14 
13.87 
14.60 
18.25 
21.90 
29.20 
36  50 
43.80 
51.10 
58.40 
65.70 
73.00 


75  ct. 


76  ct. 


77  ct. 


78  ct. 


79  ct. 


1.48 
2.22 
2.96 
3.70 
4.44 
5.18 
5.92 
6.66 
7.40 
8.14 


10.36 
H.IO 
11.84 
12.58 
13.32 
14.06 
14.80 
18.50 
22.20 
29.60 
37.00 
44.40 
51.80 


74.00 


1.50 
2.25 
3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 
6.75 
7.50 
8.25 
9.00 
9.75 
10.50 
11.25 
12.00 
12.75 
13.50 
14.25 
15.00 
18.75 
22.50 
30.00 
37.50 
45.00 
52.50 
60.00 
67.50 
75.00 


1.52 
2.28 
3.04 
3.80 
4.56 
5.32 


7.60 
8.30 
9.12 
9.88 
10.&4 
11.40 
12.16 
12.92 
13.68 
14.44 
15.20 
19.00 
22.80 
30.40 
38.00 
45.60 
53.20 
60.80 
68.40 
76.00 


1.54 
2.31 
3.08 
3.85 
4.62 
5.39 
6.16 
6.93 
7.70 
8.47 
9.24 
10.01 
10.78 
11.55 
12.32 
13.09 
13.86 
14.63 
15.40 
19.25 
23.10 
30.80 
38.50 
46.20 
53.90 
61.60 
69.30 
77.00 
603 


1.56 
2.34 
3.12 
3.90 
4.68 
5.46 
6.24 
7.02 
7.80 
8.58 
9.36 
10.14 
10.92 
11.70 
12.48 
13.26 
14.04 
14.82 
15.60 
19.50 
23.40 
31.20 
39.00 
46.80 
54.60 
62.40 
70.20 
78.00 


1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
3.95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 
7.90 
8.69 
9.48 
10.27 
11.06 
11.85 
12.64 


2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
4.80 
5.60 
6.40 
7.20 
8.00 


10.40 
11.20 
12.00 
12.80 


13.43  13.60 


14.22 
15.01 
15.80 
19.75 
23.70 
31.60 
39.50 
47.40 
55.30 
63.20 
71.10 
79.00 


14.40 
15.20 
16.00 
20.00 
24.00 
32.00 
40.00 
48.00 
56.00 
64.00 
72.00 
80.00 


liKADY  RECKONER. 
If  the  Number  roquiro<l  is  not  found  in  tlie  Tables,  add  two  Numberji  L)- 
goUier;  for  instance,  if  X)  buHluilK  are  required,  add  Uie  prices  0[)\HmUi 
20  and  5  logeUicr ;  and  bo  for  3G5  Uubliels — treble  the  value  of  100,  and 
add  GO  and  5  together. 


Nos  83  ct.  84  ct.  85  ct.  86  ct.  87  ct.  STVaCt.  88  ct.  89  ct.  90  ct.  91  ct. 


1.(56 
2.49 
3.  .32 
4.15 
4.98 
5.81 
C.64 
7.47 
8.30 
9.13 
9.96 
10.79 
11.82 
12.45 
13.28 
14.11 
14.94 
15.77 
16.60 
20.75 
24.90 
33.20 
41.50 
49.80 
58.10 
66.40 
74.70 
83.00 


1.68 
2.52 
3.36 
4.20 
5.04 
5.88 
6.72 
7.56 
8.40 
9.24 
10.08 
10.92 
11.76 
12.60 
13.44 
14.28 
15.12 
15.96 
16.80 
21.00 
25.20 
33.60 
42.00 
50.40 
58.80 
67.20 
75.60 
84.00 


1.70 
2.55 
3.40 
4.25 
5.10 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
8.50 
9.35 
10.20 
11.05 
11.90 
12.75 
13.60 
14.45 
15.  .30 
16.15 
17.00 
21.25 
25.50 
34.00 
42.50 
51.00 
59.50 
68.00 
76.50 
85.00 


1.72 
2.28 
3.44 
4.30 
5.16 
6.02 
6.88 
7.74 
8.60 
9.46 
10.32 
11.18 
12.04 
12.90 
13.76 
14.62 
15.48 
15.34 
17.20 
21.50 
25.80 
34.40 
43.00 
51.60 
60.20 
68.80 
77.40 
86.00 


1.74 
2.61 
3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 
8.70 
9.57 
10.44 
11.31 
12.18 
13.05 
13.92 


34.80 
43.50 


1.75 

2.621/2 

3.50 

4.371/2 

5.25 

6.121/2 

7.00 

7.871/2 

8.75 

9.621/2 
10.50 
11.371/2 
12.25 
13.121/2 
14.00 


14.79  14.871/2 
15.75 
16. 621/2 
17.50 


15.66 
16.53 
17.40 
21.75  21.871/2 
26.10  26.25 


35.00 
43.75 


52.20  52.50 
60.90  61.25 
69.60  70.00 


1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 
8.80 
9.68 
10.56 
11.44 
12.32 
13.20 
14.08 
14.96 
15.84 
16.72 
17.60 
22.00 
26.40 
35.20 
44.00 
52.80 
61.60 
70.40 
79.20 
88.00 


1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 
8.90 
9.79 
10.68 
11.57 
12.46 
13.35 
14.24 
15.13 
16.02 
16.91 
17 

22.25 
26.70 
35.60 
44.50 
53.40 
62.30 
74.20 
80.10 


Ncs 

93  ct. 

94  ct. 

95  ct. 

96  ct. 

97  ct. 

98  ct. 

99  ct. 

$1. 

$2. 

$3. 

2 

1.86 

1.88 

1.90 

1.92 

1.94 

1.96 

1.98 

2. 

4. 

6. 

3 

2.79 

2.82 

2.85 

2.88 

2.91 

2.94 

2.97 

3. 

6. 

9. 

4 

3.72 

3.76 

3.80 

3.84 

3.88 

3.92 

3.66 

4. 

8. 

12. 

5 

4.65 

4.70 

4.75 

4.80 

4.85 

4.90 

4.95 

5. 

10. 

15. 

6 

5.58 

5.64 

5.70 

5.76 

5.82 

5.88 

5.94 

6. 

12. 

18. 

7 

6.51 

6.58 

6.65 

6.72 

6.79 

6.86 

6.93 

7. 

14. 

21. 

8 

7.44 

7.52 

7.60 

7.68 

7.76 

7.84 

7.92 

8. 

16. 

24. 

9 

8.37 

8.46 

8.55 

8.64 

8.73 

8.82 

8.91 

9. 

18. 

27. 

10 

9.30 

9.40 

9.50 

9.60 

9.70 

9.80 

9.90 

10. 

20. 

30. 

11 

10.23 

10.34 

10.45 

10.56 

10.67 

10.78 

10.89 

11. 

22. 

33. 

12 

11.16 

11.28 

11.40 

11.52 

11.64 

11.76 

11.88 

12. 

24. 

36. 

13 

12.09 

12.22 

12.35 

12.48 

12.61 

12.74 

12.87 

13. 

26. 

39. 

14 

13.02 

13.16 

13.30 

13.44 

13.58 

13.72 

13.86 

14. 

28. 

42. 

15 

13.95 

\i.lO 

14.25 

14.40 

14.55 

14.70 

14.85 

15. 

30. 

45. 

16 

14.88 

15.04 

15.20 

15.36 

15.52 

15.68 

15.84 

16. 

32. 

48. 

17 

15.81 

15.98 

16.15 

16.32 

16.49 

16.66 

16.83 

17. 

34. 

51. 

18 

16.74 

16.92 

17.10 

17.28 

17.46 

17.64 

17.82 

18. 

36. 

54. 

19 

17.67 

17.86 

18.05 

18.24 

18.43 

18.62 

18.81 

19. 

38. 

57. 

20 

18.60 

18.80 

19.00 

19.20 

19.40 

19.60 

19.80 

20. 

40. 

60. 

25 

23.25 

23.50 

23.75 

24.00 

24.25 

24.50 

24.75 

25. 

50. 

75. 

30 

27.90 

29.20 

28.50 

28.80 

29.10 

29.40 

29.70 

30. 

60. 

90. 

40 

37.20 

37.60 

38.00 

38.40 

38.80 

39.20 

39.00 

40. 

80. 

120. 

50 

46.50 

47.00 

47.50 

48.00 

48.50 

49.00 

49.50 

50. 

100. 

150. 

60 

55.80 

56.40 

57.00 

57.60 

58.20 

58.80 

59.40 

60. 

120. 

180. 

70 

65.10 

65.80 

66.50 

67.20 

67.90 

68.60 

69.30 

70. 

142. 

210 

80 

74.40 

75.20 

76.00 

76.80 

77.60 

78.40 

79.20 

80. 

160. 

240. 

90 

83.70 

84.60 

85.50 

86.40 

87.30 

88.20 

89.10 

90. 

180. 

270. 

100 

93.00 

94.00 

"95.00 

96.00 

97.00 
604 

98.00 

99.00 

100. 

200. 

300. 

1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 
9.00 
9.90 
10.80 
11.70 
12.00 
13.50 
14.40 
15.30 
16.20 
17.10 
18.00 
22.50 
27.00 
36.00 
45.00 
54.00 
63.00 
72.00 
81.00 
90.00 


1.82 
2.73 
3.61 
4.55 
5.46 
6.37 
7.28 
8.19 
9.10 
10.01 
10.92 
11.83 
12.74 
13.65 
14.56 
15.47 
16.38 
17.29 
18.20 
22.75 
27.30 
36.40 
45.50 
54.60 
63.70 
72.80 
81.90 
91.00 


Weight,  Stature,  &c„  of  Max.— Tho  mean  weight,  and  stature  of  the 
human  body  at  birth,  and  at  every  subsequent  age,  together  with  the 
expectancy  of  life  from  20  to  70  yeard  of  age,  is  as  follows. 


MALES. 

FEMALES. 

Age 

Feet. 

Lbs. 

Age 

Feet. 

1  Lbs. 

1 

, 

1. 54 

o5 

° 

1 .62 

6.42 

2.60 

25.01 

2 . 56 

4 

3-04 

2  J.  3S 

4 

28.67 

5 

3-44 

38.  80 

5 

6  •  o'J 

35  -29 

9 

4.00 

49-95 

9 

3-92 

47.10 

to.  77 

56-  57 

13 

4.72 

75-8^ 

13 

4.60 

72.65 

IS 

5-07 

96.40 

IS 

4.92 

89.04 

17 

5-36 

116.55 

17 

5.10 

104.34 

i8 

5-44 

127.59 

18 

S-I3 

112.5s 

20 

5-49 

132.45 

20 

5.16 

115.30 

30 

5-52 

140.3S 

30 

5.18 

119.82 

40 

5-52 

140.42 

40 

5- 18 

121 .81 

50 

5-45 

139-9'^ 

SO 

S-o| 

123.86 

60 

5-33 

136-07 

60 

4-97 

119.76 

70 

5-32 

131.27 

70 

4-97 

113-60 

80 

5-29 

127-51 

80 

4.94 

10S.80 

90 

5.29 

127-54 

90 

4-94 

loS.Si 

Mean, . . 

.103.66 

Mean 

•  93-73 

YEARS. 

YEARS. 

Age. 

Expectancy. 

Age. 

iLxpec- 
tancy. 

20 

4iy2 

40  /4 

40 

24 

21 

47 

23  /4  - 

22 

40 

48 

22  72 

23 

39y2 

49 

24 

50 

.  ,1/ 
211/4 

25 

51 

20V4 

0^ 

37/4 

52 

19% 

27 

361/0 

S3 

19 

28 

35% 

54 

lo/l 

23 

55 

1774 

34/2 
33% 

50 

3 1 

57 

I6V4 

32 

33 

S3 

isVj 

33 

32% 
31% 

59 

34 

60 

hVs  - 

35 

31 

6x 

14 

36 

30% 
29% 

62 

i3y. 

37 

63 

13 

33 

29 

64 

12V, 
11% 

39 

23 1/ 

65 

40 

27% 

66 

^4 

10-/4 

41 

27 

67 

42 

26% 

63 

loVi 

43 

25% 

69 

9% 

44 

25% 

70 

9Va 

45 

24% 

The  weight  of  the  male  infant  at  birth  is  7  lbs.  avoirdupois  ;  that  of  the 
female  is  not  quite  GVglbs.  The  maximum  weight  (llOValbs.)  of  tho 
male  is  attained  at  the  age  of  40 ;  that  of  the  female  (nearly  124  lbs.)  is 
not  attained  until  50  ;  from  which  ages  they  decline  afterwards ;  tho 
male  to  127^2  lbs,,  the  female  to  100  lbs.,  nearly  a  stone.  The  full  grown 
adult  is  20  times  as  heavy  as  a  new  born  infant.  In  the  first  year  ho 
triples  his  weight,  afterwards  the  growth  proceeds  in  geometrical  prog- 
ression, 60  that  if  50  infants  in  their  first  year  weigh  1000  lbs.,  they  will 
iu  the  second  weigh  1210  lbs.;  in  the  third  1331  lbs.;  in  the  fourth  1464  lbs.; 
.the  terra  remaining  very  constant  up  to  the  ages  of  11-12  in  females  ;  and 
12-13  in  males  ;  where  it  must  be  nearly  doubled;  afterwards  it  may 
be  continued,  and  will  be  found  very  nearly  correct  up  to  the  age  of 
18  or  19,  when  the  growth  proceeds  very  slowly.  At  an  equality  of  ago 
the  male  is  generally  heavier  than  the  female.  Towards  the  age  of  13 
years  only,  an  individual  of  each  sex,  has  the  same  weight.  The  malo 
attains  the  maximum  weight  about  tho  age  of  40,  and  he  begins  to  lose 
it  very  sensibly  towards  60.  At  80  he  loses  about  13.2328  lbs. ;  and  the 
stature  is  dirainished-2-756  inches.  Females  attain  their  maximum  weight 
about  50-  The  mean  weight  of  a  mature  man  is  104 lbs.,  and  of  an  aver- 
age woman  941bs.  In  old  age  thev  lose  about  12  or  14 lbs.  Men  weigh 
most  at  40,  women  at  50  and  begin  to  lose  weight  at  60.  The  mean 
weight  oiE  both  sexes  in  old  age  is  that  which  they  had  at  19. 

When  the  male  and  female  have  assumed  their  complete  development, 
they  weigh  almost  exactly  20  times  as  much  as  at  birth,  while  the  stat- 
ure Is  about  31/2  times  greater. 


In  a  child  the  head  is  equal  to  a  fifth  part,  and  in  a  full  grown  man  to 
an  eighth  part  of  the  height  of  the  individual.  Tho  human  skeleton 
weighs  from  9  lbs.  6  ozs.  to  16  lbs.,  and  the  blood  27  or  28  lbs.  A  ciloined 
human  body  leaves  a  residuum  of  only  Boas.  All  besides  is  i'est»>^>?  to 
tho  gaseous  elements. 

605 


"\7el2lit  of  Cast  Iron  ripos  of  Di.Torent  Thickncanea,  from  1  incli  to  23 
iuchoa  in  J)iiiinetor.    1  fool  in  LeiigUi. 


Dinm 

I"  .  ~ 
rjuckn 

Weight. 

Duun 

nil  •  1 

1  nickn 

W  Clgllt. 

Diam, 

I  JucKn 

Weight. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Inrj. 

Iu». 

Lbs. 

1. 

3.0G 

7.'/; 

'if 

39.22 

■if 

104.70 

5.05 

49.92 

123.3 

i.Vi 

•1? 

3.G7 

4 

CO.  48 

1. 

142.16 

6. 

71.76 

11. 

'V-2 

71.07 

C.80 

1, 

8.'3. 28 

.% 

'if 

8i).  G 1 

if 

•72 

9.8 

8. 

41.04 

108.4G 

Ij 

7.8 

•if 

C2.C8 

■\ 

127. G 

if 

11.04 

if 

C4.27 

1. 

147.03 

2. 

if 

If 

,8.74 
1^.23 

■% 
J. 

76.12 
88.2 

111/ 
11.1/2 

•if 
•if 

73.72 
92.  GG 

2.1/4 

9.65 

8. 1/2 

'if 

44.11 

■if 

112.1 

if 

13.48 

'if 

56. 10 

131.8G 

2.Y2 

if 

10.57 

68. 

1. 

151.92 

if 

14.66 

80.5 

15. 

■if 
■  'if 

75. 9G 

ij 

19.05 

1. 

93.28 

95.72 

if 

11.54 

9. 

'if 

46.5 

'if 

115.78 

if 

15.91 

59.02 

136.15 

if 

20.59 

'If 

71.7 

1. 

156.82 

3. 

if 

12.28 

•Va 

84.7 

13. 1^ 

•if 

78.4 

if 

17.15 

1. 

97.98 

'if 

98.78 

if 

22.15 

'if 

48.98 

'if 

119.49 

if 

27.56 

G2.02 

•% 

140.4 

3.1/4 

18.4 

•3? 

75.32 

I. 

161.82 

1 

23.72 

•i 

88.98  ! 

13. 

'if 

80.87 

'if 

29.64 

1. 

102.9 

101.82 

19. 66 

10, 

'if 

51. 4G 

'if 

123.14 

i 

25.27 

'if 

65.08 

144.76 

if 

31.2 

.4 

78.99 

1. 

166.6 

3.% 

'if 

20.9 

•  Ys 

93.24 

IC.I2 

'if 

83.  .3 

'if 

26.83 

1. 

108.84 

•7s 

104.82 

'if 

33.07 

10.1/2 

'if 

53.88 

'if 

126.79 

4. 

'if 

22.05 

'if 

68.14 

119.02 

'if 

28.28 
34.94 

■if 

82.68 
97.44 

17. 

1. 

171.6 
85.73 

4.1/4 

4 

23.35 

112.68 

■1 

107.96 

■if 
'if 

29.85 
36.73 

11. 

% 

66.34 
71.19 

•if 

130.48 
153.3 

4.1/2 

'if 

24.49 

•% 

86.4 

176.58 

'if 

31.4 

101.83 

IT.i.i 

^''if 

88.23 

'if 

38.58 

1. 

117.6 

•if 

111.06 

4.34 

'if 

25.7 

11.1/2 

■Y? 

68.82 

•if 

134.16 

32.91 

74.28 

1:^ 

157.59 

•I 

40.43 

i 

90.06 

181.33 

5. 

'if 
'if 

26.94 
•^4.34 

■\ 
1. 

106. 14 
122. 62 

13. 

•if 
•if 

114.1 
137.84 

'if 

42.28 

12. 

•V-i 
■% 

G1.26 

.% 

161.9 

5.1/3 

•if 

29.4 

77.36 

1. 

186.24 

.  '  if 

37.44 

■if 

93.7 

ID. 

•% 

■if 

120.24 

'if 

45.94 

.% 

110.48 

145.2 

6. 

>k 

31.82 

1. 

127.42 

.% 

170.47 

'%f 

40.56 

12.1/2 

•¥2 

63.7 

1. 

195.92 

49.6 
58.96 

80.4 
97.4 

20. 

:| 

126.33 
152.53 

i 

34.32 

114.72 

179.02 

43.68 

132.35 

205.8 

63.3 

13. 

66.14 

21. 

132.5 

63.18 

83.46 

159.84 

T. 

36.66 

101.08 

187.6 

46.8 

118.97 

215.52 

56.96 

137.28 

22. 

.% 

138.6 

67.6 

13.  Vj 

■I 

68.64 

.% 

167.24 

78.39 

86.55 

.% 

106.46 

603 


I J|a|||  ■^„?„^.?^.g.^,g^3f,,^,,. 


h 
t 

m 

^     ^  ;^ 

i 

1  nnmmmh 

1 

1 

"  ^  s  n  1  ?  1 H  r 

« 

\ 

\ 

H 

n 

\ 

H 

ri 

i 

PI 

s 

M 

1 

H 

H 

•aiunbg  jo 
8P!S  Ptt« 

1                        „x^H?f  „ 

507 


RELATIVE    STRENGTH    OF    BODIES   TO   RESIST  TORSION, 
LEAD  BEING  i. 

Tin   1.4  I  Gun  Metal   5.0  |  English  Iron  10.  r 

Chopper   4.3    Cast  Iron   9.0    lilistercd  Steel  16.6 

Ye'low  IJrass   4.6  |  Swedisli  Iron   9.5  |  Shear  Steel  17.0 


CAPACITIES,  SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  COPPERS. 


Depth 

in 
Indies. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 

pounds. 

Depth 

in 
inches. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 

pounds. 

Depth 

in 
inches. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 

pounds. 

9-K 

I 

24 

15 

221/2 

29ya 

29 

4£ya 

2 

3 

2iy2 

i5 

24 

30 

30 

45 

3 

AV2 

2"; 

17 

25/^ 

32 

36 

4 

6 

25^ 

iS 

27 

34 

43 

64y2 

5 

7% 

26 

19 

281/2 

35 

48 

6 

9,, 

26^ 

2D 

30 

36 

53 

ITk 

7 

26K 

21 

311/2 

37 

87 

19% 

8 

12 

'^/ 

22 

33 

38 

74;/; 

2o]l 

9 

.3'/! 

27K 

23 

34I/3 

39 

67 

looya 

21 

f  10 

27% 

24 

36 

40 

71 

io6l^ 

\h 

27K 

25 

37% 

45 

104 

156 

22 

12 

i3 

23 

26 

39 

50 

146 

219 

13 

281/2 

27 

40I/2 

23  K 

14 

21 

29 

23 

42 

WEIGHT  OF  SQUARE  AND  RCUNDCAST  IRON. 


Square  per  Foot. 

Round  per  Foot. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Inches 
square. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Square. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounqs. 

y2 

.78 

50. 

.6r 

41.76 

^3 

1.22 

\v. 

53-14 

•95 

44.27 

I-7S 

56-44 

H 

1.38 

1 

46.97 

n 

2.39 

4% 

59,81 

% 

1.87 

4y2 

49.70 

3.12 

4y2 

63.28 

I 

2-45 

4^8 

52-50 

3-95 

4^8 

66.84 

1/8 

3.10 

55-37 

4K 

70.50 

3.83 

4% 

58.33 

4.88 

% 

5-90 

4^3 

74.26 

4.64 

61.35 

% 

7  03 

78.12 

% 

5-52 

k 

64.46 

82s 

k 

82.03 

6.48 

67.64 

9-57 

86.13 

7-51 

70.09 

1% 

10. 98 

5% 

90.28 

1% 

8.62 

74-24 

12.50 

94-53 

2 

9.81 

77.65 

2/8 

14. 1 1 

98.87 

2/8 

ir  .oS 

tk 

91.14 

21/4 

15.81 

103.32 

2K 

12.43 

84.71 

2?l 

17.62 

5% 

107.86 

2% 

13.84 

6 

88.35 

19-53 

6 

112.50 

21/2 

15-33 

6ii 

95-87 

21.53 

122.08 

2^8 

i6.gi 

6% 

103.69 

254 

23-63 

6V2 

132.03 

2K 

18.56 

111.82 

2% 

25-83 

142.33 

20.28 

120.26 

28.12 

153.12 

22. i8 

129. 
13S.05 

30.51 

w 

164.25 

\a 

23-96 

% 

3K 

33- 

175-78 

25.93 

147.41 

3% 

35-59 

8 

187.68 

37^  . 

27-95 

8 

157.03 

38.28 

200.12 

30,16 

167.05 

tk 

41.06 

8K 

212.56 

tk 

32.25 

8% 
8M 

177.19 

43-94 

fi 

225.78 

34-51 

187.91 

3/8 , 

46.92 

239-25 

2% 

36.85 

198.79 

9 

253.13 

4 

39-27 

\% 

210. 

608 


WEIGHT  OF  IRON  PER  FOOT. 


Wg't. 

.2o3 

.463 

.833 

1-  30 
1.87 

2-  55 

3-  33 

4-  2X 

5.20 
6.30 
7-50 
8.80 
10.20 
II .  71 
13-33 
15-05 
16. 8j 
20.80 
25.20 
30.00 
32.55 
35-20 
37-96 
40.80 
46.87 
53.33 
60.20 
67.50 
75.20 
83-33 
93.20 
102.20 
112.20 


Flat. 


iKxK 
i^sxM 
i^^xK 
i^xK 

2KxK 

21/2x1/, 

2KxK 

3  x'i 

s^XxK 

3MxK 
354xK 

4  xK 
4y2xK 

5  xK 

6  xK 

1  x% 

iy4x% 

i^x% 
iMx^ 

2  X% 

2Kxr3 

3  x^s 
3/^x5^ 

4  xra 

5  x% 

6  x}i 
I  x>^ 

iKx>< 

i^xj^ 


V/g't. 

.833 
•937 

I.Oi. 

1.14 
1.25 
1.45 
1.66 
1.87 
2.o3 

2.29 
2.50 

2.  70 
2.91 
3.12 

3-33 
3-75 
4.17 
5.00 
1.25 
1.40 
1.56 
1.71 
1.87 
2.18 
2.50 
2.81 

3-12 

3-43 

3-  75 

4-  37 

5-  00 
6.25 

7-50 
1.66 
1.87 
2.o3 
2.29 
2.50 


2 

2KxM 
2%X>^ 
2KxJ^ 

3  xY^ 
3^x1/2 

4  x 

5  X 

6  X 

iVkxYs 
iKx^a 
i^sx^ 
11/2x^3 
i^x^a 

2  xfa 
2Kx^8 

2VoX^3 
2j^X^3 

3  x^ 
31/2X^8 

4  X^8 

5  xfi 

6  X^3 

1  xK 
iKsxK 

iKxM 

i>ix% 
iVsxK 
iKxM 

2  xYi 
2KxK 
21/2X3/^ 
2%X% 
3 

zynx% 

4  x^ 


2.91 
3-33 

3-  74 
4. 16 

4-  53 
5.00 

5-  83 
6.66 
8.33 

10.00 
2.08 
2.34 
2.60 
2.86 

3-12 

3-64 
4. 16 
4.63 
5.20 
5-72 
6.25 
7-29 
8.33 
10.41 
12.  50 
2.50 
2.81 

3-  12 

3.43 
3.75 

4-  37 
5.00 

5-  62 
6.25 
6.87 
8.50 
8.75 

10.00 


J'/ai. 


WEIGHT  OF  FLAT  STEEL  PER  FOOT. 


1% 

iK 

1% 

2 

2K 

21/2 

2% 

3 

3^i 

3H 

.852 

•958 

1.06 

1. 17 

1.27 

1-49 

1.70 

1.91 

2.13 

2.34 

2-55 

2.77 

2.99 

1.27 

1-43 

1-59 

1-75 

1.91 

2.23 

2-55 

2.87 

3.20 

3-51 

3-83 

4- IS 

4-47 

I 

I  70 

1.91 

2.13 

2-34 

2-55 

2.98 

3-40 

3.83 

4.26 

4.68 

5-II 

5-53 

S-9S 

2.13 

2.39 

2.66 

2.92 

3-^9 

3.72 

4.36 

4-79 

5-32 

5.8s 

6.39 

6.92 

7-45 

MOULDERS  AND  PATTERN  MAKERS'  TABLE. 


Cast  Iron  being  i, 

Bar  Iron  equal  i 
Steel  "  ] 
Brass  " 
Copper  '* 
Lead  « 


1. 16 
1. 21 
I-S5 


Bar  Iron,  being  i, 

Cast  Iron  eoual 
Steel 

Copper  *' 
Brass  " 
Lead  " 


White  Pine,  being 

Cast  Iron  equal 
Brass 

Copper  " 
Lead 


•95 
1.03 
1.16 
i-og 

1.4S  Zinc 


13. 
12. r 

13-4 
j8.t 
11.5 


609 


TABLES  FOR  ENGINEERS  AND  MACHINISTS. 


iize  and  strength  of  Cast  Iron 
Columns.    Iron  i  in.  thick. 


Height  in  feet. 


4   \  \ 


lo  I 


Load  in  Cwts. 


2 

72 

60 

49 

40 

32 

2'} 

2% 

119 

»o.S 

9' 

77 

65 

55 

3 

3^ 

'78 

143 

MS 

128 

1 1 1 

97 

247 

232 

214 

191 

172 

'56 

4 

326 

318 

288 

266 

242 

220 

418 

400 

379 

354 

327 

301 

5 

522 

SOI 

479 

452 

427 

394 

6 

607 

592 

573 

5  SO 

52s 

497 

7 

1032 

1013 

989 

959 

924 

887 

S 

1333 

1315 

1289 

1259 

1224 

1185 

9 

1716 

1697 

1672 

1640 

1603 

1561 

lO 

2119 

2100 

2077 

2045 

2007 

1964 

Ji 

2570 

2550 

2520 

2490 

2450 

2410 

12 

3050 

3040 

3020 

2970 

2930 

2900 

Height  in  feet. 


in  incl 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

Load  in  Cwts. 

2 

22 

18 

IS 

13 

11 

47 

40 

34 

29 

25 

3 

84 

73 

64 

56 

49 

135 

119 

106 

94 

83 

4 

1 98 

178 

160 

HA 

130 

275 

251 

229 

208 

189 

5 

36s 

337 

310 

28s 

262 

6 

469 

440 

413 

386 

360 

7 

848 

808 

765 

725 

686 

,8 

1142 

1097 

1052 

1005 

959 

9 

1515 

X467 

1416 

1364 

1311 

10 

1916 

1865 

1811 

1755 

1697 

II 

2358 

2305 

2248 

2189 

2127 

12 

2830 

2780 

2730 

2670 

2600 

Capacities  of  Cisterns,  in  galls. 
Diameter  /rovi  2  /t?  25  Fcci- 
Dc/>ih,  10  Inches. 


3 
6 

h 


n-5 

8  feet 

3«3-3J 

30.6 

353-72 

44.06 

9  " 

39'J-S'J 

59-97 

9V2  " 

461.40 

78-33 

10 

489.20 

99.14 

1 1  " 

592.40 

122.40 

12  ** 

705.00 

148.10 

13  " 

827.4 

176.25 

14  " 

959-6 

206.85 

IS  " 

1101.6 

239.88 

20  " 

1958.4 

275.40 

25  " 

3059-9 

Weights  of  Cordwood. 


lbs,  carbon. 

4468 

100 

Hard  Maple. . . 

2864 

53 

3234 

64 

Ash  

3449 

79 

2368 

49 

<( 

Pitch  Pine  .... 

1903 

43 

Canada  Pine... 

1870 

42 

<( 

Yellow  Oak.... 

2920 

6t 

(( 

White  Oak.... 

1870 

81 

« 

Lombardy  Pop- 

1775 

4t 

325s 

70 

ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS  AND  THEIR  SIGNIFICATION, 
=  Sign  of  Equality,  and  signifies  as  4+12=16. 

"         as  8+8=16  the  sum. 


Addition 
—      "  Subtraction 
X       "  Multiplication 
+      "  Division 
^        "     Square  Root 

Square  Root. 
6-  Sign  of  to  be  Squared 
73       *'     to  be  Cubed 


as  12 — 4=8  the  remainder, 
as  12X3=36  the  product, 
as  24+3=8  or  =8. 
Evolution    or    Extraction  of 

thus  8-=64  Involution,  or 
thus   3^=27    the    Raising  of 


Powers. 

The  following  table  shows  weight  in  tons  required  to  tear  asunder 
bars  I  inch  square  of  the  following  materials. 

Oak   5^  tons.    Wrought  Copper. .  15  tons 

Fir   5X    "       English  Bar  Iron.  .25  " 

Cast  Iron   7^  "       American  Iron  37^^  " 

Wrought  Iron  10    "       Blistered  Steel, . .  .59^  ** 


READY  RECKONER  TABLE 


For  computing  Wages,  Rent,  Board,  etc.  The  sum  wii'l  be  found  heading  iha 
columns,  and  tne  days  and  weeks  on  the  extreme  left  hand  column.  If  the 
desired  sum  is  not  in  the  Table,  double  or  treble  two  or  three  suitable  numbers. 


TIME. 

$2.50. 

^52. 75. 

$3.00. 

$3-2S- 

1^3.50. 

$3-75- 

$4.00. 

^4-25- 

$4-50- 

^4-7S' 

m  I 

.36 

•39 

•  43 

.46 

.50 

•53 

•57 

.61 

.64 

.68 

rt2 

•72 

.78 

.8( 

•93 

"..00 

1.07 

1. 14 

1. 21 

1.2S 

1.36 

«3 

1. 17 

1-39 

1.50 

1. 71 

1.82 

1-93 

2-03 

4 

1.44 

1.56 

i.j'i 

1.86 

2.00 

2.14 

2.28 

2.43 

2-57 

2.71 

5 

1.80 

1-95 

2.1^ 

2.32 

2.50 

2.68 

2.86 

3-03 

3-21 

3-39 

C 

2.15 

2-34 

2-5; 

2.78 

3.00 

3-21 

3-43 

3-64 

3.SC 

4.07 

2.50 

2-75 

3.0( 

3-25 

3.50 

3-75 

4.00 

4.25 

4.5c 

4-75 

5.00 

5-50 

6.o( 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

8.50 

9.00 

9-50 

7.50 

8.25 

9.0( 

9-75 

10.50 

11.25 

12.00 

12.75 

13-50 

14.25 

10.00 

11.00 

12.01 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 

18.00 

19.00 

12.50 

13-75 

15.0. 

16.25 

»7-5o 

18.75 

20.00 

21-25 

22,50 

23^75 

TIME. 

^55.00. 

$5.25. 

$5-So- 

S5-75- 

^6.00. 

$6.25. 

$6.50. 

^^6.75. 

$7.00. 

$8.00. 

in  I 

•75 

•79 

.82 

.86 

.59 

•93 

.90 

1. 14 

^2 

1-43 

1.50 

1.58 

1.64 

1.72 

1.78 

1.86 

1.92 

2.00 

2.28 

«3 

2.14 

2.25 

2.37 

2.46 

2.28 

2.67 

2-79 

2.88 

3,00 

3.52 

4 

2.86 

3-00 

3-15 

3.28 

3-44 

3.56 

3-72 

3.S4 

4.00 

4.26 

S 

3-57 

3-75 

3-94 

4.10 

4-30 

4-45 

4-65 

4.80 

5.00 

5-72 

6 

4.28 

4-5° 

4-73 

4.92 

S-i6 

5-34 

S-5S 

5-71^ 

6.00 

6.S6 

I 

5.00 

5.25 

5-50 

5-75 

6.00 

6.25 

6.50 

6.75 

7-00 

8.00 

lO.OO 

10.50 

11.00 

11.50 

12.00 

12.50 

13.00 

13-50 

14.00 

16.00 

15.00 

15-75 

16.50 

17-25 

1 8. 00 

1S.75 

19.50 

20-25 

21.00 

24.00 

20.00 

21.00 

22.00 

23.00 

24.00 

25-00 

26.00 

27.00 

2S.00 

32.00 

25.00 

26.25 

27.50 

28.75 

30.00 

31-25 

32.50 

33-50 

35.00 

40.00 

WEIGHT  OF  LEAD  PIPE— DIFFERENT  SIZES. 


AAA 

AA 

A 

B 

Calib'e 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

per  foot 

per  foot 

per  foot 

per  foot 

Inches 

lb.  oz. 

lb. 

oz. 

lb. 

cz. 

:b.  oz. 

I  8 

I 

5 

■  2 

I  c 

3  0 

2 

0 

I 

12 

I  A 

3  f 

2 

12 

2 

3  c 

H 

4  f 

3 

8 

3 

0 

2  A 

6  0 

4 

12 

4 

c 

3  4 

6  12 

5 

12 

4 

12 

3  12 

9  0 

8 

0 

6 

4 

5  c 

2 

10  12 

9 

0 

7 

0 

6  0 

c 

Weight 
per foot 


D 

Weight 
per  foot 


D  Light 
Weight 
per  foot 


:b. 


E 

Weight 
per  foot 


b.  oz. 


E  Light 
Weight 
per  foot 


SIZE  AND  CAPACITIES  OF  CRIBS  AND  BOXES. 
Crib  61/3  ft.  long,  354  ft.  broad,  3^  deep,  63^/^  bush.  %  peck. 
Box  4  ft.  long,  3  ft.  5  "in.  wide,  2  ft.  8  in.  deep,  36^/2  c.  ft.,  i  ton  of  coal. 
Stone  or  Box  4%^^-  long,  2%  ft.  wide,  2  feet  deep,  22l^  cubic  feet. 

Box  2  ft.  long,  I  foot  4.  in-  wide,  2  ft.  8  in.  deep,  10.722  cu.  in.  i  barrel. 
Box  2  ft.  long,  1  foot  2  in.  wide,  i  foot  2  in.  deep,  5.376  cu.  in.  1/^  barrel. 
Box  I  foot  2  in.  long  by  16  8-10  in.  wide  and  8  in.  deep,  i  bushel. 
Box  12  x  II  2-10  in.,  8  in.  deep,  1.075  2-10  in.  or  %  bushel. 
Box  8x8  4-ic  in.  and  8  in.  deep.  537  6-10  cu.  in.  or  i  peck. 
Box  8  X  8  in.  and  4  2-10  in,  deep,  268  8-10  cu.  in.  or  peck. 
Box  7x4  in.  and  4  8-ro  in.  deep,  134  4-10  cu.  in.  14  gallon. 
Box  4x4m.  and  4  2-10  ia.  deep,  67  2-10  cu.  in.  i  quart. 
611 


DIAMETERf^,  Cir.CUMFEllKNCES  AND  AIIEAS  OP  CIRCLES. 


Example. — Roquiiod  tho  circuniforenco  of  a  circle,  hoop,  or  ring,  Iho 
dianiotor  being  3  ft.  4  in.  In  tho  column  of  circumferences,  oi)i)()ii<ite  the 
Indicated  diameter,  stands  10  ft.  5%  in.,  the  circumference  reqiiire<l.  'J  ho 
just  allowance  for  contraction  of  tlie  metal  is  its  exact  thickness,  or  ita 
breadth,  it"  it  is  bent  edgcwaj/s,  which  must  be  added  to  the  diaiiicl  r. 

The  millwright  can  at  once  "ascertain  the  diameter  of  any  wheel  honi  T 
require,  the  pitch  and  number  of  teeth  being  given. 

Example. — If  a  wheel  is  ordered  to  be  made  to  contain  (50  teeth,  th^* 

iiitch  of  tlie  teeth  to  be  .3%  inches,  tho  dimensions  of  tho  wheel  may  he 
mown  simply  as  follows  : — Multiply  the  pitch  of  the  tooth  by  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  tlie  wheel  is  to  contain,  and  the  product  will  be  the  circum- 
ference of  wheel  thus — 

3%  inches  pitch  of  the  tooth. 
10  X  C  =  GO  the  number  of  teeth. 
Feet  19    4%  inches  the  circumference  of  the  wheel. 
The  diameter  answering  to  this  circumference  is  G  ft.  2  in.,  consequently 
with  one  half  of  this  immber  as  a  radius,  tlie  circumference  of  tho  wheel 
will  be  described. 


Dia.  in 
inch. 

Circum. 
in  inch. 

Area  in 
»(!.  inch. 

Side  of 

Dia  in 

Cir.  in 
It.  in. 

Area  in 
eq.  inch. 

Area  in 
tq.  It. 

=  sq. 

inch. 

1-16 

-196 

-0030 

-0554 

4  in. 

1  0% 

12-566 

-0879 

1-8 

-392 

-0122 

-1107 

^Vs 

1  ^% 

13-364 

-09C5 

3-lG 

-589 

-0276 

-1661 

41^ 

14-186 

-0993 

1-4 

-785 

-0490 

-2115 

^% 

1  1% 

15-033 

-1052 

^16 

-981 

-0767 

-2669 

4% 

1  '-^Vi 

15-904 

-1113 

8-8 

1-178 

-1104 

-3223 

4% 

16-800 

-1176 

7-16 

1-374 

-1503 

-3771 

4 

}  'iy? 

17-720 

-1240 

1  3^4. 

18-665 

-1303 

1-2 

1-570 

-1963 

-4331 

5  in. 

1  3% 

19-635 

-1371 

9-ia 

1-767 

-2485 

-4995 

5Va 
5% 

1  4% 

20-629 

-IMl 

5-9 

1-963 

-30G8 

-5138 

1  W2 

21-647 

-1515 

11-16 

2-159 

-3712 

-6093 

^% 

1  4% 

22-690 

-158S 

3-4 

2-356 

-4417 

-6646 

5it 

1  5% 

23-758 

-1663 

13-16 

2-552 

-5185 

-7200 

1 

24-850 

-1739 

7-8 

2-748 

-6013 

-7754 

1  6 

25-967 

-1817 

15-16 

O  OAK 

—6903 

-8308 

If 

0/8 

1  ns/ 

27-108 

—1897 

1  in. 

-7854. 

Vs 

6  in. 

1  6% 

2^-274 

-1979 

IVs 

fi 

-9940 

%  &  3-32 

1 

29-464 

-2062 

1-227 

1  in. 

tf. 

1 

30-679 

-2147 

i 

fi 

1-484 

1  3-16 

6% 
6% 

1  8 

31-919 

-2234 

1-767 

1  5-16 

1  ^% 

33-183 

-2322 

2-074 

1  7-16 

6% 

1  8% 

34-471 

-2412 

1% 

i 

2-405 

1  9-16 

6% 

1  9% 

35-784 

-2504 

2-761 

1  11-16 

678 

1  9% 

37-122 

-2598 

2  in. 

3-141 

1% 

7  in. 

1  10 

38-484 

-2693 

2% 

3-546 

1  10% 

39-871 

-2791 

7 

3-976 

2  in. 

1  103/4 

41-282 

-2889 

4-430 

2  Vs 

1  11% 

42-718 

-2990 

i 

4-908 

2  3-18 

1  11% 

44-178 

-3092 

5-412 

2  5-16 

1  11% 

45-C63 

-3196 

5-939 

2  7-16 

2  03^ 

47-173 

-3299 

2% 

6-491 

2  9-16 

^% 

2  Os| 

48-707 

-3409 

3  in. 

k 

7-068 

2% 

8  in. 

2  1% 

50-265 

-3518 

7-669 

231 

8% 

2  1% 

51-848 

-3629 

8-295 

2% 

8% 

2  1% 

53-456 

-3741 

8-946 

3  In. 

2  24 

55-088 

-3856 

9-621 

3% 

2  2% 

56-745 

-3972 

10-320 

fi 

2  3 

58-426 

-4089 

rl 

lit 

11-044 

If 

2  3% 

60-132 

-4203 

12% 

11-793 

3  7-16 

8% 

2  Sfs 

61-862 

-4330 

612 


DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES,  &c. 


Dia  in 

Cir.  in 

Are-i  in 

Area  in 

Dia  in 

Cir.  in 

Area  in 

Area  in 

It.  *  iu. 

ft. 

ia. 

SCI.  iiicli. 

Eq.-  f- 

It.  '  in. 

ft. 

in. 

sq.  inch. 

sq.  it. 

9 

2 

63-617 

-4453 

1  4 

4 

201-062 

14074 

9% 

2 

4% 

6.5-395 

-4577 

1  41/3 

4 

2% 

204-216 

1-4295 

s^A 

2 

5 

67-200 

-4704 

1  41/i 

4 

3 

207-39 t 

1-4517 

9% 
SVa 

2 

5% 

69-029 

-4832 

1  43/8 

4 

3% 

210-597 

1-4741 

2 

534 

70-882 

-4961 

1 

4 

213-825 

l-4!)07 

s% 

2 

6V4 

72-759 

-5093 

1  dl 

4 

217-077 

1-5195 

f/f 

2 

74-062 

-5226 

1  43/4 

4 

4/2 

220-303 

1-5424 

9% 

2 

'J 

76-588 

-5361 

1  4% 

4, 

223-054 

1-5655 

10 

2 

78-540 

-5497 

1  5 

4 

f5% 

53| 

226-980 

1-5888 

10V8 

2 

80-515 

-5686 

1  A 

4 

230-330 

1-6123 

101/4 

2 

S'2-516 

-5776 

4 

c% 

233-705 

1-6359 

10% 

2 

84-540 

-5917 

1  fi% 

4 

237-104 

1-6597 

2 

86-590 

-0061 

1  L^l 

4 

240-528 

1-6833 

10% 

2 

9% 

88-664 

-6206 

1  A 

4 

?i 

243-977 

1-7078 

2 

9% 

90-762 

--^3.53 

1  r>^^ 

4 

247-450 

1-7321 

10% 

2 

92-855 

-G499 

1  cys 

4 

0  /8 

250-917 

1-7506 

11 

2 

101/2 

95-033 

-0652 

1  6 

4 

254-469 

1-7812 

11% 

2 

lOVs 

97-205 

-0874 

1  c% 

4 

8% 

258-016 

1-8061 

2 

99-402 

-6958 

1  ci^ 

4 

261-587 

1-8311 

31% 

2 

101-623 

-7143 

1  A 

4 

9% 

265-182 

1-8562 

31i| 

3 

103-869 

-7290 

1  A 

4 

268-803 

1-8816 

11% 

3 

100-139 

-7429 

1  A 

4 

10% 

272-447 

1-9071 

11% 

3 

0% 

108-434 

-7590 

1  63| 

4 

/8 

276-llT 

1-9328 

.  llVs 

3 

iVi 

110-753 

-7752 

1  c% 

4 

lll/k 

279-811 

1-9586 

1 

3 

1% 

113-097 

-7916 

1  7 

4 

11% 

0 

283-529 

1-9847 

1  Vs 

3 

2 

115-466 

-8082 

1  TVs 

5 

287-272 

1-9941 

t  V4 

3 

3 

117-859 

-8250 

1  -A 

5 

01/2 

291-039 

2-037 L 

1  % 

3 

w 

120-276 

-8419 

1 

5 

0% 

294-831 

2-0637 

1  % 

3 

314 

122-718 

-8590 

1  1% 

5 

tf 

298-648 

2-0904 

1  % 

3 

125-185 

-8762 

1  1% 

5 

1% 

302-489 

2-1172 

}  1 

3 

4 

127-676 

-8937 

\  4 

5 

2 

306-355 

2-1443 

1  % 

3 

4% 

130-192 

-9113 

1  T'/s 

5 

2% 

310-245 

2-171S 

1  1 

3 

132-732 

-9291 

1  8 

5 

314-16) 

2-1990 

1  1% 

3 

135-297 

-9470 

1  8% 

5 

318-099 

2-2265 

1  11/^ 

3 

5% 

137-886 

-9642 

1 

5 

3% 

322-063 

2-2543 

1  1% 

3 

6 

140-500 

-9835 

1  8% 

5 

4 

326-051 

2-2922 

1  1V2 

3 

6% 

143-139 

1-0019 

1  8% 

5 

330-064 

2-3103 

1  1% 

145-802 

1-0206 

1  8% 

5 

334-101 

2-3386 

1  13^ 

3 

148-489 

1-0294 

1 

5 

338-163 

2-.3670 

1  lys 

3 

151-201 

1-0584 

1  ^% 

5 

5% 

342-250 

2-3956 

1  2 

3 

S« 

153-938 

1-0775 

1  9 

5 

CVs 

346-361 

24244 

1  2% 

3 

156-699 

1-0968 

1  9% 

5 

6% 

350-497 

2^533 

1  2V4 

3 

oi4 

159-485 

1-1193 

1 

5 

0% 

354-657 

2-4824 

1  2% 

3 

162-295 

1-1360 

1  9% 

5 

358-841 

2-5117 

1  21/2 

3 

9% 

165-130 

1-1569 

1  9% 

5 

363-051 

2-5412 

1  25/« 

3 

9% 

/8 

167-989 

1-1749 

1  9% 

0 

367-284 

2-5708 

1  23/4 

3 

IOV4 

170-873 

1-1961 

1 

5 

i 

371-543 

2-6007 

1  07/ 

3 

10% 

173-782 

1-2164 

1  97/8 

5 

375-826 

2-6303 

1  3 

3 

'A 

176-715 

1-2370 

1  10 

5 

380-133 

2-6608 
2-6691 

1  31/= 

3 

179-672 

1-2.577 

1  ioy« 

5 

384-465 

i 

3 

182-654 

1-2785 

1  101^ 

5 

388-822 

2-7016 

4 

% 

185-661 

1-2996 

1  103A 

5 

4 

393-203 

2-7224 

\  i 

4 

188-692 

1-3208 

1  10i| 

5 

397-608 

2-7632 

4 

191-748 

1-3422 

1  10% 

5 

402-038 

2-7980 

4 

1% 

194-828 

1-3637 

1  103/4 

5 

11V2 

406-493 

2-8054 

4 

lya 

197-933 

1-3855 

1  10% 

5 

11% 

410-972 

2-SC58 

DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES,  &C, 


2 

21/4 


Cir.  in 

Area  in 

Area  in 

Dia.  in 

Ci 

r.  in 

Area  in 

Area  in 

ft. 

in. 

s<l.  incli. 

Sfl.  ft. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

6q.  inch. 

«<1.  ft. 

6 

415-4( 6 

/-pyoo 

3 

9 

5 

1017-87 

7-0688 

c 

4/0-004 

2-9100 

3 

k 

1032-06 

7-1671 

6 

424-557 

2-9518 

3 

9 

4 

1046-.'S5 

7-26G4 

G 

1% 

429-135 

2-9937 

3 

9 

'3 

-lUotJ-t  a 

7-36G2 

C 

4 

433-737 

3-0129 

3 

9 

81/4 

1075-21 

7-4661 

G 

lOO-OD.} 

3-0261 

3 

1% 

9 

9 

7-568 I 

6 

2% 

443-014 

3-0722 

3 

9 

1104-46 

7-GG91 

G 

3 

447-GUO 

3-1081 

3 

fi 

9 

10% 

1119-24 

7-7791 

6 

3% 

3-1418 

3 

9 

Hot— 1 J 

7-8681 

G 

461-864 

3—2075 

3 

k 

10 

1 149-09 

7-9791 

G 

4% 

471^36 

3-2731 

3 

10 

1104— IG 

8-0846 

G 

481-106 

3—3410 

3 

23/ 

10 

8-1891 

C 

4 

3-4081 

3 

3  llO 

2% 

1194-59 

8-2951 

G 

V/f 

500-741 

3—4775 

3 

31/4' 10 

f/4 

1 OAO  OK 

jiJKj-yc) 

8-4UZG 

G 

610-706 

3-5468 

3 

10 

4 

1225-42 

8-5091 

G 

8% 

520-769 

3-6101 

3 

3% 

10 

*Vs 

1210-C8 

8-6171 

G 

*)5^ 

530-yoO 

0-6870 

3 

4 

10 

5% 

1 25G-64 

8-7263 

6 

■I"  /2 

541-189 

3-7583 

3 

41/.  10 

1272-39 

8-8361 

G 

551-547 

3-8302 

3 

4% 

10 

71/4 

1288-25 

8-9462 

7 

0 

562-002 

3-9642 

3 

43i 

10 

1304-20 

9-0561 

7 

0% 

572-556 

3-9761 

3 

5  llO 

8% 

1320-25 

9-1 68  G 

7 

000— zUo 

4-0500 

3 

51/,  ll!) 

9% 

9-2112 

7 

593-958 

4-1241 

3 

5% 

10 

103^ 

1352-65 

9-3961 

7 

3% 

60-4-807 

4-2000 

3 

5% 

10 

11% 

1369-00 

9-5061 

7 

3Vo 

015-753 

4-2760 

3 

6 

10 

/a 

100-  A» 

1380-44 

9-6212 

7 

0/0— <y» 

4—3521 

3 

6V4 

11 

03/ 

1401—98 

9—7364 

7 

5^ 

Oil 

4-4302 

3 

11 

4 

1418-62 

9-8518 

7 

ci^ 

"  /4 

4—5083 

3 

11 

1435-.36 

9—9671 

7 

7 

DDU-p/l 

4—5861 

3 

11 

3 

10-084 

7 

7% 

CiT\  Qrro 

D 1 1— yos 

4-6665 

3 

11 

1469-14 

10-202 

7 

683-494 

4-7467 

3 

11 

4% 

1486-17 

10-320 

7 

695-128 

4-8274 

3 

73^11 

5% 

1503-30 

10-439 

7 

i  UD-eoi> 

4— yuol 

3 

8 

11 

"/4 

1530-53 

lu— OOlf 

7 

n 

4 lo-oyu 

4—990 I 

3 

8V4 

11 

7 

1537-86 

10-679 

7 

(OU-Oifj 

O-UiOL 

3 

8i| 

11 

1555-28 

10-800 

8 

0% 

5—1573 

3 

11 

84 

1.572-81 

10—922 

8 

4 

754-769 

5—2278 

3 

11 

914 

1590-43 

8 

f!f 

i DO— yy J 

5-3264 

3 

11 

10% 

1608-15 

1 1-167 

8 

779-313 

5-4112 

3 

11 

1625-76 

11-291 

8 

3% 

791-732 

5-4982 

3 

9% 

11 

11% 

1643-89 

11^15 

8 

^  /2 

804-249 

5-5850 

3 

10 

12 

i4 

1661-90 

11-534 

8 

.  "  /4 

816-865 

5-G729 

3 

1014 

12 

-1  /4 

1608-02 

11-66G 

8 

6l^ 

"  /8 

829-578 

5-7601 

3 

101^ 

12 

2 

1698-23 

11-793 

8 

f)Vo 

842-390 

5-8491 

3 

103i 

12 

3% 

1716-54 

11-920 

8 

?4 

855-300 

5-  9398 

3 

12 

3% 

1734-94 

12-048 

8 

868-308 

6-0291 

3 

11V4 

12 

4% 

17.53-45 

12-176 

8 

91/5 

881-415 

6-1201 

3 

11% 

12 

1772-05 

12-305 

8 

10 

894-619 

6-2129 

3 

11% 

12 

1790-76 

12-435 

8 

10% 

907-922 

6-3051 

4 

0 

12 

1809-56 

12-566 

8 

11% 

921-323 

fr-3981 

4 

0V4 

12 

1828-46 

12-697 

9 

934-822 

6-4911 

4 

12 

1847-45 

12-829 

9 

5I 

948-419 

6-5863 

4 

0% 

12 

1866-55 

12-962 

9 

962-115 

6-6815 

4 

12 

1885-74 

13-095 

9 

975-908 

6-7772 

4 

12 

1905-03 

13-229 

9 

1 

989-800 

6-8738 

4 

12 

11% 

1924-42 

13-364 

9 

4v5 

1003-79 

6-9701 

4 

13 

0% 

1943-91 

13-499 

614 


JJIAMETEKS,  ClliCUMFEliENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  Cmct.ES. 


Cir.  in 
It.  in. 


4 

sy4 

4 

4 

0% 

4 

10 

4 

10V4 

4 

101^ 

4 

10% 

4 

11 

4 

4 

4 

11% 

6 

0 

5 

0V4 

5 

0V2 

5 

0% 

5 

5 

k 

5 

5 

1% 

5 

2 

5 

2V4 

5 

2% 

5 

2% 

5 

3 

5 

3V4 

5 

31/2 

5 

3% 

?t 

5 

5% 
GV2 

9% 

101/2 
IIV4 
0 

1% 

2% 

4% 
51/2 
G% 

i 


Area  in 
sq.  inch. 


1963-50 
1983-18 
2002-96 
2022-84 
2042-83 
2062-90 
2083-07 
2103-35 

2123-72 
2144-19 
2164-75 
2185-42 
2206-18 
2227-05 
2248-01 
2269-06 

2290-22 
2311-48 
2332-83 
2354-28 
2357-83 
2397^8 
2419-22 
2441-07 

2463-01 
24F5-05 
2507-19 
2529-42 
2551-76 
xyg,  2574-19 
0%\  2596-72 


15 

1% 

2619-35 

15 

2V4 
2% 

2642-08 

15 

2664-91 

15 

3% 

2687-83 

15 

2710-85 

15 

2733-97 

15 

2757-19 

15 

6% 

2780-51 

15 

7% 

2803-92 

15 

SV2 

2827-44 

15 

91^ 

2851-05 

15 

10 

2874-76 

15 

10% 

2898-56 

15 

11% 

2922-47 

16 

2946-47 

16 

i 

2970-57 

16 

2994-77 

16 

3019-07 

16 

3043-47 

16 

fi 

3067-96 

16 

3092-56 

16 

5% 

3117-25 

16 

6% 

3142-04 

16 

7% 

3166-92 

16 

8V4 

3191-91 

Area  in 
sq.  ft. 


13-635 
13-772 

13-  909 

14-  047 
14-186 
14-325 
14-465 
14-606 

14-748 

14-  890 

15-  033 
15-176 
15-320 
1,5-465 
1;5-611 
15-757 

15-  904 

16-  051 
16-200 
16-349 
19-498 
16-649 
16-800 

16-  951 

17-  104 
17-227 
17-411 
17-565 
17-720 

17-  876 

18-  033 
18-189 

18-347 
18-506 
18-665 
18-825 

18-  995 

19-  147 
19-309 
19^71 

19-635 
19-798 

19-  963 
26-128 

20-  294 
20-461 
20-629 
20-797 

20-965 
20-135 

20-  305 

21-  476 
21-647 
21-819 

21-  992 

22-  166 


Dia.  in 
ft,  in. 


615 


Cir.  in 
ft.  in. 


41/4  16 
4 

43/; 
5 

51/4 

i 


6  17 

01/4  17 

c%;i7 

7  17 


I 

■<V4|1' 
71/2117 

7%|17 

8  |l7 

^1/2!  17 
l%il7 

9  il8 
f^ilS 

ti/2:i8 

L%jl8 
10  18 

1C1/4!18 
101/2118 
10%  1 18 

n  18 

lli/4il8 
111/2^18 


11% 
0 

(,1/4 

k 


18 

18 
18 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 
1J> 
2  19 
21/4  19 

2y2li9 

2%  19 
■  |19 
19 
19 
19 

19 
19 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 


5%1C0 


Area  in 
sq.  inch. 


Area  m 
sq.  ft. 


.SI 

7^; 


1% 

10% 
11% 
11^/ 

•  11/2 

4% 

^ 

lOi/s 


10% 
11% 


3216-99 
3242-17 
3267-46 
3292-83 
3318-31 
3343-88 
3369-56 
3395-33 

3421-20 
3447-16 
3473-23 
3499-39 
3625-26 
3552-01 
3578-47 
3605-03 

3631-68 
3668-44 
3685-29 
3712-24 
3739-28 
3706-43 
3793-67 
3821-02 

3848-46 
3875-99 
3903-63 
3931-36 
3959-20 
3987-13 
4015-16 
4043-28 

4071-51 
4099-83 
4128-25 
4156-77 
4185-39 
4214-11 
4242-92 
4271-83 

4300-85 
4329-95 
4359-16 
4388-47 
4417-87 
4447-37 
4476-97 
4506-67 

4536-47 


4596-35 
4626-44 
4656-63 
4686-92 
4717-30 
4747-79 


22-333 
22-515 
22-621 

22-  866 

23-  043 
23-221 
23-330 
23-573 

23-758 

23-  938 

24-  119 
24-301 
24-483 
24-666 

24-  850 

25-  034 

25-220 
25-405 
25-502 
25-779 

25-  964 

26-  155 
26-344 
26-634 

26-725 

26-  916 

27-  108 
27-301 
27-494 
27-688 

27-  883 

28-  078 

28-274 
28-471 
28-663 

28-  866 

29-  065 
29-264 
29-466 
29-665 

29-  867 

30-  069 
30-271 
30-475 
30-679 
30-884 

30-  090 

31- 296 

31-503 
31-710 

31-  919 

32-  144 
32-337 
32-548 
32-759 
32-970 


DIAM., 


&0.  OF  CIRCLES,  CONTENTS  IN  GALS.,  AEEA  IN  FEET 


¥t.  In 
1 

1 

2 

4 
5 
C 
7 

8 

10 

11 


Ft.  In. 

3  1% 

3  8 
.3  11 

4  21 

4  5: 

4  S 

4  115/ 

5  2 

5  5% 
5  9 
G  2V, 

7  7 

7  101/4 

8  1% 
8  4<| 


8  103^ 

9  5 

9  81/4 
9  114^^ 

10  2 

10  5 

10  8 

10  IV/a 

11  3 
11  61/a 

11  93/ 

12  6h 
12 


12  6% 
2  9t| 

13  1 
13  4% 
13  71^ 

13  101/0 

14  1% 
11  45| 

14  7% 
11  11 

15  2% 


11  15 


15  8V2 

1  15  11% 

2  16  23/4 
16 

16  9 

17  0V« 


.7854 
.1)217 
1.0(590 
1.2271 
1..3962 
1.5761 
1.7671 
1.9689 
2.1816 
2.4052 
2.6398 
2.8852 

3.1416 
3.4087 
3.6869 
3.9700 
4.2760 
4.5869 
4.9087 
5.2413 
5.5850 
5.9395 
6.3049 
6.6813 


7.0686 
7.4666 
7.8757 
8.2957 
8.7265 
9.1683 
9.6211 
10.0846 
10.5591 
11.0446 
11.5409 
12.0481 


12.5664 
13.0952 
13.6353 
14.1862 
14.7479 
15.3206 
15.9043 
16.4986 
17.1041 
17.7205 
18.3476 
18.9858 


19.6350 
20.2947 
20.9656 
21.6475 
22.3400 
23.04.37 
23.7583 
24.4835 


GalloiiB. 

1  ft.  in  dpth 

5.8736 

6.8928 

7.9944 

9.1765 
10.4413 
11.7866 
13.2150 
14.7241 
10.3148 
17.9870 
19.7414 
21.4830 


23.4940 
25.4916 
27.5720 
29.7340 
32.6976 
34.3027 
36.7092 
39.1904 
41.7668 
44.4179 
47.1505 
49.9654 

52.8618 
65.8382 
58.8976 
62.0386 
65.2602 
68.5193 
73.1504 
75.416S 
78.9652 
82.5959 
86.3074 
90.1004 

93.9754 
97.9310 
101.9701 
103.0300 
110.2907 
114.5735 
118.9386 
123.3830 
127.9112 
132..5209 
137.2105 
142.0582 


146.8.384 
151.7718 
156.7891 
161.8886 
167.0674 
172.3300 
177.6740 
183.0973 


Ft.  In. 

5  8 


Ft.  In. 

17  9% 
18 
18 
18 

19 
19 
20 
21 


A 

2% 
|2i  iiy 

3,22 


C  23 
9!24 


25  11/2 
'25  11 


26  8% 

27  5% 

28  31/4 

29  05/ 

29  101 

30  7 

31  5 

32  23/. 

32  1134 

33  91/4 
.34  66/ 

„35  4 
C36  1 
9  36  107/ 


40 


40  10 

41  71/2 

42  4y8 

91/. 


43 


43  1134 

44  d4 


3 
C|45 
9  40 


47  101 
4;  81, 
49  53 


50  31/c 

51  01^ 

51  10 

52  7% 

53'  4 
54  2 
.'54  11 
^  9155  9% 

18  f  \m  61/2 

18      S  57  4 

18  ^   6 .58  13/, 
18      9158  10% 
016 


25.2199 
25.!)672 
20.7251 
27.4943 

29.0867 
.30.6796 
3.3.1831 
35.7847 

38.4846 
41.2825 
44.1787 
47.1730 

50.26.56 
53.4502 
56.7451 
60.1321 

63.6174 
67.2007 
70.8823 
74.6620 

78..540') 
82.5160 
86.5903 
90.7627 

95.0.334 
99.4021 
103.8691 
108.4342 

113.0976 
117.8590 
122.7187 
127.6765 

1.32.7326 
137.8867 
143.1391 
148.4896 

153.9.384 
1.59.4852 
165.1303 
170.8735 

176.7150 
182.6545 
188.0923 
194.8282 

201.0624 
207.3948 
213.8251 
220.3537 
226.9806 
233.7055 
240.5287 
247.4500 

254.4696 
261.5872 
268.8031 
276.1171 


SCANTLING   KEDUCED   TO   ONE   INCH   BOARD  MEASURE. 
SCANTLING  AND  TIMBER  MEASURE 

REDUCED     TO    ONE    INCH    B  O  A 11 D  MEASURE. 

EXPLANATION. — To  ascertain  ilie  number  of  Feet  of  Scantling  or  Tim- 
ber, say  18  Feet  Long  and  2  by  3  Inches.  Find  2  by  3  in  tlie  top 
columns,  and  18  in  the  left  hand  column,  and  under  2  by  3  and  against 
18  is  9  feet. 

If  the  Scantling  is  longer  than  contained  in  the  Table,  add  two  lengths 
together.   If  shoi-ter,  take  part  off  some  length. 


THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN  INCHES. 


2  2  2  3  2.4  2.5  2-6  2-7  2.8  2.9  3.3  3-4  3.5  3.6  3.7  3-8  3.9  4.4 


2. 

2.4 

2.8 

3. 

3.4 

3.8 

4. 

4.4 

4.8 

5. 

5.4 

5.8 

C. 

6.4 

G.8 

7, 

7.4 

7.8 

8. 

8.4 
10. 
11.4 
13.4 


10. 
10.6 

n. 

11.6 

12. 

12.6 

15. 

17. 

20. 


6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 

n. 

12. 
13, 
14. 
12.  6  15. 


5.10 

6.  8 

7.  6 

8.  4 

9.  2 
10. 
10.10 
11.  8 


13. 
14. 
15. 
15.10 
16. 

17.  6  2L 

18.  4  22. 

19.  2  23. 
20. 
20.10  25. 
25.-  30. 
28.  4  34. 
33.  4  40. 


7. 

8.  2 

9.  4 
10. 

11.  8 
12. 10 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
28. 
29. 
35. 
39. 
46.  8 


9.4 
10.8 
6  12. 
13.5 
14, 
16, 
17.4 
18, 


8  21.4  24, 


10  22.) 
24. 


4  26.8 
6  28. 
8  29.4 
10  30.  i 
32. 
2  33.4 
40. 

.4 
53.4 


3  45.' 


10.6 

12. 

13.6 

15. 

16.6 

18. 

19.6 

21. 

22.6 


25.6 
27. 


2  25.4  28.6  14.3  19 


30, 

3L6 

33. 

34.6 

36. 

37.  ( 

45. 

51. 

60. 


8.3  11. 
12. 


11.3  15 
12. 
12.9  17 


13.6 


18. 


15.  20. 
15.9  21. 
16.6  22. 
17.3  23. 
18.  24. 
18.9  25. 
22.6  30. 
25.6  34. 
30.0  40. 


22.6  27 


16.3  19.6  22.9  26 
17.6 

18.9  22.6  26.3  30. 
20.  24.  28.  32, 
21.3  25.6  29.9  34, 


12. 
14. 
16. 
18. 
17.6  20. 
19.3  22. 
21. 


23.9  28.6  33.3  38. 


31.6  36, 


35. 


26.3  31.6  36.9  42. 

38.6  44. 
28.9  34.6  40.3  46. 


31.3  37.6  43.9  50 


37.6  45. 
42.6  51. 
50. 


52.6  60. 
59.6  68. 
70. 


40. 


13.6 

15.9 

18, 

20.3 

22.6 

24.9 

27. 

29.3 

31.6 

33.9 

36. 

.38.3 

40.6 

42.9 

45. 

47.3 

49.6 

51.9 

54. 

56.3 

67.6 

76.6 

90. 


9.4 
10. 
12. 
13.4 
14.8 
16. 
17.4 
18.8 
20.0 
2L4 
22.8 
24. 
24.4 
26.8 
28. 
29.4 
30.8 
32. 
33.4 
40, 
45.4 
53. 


THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN  INCHES. 


5.4  4.6  4.7  4.8  4.9  5.5  5.6  5.7  5.8  5.9  6.6  6.7  6.8  6.9  !6.10 


6310.  12. 

7  11.8  14, 

8  13.4  16, 

9  15.  18. 
10  16.8  20. 


11 


12  20, 
13221, 


18.4  22. 
24. 


14  23.4 

15  25, 


28. 
30. 
1^26.8  32. 
28.4  34. 


19  31.8  38. 
20133.4  40. 

35, 

22l36  8  44. 
23838.4  46 

40, 


24 
25  41. 


48. 
50. 
60. 
68. 
40  66.8  80, 


301 


50. 


36. 


14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

23.4 

25.8 

28. 

30.4 

32.8 

35. 

37.4 

39.8 

42. 

44.4 

46.8 

49. 

51.4 

53.8 

56. 

58.4 

70. 

79.4 


16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

26.8 

29.4 

32. 

34.8 

37.4 

40. 

42.8 

45.4 

48. 

50.8 

53.4 

56. 

58.8 

61.4 

64. 


12.  6 
14.  7 
16.  8 
18.  9 
20.10 
22.11 
25. 
27, 


29, 

31. 

33. 

35. 

37, 

39. 

41.  8 

43.  9 

45.10 

47.11 

50. 

52.  1 

62.  6 

70.10 


15. 


17. 


22.6  26.  3 
29.  2 
27.6  32.  1 
30.  35. 
32.6  37.11 
35. 
37.6  43.  9 

46. 
42.6  49. 


45. 


47.6  55.  5 


50. 

52.6 

55. 


57.6  67 


60. 


98.4  106.8  120.  83,  4  100 


52. 


70. 


62.6  72.11 


87.  6 
99.  2 


20, 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

33.4 

36.8 

40. 

43.4 

46.8 

50 

53.4 

56.8 

60. 

63.4 

66.8 

70. 

73.4 

76.8 


83.4 
100. 
113.4 
116.8  133.4  150 
617 


22.6 

26.3 

30, 

33.9 

37.6 

41.3 

45. 

48.9 

52.6 

56.3 

60 

63.9 

67.6 

71.3 

75. 

78.9 

82.6 


90.0 
93.9 
112.6 
127.6 


21. 

24.6 

28, 

3L6 

35. 

38.6 

42. 

45.6 

49. 

52.6 

56. 

59.6 

63. 

66.6 

70. 

73.6 

77. 

80.6 

84, 

87.6 
105, 
119. 
140. 


27, 

31.6 

86. 

40.6 

45. 

49.6 

54. 

58.6 

63. 

67.6 

72. 

76.6 

81. 

85.6 

90. 

94.6 

99. 
103.6 
108. 
112.6  125, 


30. 
35. 
40. 
45, 
50. 
55. 
60. 
6.5. 
70. 
75. 
80. 
85. 
90. 
95, 
100, 
105. 
110. 
115, 
120. 


150. 
170. 
200. 


THICK NRSS  AXT>  WTDTTI  IX  IXCHES. 


6.11 

6.12 

7.7 

7.8 

7.9 

7.10 

7.11 

7.12 

8.8 

8.9 

8.10 

8.11 

8.12 

3.). 

3(). 

24.  (i 

28. 

31.  (> 

3i>. 

38.  6 

42. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

44. 

 ' 

48. 

3H.G 

42. 

28.  7 

32.8 

36. 9 

40.10 

41.11 

49. 

37.4 

42. 

46.8 

51.4 

66. 

44. 

48. 

32.  8 

37.4 

42. 

46.  8 

51.  4 

56. 

42.8 

48. 

53.4 

58.8 

64, 

4!).  6 

54. 

.'iO.  9 

42. 

47.3 

52.  6 

57.  9 

(;3. 

48. 

54. 

00. 

6(). 

72. 

55. 

60. 

40.10 

40.8 

52.6 

58.  4 

64.  2 

70. 

53.4 

60. 

6(!.8 

73.4 

80, 

60.0 

66. 

40. 11 

51.4 

57.9 

64.  2 

70.  7 

77. 

58.8 

06. 

73.4 

80.8 

88. 

(56. 

72. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

77. 

84. 

64. 

72. 

80. 

88. 

9(). 

71.6 

78. 

53.  1 

60.8 

68.3 

75.10 

83.  5 

91. 

69.4 

78. 

86.8 

95.4 

104. 

77. 

a± 
o-i. 

57.  2 

65.4 

73.6 

81.  8 

89. 10 

98. 

74.8 

84. 

93.4 

102.8 

112. 

82.6 

90. 

61.  3 

70. 

78.9 

87.  6 

96.  3 

105. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

110. 

120. 

88. 

96. 

64.  4 

74.8 

84. 

93.  4 

102.  8 

112. 

85.4 

96. 

106.8 

117.4 

128. 

93.6- 

102. 

69.  5 

79.4 

89.3 

99.  2 

109.  1 

119. 

90.8 

102. 

113.4 

124.8 

136, 

99. 

108. 

73.  6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

115.  6 

126. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

132. 

144. 

104.6 

114. 

77.  7 

88.8 

99.9 

110.10 

121.11 

133. 

101.4 

114. 

126.8 

139.4 

152. 

110. 

120. 

81.  8 

93.4 

105. 

116.  8 

128.  4 

140. 

106.8 

120. 

133.4 

140.8 

160. 

115.6 

126. 

85.  9 

98. 

110.3 

122.  C 

134.  9 

147. 

112. 

126. 

140. 

154. 

168, 

121. 

132. 

89.10 

102.8 

115.6 

128.  5 

141.  2 

154. 

117.4 

132. 

140.8 

161.4 

176. 

126.6 

138. 

93.11 

107.4 

120.9 

134.  2 

147.  7 

161. 

122.8 

138, 

153.4 

168.8 

134. 

132. 

144. 

98. 

112. 

126. 

140. 

154. 

168. 

128. 

144. 

160. 

176. 

192, 

4^ 

9.9 

9.10 

9.11 

9.12 

10.10 

10.11 

10.12 

11.11 

11.12 

12.12|12.13 

12.14 

6 

40.6 

45. 

49.6 

54. 

50.0 

55. 

60. 

60.  6 

66. 

72. 

78. 

84. 

7 

47.3 

52.6 

57.9 

63. 

68.4 

64.  2 

70. 

70.  7 

77. 

84. 

91. 

98. 

8 

54. 

60. 

66. 

72. 

66.8 

73.  4 

80, 

80.  8 

88. 

96. 

104. 

112. 

9 

60.9 

67.6 

74.3 

81. 

75. 

86.  6 

90. 

99.  9 

99. 

108. 

117. 

126. 

10 

67.6 

75. 

82.6 

90. 

83.4 

91.  8 

100. 

100.10 

110. 

120. 

130. 

140, 

11 

74.3 

82.6 

90.9 

99. 

91.8 

100.10 

110. 

110.11 

121. 

132. 

143. 

154. 

12 

81. 

90. 

99. 

108. 

100. 

110. 

120. 

121, 

132. 

144. 

156. 

168. 

13 

87.9 

97.6 

107.3 

117. 

108.4 

119.  2 

130. 

131.  1 

143. 

156. 

169. 

182. 

14 

94.6 

105. 

115.1 

126. 

116.8 

128.  4 

140. 

141.  2 

154. 

168. 

182. 

196, 

15 

101.3 

112.6 

123.9 

135. 

125. 

137.  6 

150. 

151,  3 

165. 

1.80 

195. 

210, 

16 

108. 

120. 

132. 

144. 

133.4 

146.  8 

160. 

161.  4 

176. 

192. 

208. 

224. 

17 

114.9 

127.6 

140.3 

153, 

141.8 

155.10 

170. 

171.  5 

187, 

204. 

221. 

238. 
252, 

18 

121.6 

135. 

148.6 

162, 

150. 

165. 

180. 

181,  6 

198, 

216. 

234. 

19 

128.3 

142.6 

156.9 

171, 

158.4 

174.  2 

191, 

191,  7 

209. 

228. 

247, 

266. 

20 

135. 

150. 

165. 

180. 

166.8 

183.  4 

200. 

201.  8 

220. 

240, 

260. 

280. 

21 

141.9 

157-6 

173.3 

189. 

175. 

192.  6 

210, 

211.  9 

231. 

252. 

273. 

294, 

22 

148.6 

165. 

181.6 

198. 

183.4 

201.  8 

220. 

221.10 

242. 

264, 

286. 

308. 

23 

155.3 

172.6 

189.9 

207. 

191.9 

210.10 

230. 

231.11 

253. 

276. 

299. 

322, 

24 

162. 

180, 

198. 

216. 

200. 

220. 

240. 

242. 

264. 

188. 

312. 

336. 

12.15 

12.16jl3.13 

13.14 

13.15 

13.16 

14.14 

14.15 

14.16 

15.16 

15.10 

6 

90. 

96, 

83.  6 

91, 

97.6 

104. 

98. 

105. 

112. 

112.6 

120. 

7 

105. 

112. 

98.  7 

106.  2 

113.9 

121.3 

114.4 

122.6 

130.3 

131.3 

140, 

8 

135. 

128. 

112.  8 

121.  4 

130. 

138.8 

130.8 

140. 

149.4 

150. 

160. 

9 

135, 

144, 

126.  9 

136,  6 

146.3 

156. 

147. 

157.6 

168. 

168.9 

180, 

10 

150. 

160. 

140.10 

151.  8 

162.6 

173.4 

163.4 

175. 

186.8 

187.0 

200, 

11 

165. 

176. 

154.11 

166.10 

178.9 

190.8 

179.8 

192.6 

205.4 

206.3 

220. 

12 

180. 

192. 

169, 

182. 

195. 

208. 

196. 

210. 

224. 

225. 

240. 

13 

195. 

208. 

183.  1 

197.  2 

211.3 

225.4 

212.4 

227.6 

242.8 

243.9 

260. 

14 

210, 

224, 

197.  2 

212,  4 

227.6 

242.8 

228.8 

245. 

261.4 

262.6 

280. 

16 

225, 

240. 

211.  3 

227.  6 

243.9 

260. 

245. 

262.6 

280. 

281.3 

300. 

16 

240. 

256. 

225.  4 

242.  8 

260. 

277.4 

261.4 

280. 

298.8 

300. 

320. 

17 

255, 

272. 

239.  5 

257.10 

276.3 

294.8 

277.8 

297.6 

317.4 

318.9 

340. 

18 

270, 

288 

243.  6 

273. 

292.6 

312. 

290. 

314. 

336. 

337.6 

360. 

19 

385, 

304. 

257.  7 

288.  2 

329.4 

310.4 

332.6 

354.8 

356.3 

380. 

20 

300, 

320. 

271.  8 

303.  4 

326! 

346.8 

326.8 

350. 

373.4 

375. 

400. 

21 

315. 

336. 

286.  9 

318.  6 

341.3 

364. 

343. 

367.6 

392. 

393.9 

420. 

22 
23 

330. 

352, 

299.10 

333.  8 

357.6 

381.4 

359.4 

386. 

410.8 

412.6 

440. 

345, 

368. 

313.11 

348.10 

373.9 

398.8 

375.8 

402.6 

429.4 

4.31.3 

460. 

24 

369. 

384, 

338. 

361, 

390, 

416. 

392. 

420, 

448. 

450. 

480. 

618 


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TiMK  Required  for  Digestiox  op  different  Articles  of  Food, 
BEING  Observations  made  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  Surgeon  in  the 
United  States  Armv,  on  the  Canadian,  St.  Martin,  through 
AN  Orifice  in  his  Stomach,  caused  by  a  gunshot  wound. 


h.m 

Apples,  sweet  and  mellow.....  1  50 

sour  and  mellow  2 

sour  and  bard  2 

Barley,  boiled  2 

Beans,  boiled   2  30 

Beans  and  Green  Corn,  boiled.  3  45 

Beef,  roasted  rare  3 

roasted  dry   3  30 

Steak,  broiled   3 

boiled   2  45 

boiled.with  mustard,  etc.  3  30 

tendon,  boiled   5  30 

tendon,  fried   4 

old  salted,  boiled   4  15 

Beets,  boiled   3  45 

Bread,  Corn,  baked  3  15 

Wheat,  baked,  fresh  —  3  30 

Butter,  melted  3  30 

Cabbage,  crude   2  30 

crude,  vinegar  2 

crude,  vin'r,  boil'd.  |  4  3Q 

Carrots,  boiled   3  15 

Cartilage,  boiled   4  15 

Cheese,  old  and  strong  3  30 

Chickens,  fricasseed   2  45 

Custard,  baked  2  45 

Ducks,  roasted   {  4  30 

Dumplings,  Apple,  boiled  3 

Eggs,  boiled  hard   3  30 

boiled  soft...  3 

fried  3  30 

uncooked    2 

whipped,  raw   1  30 

Fish,  Cod  or  Flounder,  fried..  3  30 

Cod,  cured,  boiled   2 

Salmon,  salt'd  and  boil'd  4 

Trout,  boiled  or  fried  1  30 

Fowls,  boiled  or  roasted  4 

Goose,  roasted   3 

Gelatine,  boiled   2  30 


Heart,  Animal,  fried   4 

Lamb,  boiled. 


Liver,  Beef's,  boiled  2 

Meat  and  Vegetables,  hashed. 

Milk,  boiled  or  fresh   | 

Mutton,  roasted  

broiled  or  boiled  

Oysters,  raw  

roasted  

stewed  

Parsnips,  boiled   2 

Pigs,  Sucking,  roasted   2 

Feet,  soured,  boiled   1 

Pork,  fat  and  lean,  roasted  5 

recently  salted,  boiled  4 

"         "      fried,  4 

"         <'     broiled..  3 

"         "      raw  3 

Potatoes,  boiled   3 

baked  3 

roasted   2 

Rice,  boiled   1 

Sago,  boiled   1 

Sausage,  Pork,  broiled  3 

Soup,  Barley   1 

Beef  and  A^egetables   4 

Chicken   3 

Mutton  or  Oyster   3 

Sponge-cake,  baked   2 

Suet,  Beef,  boiled   5 

Mutton,  boiled   4 

Tapioca,  boiled   2 

Tripe,  soured  1 

Turkey,roasted{Wi^,-^-^:-;:;;2 

boiled   2 

Turnips,  boiled   3 

Veal,  roasted   4 

fried   4 

Brains,  boiled   1 

Venison  Steak,  broiled   1 


Comparative  Value  of  Various  Foods  as  Productive  of  Dyna- 
mic Force,  when  Oxidized  in  the  Body. 


Cabbage   1. 

Carrots   1.2 

Egg,  white  of   1.4 

Milk   I.5J 

Apples   1.5 

Ale   1.8 

Fish   1.9 

Potatoes   ....  2.4 

Porter   2.6 


Veal,  lean 

Mackerel   3.8 

Ham,  lean  4. 

Bread,  crumbs  5.1 

Egg,  hard  boiled....  5.4 

Egg,  yolk  7.9 

Sugar  8. 

Isinglass   8.7 

Rice   8.9 


Pea  meal   9. 

Wheat  flour  9.1 

Arrowroot  9.3 

Oat  meal   9.3 

Cheese  10.4 

Cocoa  16.3 

Butter   17.3 

Fat  of  beef  21-6 

Cod  liver  oil  21.7 


Safe  Load  in  Structures,  including  Weight  of  Structure. 

In  cast-iron  columns   =  14  breaking  weight 

Wrought-iron  structures  =  V4         "  " 

In  cast-iron  girders  for  tanks  =  V4        "  ** 

In  cast-iron  for  bridges  and  floors  =  i|  " 

In  timber  _  i_iq       "  « 

Stone  and  bricks   


623 


WEianT  OP  Wateu  at  its  Common  Tkmpkratuuh. 


1 

12 
1 
1 
1 

1-  8 
36.84 

1 
12 
1 
1 
1 

2-  282 
45-64 
11-2 

224 
13-44 


cubic  incli 
"  iuchofl 
"  foot 


**  feet 

((  <• 

Cylindrical  inch 
"  inches 
"  foot 


-03(J17 
-434 

C2-r> 
()-2r) 

11 2- 00 
2240-00 
•02812 
•341 
49-1 
5 


lb. 
lbs. 

Imperial  gallonB. 
U.  S.  Gallons. 
Ib3. 


feet 


Imperial  gallons. 
U.  S.  gallous. 
lbs. 


Imperial  gallons 
Imperial  gallons 
United  States  gallons 
268-8        United  States  gallons 
Note. — 5  Imperial  gallons  equal 


6 
112 
2240 
112 
2240 
112 
2240 

United  States  gallons 


Hence  to 


convert  Imperial  gallons  into  United  States  gallons  add  one-fifth  to  the 
Imperial ;  and  to  convert  United  States  gallons  into  Imperial  gallons  de- 
duct one-sixth  from  the  United  States. 

A  cubic  foot  of  rain  water,  which  weighs  62%  lbs.,  presses  at  30  feet 
deep  13  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  at  300  feet  is  1,300  lbs.   At  36  feet  tho 

Pressure  per  square  foot  is  a  ton,  and  at  108  feet  nearly  3  tons. 
he  following  tables  show  the  biffellent  values  op  the 
British  Imperial  and  the  United  States  Measures. 


U.  S.  measure  for       British  (Im.)  measure. 

wine,  spirits,  &c.  galls,  qts.  pts.  gills 

42  gals.  =  1  tierce,  =  34  3  1  3 
63         =1  hogsh.  =   52   1   1  3 

126         ==  1  pipe,   =  104  3   1  3 

252         =  1  tun,     =  209  3   1  2 
To  convert  Imperial  Gallons  into 


U.  S,  measure  for  British  (Im.)  measure, 
ale  and  beer.  galls,  qts.  pts.  gilla 

9  gals.  =  1  firkin,  =  9  0  11 
36  t=  1  barrel, =  36  2  0  3 
54  =1  hogsh.  =  .54  3  11 
100  =  1  butt,  =  109  3  0  3 
United  States  Wine  Gallons  multi- 


ply the  Imperial  by  1-2.  To  convert  U.  S.  Gallons  into  Imperial  multi- 
ply the  U.  States  Wine  gallons  by  -833.  51  U.  S.  Ale  Gallons  equal  60  Im- 
perial Gallons,  therefore  to  convert  one  into  the  other  add  or  deduct  l-60th. 
Sfeoifio  Gravities  and  Weights  of  Metals,  Woods,  Liquids,  &c. 
Engineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Book. 


Names. 

Weight, 
water 
being  1000. 

Number  of 
cubic  ins. 
in  a  lb. 

It 

fccu  S 

19500 

1.417 

.7053 

19258 

1.435 

.6965 

13560 

2.038 

.4904 

11352 

2.435 

.4105 

Pure  silver . .... 

10474 

2.638 

.3788 

9823 

2.814 

.3552 

Copper,  cast  — 

8788 

3.146 

.3178 

sheet . . 

8910 

3.103 

.3225 

Brass,  cast  

7824 

3.533 

.3036 

8396 

3.293 

.3037 

7264 

3.806 

.263 

7700 

3.592 

.279 

7833 

3.530 

.2833 

7816 

3.537 

.2827 

7291 

3.790 

.2636 

7190 

3.845 

.26 

STONES,  EARTHS,  ETC. 


c3 

<«-( 

g 

Names, 

+>■  * 

ightc 
ic  foe 
bs. 

%%  =s 

Marble,  average 

2720 

170.00 

13 

Granite,  ditto.. . 

2651 

165.68 

13Va 

Purbeek  stone.. 

2601 

162.56 

If' 

Portland  ditto.. 

2570 

160.62 

Bristol  ditto  

2554 

159.62 

14 

Millstone  

2484 

155.25 

14V, 

Paving  stone.. . . 

2415 

150.93 

Craigleith  ditto. 

2362 

147.62 

2143 

133.93 

163/4 

Chalk,  British. . 

2781 

173.81 

12% 

2000 

125.00 

17 

Coal,  Scotch  

—  Newcastle 

1300 

81.15 

2714 

1270 

79.37 

28VS 

—  Staffordsh'e 

1240 

77.50 

29 

1238 

77.37 

29 

Specific  Gravities,  &c.  op  Materials  Continued. 


Names. 


Lignum  vitse  

Box,  Frencli  — 

—  Dutch  

Ebony,  Indian.. 

—  American 
Oak,  just  felled. 

—  seasoned.. 
Bog  oak  of  Irel'd 
Mahogany,Sp'sL 

—  bay  wood 

Medlar  tree  

Logwood  

Olive  tree  

Beech  

Ash  

Alder   

Apple-trea  

Plum-tree  

Maple  

Teak  

Cherry-tree  

Elm  

Walnut  

Red  pine  

Yellow  do  

Pear  tree  

Sycamore,  chest- 
nut, and  lime 
tree,  each  — 

Willow  • 

Poplar,  white  Sp. 

—  common.. 

Cedar..  

White  pine  

Larch  

Cork  


Weight, 
water 
1  being  1000. 

Weight  of  i 
cubic  foot 
in  lbs. 

1331 

83.31 

1328 

83.00 

912 

58.00 

1209 

75.56 

1331 

83.18 

1113 

69.56 

743 

46.43 

104G 

65.37 

1063 

66.43 

637 

39.81 

944 

59.00 

913 

57.06 

927 

57.93 

852 

53.25 

84.5 

52.81 

800 

50.00 

793 

49.56 

755 

47.18 

752 

47.00 

750 

46.)87 

715 

44.68 

673 

42.06 

671 

41  93 

657 

47!06 

652 

40.76 

650 

40.62 

604 

37.75 

585 

36.50 

529 

33.06 

383 

23.93 

561 

3^^.06 

551 

34.43 

530 

33.02 

240 

15.00 

Number  of ' 
cubic  feet 
in  a  ton.  ■ 

Weight, 
water  being 
1000. 

Weight  of 
an  imperial 
gallon  in 
1  lbs. 

26% 

Acid,  sulpliuric*. 

1850 

18.5 

27 

1271 

12  7 

381/2 

  muriatic 

1200 

12.0 

291/2 

. . .  fluoric 

1060 

10.6 

27 

1034 

10.3 

321/4 

  acetic 

1062 

10.6 

481/4 

1015 

10.2 

341/4 

from  ttie  Dead, 

1240 

12.4 

V,3% 

Sea 

561/4 

1029 

10.3 

38 

391/4 

"™   XLKJill    hxlK^  XXXOXl 

1028 

10.2 

381/2 

Cliaiiiiel 

42 

1001 

10.1 

421/2 

—  distilled  • 

1000 

10.0 

443/. 

Oils  expressed. 

45i2 

linseed  

940 

9.4 

47^4 

sweet  almond. 

932 

9.3 

471/2 

"wliale 

923 

9.2 

48 

926 

9.3 

50 

Olive 

915 

9.2 

531/4 

Oils  essential 

531/0 

cinnamon**  • , 

1043 

10.4 

541J 

lavender 

894 

8.9 

55 

turpentine. 

870 

8.7 

55 

amber 

868 

8.7 

jf^lcoliol  of  com- 

825 

8.2 

merce,  at  60° 

591/4 

Fahrenheit 

6II/4 

Alcohol,  absolute... 

797 

7.9 

67% 

908 

9.1 

93 

729 

7.3 

64 

922 

9.2 

65 

1015 

10.1 

68 

Vinegar,  distilled.. 

1009 

10.1 

149 

Expansion  op  Liquids  in  Volume  riiOM  32°  to  212°  Fahrenheit. 
1000  parts  of  water  become  1046 

"         oil  "  1080 

"        mercury  "  1018 

'*  spirits  of  wino  "  1110 
"         air  "  1373 

The  heat  that  would  raise  1  lb.  of  water  1°  would  raise  a  pound  of  air 
S°.7  ;  1  lb.  air  =  about  11  cubic  feet. 

One  pound  of  steam  will  raise  3657  cubic  feet  of  air  10°,  and  cause  it  to 
expand  from  32°  to  42°,  aTbout  3733  cubic  feet. 

Permanent  Loads  on  Bridges,  &c. 
For  rough  calculations  the  weight  of  the  bridge  itself  may  be  assumed 
to  be  (in  wrought  iron  bridges) : 

For  30  feet  spans,  single  line   560  lbs.  per  foot  run. 

"   60         "  "    672      "  " 

"100         *<  '«    1,008 

"150         "  "    1,344      "  " 

"  200         "    1,680      "  " 

Dense  crowds  average  120  lbs.  per  square  foot. 

For  flooring,  168  to  224  lbs.  per  square  foot,  exclusive  of  the  weight  of 
the  flooring,  is  generally  allowed. 

lu  storehouses,  from  224  to  450  lbs.  per  square  foot. 
40  625 


Stuexgtii  oftheTketh  op  Cast  Iron  Wheels  at  a  given  Velocity. 


Pitch 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Thicrknoss 
of  tcolh 
in  inches. 

Breadth 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Strength  of  teeth 

iii  horse  power  at 

3  feet  per 
second. 

4  feet  per 
second. 

6  feet  per 
second. 

8  feet  per 
second. 

3.99 

1.9 

7.6 

20.57 

27.43 

41.14 

51.85 

3.78 

1.8 

7.2 

17.49 

23.32 

34.98 

40.64 

3.57 

1.7 

6.8 

14.73 

19.65 

29.46 

39.28 

3.36 

l.G 

6.4 

12.28 

16.38 

24.56 

32.74 

3-15 

1.5 

6. 

10.12 

13.50 

20.24 

26.98 

2.94 

1.4 

5.6 

8.22 

10.07 

16-44 

2  J  .92 

2.73 

1.3 

5.2 

6.58 

8.78 

13.16 

17.54 

2.52 

1.2 

1.0 

5.18 

6.91 

10.36 

13.81 

2.31 

1.1 

4.4 

3.99 

5..32 

7.98 

10.64 

2.1 

1.0 

4, 

3.00 

4.00 

6.00 

8.00 

1.89 

.9 

36 

2.18 

2.91 

4.30 

5.81 

3.G8 

.8 

3.2 

1.53 

2.04 

3.06 

3.08 

1.47 

.7 

2.8 

1.027 

1.37 

2.04 

2.72 

1.26 

.6 

2.4 

.64 

.86 

1.38 

1.84 

1.05 

.5 

2. 

.375 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

Teeth  of  Wheels.— Multiply  one-fourth  of  the  square  of  the  pitch 
in  inches  by  the  breadth  of  the  teeth  in  inches  ;  the  product  is  the  horses' 
power  that  the  teeth  will  transmit  when  the  pitch  line  passes  through 
4  ft.  per  second. 

In  quick  speeds  or  fractional  pitches,  it  may  be  more  convenient  to 
take  the  following  rule  :— Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  pitch  in  inches 
by  the  breadth  of  the  teeth  in  inches  ;  the  product  is  the  horses'  power  at 
16  ft.  per  second. 

A  general  rule  to  ascertain  the  length  of  the  teeth  is,  to  take  V3  of  the 
pitch  for  the  distance  from  the  root  to  the  pitch  line,  and  1/4  of  the  pitch 
for  the  distance  from  the  pitch  line  to  the  top. 

When  wheels  drive  pinions,  let  no  pinion  have  less  than  8  teeth  ;  rath- 
er 11  or  12  if  convenient. 

When  pinion  drive  wheels,  let  no  pinion  have  less  than  G  teeth  ;  rather 
8  or  9. 

The  number  of  teeth  in  a  wheel  should  be  prime  to  the  number  of 
teeth  in  its  pinion. 

To  increase  or  diminish  velocity  in  a  given  proportion,  and  with  the 
least  quantity  of  wheel-work,  let  the  number  of  teeth  on  each  pinion  be 
to  the  number  of  teeth  on  its  wheel  as  1  :  3  59.  Even  to  save  space  and 
expense,  never  let  the  ratio  exceed  1  :  6 — Buchanan. 

HicKs's  Rule  for  Calculating  the  Strength  of  Shafts.— 
Multiply  the  horses'  power  by  the  assumed  number  (300),  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  revolutions  per  minute  ;  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient  will 
be  the  diameter  required. 

Heating  Power  of  Peat  as  Compared  with  Wood. 

100  lbs.  turfy  peat,  air  dry,  average  95  lbs.  pine  wood. 

"      fibrous  "      "  "   108  " 

"      earthy   "      "  «   104      "  " 

«      pitchy   "      "  '<  Ill      «  " 

Comparison  of  Heat  by  Bulk. 
100  cubic  feet  of  turfy  peat  =  33  cubic  feet  pine  wood  in  logs. 
"         '*  fibrous  "   =  90       "  "  " 

"         *'  earthy  "    =  145       "      •     «'  " 

"         *'  pitchy   "    =  184        "  «*  " 

Peat,  coal,  or  coke  =  25  to  35  of  the  peat  by  weight. 
"      "         *'      =  30  to  40  per  cent,  by  volume. 

Turf  is  30  feet  deep  in  upper  marshes  and  it  grows  30  inches  in  a  cen- 
tury. In  Hanover  it  grows  8  feet  in  60  years.  There  are  in  many  bogs  3 
separated  strata  or  layers  of  large  trees  separated  by  10  or  12  feet  of  turf 
and  heath.  A  carbonizing  process  gives  them  the  appearance  of  being 
burnt.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  cover  2,830,000  acres  to  the  depth  of  5,  12 
and  even  30  feet ;  the  bogs  are  ascribed  to  the  prevalence  of  shallow 
lakes,  which  promote  the  growth  of  mosses  and  aquatic  plants. 


BLOWIKG  EXGTNE3. 

Capacity  of  air  vessels  =  20  times  the  capacity  of  the  blowing  cylinder  ii 
the  cylinder  is  single-acting. 
'<  "  =  10  times  of  double-acting. 

Velocity  of  air  in  the  passages  should  not  exceed  35  feet  per  second. 
Density  of  blast  for  iron  furnaces,  from  2%  to  3  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

Each  smith's  forge  requires  150  cube  feet  of  air  per  minute.  Density 
of  smith's  forge  blast  V4  lb.  per  square  inch.  Each  ton  per  hour  melted 
in  cupola  requires  3,500  cube  feet  per  minute.  Each  finery  for^e  requires 
100,000  cube  feet  per  minute  for  each  ton  refined.  Each  blast  furnace  20 
cube  feet  per  minute  for  each  cube  yard  capacity  of  furnace.  Molesworth. 
Manufacture  of  Pig  Iron— Coke  or  Anthracite  Coal~l%  to  20  tons  of  air 
are  required  for  each  ton. 

Charcoal — 17  to  18  tons  air  are  required  for  each  ton.  1  ton  of  air  at 
34°  =  29,751,  and  at  00°  =  31,366  cubic  feet. 

Pressure— pressure  ordinarily  required  for  smelting  purposes  is 
equal  to  a  column  of  mercury  from  3  to  7  inches. 

Pipes. — Their  area,  leading  to  the  reservoir,  should  be  "2  that  of  the 
blast  cylinder,  and  the  velocity  of  the  air  should  not  exceed  35  feet  per 
second. 

A  ton  of  pig  iron  requires  for  its  reduction  from  the  ore  310,000  cubic 
feet  of  air,  or  5"3  cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  lb.  of  carbon  consumed.  Pres- 
sure, "7  lb.  per  square  inch. 

An  ordinary  eccentric  fan,  4  ft.  diameter,  with  5  blades  10  ins.  wide 
and  14  ins.  length,  set  1  9-16  ins.  eccentric,  with  an  inlet  opening  of  17*5 
ins.  diameter,  and  an  outlet  of  12  ins.  square,  making  870  revolutions  per 
minute,  will  supply  air  to  40  tuyeres,  each  of  1%  ins.  diameter,  and  at  a 
pressure  per  square  inch  of  -5  inch  of  mercury. 

An  ordinary  eccentric  fan  blower,  50  ins.  diam.,  running  at  1000  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  will  give  a  pressure  of  15  ins.  of  water,  and  require 
for  its  operation  a  power  of  12  horses.  Area  tuyere  discharge  500  square 
ins. — Haswell. 

Properties  of  Fuel. 


"0 

<<-i 
0 

<»  tM 

u  . 

0  . 

Kind  of  Fuel. 

CI 

ii 

u  0 

*8 

feet 

1  tO] 

Lbs.  0 
evap( 
per] 

1 .  Per  c 
1  car 

Cubic 

air  re 
fori 

C( 

Weig 
cubi 

Cubic 
stow 

7  to  9 

80 

265 

50 

44 

8  to  10 

92 

282 

54 

40 

8  to  10 

86 

245 

31 

72 

8  to  9 

80 

260 

48 

48 

8  to  10 

80 

250 

32 

70 

5  to  6 

96 

265 

24 

104 

4  to  5 

44 

147 

20 

100 

4 

34 

115 

25 

100 

6 

51 

165 

28 

80 

5 

40 

132 

30 

75 

13.8 

194 

0.37 

29800 
37 
42 

14 
9.56 

77 

58 

2no 
154 

59 
52 

Memoranda  Concerning  Coal  and  Iron. 


First  notice  of  stone  coal  is  B.  C,  371. 
The  coal  fields  of  England  were  the  first  practically  developed. 
First  record  of  stone  coal  used  in  England  was  A.  D.  820. 
Records  of  regular  mining  in  England  first  made  in  1180. 
Coal  first  used  in  London  in  1240. 
First  tax  laid  on  coal  in  England  in  1379. 
Tax  was  repealed  in  1831,  having  been  taxed  400  years. 
First  patent  for  making  iron  with  pit  coal  was  granted  to  Simeon 
Sturtevant,  in  1612,  but  was  not  successful. 

Iron  first  made  in  a  blast  furnace  with  pit  coal  with  success  by  a  Mr 
Darby,  of  Colebrook  Dale,  England,  in  1713. 

627 


Ox  Coal,  Steam  Kkatino,  Etc. 
Ill  1747  iron  was  made  in  England  with  pit  coal,  suitable  for  the  man. 
ufacturo  of  ouiuion. 

In  J788  the  production  of  iron  with  pit  coal  in  England  was  48,300  tons' 
th  charcoal,  1,3,000  tons.  '  ' 

111  18f>l  the  nroduction  of  iron  in  Great  Britain  was  5,000,000  tons. 
Woodon  rails  in  mines  were  used  in  1777. 
Casl-iron  rails  in  mines  were  used  in  1790. 
Wrought-iron  rails  in  mines  were  nsed  in  1815. 
Coal  gas  first  made  nse  of  practically  in  I7f)8 

Ameuicax  Coal  Fields.— First  coal  fields  worked  in  America  were 
the  bituminous  fields  at  Kichmond,  Va.,  discovered  in  1750  This  coal 
was  used  at  AVestham,  on  the  James  liiver,  to  make  shot  and  shell  dur- 
ing the  War  of  Independence. 

The  first  use  of  Anthracite  coal  was  in  1768-69. 

First  used  for  smithing  purposes  in  1790. 

First  used  to  burn  in  a  common  grate  in  1808. 
.ooJ'^'"!*.?"*^?.^^^^"^  Anthracite  coal  for  the  smelting  of  iron  was  in 

1839,  at  the  Pioneer  Furnace,  at  Pottsville,  Pa.  It  had  been  tried  on  tho 
Lehigh  in  1826,  but  was  unsuccessful. 

The  great  shaft  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Iron  Company  has 
been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,569  ft.  from  the  surface  to  the  great  mammoth 
coal  vein  winch  attains  a  thickness  of  25  feet,  in  that  distance  passinc 
through  no  less  than  15  coal  seams,  of  which  6  are  workable  and  have  an 
average  thickness  together  of  04  feet.  Even  then  there  are  a  number  of 
coal  seams  underlying  these. 

Ventilation. 

Each  person  requires  at  least  from  3  to  4  cubic  feet  of  air  ]3er  minute. 
Oi'dinary  windows  allow  about  8  cubic  feet  a  minute  to  pass.  Sleeping 
apartments  require  1000  cubic  feet  of  space  to  each  occupant.  An  ordi- 
nary gas  flame  require?  as  much  air  as  9  persons. 

WARMIN&  BY  Steam. 

\Vhen  the  external  temperature  is  10°  below  freezing  point,  in  order 
to  maintain  a  temperature  of  60°  ;  or. 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  each  6  superficial  feet  of  glass  in 
the  windows  ;  or. 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  every  6  cube  of  air  escaping  for 
ventilation  per  minute  ;  or. 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  every  120  feet  of  wall,  roof,  or 
ceiling ;  or. 

One  square  foot  of  steam  pipe  to  80  cubic  feet  of  space  ; 
One  cube  foot  of  boiler  is  required  for  every  2,000  cube  feet  of  space 
to  be  heated ; 

One  horse-power  boiler  is  sufficient  for  50,000  cube  feet  of  space.  Steam 
should  be  about  212° .—Molesivorth. 

As  usually  estimated,  1  square  foot  of  pipe  is  amply  sufficient  to  heat 
75  to  80  cubic  feet  of  air  in  exterior  rooms,  and  100  feet  in  interior  rooms. 
Thickness  of  Boiler  Iron,  and  Pressure  Allowed  by  United 
States  Laws. 

Pressure  equivalent  to  the  Statidard^or  a  Boiler  42  inches  Diameter  and 
1/4  inch  Thick. 


Wire 

Thick- 

Diameter in  Inches. 

Guage 

ness  in 

16ths. 

34  ins. 

36  ins. 

38  ins. 

40  ins. 

42  ins. 

44  ins. 

46  ins. 

No. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 

5 

169.9 

160.4 

152. 

144.4 

137.5 

131.2 

125.5 

2 

4% 

158.5 

149.7 

141.8 

134.7 

128.3 

122.5 

117.2 

3 

147.2 

139.1 

131.8 

125.1 

119.2 

113.7 

108.8 

4 

4 

135.9 

128.3 

121.6 

115.5 

110. 

105. 

100.4 

6 

.3% 

124.5 

117.6 

111.4 

105.9 

100.8 

96,2 

'  92.1 

6 

113.2 

106.9 

101.3 

69.2 

91.7 

87,5 

83.7 

7 

101.9 

96.2 

91.2 

86.6 

82.5 

78.7 

75.3 

628 


Notes  ok  Strength  of  Boilers. 

Boiler  Plates  and  Bolts— The  tensile  strength  of  iron  plates  and 
bolts  ranges  from  42,500  to  62,000  lbs.  Mean  tensile  strengtli  of  copper 
plates,  33,000  lbs.  up  to  120°  ;  temperature  at  220°  =  32,000  lbs. ;  at  550"  = 
25,000  lbs.  ,     . ,  ^.  ■ 

Bursting  or  Collapsing  Pressures.— Iron  plates  should  be  based  upon 
a  strength  2-5  that  of  ultimate  strength  of  the  metal  ;  for  use  in  salt 
water,  at     that  of  its  ultimate  strength. 

Resistance  to  collapse  much  less  than  to  bursting. 

Strength  of  Stay  Bolts.— Of  iron,  for  use  in  salt  water,  should  be  taken 
at  1-7 ;  fresh Vater,  1-6  ;  copper,  1-5  of  ultimate  tensile  strength. 

Stay-bolts,  when  screwed  and  riveted,  are  1/3  stronger  than  when  screw 
ed  alone. 

Relative  Strength  of  Riveted  Joints  per  Square  inch  of  Sin- 
gle Plate  Single-lapped,  machine  riveted,  rivets  3  diameters,  centre  to 

centre,  25,000  lbs. ;  hand  riveted,  24,000  lbs.  ;  staggered  riveting,  and  equi- 
distant from  centres,  30,500  lbs.  ;  abut  joints,  hand  riveted— rivets  not 
*'siaf7(7ere(Z,"  and  equidistant  from  centres— single  cover  or  strip,  30,000 
lbs. ;  rivets  set  "  square,'^  single  cover  or  strip,  42,000  lbs. ;  double  covers 
or  strips,  55,000  lbs. 

To  Find  Requisite  Quantity  of  Water  for  a  Boiler. 

Add  15  to  the  pressure  of  steam  per  square  inch,  divide  sum  by  18, 
multiply  the  quotient  by  .21 ;  product  is  quantity  111  U.  S.  gallons  per 
minute  for  each  horse-power. 

To  find  Height  of  a  Column  of  Water. 

To  Supply  a  Steam  Boiler  against  ang  Pressure  of  Steam  required. 

Multiply  pressure  in  pounds  upon  a  square  inch  of  boiler  by  2.5  ;  pro- 
duct will  be  height  in  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  boiler. 
Cold  Water  and  Feed  Pumps. 

The  cold-water  pump  usually  =  diameter  of  cylinder  X  0.3  when  stroke 
=  %  stroke  of  engine. 

The  cold-water  pump  usually  =  diameter  of  cylinder  X  0.42  when 
stroke  —  1/4  stroke  of  engine. 

Velocity  of  water  in  pump  passages  should  not  exceed  500  feet  per 
minute.  Pump  valves  should  not  be  of  less  area  than  1/4  area  of  the 
pump. 

I'eed  Pumps  for  fPtgh  Pressure  Engines. 
Diameter  =  1-11  diameter  of  cylinder  when  pump's  stroke  ==  stroke  of 
the  engine. 

Diameter  ^  %  diameter  of  cylinder  when^  stroke  of  the  engine. 
Diameter  ^%  diameter  of  cylinder  when  74  stroke  of  the  engine. 

Eeed  Pumps  for  Condensing  Engines. 
Diameter  =  1-11  diameter  of  cylinder  wheii  %  stroke  of  the  engine. 
Diameter  =  %  diameter  of  cylinder  when  1/4  stroke  of  the  engine. 
Depreciation  of  Machinery,  etc. 
Per  annum  on  first  cost. 


Depreciation. 


Wear  and 
Tear. 


Total. 


Engines  

Boilers  

Machines    

Millwork  and  Gearing. 
Bands  and  belts  


6  i>er  cent. 
10  " 

1"'^  :: 


3  per  cent. 
3  " 
31/2  " 

45  " 


9  per  cent. 
13  " 
11  " 

45 


Iron  Tituning  Tools. 

Surface-bored  should  be  at  the  rate  of   78.54  feet  per  minute. 

Surface  turned        "    157.08       "  " 

Form  of  Iron-Cutting  Tools. 
To  form  and  place  any  tool  to  cut  any  surface,  let  the  end  be  so  form- 
ed and  placed  as  to  make  the  least  possible  angle  with,  tlie  surface  to  be 
cut,  and  whatever  degree  of  acuteness  may  be  considered  requisite  ;  let 
the  keenness  be  given  by  hollowing  out  the  surface  on  which  the  shavings 
Blide. 

620 


TAIILK  KOU  FoltKTlCIjIilNO  THK  WeATIIKU  THROUGH  TIIR  LUNATIONS 

OF  Til  10  Moon. 

  (I)U.  irHHSOIIICLL  AND  Al)AM  CLARKK.)  

tlio  First  " 


If  the  Now  Moon.    ^  

Quarter,  tho  Full  Moon  oi 
tho  Last  Quarter,  enters — 

BetwccMi  niidniglit  and  2 1 
A.  M  ] 

Bet.  2  and  4  A.  M  

"   4  and  6  A.  M  , 

"   CandSA.  M  


"   8  and  10  A.M.. 

"  10  and  12  A.  M. 
At  12  M.  and  2  P.  M. 
Bet.  2  and  4  P.M... 

"   4  and  6  P.  M.. 


6  and  8  P.  M. 


8  and  10  P.  M. . . . 

10  and  midnight . 


In  Summer. 


Fair.  j 

Cold,  fr't  showers. 
Uain. 

Wind  and  rain. 

Changeable.  | 

Frequent  showers. 
V^ery  rain  v. 
Changeable. 
Fair. 

Fair  if  wind  N 
W.,  rainy  if  S 
or  S.  E. 

Do. 

Fair. 


In  Winter. 


Hard  frost,  unless  wind 

is  S.  or  v.. 
Snowy  and  stormy. 
Kain. 
Stormy. 

Cold  rain  if  wind  isW., 

snow  if  F. 
Cold  and  high  wind. 
Snow  and  rain. 
Fair  and  mild. 
Fair. 

Fair  and  frosty  if  wind 
is  N.  or  W.,  rain  or 
snow  if  S.  or  S.  E. 

Do. 

Fair  and  frosty. 


Observations.— 1.  The  nearer  the  time  of  the  moon's  change,  first 
quarter,  full,  and  last  quarter,  is  to  viid-night,  the  fairer  the  weather  dur- 
ing 7  following  days.  Kange  for  tliis  is  from  10  at  night  till  2  next  morn- 
ing. 2.  The  nearer  to  mid-day  the  phases  of  the  moon  happen,  the  more 
foul  or  wet  weather  during  the  7  days  following.  3.  The  moon's  cliange 
entering  from  4  to  10  of  the  afternoon,  may  expect  fair  weather. 

Force  of  the  Wind. 


Miles  Feet 
per  per 
Hour.  Minute. 


Feet 
per 
Second 


Force  in 
pounds  per 
square  foot. 


Description. 


176 
264 
352 
440 
880 
1,320 
1,760 
2,200 
2,640 
3,080 
3,520 
3,960 
4,400 
5,280 
6,160 
7,040 
8,800 


1.47 
2.93 
4.4 
5.87 
7.33 
14.67 
22. 
29.3 
36.6 
44.0 
51.3 
58.6 
66.0 
73.3 
88.0 
102.7 
117.3 
1466 


.005 
.0201 
.0441 
.0791 
0.123  ) 
0.492  1 
1.107  I 
1.970  1 
3.067  I 
4.429  1 
6.027  j 
7.870  1 
9.900  J 
12.304 
17.733  1 
2L153  j 
31.490 
49.200  j 


Hardly  perceptible 
Just  perceptible. 

Gentle  breeze. 

Pleasant  breeze.  . 

Brisk  gale. 

High  wind. 

Very  high  wind. 
Storm. 
Great  storm. 

Hurricane. 


Loss  OF  Light  by  Use  of  Shades.—^.  H.  Storer. 


Glass,  etc. 

Th'k- 
ness. 

Loss. 

Glass,  etc. 

Th'k- 
ness. 

Loss. 

Ins. 

PrCt. 

Ins. 

PrCt, 

American  Enamelled. . 

1-16 

51.23 

Window,  d'ble,  Eng. . . 

1-8 

9.39 

1-8 

13.08 

"  Ger.... 

1-8 

13. 

1-8 

8.61 

*'      single,  Ger.. . 

1-16 

4.27 

1-8 

6.15 

"         "  ground 

1-16 

65.75 

Porcelain  Transpar'cy. 

1-3 

97.68 

1-16 

81.95 

630 


British  Miscellaneous  Meas- 
ures FOR  VARIOUS  Purposes. 
A  load  of  unhewn  tim- 
ber  40  cubic  ft. 

A  load  of  squared  tim- 
ber  50  " 

A  load  of  inch  boards. .  600  sq.  ft. 
A  load   of  two-inch 

planks   300  " 

A  hundred  of  deals  120  in  num, 

A  hundred  of  nails        120  " 

A  thousand  of  bricks. . .  1200  " 

A  load  of  bricks   500  " 

A  load  of  lime   32  bushels, 

A  load  Of  sand   36  " 

A  sack  of  potatoes,  or 

coals   224  lbs. 

A  bushel  of  salt  or  flour  66  " 

A  bushel  of  wheat   60  " 

A  bushel  of  barley         50  '< 

A  bushel  of  oats . . . 


The  Mile,  as  Measured  dy  va- 
rious Nations. 

The  English  mile  is. .'.         1760  yd& 

The  Scotch    1984  " 

The  Irish         "    2240  " 

The  German    '<    8106  " 

The  Dutch  and  Prussian 

mile  is   6480  " 

The  Italian  mile  is.   1766  " 

The  Vienna  post  mile  is. .  8296  " 

The  Swiss  mile  is   9153  " 

The  Swedish  and  Danish 

mile  is   7341.5  " 

The  Arabian  mile  is  2143  " 

The  Roman  mile  is. .  1628  or  2025  " 
TheWerst       "      1167  or  1337  " 

The  Tuscan      "    1808  " 

The  Turkish     "    1826  " 

The  Flemish     "    6869  <' 


40 

The  British  league,  or  three  times  our  geographical  mile  of  CO  to  a 
jree,  or  2025  yards,  is  6075  yards.  The  Brabant  league  is  6096  yards. 
The  Danish  and  Hamburg  league  8244  yards,  the  German  league  8101,  the 
long  German  ditto,  10126  yards,  the  short  do.  6859,  the  Portuguese  league 
is  6760  yards,  the  Spanish  7416  yards,  the  Swedish  11700  yards.  All  of 
them  parts  of  a  degree,  but  made  before  the  length  of  a  degree  was  ac- 
curately determined. 

To  Test  Quality  of  Steel. 

Good  tool  steel,  with  a  white  heat,  will  fall  to  pieces  ;  with  bright 
red  heat  will  crumble  under  the  hammer ;  with  middling  heat  may  be 
drawn  to  a  needle-point. 

To  test  hardening  qualities,  draw  under  a  low  heat  to  a  gradually  taper- 
ed square  point  and  plunge  into  cold  water ;  if  broken  point  will  sci  atch 
glass,  the  quality  is  good. 

To  test  tenacity,  a  hardened  piece  will  be  driven  into  cast-iron  by  a 
hardened  hammer— if  poor,  will  be  crumbled.  Excellence  will  be  in 
proportion  to  tenacity  in  hard  state.  Soft  steel  of  good  quality  gives  a 
curved  line  fracture  and  uniform  gray  texture.  Tool  steel  should  be  dull 
silver  color,  uniform,  entirely  free  from  sparkling  qualities. 

Aquafortis,  applied  to  the  surface  of  steel,  produces  a  black  spot;  on 
iron  the  metal  remains  clean.  The  slightest  vein  of  iron  or  steel  can  be 
readily  detected  by  this  method. 

Steel  Springs. 

Hule  1st— To  find  elasticity  of  a  given  steel-plate  spring  :  Breadth  of 
plate  in  inches  multiplied  by  cube  of  the  thickness  in  1-16  inch,  and  by 
~    '  divide  cube  of  span  in  inches  by  product  so  found, 


Kesult,  equal  elasticity  in  l-16th  of  an  inch  per 


number  of  plates 
and  multiply  by  1. 
ton  of  load. 

liule  2d— To  find  span  due  to  a  given  elasticity,  and  number  and  size 
of  plate  :  Multiply  elasticity  in  sixteenths  per  ton,  by  breadth  of  plate  in 
inches,  and  divide  by  cube  of  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  by  the  number 
of  plates  ;  divide  by  4.66,  ^nd  find  cube  root  of  the  quotient.  Kesult, 
equal  span  in  inches. 

Utile  3d— To  find  number  of  plates  due  to  a  given  elasticity,  span, 
'and  size  of  plates  :  Multiply  the  cube  of  the  span  in  inches  by  1.66  ;  mul- 
tiply the  elasticity  in  sixteenths  by  the  breadth  of  the  plate  in  inches, 
and  by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in  sixteenths  ;  divide  the  former  pro- 
duct by  the  latter.   The  quotient  is  the  number  of  plater 

Bule  ith— To  find  the  working  strength  of  a  given  steei-pIate  spring  : 
Multiply  the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the  thickness  in 
sixteenths,  and  by  the  number  of  plates ;  multiply  also  the  working 
span  in  inches  by  11.3  ;  divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter.  Kesult, 
equal  working  strength  in  tons  burden. 

Hule  5th — To  find  span  due  to  a  given  strength  and  number,  and  size 
of  plate ;  Multiply  the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the 
631 


On  Mktals,  Staiu-oaskh,  I»aint.s. 
tljicknoss  ill  sixtcoiitlis,  and  by  tlio  mnnborof  uhites  ;  multiply,  also,  the 
Btrcugtli  in  Ions  by  1       divido  tlic  i'onner  iJroducL  by  llie  latlor.  Kosiilt 
equal  workinj^  sjcin  in  mclicH. 

Jlule  ()lh— 'J'o  lind  tlio  miniber  of  plates  due  to  a  given  strength,  span, 
and  size  of  plate  :  Multiply  the  strength  in  tons  by  span  in  ineheH,  and 
divide  by  11.3  ;  multiply  also  the  breadth  of  plate  iii  inches  by  the  squaro 
of  the  thickness  in  sixteenths  ;  divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter, 
liesult,  equal  number  of  plates. 

The  span  is  that  due  to  the  form  of  the  spring  loaded.  Extra  thick 
plates  must  be  replaced  by  an  equivalent  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling 
thickness,  before  applying  the  rule.  To  findtliis,  multiply  the  number  of 
extra  plates  by  the  square  of  their  thickness,  and  divide  by  the  square  of 
the  ruling  thickness  ;  conversely,  the  jmmber  of  plates  of  the  ruli)ig 
thickness  to  be  removed  for  a  giveu  number  of  extra  plates,  may  be  found 
ill  the  same  way. 

Lineal  Expansion  of  Metals. 
Produced  by  raising  their  temperature  from  32°  to  212°  Fahrenheit. 

Zinc  

Platinum  

Tin  (pure)  

Tin  (impure)  

Silver  

Copper  


Falmouth  tin  

English  brass  rod . 

Brass  wire  

Blistered  steel  


Height  of 
Riser. 


Width  of 
Tread. 

C  iiiclies  SVo  inches. 

7  "   8 

8  "   71/2  " 

9  "   7  " 


Gold. 

Bismuth  

Iron  

Ajitimony  

Palladium  

Platinum  

Flint  glass   

Soft  rolled  iron  — 
Prism  of  cast  iron . 
Reflector  metal. . . 

Refined  silver  

Stair-Cases. 


1  part  lu  322 
351 
403 
500 
524 
581 
584 
462 


Width  of 
Tread. 

10  inches 

11  " 

12  " 

13  " 


,  1  part  in  G82 
71'J 
"  812 
928 
"  1000 
"  1100 
"  1248 
"  819 
"  901 
"  517 
"  528 

Height  of 

Riser. 
..Gy^  inches. 
..G  " 
••5%  " 
-.5  " 


Painting. 

1  gal.  priming  color  will  cover  50  superficial  yards. 


white  zinc 
white  paint 
lead  color 
black  paint 
stone  color 
yellow  paint 
blue  color  ' 
green  paint 
bright  emer.  green 
bronze  green 


50 
44 
50 
50 
44 
44 
45 
45 
25 
45 


One  pound  of  paint  will  cover  about  4  superficial  yards  the  first  coat, 
and  about  6  yds.  each  additional  coat.  One  pound  oi  putty  for  stopping 
every  20  yds.  One  gallon  of  tar,  and  1  lb.  pitch,  will  cover  12  yds.  super- 
ficial the  first  coat,  and  17  yds.  each  additional  coat. 

Paints,  &c.— In  addition  to  the  very  ample  information  to  be  found 
nnder  the  Painters  Department,  the  following,  transcribed  from  the 
Okdnance  Manual,  are  given. 

Boiled  Oil.— Raw  oil— 1.3  parts,  copperas— 3*15  parts,  litharge— G-3 
parts,  Put  l^he  litharge  and  copperas  in  a  cloth  bag  and  suspend  in  the 
middle  of  the  kettle.  Boil  the  oil  4%  hours  over  a  slow"  fire,  then  let  it 
stand  and  deposit  the  sediment. 

Dryings.- Mixture  of  copperas  and  litharge  taken  from  the  boiled 
oil  60  parts.   Spirits  turpentine  56  parts,  boiled  oil  2  parts. 

Putty.— Spanish  whiting,  pulverized  81-6  parts,  boiled  oil  20*4  parts. 
Make  into  a  rtiff  paste,  if  not  intended  for  immediate  use  raw  oil  should 
be  used. 

032 


PAINTS,  IKKS,  Dybs,  Etc. 
White  Paint. 

Inside  work.  Outiside  work. 

White  lead,  ground  in  oil   80    80. 

Boiled  oil   14.5    J- 

Kaw  oil  •  •    f 

Spirits  turpentine   8-   *. 

New  wood-work  requires  1  lb.  to  the  square  yard  for  three  coats. 

Lead  Color.— White  lead  ground  in  oil  75  parts,  lamp  black  1  part, 
boiled  linseed  oil  23  parts,  litharge  0-5  parts,  Japan  varnish  0-5  parts, 
spirits  turpentine  2-5  parts.  Lamp  black  and  litharge  are  ground  sepa- 
rately  with  oil,  then  stirred  into  the  white  lead  and  oil.  . 

Black  Paint.— Lamp  black  28  parts,  litharge  1  part,  Japan  Tamish 
1  part,  boiled  linseed  oil  73  parts,  spirits  turpentine  1  part. 

Gray  or  Stoxe  Color  for  Buildings.— White  lead  m  oil  78  parts, 
boiled  oil  9-5  parts,  raw  oil  9-5  parts,  spirits  turpentine  3  parts,  Turkey 
umber  0.5  parts,  lamp  black  0.25  parts.  One  square  yard  of  new  brick- 
work requires  for  2  coats  1.1  lb.,  for  3  coats  1.5  lb. 

Paint  for  Tarpaulins.— 1st.  Olive.  Liquid  olive  color  100  parts, 
beeswax  6  parts,  spts.  turpentine  6  parts.  Dissolve  the  beeswax  in  spts. 
turpentine,  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  mix  the  paint  warm.  2d.  Add  12  ozs. 
beeswax  to  1  gal,  linseed  oil,  boil  it  two  hours ;  prime  the  cloth  with  the 
mixture,  and  use  it  in  the  place  of  boiled  oil  for  mixing  the  paint. 
Cream  Color.  (-For  Buildings.) 

1st  coat.  2d  coat. . 

White  lead,  in  oil   66.66   70. 

French  yellow   3.33    ^-^^ 

Japan  varnish  •   1-3^   

Kavvoil   28.00   ^i-p 

Spirits  turpentine   2.25  2-25 

One  square  yard  of  new  brick- work  requires  for  hrst  coat,  0.7o  lbs. , 

Cheap  PAmT 'for  Sheds  and  Fences. -Melted  pitch  6  lbs.,  linseed 
oil  1  pt.,  brick  dust,  or  yellow  ochre,  1  lb. 
To  the  above  we  add  the  following  valuable  items  : — 

To  Waterproof  Awnings.— Immerse  lirst  in  solution  containing 
20  per  cent,  of  soap,  and  repeat  the  process  in  a  copper  solution  of  equal 
strength,  then  wash  and  dry. 

Aniline  Inks.— 1.  Violet.  Bissdlve  1  part  of  aniline  violet  blue  in 
300  parts  of  water.  A  beautiful  ink.  2.  Blue  Ink.  Dissolve  1  part  of  soluble 
Paris  blue  in  250  parts  of  water.  3.  Bed  Ink.  Dissolve  1  part  soluble 
f  uchsin  in  200  parts  boiling  water. 

India  or  Chinese  Ink.— Calcined  lamp  black  100  parts.  Boghead 
shale  black,  in  impalpable  powder,  50  parts  ;  Indigo  carmine  in  cakes,  10 
parts  ;  Carmine  lake,  5  parts  ;  Gum  arable  (best  quality)  10  parts  ;  Puri- 
fied ox-gall  20  parts;  Alcoholic  ext.  of  musk,  5  parts;  Dissolve  the  gum  in 
50  to  60  parts  of  pure  water,  and  filter  through  a  cloth.  The  indigo,  car- 
mine, lake,  lamp  black,  and  shale  black  are  mixed  with  the  liquid  and 
the  whole  ground  on  a  slab  with  a  muller  like  ordinary  colors,  but  much 
longer.  Now  add  the  ox-gall  and  ext.  of  musk  slowly,  grinding  well  in. 
Next  dry  in  the  air  away  from  dust,  mould  into  cakes  and  dry  again. 
WTien  quite  firm,  compress  into  bronze  moulds  with  any  desired  design, 
wrap  up  in  tin  foil  and  again  in  gilt  paper.   A  splendid  article. 

To  Dye,  Stiffen  and  Bleach  Felt  Hats.— Felt  hats  are  dyed  by 
repeated  immersion,  drawing  and  dipping  in  a  hot  watery  solution  of 
logwood  38  parts,  green  vitriol  3  parts,  verdigris  2  parts  ;  repeat  the  im- 
mersions and  drawing  with  exposure  to  the  air  13  or  14  times,  or  until  the 
color  suits,  each  step  in  the  process  lasting  from  10  to  15  minutes.  Ani- 
line colors  may  be  advantageously  used  instead  of  the  above.  For  a 
stiffening,  dissolve  borax  10  parts,  carbonate  of  potash  3  parts,  in  hot 
water,  then  add  shellac  50  parts,  and  boil  until  all  is  dissolved  ;  apply 
with  a  sponge  or  a  brush,  or  by  immersing  the  hat  when  it  is  cold,  and 
dip  at  once  in  very  dilute  sulphuric  or  acetic  acid  to  neutralize  the  alkali 
and  fix  the  shellac.  Felt  hats  can  be  bleached  by  the  use,  of  sulphuris 
acid  gas. 

633 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  ARTISANS,  &C. 


Lauxdry  Seoukts.— a  spoonful  of  ox-gall  to  a  Rallon  of  water  will 
•et  the  colors  of  almost  any  goods  soaked  in  it  previous  to  washing.  A 
tea-cup  of  lyo  in  a  pail  of  water  will  improve  tilie  color  of  black  goods. 
Nankin  should  lie  in  lye  before  being  waslied  ;  it  sets  the  color.  A  strong 
tea  of  common  hay  will  preserve  tlie  color  of  French  linens.  Vinegar  in 
the  rinsing  water  for  pink  or  green  calicoes  will  brighten  them.  Soda 
answers  the  same  end  for  both  purple  and  blue.  To  bleach  cotton  cloth, 
take  one  large  spoonful  of  sal-soda,  one  pound  of  chloride  of  lime,  for 
thirty  yards  ;  dissolve  in  clean  soft  water,  rinse  the  cloth  thoroughly  in 
cold  soft  water  in  order  that  the  cloth  may  not  rot.  The  above  amount 
of  cloth,  with  the  bleaching  compound  may  be  whitened  in  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes. 

Suggestions  to  Artisans.— Never  consider  time  wasted  that  is 
spent  in  learning  rudiments.  In  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  any  art  or 
handicraft  the  greatest  difliculty  is  experienced  at  the  beginning,  be- 
cause our  work  then  possesses  little  or  nothing  of  interest.  Our  first 
lessons  in  drawing,  or  music,  or  with  tools,  are  very  simple  ;  indeed  so 
simple  are  they  that  we  are  disposed  to  undervalue  their  importance. 
The  temptation  is  to  skip  a  few  pages  and  begin  further  on  in  the  book. 
But  such  a  course  is  fatal  to  success.  To  learn  principles  thoroughly 
is  to  succeed.  Be  content  to  learn  one  thing  at  a  time,  whether  it  be  to 
push  a  plane  square  and  true,  or  draw  a  straight  line.  "Whatever  you 
learn,  learn  it  absolutely,  without  possible  question.  This  will  enable 
you  to  advance  steadily,  step  by  step,  year  after  year,  and  some  day 
you  will  wonder  why  you  have  been  enabled  to  distance  the  geniuses 
who  once  seemed  so  far  in  advance  of  j'ou. 

Set  your  heart  upon  what  you  have  in  hand.  Valuable  knowledge 
is  acquired  only  by  intense  devotion.  You  must  give  your  entire  mind 
to  whatever  you  undertake,  otherwise  3'ou  fail,  or  succeed  indifferently, 
which  is  but  little  better  than  failure. 

Learn,  therefore,  to  estimate  properly  the  value  of  what  is  called 
leisure  time.  There  is  entirely  too  much  of  this  in  the  world.  Do  not 
mistake  our  meaning.  Best  is  necessary  and  play  is  well  in  its  place, 
but  young  men  who  hope  to  do  something  in  life  must  not  expect  to  play 
one  third  of  their  time. 

While  you  resolve  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  your  art,  be 
equally  as  anxious  to  know  something  beyond  it.  A  craftsman  ought  to 
be  ashamed  fof  himself  who  jknows  nothing  but  the  use  of  his  tools. 
Having  the  time  to  acquire  it,  be  careful  to  properly  estimate  the  value 
of  knowledge.  Eemember  of  what  use  it  will  be  to  you  in  ten  thousand 
instances  as  you  go  along  in  life  and  be  as  conscientious  in  learning 
rudiments  here  as  elsewhere.  Learn  to  spell  correctly,  to  write  a  good 
plain  hand,  and  to  punctuate  your  sen  fences. 

Do  not  dress  beyond  your  means  ;  never  spend  your  last  dollar,  unless 
for  food  to  keep  yourself  or  some  one  else  from  starving.  You  will 
always  feel  better  to  keep  a  little  money  in  your  pocket.  At  the  earliest 
possible  opportunity  save  up  a  few  dollars  and  place  the  amount  in  a 
savings  bank.  It  Avill  serve  as  a  magnet  to  attract  other  money  that 
might  be  foolishly  spent. 

Just  as  soon  as  you  can  command  the  means,  buy  a  piece  of  ground. 
Do  not  wait  until  you  have  saved  enough  to  pay  all  down,  but  begin  by 
paying  one  third  or  one  quarter.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  go  in  debt  for  land, 
for  it  increases  in  value. 

Marry  as  soon  as  you  are  able  to  support  a  wife  and  can  find  a  good 
woman  who  is  willing  to  accept  you. — The.  American  Builder. 

In  commending  the  above  advice  the  editor  would  en terpose  a  salutary 
caution  regarding  the  deposit  of  money  in  Savings  Banks,  while  many 
successful  business  men,  and  other  possei-sed  of  exuberant  imagination  say 
that  there  is  no  such  word  as  fail,  it  is  palpably  manifest  that  the  collapse 
of  no  less  than  eleven  Savings  Banks  in  New  York  and  its  vicinity  during 
the  past  few  months,  has  furnished  ruinous  proof  to  thousands  of  de- 
positors that  the  contrary  is  the  truth.  In  making  deposits  then,  be 
sure  that  your  savings  are  put  in  a  safe  place  and  that  the  integrity  of 
the  men  to  whom  you  intrust  them  is  beyond  question. 


Miscellaneous  Rules,  &c.,  for  Engineers,  Mill-owners, 
Mechanics,  &c. 

Gearing  a  Compound  Lathe. — The  term  Compound  ov  double  gear- 
ed, as  applied  to  the  screw-cutting  gear  of  a  lathe  means  that  there  exists, 
between  the  gear  wheel  which  is  fastened  to  and  revolves  with  the  lathe 
spindle  and  the  feed  screw,  two  gear  wlaeels  of  different  diameters  and 
revolving  side  by  side,  at  the  same  number  of  revolutions,  by.  reason  of 
being  fixed  upon  the  same  sleeve  or  axis.  The  object  of  this  arrangement 
is  to  make,  between  the  speed  at  which  the  lathe  mandril  or  spindle  will 
run,  and  the  speed  or  revolution  at  which  the  feed  screw  will  run,  a  great- 
er amount  of  difference  than  is  possible  in  a  single  geared  lathe,  and  thus 
to  be  able  to  cut  threads  of  a  coarser  pitch  than  could  be  cut  in  the  latter. 
This  is  nsnally  accomplished  by  providing  two  intermediate  wheels  of 
different  diameters,  both  being  held  by  a  feather  ui  a  sleeve  revolving 
upon  an  adjustable  pin  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  smallest  of  these  compounded  or  coupled  wheels 
will  gear  into  and  with  the  wheel  or  gear  on  the  feed  screw  ;  and  that 
the  changes  of  gear  may  be  made  upon  the  gear  running  on  the  lathe 
mandril  and  that  running  on  the  feed  screw,  without  disturbing  the  pair 
of  intermediate  (and  compounded)  gears  referred  to.  In  many  cases, 
however,  only  the  wheel  upon  the  feed  screw  need  be  changed,  since  a 
wide  range  of  pitch  may  be  obtained  by  changing  that  wheel  only. 

To  find  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  required  to  be  placed  on  the 
feed  screw,  we  luive  the  following  rule  : 

Divide  the  pitch  to  be  cut  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed  screw,  and  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  proportional  number.  Then  multiply  the  number  of 
teeth  on  the  lathe  mandril  gear  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  smallest 
gear  of  the  compounded  pair,  and  the  product  by  the  proportional  num- 
ber, and  divide  the  last  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  largest 
wheel  of  the  compounded  pair,  and  the  product  is  the  number  of  teetli 
for  the  wheel  on  the  feed  screw. 

Suppose,  for  example,  the  gear  on  the  lathe  mandril  contains  40  teeth 
running  into  the  largest  of  the  compounded  gears  which  contains  50  teeth, 
and  that  the  small  gear  of  the  compounded  pair  contains  15  teeth  ;  what 
wheel  will  be  required  for  the  feed  screw — its  pitch  being  2,  and  the 
thread  requiring  to  be  cut  being  20  ? 

Pitch  Pitch  of  Proportional 

required.        feed  screw.  number. 

20  2       =  10 

Then- 
Mandril       Small  com-     Proportional      Large  com- 
gear  teeth.     pouud  gear.        number.         pound  gear. 

40  X  15  X  10  -r  50  =  120  =  the  number  ol 
teeth  required  upon  the  wheel  for  the  feed  screw.  In  the  above  example, 
however,  all  the  necessary  wheels  except  one  are  given  ;  and  since  it  is 
often  required  to  find  tlfe  necessary  sizes  of  two  of  the  wheels,  the  follow- 
ing rule  may  be  used  : 

Divide  the  number  of  threads  you  wish  to  cut  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed 
screw,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  one  of  the 
driving  wheels,  and  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  other  of 
the  driving  wheels  ;  then  any  divisor  that  leaves  no  remainder  to  the  last 
product  is  the  number  of  teeth  for  one  of  the  wheels  driven,  and  the 
quotient  is  the  number  of  teeth  for  the  other  wheel  driven. 

[In  this  rule  the  term  "  wheel  driven  "  means  a  wheel  which  has  mo- 
tion imparted  to  it,  while  its  teeth  do  not  drive  or  revolve  any  other 
wheel ;  hence  the  large  wheel  of  the  compounded  pair  is  one  of  tho 

635 


fi3C 


RULES  FOR  MACHINISTS,  MILLERS,  AC. 


wheels  driven,  whilo  the  wheel  on  the  feed  screw  is  the  other  of  the 
wheels  driven.] 

Example.— It  is  required  to  cut  20  threads  to  the  inch,  the  ])itch  of  the 
feed  screw  being  2,  one  of  the  driving  wheels  contains  40  teeth  and  the 
other  15  : 


Pitch  required 
to  be  cut. 


20 


Pitch  of 
feed  ecrew. 


Teeth  in  one 
driving  wheel. 


X 


40 


Teeth  in  other 
driving  wheel. 

15  = 


GOOO. 


Then,  6000  -f  50  =  120  ;  and  hence  one  of  the  gears  will  require  to  con- 
tain 50  and  the  other  120  teeth  ;  if  we  have  not  two  of  such  wheels,  we 
may  divide  by  some  other  number  instead  of  50. 

Thus  :   6000  -f-  60      100  ;  and  the  wheels  will  require  to  have,  re- 
spectively, 60  and  100  teeth. 
If  there  are  no  wheels  on  the  lathe  we  proceed  as  follows  : 
Divide  the  pitch  required  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed  screw  ;  the  quotient 
is  the  proportion  between  the  revolutions  of  the  first  driving  gear  and 
the  feed  screw  gear. 

'  Example.  Required  the  gears  to  cut  a  pitch  of  20,  the  feed  screw  pitch 
hehig  4  ;  here  20  4  =  5  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  feed  screw  must  revolve 
five  times  as  slowly  as  the  first  driving  gear  ;  we  now  find  two  numbers 
which,  multiplied  together,  make  five  :  as  2^  X  2  =  5  ;  hence  one  pair 
of  wheels  must  be  geared  2^  to  1  and  the  other  pair  2  to  1,  the  small 
wheel  of  each  pair  being  used  as  drivers,  because  the  thread  reqnired  is 
finer  than  the  feed  screw.  Rose's  Complete  Practical  Machinist,  H. 
Carey  Baird  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

HIPPED  ROOFS,  MILL  HOPPERS,  &C. 

To  find  the  varioxis  Angles  and  proper  Dimensions  of  Materials  tvhere^ 
by  to  censtruct  any  figure  whose  form  is  the  Frusirum  of  a  proper  or 
inverted  Pyramid,  as  Hipped  Eoofs,  Mill  Hoppers,  &c, 

A  B 


A  B  C  D  represents  the  desired  size  of  plan  for  a  roof,  E  T  represents  the 
height  ;  draw  the  line  A  E  to  meet  the  apex  or  ridge  E  K  on  plan  ;  from 
E,  at  right  angles  with  C  E  and  equal  to  the  designed  height  draw  the 
line  E  T  then  the  line  T  C,  equal  the  length  of  the  struts  or  corners  of  the 
roof  ;  from  C,  with  the  distance  C  F,  draw  the  arc  T  H,  continue  the 
diagonal  C  E  until  it  cuts  the  arc  E  H,  througli  which,  and  parallel  with 
the  apex  E  K,  draw  the  line  I  L,  which  determines  the  required  breadth 
for  each  side  of  the  roof  :  from  C,  meeting  the  line  I  L,  draw  the  line  C 
G,  or  proper  angle  for  the  end  of  each  board  by  which  the  roof  might  re- 
quire to  be  covered,  and  the  angle  at  T  is  what  the  boards  require  to  be 
made  in  the  direction  of  their  thickness,  when  the  corners  or  angles  re- 
quire to  be  mitred. 

To  Compute  the  Nujiber  of  Revolutions  of  a  Pinion  or  Driven 
WHEN  THE  Number  of  Revolutions  of  Driver  anb  the  Diameter 
OR  the  Number  of  Teeth  of  Driver  and  Driven  are  given. 
— Multiply  the  number  of  revolutions  of  driver  by  its  number  of  teeth 


HULES  FOR  MACHINISTS,  MILLEllS,  &C.  G37 

or  its  diameter,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  or  the 
diameter  of  tlie  driver. 

Propoktion  of  Cikcles.— To  assist  machinists  in  enlarging  or  reducing 
macliinery  wheels  without  changing  their  respective  velocities. 


First,  lay  off  two  circles,  D  F  and  G  I,  the  size  of  the  largest  wheels 
which  you  wish  to  change  to  a  large  or  small  machine,  with  the  central 
point  H  of  the  smaller  circle  G  I  on  the  periphery  of  the  largert  circle  D 
F  :  then  describe  two  lines  Q  C  and  S  A  tangent  to  the  circles  as  shown 
in  diagram,  then  draw  the  line  R  B  through  their  centres  ;  now  if  you 
wish  to  reduce  the  machine  outline  a  circle  of  the  size  you  wish  to  re- 
duce it  to ;  if,  say,  one-half,  have  the  centre  K  one-half  the  distance 
from  E  to  P  and  lay  off  the  circle  J  L,  and  on  its  periphery  N  as  a  cen- 
tre lay  off  a  circle  M  O  with  their  peripheries  touching  the  tangent  lines 
Q  C  and  S  A,  as  shown  in  diagram.  This  will  make  the  circle  J  L  one- 
half  the  size  of  the  circle  D  F,  and  the  circle  M  O  one-half  the  size  of  the 
circle  G  I ;  leaving  J  L  and  M  0  in  the  same  proportion  to  each  other 
asDFandGI. 

To  reduce  one-third,  have  the  centre  K  one-third  the  distance  from  E 
to  P  ;  if  one-fourthy  have  the  centre  K  one-fourth  the  distance  from  £  to 


CJ8 


RULES  FOR  MACHINISTS,  MILL  ICRS,  SiC. 


P,  &c.   This  reckoning  may  be  applied  beyond  the  centre  E  for  enlarging 
nuichine  wheoM,  and  will  enable  the  mechanic  to  make  the  alteration 
without  chan,i,'in.i;  their  respective  velocities. 
To  Compute  tiik  Diamiotku  of  a  Pinion  when  the  Diameter  op 

THE  DUIVEII,  AND  THE  NUMHKK  OF  TeETII  IN  DillVEU  AND  DllIVEN  AKK 

GIVEN. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  driver  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
pinion  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driver,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  diameter  of  pinion. 
To  Compute  the  Number  of  Revolutions  of  a  Driver,  when 

THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF  DRIVEN  AND  TeETH  OR  DiAMETER  OF  DRIVER 

AND  Driven  ARE  given. — Multiply  the  number  of  teeth  or  the  diameter 
of  driven  by  its  revolutions  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of 
teeth  or  the  diameter  of  driver. 

To  Compute  the  Number  of  Teeth  in  each  Wheel  for  a  Train 
OF  Spur  Wheels,  each  to  have  a  given  Velocity. — Multiply  the 
immber  of  revolutions  of  the  driving  wheel  by  its  number  of  teeth,  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  each  wheel  is  to  make 
*o  ascertain  the  number  of  teeth  required  for  each. 


To  FIND  the  Circumference  of  any  Diameter. — From  the  centre 
B  describe  the  circle  A  C  G,  witli  the  desired  diameter  ;  next  place  the 
corner  of  the  square  at  the  centre  B,  and  describe  the  lines  B  D  and  B  F  ; 
then  draw  the  chord  D  F  ;  three  times  the  diameter  added  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  chord  D  E  F  to  the  middle  of  the  subtending 
arc  D  G  F,  will  be  circumference  desired. 

To  FIND  the  Circumference  of  a  Circle,  or  of  a  pulley. — 
Multiply  the  diameter  by  3-1416,  or  as  7  is  to  22  so  is  the  diameter  to  the 
circumference. 

The  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters., 
and  a  circle  contains  a  greater  area  than  any  other  plain  figure  bounded 
by  an  equal  outline. 

To  Compute  the  area  of  a  circle. — Multiply  the  circumference  by 
one  quarter  of  the  diameter  ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by 
•7854  ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  by  '07958  ;  or  multi- 
ply half  the  circumference  by  half  the  diameter  ;  or  multiply  the  squari) 
of  half  the  diameter  by  3-14i6 

TO  find  the  circumference  of  an  ellipse. 

liule. — Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  3-1416,  and  the 
product  will  be  the  circumference. 

Example. — Suppose  the  longer  diameter  6  inches  and  the  shorter  di- 
ameter 4  inches,  then  6  added  to  4  equal  10,  divided  by  2  equal  5.  multi- 
plied by  3-1416  equal  15-7080  inches  circumference. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  MILL-MEN,  &C. 


G39 


Power  and  Capacity  of  Saw  Mills,  Saw  filing,  &c. — As  a  rule  it 
P^O  admitted  by  mill-men  that  for  10,000  ft.  per  day  about  20  liorse-power 
is  required  ;  for  20,000  ft.,  30  horse-power  ;  and  for  30,000  ft.  40  horse- 
power. To  secure  these  results  it  is  indispensable  that  the  operator  should 
make  sure  of  having  a  good  mill  and  intelligent  first  class  workmen  to 
run  it.  In  hanging  the  saw,  see  that  the  mandril  fits  accurately  in  the 
boxes,  so  that  it  will  run  without  heating.  When  flat  collars  are  used, 
the  steadying  pins  should  be  made  with  a  shoulder,  as  where  any  other 
form  of  pni  is  used  it  often  happens  that  a  burr  or  bunch  is  raised  at  the 
corner  where  the  pin  enters  the  collar.  Both  saw  and  collar  should  be 
tested  with  a  straight  edge  ;  it  frequently  happens  in  turning  collars  that 
through  the  lightness  or  springing  of  the  tool,  irregularities  in  the  grain  of 
the  iron,  &c.,  the  work  may  not  be  perfectly  true,  and  in  this  case  the 
utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  and  correct  the  deficiency,  if 
any  exists,  by  applying,  before  the  mandril  is  taken  from  the  lathe,  a  fine 
file  of  just  the  proper  spring,  against  the  face  of  the  collars  in  order  to 
remove  any  uneven  surfaces  that  may  have  been  left  upon  them.  If  they 
are  not  perfectly  true,  apply  a  pair  that  are  so,  independent  of  the  man- 
dril collars,  and  so  rigid  that  screwing  up  the  collars  cannot  act  upon  or 
impair  the  saw. 

The  saw  being  tested  and  found  correct,  place  it  on  the  mandril  and 
tighten  up  the  collars  by  hand,  slowly  revolving  the  saw  at  the  same  time, 
and  if  it  proves  to  be  truthfully  hung,  screw  it  home  with  a  wrench  tight, 
and  test  again  with  straight  edge  to'  see  if  all  is  right,  revolving  the  saw 
and  observe  closely  whether  it  runs  true  or  not.  for  large  saws  a  high 
authority  recommends  collars  that  have  a  perfect  bearing  of  about  ^  in, 
on  the  outer  rim,  the  other  part  clear,  as  they  hold  tighter  than  a  solid, 
flat-faced  collar,  because  they  are  more  apt  to  come  fair  against  the  saw. 

To  correct  saws  out  of  round,  hold  a  piece  of  grindstone  or  cobblestone 
against  the  points  of  the  teeth  while  the  saw  revolves,  this  will  grind 
down  the  most  prominent  teeth  ;  or  the  longest  teeth  may  be  marked  with 
red  chalk  while  the  saw  is  in  motion,  and  afterwards  filed  down. 

The  following  figures  Avill  afford  valuable  aid  to  the  operator.  In  fig. 
1  the  teeth  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  show  the  teeth  as  the  saw 
leaves  the  factory  ;  the  lines  at  B,C,  and  D  show  the  condition  to  which 
they  are  frequently  reduced  by  bad  filing.  Thef-e  defective  teeth  contain 
no  chamber  for  the  circulation  of  saw  dust,  and  teeth  filed  with  sharp, 
square  corners  at  the  bottom  frequently  break,  as  shown  at  A,  tooth  C. 
This  kind  of  filing  is  most  destructive  to  both  saw  and  files,  and  requires 
at  least  double  the  power  necessary  to  operate  a  saw  with  teeth  of  the 
proper  shape.  For  good  work  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  file  back  to  the 
periphery  line,  and  the  best  work  will  be  done,  the  least  labor  expended, 
and  less  power  will  be  required  to  operate,  when  the  shape  of  the  teeth 
is  made  to  conform  to  the  patterns  illustrated  by  Figs.  2  and  3,  which 
also  represent  tlie  forms  best  adapted  for  sawing  soft  and  hard  wood  re- 
spectively. In  filing  circiilar  saws,  an  immense  saving  will  be  effected  by 
filing  from  the  face  or  under  side,  instead  of  from  the  top,  or  upper  part 
of  the  tooth,  as  in  the  former  case  the  full  diameter  of  the  saw  is  retained 
to  a  much  greater  extent. 

Fig.  4,  at  A,  represents  a  tooth  that  requires  gumming,  or  chambering 
out  in  proper  shape,  as  shown  at  D.  This  leaves  free  scope  for  the  dust, 
without  too  much  crowding,  and  the  useless  consumption  of  power.  A 
good  gummer  is  an  article  tliat  no  sawyer  can  afford  to  dispense  with,  it 
saves  much  valuable  time  and  heavy  outlay  for  files,  besides  doing  more 
rapid  and  much  better  work.  A  good  swage  or  upset  is  equally  import- 
ant for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  teeth  of  the  saw  to  a  sharp,  keen  edge, 


DIRECTIONS  TO  MILL-MEN,  &C. 


641 


bringing  up  corners  and  vacancies  occasioned  by  wear,  and  spreading  the 
points,  so  as  to  ease  tlie  body  of  the  saw  in  passing  through  tlie  log. 
Fig.  5,  at  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  exhibits  the  different  set  required  for  saw- 
teeth as  effected  by  the  swage  ;  the  dotted  hnes  show  the  undercut,  and 
Fig.  G  shows  the  old  and  new  style  tooth.  Fig.  7,  at  C,  represents  the  con- 


TiG.  7. 


dition  the  tooth  should  be  in  for  Avork.  Point  B  shows  a  tooth  that  is 
dull,  and  a  great  many  teeth  are  broken,  as  shown  at  D,  from  this  very 
caii«e.  The  tootli  of  a  24  inch  circular  saw  passes  through  the  log  2000 
times  per  miimte,  120,000  times  per  hour,  or  1,200,000  times  per  day,  im- 
pelled by  a  tremendous  force  through  knots.  &c.,  and  if  not  kept  sharp 


Fig.  8.   EIGHT-HAND  SAW. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  MILL-MEN,  AC. 


the  severe  strain  is  hound  to  break  tlic  teeth.  If  the  teeth  were  kep4 
properly  set  and  well  filed  the  work  would  1)0  performed  in  l)etter  shape 
with  half  the  power.  Ki,i;s.  <S  and  9  rei)resent  ri^ht  and  left  hand  saws, 
and  a  very  slight  inspection  of  the  cuts  will  enable  any  person  to  observe 
a.  most  iiiii)oi  tant  distinction  in  ordering  circular  saws.  Jn  operating  the 
iiiili,  avoid  tiio  use  of  short  bearings  for  the  mandril,  and  short,  tight 
belts,  those,  together  with  the  mandril  crowding  against  the  collar,  are 
apt  to  cause  heating.  Along,  free  belt,  with  long  bearings,  and  a  saw 
cutthig  Ireely,  will  give  tlic  best  results  in  every  case. 


Fig.  9.  LEFT-HAND  SAW. 
The  improved  pattern  of  saw  teeth,  &c.,  outlined  above,  is  the  form 
originated  and  commended  by  the  celebrated  saw  manufacturing  firm  of 
Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  of  Philadelphia,  and  is  the  result  of  the  anxious 
study,  experience,  and  careful  labor  of  many  years.  The  high  standing 
of  the  firm,  together  Avith  the  excellent  reputation  of  their  goods,  fur- 
nish a  sufficient  guarantee  that  every  improvement  introduced  by  them 
will  be  found  based  on  correct  principles. 

Saw  Mili..— Ttoo  Vertical  Saws  of  34:  in.  Stroke,  Lathes,  &c.  Cylinder 
10  ins.  diam.  by  4  ft.  Stroke.  Pressure  90  to  100  lbs.  per  square  in.,  full 
stroke.  Revolutions,  25  per  minute.  Boilers,  three  plain  cylindrical,  30 
ins.  in  diam.  by  20  ft.  in  length. 

Note.   This  engine  has  cut  of  yellow  pine,  30  ft.  by  18  ins.  in  one  minute, 
Engineers  &  Contractors  Pocket-Book. 
For  further  information  on  Saw  mills,  see  page  87. 
Weight  of  Lumber  per  Thousand  (M.)  Feet  Board  Measure. 


Pine  and  hemlock  

]!^orway  and  yellow  pine. 

Oak  and  Walnut  

JLsh  and  Maple  


Dry. 


2,500  lbs. 

3,000  " 

4,000  " 

3,500  " 


Partly 
Seasoned. 

2,700  lbs. 
4,000  .  " 
5,000  " 
4,000  " 


Qreen. 


3,000  lbs. 
5,000  " 


SECTIONAL    VIEAV  OF  A  FJ-OUU  MILL.  643 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  COMPLETE  FLOUR  MILL. 

The  above  cut,  from  tha  Mill  Stone,  published  by  the  we.,  known  mill 
furnishing  firm  of  Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co.,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  affords 
a  sectional  view  of  a  complete  flour  mill  with  a  three  run.  outfit,  two  runs 
for  wheat,  and  one  riTii  for  com. 

The  New  Process  of  Milling,  High-ground  and  Patent  Flour, 
ETC.— In  considerhig  this  important  subject,  John  W.  Hopkins  writes  to 
the  Mill  Stone  as  follows  -.—The  new  process  means  a  first-class  steam 
enoine,  grinding  the  flour  and  heating  the  mill  on  a  cent's  worth  of  coal 
tolhe  bushel  of  wheat,  taking  the  wheat  from  the  car  on  the  side  line 
and  never  touching  it  bj  manual  labor  until  the  flour  barrels  are  taken 


Gil 


Ni:\/  rPtOc::.S3  oi'^  milling, 


from  tlio  packer,  instead  of  tlio  Kliovolliiv^-  an;!  Huoatiii.'4'  which  was  and 
still  is  ill  vo;4iio  in  soino  places. 

Where  water  power  is  used  iiist(;;ul  of  stctm,  the  new  i)roccss  means 
tlie  use  of  t iiri)iii(i  whciils,  .nivin;;'  ()\cr  NO  jici- cciil,.  of  the  full  power  of 
the  watur,  instead  of  the  old  l)i-(i;ist  wheel  .^ivini;-  only  50;  the  boss  {j;o'n]<^ 
into  a  nice  warm  mill  ou  a  frosty  wintri-  iiKn-nini;- and  lindin,L;- every  thin.ij 
Soinj--  ri^iit,  instead  of  goin<i  into  an  iec-bcjiiiid  null  of  the  old  breast- 
wheel  style,  with  a  couple  of  lialf  starved  youths  tryin;^'  to  cut  lier  loose 
and  knock  iier  to  pieces  at  the  same  time. 

The  new  process  means  nicely  turned  iron  shafting  and  pullcy.s,  with 
belt  gearing,  in  place  of  wooden  sliafts  and  cog  gearing,  with  two  or 
three  old  millwrights  slashing  around  with  sledge  hammers  to  keep  tliem 
Avedgcd,  and  assisted  occasionally  by  two  or  three  millers  making  frantic 
efforts  to  start  tire  break  downs.  It  also  means  closely  jointed  old  stock 
burrs,  and  plenty  of  them — 30  inches  in  diameter  for  middbngs,  and 
from  42  to  48  inches  for  wheat,  according  to  tlie  liardness  or  softness  of 
the  wlieat — all  in  perfect  balance  and  true  smooth  face,  and  the  lands 
thereof  to  be  from  one-third  to  one-fourth  of  the  Avhole  surface  of  the 
burrs,  instead  of  one-half  as  in  by-gone  times.  It  does  not,  however, 
inean  any  particular  patent  dress,  the  common  equalizing  dress  is  good 
enougli  ;  but  it  does  meaii  that  the  furrows  sliall  be  smooth  and  straight 
in  all  directions,  not  less  than  two  inc.lies  broad  and  deep  enough  at  the 
eye  to  bury  the  largest  grain  of  wheat,  and  about  the  fourth  of  that  at 
the  skirt,  the  draft  of  the  feather  edge  to  be  one  inch  to  the  foot  in  diam- 
eter of  the  burr,  and  all  farrows  of  the  same  Icind  to  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  centre  and  circumference,  and  also  that  the  miller  shall  have 
the  power  and  means  to  alter  the  speed  of  any  run  Avithout  affecting  the 
remainder,  i.  e.  speed  to  be  altered  instead  of  draft. 

To  mill  under  the  new  process  means  that  the  chop  shall  roll  instead  of 
slide  between  the  burrs,  or,  in  other  words,  the  substitution  of  a  system 
of  granulation  in  place  of  grinding. 

We  know  a  millwright  wlio  was  lately  called  to  reconstruct  the  bolting 
machinery  of  a  considerable  merchant  mill.  Upon  mentioning  the  word 
purifier,  the  liead  miller  in  charge  of  the  mill  gave  a  jump  as  if  he  had 
received  a  mild  stroke  from  a  galvanic  battery.  "I  Avant,"  says  he, 
"  nothing  but  fine  cloths,  and  plenty  of  them,  Nos.  12,  14  and  IG/'  to 
which  I  would  only  say  that  it  must  follow,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  if 
you  grind  so  close  as  to  grind  a  fourth  of  the  bran  into  powder,  it  will 
require  fine  cloths  to  take  it  out,  and  even  they  will  fail  to  do  it  perfectly, 
whereas  if  the  grhxding  is  properly  done,  XX,  10,  and  12,  will  be  the 
thing. 

We  come  now  to  the  middlings — the  large  particles  wliich  have  Avith- 
stood  the  action  of  tlie  burrs  most,  and  Avhicli  have  at  the  same  time  the 
highest  specific  gravity  and  the  greatest  bulk.  They  must  be  separated 
from  the  A^ery  light,  dead  fine  brown  dust  (which  is  principally  pulverized 
bran,  insoluble  in  the  acids  of  the  stomach),  the  first  Avould  not  go 
through  the  superfine  cloths,  on  account  of  their  bulk,  neither  would  the 
latter,  on  account  of  their  lightness.  They  must,  hoA\^ever,  not  only  be 
separated,  but  also  graded,  and  while  this  is  almost  impossible  of  accom- 
l^lishment  with  cloths  alone,  it  is  rendered  comparatively  easy  bj''  the  use 
of  cloths  and  blast  combined,  and  therefore  the  necessity  of  the  purifier. 
I  do  not  refer  to  any  particular  make  or  patent  in  the  Avay  of  purifiers, 
as  there  are  several  good  ones  in  the  market,  and  any  number  of  poor 
cues,  but  Avhatever  kind  is  used  should  have  capacity  enough,  and  do 
their  work  Avell. 

The  old  process  or  system  that  required  a  man  to  jump  on  the  burrs 
every  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  hours  and  slash  them  all  over  \Adth'  a 


VALUABLE  ADVICE  TO  MILLERS. 


645 


pick  so  as  to  make  them  cut  up  15  bushels  of  wheat  an  hour,  and  make 
24  bushels  of  Hour  to  the  100  bushels  of  wheat,  is  fast  becoming  obsolete. 

Tlie  idea  of  making  such  Hour  either  for  home  consumption,  or  to  ship 
to  foreigners,  is  plaj^ed  out ;  the  foreigners,  in  particular,  have  stopped 
buying  such  flour,  and  want  the  wheat  instead  to  grind  for  themselves. 
Instead  of  this  old-time  system  it  is  now  required  of  the  miller  that  the 
face  of  the  burrs  shall  be  smooth  and  true,  and  if  any  high  places  develop 
themselves  they  must  be  gently  touched  by  the  hand  of  a  master  either 
with  pick,  diamond,  or  emery  wheel,  and  not  more  than  six.^bushels  an 
hour  should  be  ground  on  a  pair  of  burrs,  and  this  should,  be  ground 
cool  or  not  at  all.  Moreover,  it  should  bo  ground  high  enough  to  take 
off  abroad,  clean  bran,  and  to  make  one  half  middlings,  and  iiually  last, 
though  not  least,  the  substitution  of  the  new  process",  as  herein  delineated 
in  outline,  means  to  realize  20  cents  per  bushel  more  out  of  the  wheat 
than  by  the  old  style,  and  a  showing  of  a  good  and  satisfactory  balance 
on  the  right  side  of  the  ledger  at  the  end  of  the  year.  At  least  such  is  the 
new  process  or  high-grinding  system,  as  I  understand  it. 

Fast  and  Slow  Grinding'.  Valuable  Advice  to  Millers.  On 
this  all  important  subject,  J.  M.  Truax,  a  practical  miller,  writes  to  tlie 
Mill  Stone  as  follows  : — "  The  quantity  to  be  ground  must  depend  upon 
the  texture  or  density  of  the  stone,  the  draft,  the  number  and  depth  of 
furrows,  and  the  grinding  without  heating.  No  more  grinding  should  bt 
done  than  can  be  done  without  heating.  The  heating  is  the  stopping 
spot.  The  quantity  tliat  every  mill  ought  to  grind  is  that  quantity  that 
can  be  ground  and  not  heat,  whether  it  is  5,  io,  or  20  bushels  per  hour. 
If  every  miller  will  observe  this  as  his  guide,  he  will  do  the  best  work 
that  he  is  able  to  do. 

In  speaking  of  heating,  I  mean  to  say  that  the  grain  should  not  be  so 
heated  by  pressure  or  rubbing,  as  will  start  the  juice  or  essential  oils  of 
the  grain.  If  the  grain  oil  is  started  by  friction,  that  friction  produces 
heat,  and  tliat  heat  dries  and  evaporates  the  grain  juice,  and  the  virtue 
of  the  flour  is  impaired.  Any  amount  of  cooling  will  not  repair  the  dam- 
age done  by  heating.  The  steam  that  rises  from  tlie  hot  running  mill  is 
the  vapor  from  out  of  the  essential  oils  of  the  grain,  and  is  lost  in  the 
bread.  To  recommend  the  grinding  of  10,  15  or  25  bushels  of  wheat  per 
hour,  is  bad  advice,  imprudent.  Millers  differ  in  the  selection  of  stones, 
and  differ  about  their  dress,  and  the  motion  of  their  miU.  One  will  have 
one  kind  and  way,  and  another  another  kind  and  way  ;  but  whatever 
way  they  select,  when  they  go  to  grinding,  their  quantity  per  hour  should 
be  that  which  they  can  grind  and  not  heat,  whether  it  is  3,  5,  10  or  20 
bushels  per  hour.  Do  not  impair  the  substance  for  the  bulk  per  hour. 
Blood  heat  is  as  high  as  can  be  warranted  without  impairing  the  product 
It  may  be  an  ambition  to  grind  fast,  but  an  old  adage  is  "  haste  makes 
waste."  If  millers  are  ambitious,  let  that  ambition  be  applied  to  the 
making  of  a  perfect  running  mill.  Select  the  very  best  burrs,  and  put  in 
a  thoroughly  common  sense  dress  ;  a  dress  that  will  granulate  the  whole 
kernel  as  nearly  as  possible.  Keep  the  stones  as  far  apart  as  possible,  and 
keep  the  texture  or  grain  of  the  stones  clean.  Let  this  be  the  miller's 
ambition.  But  stop  adding  to  quantity  when  the  mill  is  at  blood  heat, 
and  as  much  less  heat  as  they  are  able  to,  and  let  the  bread  makers  and 
eaters  have  in  the  flour  all  the  virtue  that  mother  earth  has  produced. 

One  of  the  great  evils  in  milling  is  low  grinding,  and  its  evil  effects  are 
only  gecond  to  those  produced  by  fast  grinding.  Wheat  is  composed  of 
two  parts — an  inner  and  an  outer  part.  The'  inner  part  is  meaty,  and 
the  outer  is  a  shuck,  or  skin,  or  hull  ;  the  meaty  is  i)ulverizable,  while 
the  hull  or  covering  is  a  leather-like  substance,  and  has  thickness,  which 
thickness  equals  the  meshes  of  No.  14  or  15  bolting  cloth.    Now,  the 


640 


BALANCING  OF  MILLSTONES. 


question  prisos,  liow  sliall  tlio  iniller  f^rind  iliis  <^onjponn(l  kernel  and 
clean  this  le;ither-lilve  coveriii.i;,  Jind  j^raiiulat(!  tlio  inner  meat  to  a  proj)- 
er  iin(Miess  for  bread  i)iir])Oses,  and  not  over  rub  or  grind  to  dust  a  part 
of  tlie  liull  ?  Tliis  is  tlie  question.  And  how  is  wheat  being  ground  all 
over  the  world  to-day  ?  I  need  not  answer,  for  all  know  tiiat  heavy 
grinding  has  been  the  order.  The  lands  or  face  of  one  burr  I'ubs  tlio 
other,  or  nearly  so.  So  much  so  that  that  portion  of  the  bran  tliat  is 
caught  between  tlic  face  of  the  mill  near  the  skirt  is  more  tliau  twice 
overground,  and  this  overgrinding  or  rubbing  tlio  bran  makes  a  brown 
dust,  and  blackens  the  flour.  It  is  like  brown  paint,  and  bolts  Avith  the 
flour  and  goes  into  the  bread. 

Tliis  is  a  mistake,  and  should  be  avoided.  Bran  may  make  bread,  but 
not  the  bread  millers  feel  proud  of.  And  to  avoid  this,  millers  must  run 
a  lighter  mill.  Heavy  grinding  is  an  evil.  It  not  only  powders  a  portion 
of  the  bran  and  blackens  the  liour  ;  but  grinds  at  the  same  time  a  portion 
of  the  kernel  to  dust  ;  also  destroying  its  juicy  substance  ;  and  at  tlio 
same  time  the  fine  ground  dust  is  rubbed  into  the  texture  of  the  stone, 
and  the  face  of  the  stone  becomes  glazed  and  smooth,  and  of  course  dull. 
'  Millers,  so  dress  your  mill  as  will  enable  you  to  grind  the  inner  part 
of  the  kernel  to  flour,  and  avoid  making  brown  paint  dust  from  the  bran. 
A  miller  that  runs  a  heavy  mill  is  likely  to  look  for  a  medicine  to  doctor 
his  flour.  Medicine  for  flour  is  a  poor  substitute  for  a  good  dress  and 
clean  stones.  Bread  eaters  much  prefer  the  full  life  of  tlie  cereals,  not  a 
doctored  article.  Grain  once  killed  by  overgrinding  and  heating  will  not 
be  brought  to  life  by  the  best  medicines.  All  the  flour-doctors  in  the 
world  can  not  repair  the  life  that  is  first  produced  in  natural  growth. 
They  may  help  a  deadened  flour,  but  a  Avhole  reparation  is  imjDOssible. 
Throw  away  the  drugs  !   Let  us  have  a  pure  flour." 

Balancing  Millstones.— To  examine  the  conditions  relative  to 
balancing,  and  to  trace  the  effects  produced  by  an  unbalanced  runner,  to 
their  cause,  we  refer  to  the  adjoimng  figure  in  which  R,  R,  re])resents 
a  section  of  thu  runner-stone  ;  B,  B,  a  section  of  the  nether  stationary  or 
bed-stone,  S,  the  mill-spindle  provided  at  the  upper  end  with  a  steel 
pivot  P,  upon  which  the  runner-stone  is  suspended,  so  as  to  admit  of  free 
oscillation.  The  distance  from  the  face  F,  F,  of  the  runner-stone  to  the 
pivot  P,  is  found  in  practice  to  be  from  5  to  8  inches,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  stone.  Since  the  thickness  of  the  runner-stone  varies  from  12 
to  20  inches,  this  would  bring  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ranner-stonc 
below  the  pohit  of  suspension  P,  a  condition  favorable  to  stability,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  millstone,  when  disturbed,  will  oscillate  until  equililDri- 
um  is  restored.  It  will  not  be  so  easily  upset.  In  order  that  the  runner- 
stone  may  be  in  "  balance,"  or  the  distance  between  the  face  F,  F,  of  the 
runner-stone  and  the  face  of  F',  F',  of  the  bed-stone,  be  equal,  when  the 
latter  is  perfectly  horizontal,  and  former  freely  suspended  ;  the  weight  of 
the  portion  of  the  runner  on  one  side  of  the  line.  A,  A,  drawn  through 
the  point  of  suspension  P,  and  perpendicular  to  the  faces  F',  F,'  must  -be 
equal  to  the  corresponding  half  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  line.  ShouM 
this  not  be  the  case,  the  deficiency  is  easily  made  up  by  cutting  a  cavity 
at  the  light  side,  near  the  circumference,  and  filling  it  with  an  amount  of 
lead  sufficient  to  establish  a  proper  equilibrium. 

Mill  stones  when  balanced  while  at  rest  are  usually  found,  when  run- 
ning, not  to  retain  an  equal  distance  between  the  face  ;  one  side  will  drag 
— bear  harder  on  the  meal  subjected  to  its  action,  consequently  a  mill- 
stone in  this  condition  will  grind  unevenly.  It  is  said  to  be  out  of  "  riui- 
ning  balance." 

From  the  very  nature  of  the  construction  of  the  French  millstone  (thf 
kind  used  at  present  most  exclusively),  being  an  assemblage  of  blocks 


BALANCING  OF  MILL  STONES. 


647 


called  "  burr  blocks,"  of  various  sizes,  aud  on  au  average  about  5  iuclies 
thick,  the  remainder  of  tlie  body  of  the  mill  stone  being  made  up  of 
spawls,  all  cemented  together  with  plaster  of  Paris  ;  it  is  evident  that 
the  material  can  not  easily  be  distributed  symmetrically  as  to  weight. 
To  illustrate — conceive  a  line  E,  E,  drawn  through  the  pivot  P,  and  par- 
allel to  the  face  F,  F.  We  will  also  suppose  a  section  6  inches  thick  cut 
out  of  the  center  of  the  mill  stone.  Such  section  from  a  mill  stone  4  feet 
in  diameter  would  weigh  about  260  pounds,  taking  the  weight  of  the 
plaster  at  90  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  that  of  the  burr  block  at  160 
pounds. 


Now  it  may  happen  that  in  the  construction  of  the  millstone,  45  pounds 
may  be  placed  to  the  right  of  the  center  line  A,  A,  and  below  the  hori- 
zontal line  E,  E  ;  35  pounds  may  come  above  this  line  on  the  same  side 
of  A,  A  ;  55  pounds  and  25  pounds  may  chance  to  be  on  the  opposite, 
below  and  above  E,  E,  respectively.  The  sum  of  the  weights  on  the  right 
of  A,  A,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  weights  on  the  left,  viz.  :  80  pounds. 
The  standing  balance  still  obtains.  The  center  of  gravity  r/,  aud  f/'  of 
each  half  of  our  section  taken  separately,  however,  will  not  be  in  or  at 
equal  distances  from  the  line  E,  E,  with  the  material  thus  distributed  ; 
but  will  fall  above  on  the  right  to  (/",  and  below  on  the  left  to  r/'"  ;  a  line 
joining  these  centers  of  gravity  will  take  the  direction  N,  N.  Now  when 
a  mill  stone  so  constructed  is  rotated  about  its  axis  A,  A,  the  center  of 
gravity  g'"  will  rise,  and  g"  tend  to  fall.  The  line  N,  N,  would  become 
nearer  horizontal  as  the  speed  increases,  the  line  E,  E,  becomes  inclined 
and  the  face  F,  F,  untrue.    The  mill  stone  is  out  of  "  running  balance." 

The  amount  of  pressure  produced  in  our  example  assumed,  we  com- 
pute as  follows  :  We  draw  a  line  through  the  center  of  gravity  g"  par- 
allel to  the  face  F,  F,  until  it  meets  the  ])erpendicular  line  A,  A  ;  Ave  sim- 
ilarly draw  a  line  through  g'".  We  will  also  suppose  the  centers  of  grav- 
ity g"  and  r/"'  to  be  removed  J  of  an  inch  from  their  proper  place  on  the 
line  E,  E.  Tlie  centrifugal  for.~3  would  be  given,  by  the  known  expres- 
sion -^^^  where  m,  represents  the  mass,  or  the  weight  divided  by  the 


G48 


iiALANCING  OF  MILL  STONKS. 


forco  f)f  gravity,  in  our  ciho  for  1^  of  tho  section  v,  is  tlio  velocity  ni 
tliis  insta,n(;e,  for  tlio  point  ,7"  or  //"'  and  in  .1  stoiin  4  foot  in  diuincter  at 
175  revolutions  ])(!r  minute,  18  feet  per  second,  about ;  r  represents  the 
radius,  equal  to  P.  v  =  1  ft.  in  our  case.    Hence  substitutini;  these  values 

"  80  IS  18 

is  tho  formula,  we  obtain  -  '^,\--  —  810  lbs.  for  the  centrifugal  force.!  Tho 
part  of  this  forco  -which  is  effective  in  producing  the  ]:)ressuro  at  X  equals 
810.  Cosine  of  the  angle  EP  x  ==  T-'M  pounds  nearly.  The  force  acts  with 
the  lever  arms  [/  [/"  i  inch  and  PX  =  25  inches.  We  have,  therefore,  for 
the  total  pressure  at  tho  point  X  —{'25-  X  2  =  14.G8  pounds  ;  an  amount 
frequently  pi-esent  in  millstones  in  actual  use,  producing,  by  this  unequal 
pressure,  a  flour  or  meal  less  advantageous  to  tho  miller,  both  as  regards 
quality  and  quantity. 

What  is  required,  therefore,  to  adjust  the  Running  Balance  "  with- 
out disturbing  the  "  Standing  Balance  "  is  to  add  or  remove  the  same 
Avoight  from  each  side.  Thus,  if  wo  add  10  pounds  to  the  part  weighing 
25  pounds,  and  the  same  amount  to  the  part  weighing  45  pounds,  we  have 
not  disturbed  the  standing  balance,  while  we  have  made  the  weights  of 
the  i^arts  above  and  below  the  line  E,  E,  equal  respectively. 

To  balance  in  an  actual  case,  we  proceed  as  follows  :  First,  put  the  run- 
iier-stone  in  good  standing-balance,  having  leveled  the  bed-stone,  and 
trammed  the  spindle  previously.  We  then  raise  the  stone,  place  two 
strips  of  wood  between  the  faces,  start  the  runner  and  turn  off  the  back 
true  with  the  face  with  a  chisel,  having  first  arranged  a  firm  rest.  Wc 
then  remove  the  strips,  run  the  stone  at  its  proper  speed,  and  mark  the 
high  side  by  bringing  a  pencil  against  it.  The  high  side  requires,  as  wo 
have  seen,  an  addition  of  weight  at  the  top,  close  to  the  circumference, 
and  the  opposite  low  point  at  the  bottom,  near  the  circumference 
and  the  face.  By  means  of  two  long  leather  straps,  wc  tie  several  bars  of 
lead  at  these  places,  repeating  the  operation  until  tho  proper  amount  of 
weight  is  found,  which  is  then  securely  fixed  to  tho  stone,  making  a  pro- 
per allowance  for  any  plaster  removed  from  the  stone,  or  any  waste  in- 
curred in  melting  the  lead. 


Several  patent  balances  which  facilitate  the  operation  have  been  intro- 
duced. A  more  common  one  consists  of  a  cast  iron  box,  which  is  insert- 
ed in  the  stone  at  the  circumference,  and  in  which  a  weight  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  by  means  of  a  screw.  All  that  is  required  in  this  case  is  'to 
find  the  high  point  in  tho  manner  described  ;  raise  the  weight  at  this 
point,  and  lower  it  at  the  opposite  low  point,  thus  taking  weight  from  tho 
upper  half  of  the  stone  and  adding  it  to  the  lower  half  and  the  reverse. 

it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  if  a  mill  stone  is  put  in  good  running  bal- 
ance, that  it  will  remain  in  this  condition  for  any  length  of  time.  But, 
on  tho  contrary,  its  balance  will  change  from  tho  effects  of  tho  weather  ; 
Uiat  is,  by  an  unequal  absorption  of  moisture,  due  to  an  unequal  distribu- 


PORTABLE   GRIST  MILL. 


G49 


tion  of  tlie  plaster  forming  the  back,  and  from  an  unequal  wear  of  the 
face  as  well.  It  is,  therefore,  expedient  to  frequently  examine  the  balance 
and  adjust  the  same.    V.  Baehman.  in  Mill  Stone. 

The  art  of  balancing  mill  stones  is  greatly  simplified  by  an  ingenious 
arrangement  used  by  the  Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co.,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
who  imbed  5  cast  iron  boxes,  like  the  one  represented  in  the  right  hand 
cut,  in  tlie  body  of  the  runner  stone.  They  are  placed  in  the  runner 
with  the  lid  of  the  box  a  little  below  the  plaster  back  with  the  rounding 
part  in  contact  with  the  band.  The  left  hand  figure  illustrates  the  inner 
adjustable  box,  and  screw  for  adjusting  the  same  Avhen  in  the  stone.  It 
Avill  be  noticed  it  has  two  parts,  divided  by  a  partition.  The  cover  to  this 
inner  box,  shown  in  the  central  figure,  is  secured  witli  a  screw,  and  fits 
down  upon  the  box  and  close  over  the  division,  so  that  either  side  may  be 
used  wlien  the  weight  is  wanted  at  a  point  between  any  two  of  the  bal- 
ance boxes.  These  balance  boxes  gives  the  miller  full  control  of  the  run- 
ner ;  a  wrench  is  the  only  tool  required,  and  the  requisite  weights,  Avhen 
once  placed  in  the  box,  are  not  liable  to  derangement  like  those  ordinar- 
ily used. 


THE  NORDYKE  &  MARMON  PORTABLE  GRIST  MILL. 

The  above  illustration  represents  a  Portable  Grist  Mill  made  by  the  ex- 
tensive mill  furnishing  firm  of  Nordyke,  Marmon  &  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.  It  is  constructed  of  the  best  French  burr,  is  self-oiling,  self-feeding, 
adjustable-balanced,  and  is  well  calculated  to  render  efficient  service  to 
farmers,  saw-mill  owners,  &c.,  as  it  disi^enses  with  skilled  attendance,  is 
well  adapted  to  any  kind  of  suitable  power,  and  is  capable  of  grinding  20 


G50 


MILL   STONE  DRKSS,  &C. 


bushels  of  corn  per  hour.  The  sreat  variotv  and  immense  number  of  first 
class  water  and  steam  mills  ensctcd  by  tliis  iinn  all  ovcrtlK^  Ici  tih!  ro^^ions 
of  tlio  West  and  South,  form  a  sulllcleut  atU'station  of  their  aJ)iliti(;s  and 
resources  as  llouring  mill  contractors,  cn^incei's,  and  infcliniiical  oxjiorts. 
In  addition  to  their  regular  mill  furnishing  business,  wiiich  lias  ox|);i]idr!d 
to  vast  proportions  since  its  establishment  in  1851 ,  this  linn  publish  tho 
3nil  Stone  (terms  $1  per  annum),  a  monthly  journal  of  paramount  utility 
to  every  miller,  farmer,  and  mechanic.  Of  this  periodical,  sufiicc  it  t") 
say,  that  one  of  tho  articles  transferred  to  these  pages  and  credited  to  tho 
3nii  Stone,  has  been  pronounced  by  a  practical  man  belonging  to  the  craft, 
to  be  worth  of  itself  $10  to  any  miller.  The  articles  are  pregnant  witli 
interest  to  every  miller  and  will  doubtless  bo  read  and  studied  with  tlio 
attention  which  they  deserve. 

Number  of  INIeshes  in  Boltino  Cloth. — Tho  following  Table  exhibits 
the  number  of  meshes  contained  in  each  nund)er  of  cloth  from  No.  0000 
to  No.  IG,  of  Dufour  &  Co.'s  Anchor  Brand  of  Bolting  cloth  : 


No.  0000  contains. 
"  000 

00  " 
0  . 
"       1      "  . 
2       "  . 


.  400 
,  67G 
,1,024 
.1,764 
,2,704 
.3,G00 
.4,096 
.4,624 
.5,184 
.6,400 


7  contains   7,744 

8,464 


.10,000 
.12,100 
.14,400 
.10,900 
.19,600 
.22,500 
.25,000 
.28,900 


]\IiLL,  Stone  Dress. — On  this  subject  a  practical  miller  writes  to  the 
Stone  as  follows :  "In  the  first  place  the  burr  must  be  brought  to  a 
l^erfectly  true  face,  and  then  lay  off  the  furrows  with  a  straight  edge,  IJ 
inches  wide  at  the  eye,  and  If  inches  wide  at  the  skirt.  Let  the  flare  be 
on  the  feather  edge,  and  just  as  many  quarters  as  may  be  thought  best, 
and  which  Avill  depend  somewhat  on  the  speed.  I  generally  give  a  four 
foot  burr  from  13  to  16  leading  furrows,  stepping  them  off  with  a  pair  of 
compasses  ou  the  outside  edge  of  burr,  from  9  to  12  inches  apart,  ;>nd 


then  dividing  the  spaces  between  them  into  quarters.  The  accompanying 
draft  of  the  dress  that  I  use  will  give  a  very  good  idea  of  my  plan.  I  have 
been  using  this  dress  for  years,  and  find' it  gives  better  satisfaction  in 
quality  of  flour  than  any  other  dress  I  ever  used.  It  grinds  cooler  and 
longer  than  the  old  style  of  dress,  and  it  will  grind  wet  or  damp  wlaeat 
better,  because  there  is  less  friction  about  it  and  there  is  more  room  for 
i^'-i  meal  to  get  out  from  under  the  burrs,  and  therefore  tho  meal  must  be 
letter." 


'ipEED.  CAPACITY,   &C.,  O.^  MILL   STONES.  GoT 


Estimate  of  the  SPEfci),  Pot;^er,  Capacity  ain^d  DitfcSrf  of  MiLt- 

STONES  as  rilACTICED  IN  GREAT  CkITAIN  FOR  GRIKDING  WhEAT  WHERE 

KO  Exhaust  or  Cojmbined  Blast  and  Exhaust  are  used.  The  Miller. 


Average  capa- 

city per  hour 

Draught  from 

Diameter  of 

Revolutious 

Ilorss  power. 

of  g^rinclinj^  in 

U  1  1  dress 
sua  rcss. 

jMillstonc . 

per  Minute. 

bush,  tliroiigh 

furrow. 

the  journey. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Indies. 

2 

6 

200 

2H 

2^ 

.  7.3 

214 

2 

10 

180 

2% 

2% 

,  8.3 

.  21/2 

3 

0 

170 

g 

9.3 

3 

2 

100 

31/4  ■ 

^  9.3 

o 

4 

150 

3>| 

3^ 

10.3 

3 

G 

110 

3% 

3% 

10.3 

3 

8 

130 

3% 

3% 

10.3 

.  3 

3 

10 

125 

3/8 

Nearly  4 

11.3 

3 

4 

0 

120 

4 

4 

10.4 

Q 

4 

2 

115 

41/3 

41/4 

1).4 

3 

4 

4 

110 

4V4 

11.4 

3V4 

4 

G 

105 

414 

12.4 

3% 

4 

8 

100 

4% 

G 

12.4 

3% 

4 

10 

05 

5 

Gi/> 

12.4 

4 

5 

0 

00 

G 

7 

12.4  ■ 

.  4>^ 

In  reference  to  the  foregoing  Table,  The  Miller  quotes  the  opmion  of  a 
Scotch  engineer  and  millwright  whose  experience  entitles  Inm  to  rank  as 
an  authority,  to  the  effect  that  there  should  be  only  four  standard  diame- 
ters of  millstones,  viz.  :  3  ft.  3  ft.  G  ins.  4  ft.  4  ft.  G  ins.  for 
which  the  speed  should  be  170  revolutions  for  the  3  ft.,  155,  135,  and 
115  for  the  other  sizes  respectively,  and  he  estimates  that  all  their  sizes 
would  each  absorb  6  indicated  horse  jjower  to  grind  4  bushels  of  wheat 
per  hour  ;  in  other  words,  the  smallest  stone  at  its  high  rate  of  speed,  with 
equal  duty,  would  require  as  much  power  to  propel  it  as  would  be  taken 
by  the  largest  stone  with  its  low  rate  of  speed.  The  same  authority  ex- 
presses a  conviction,  based  on  a  mature  experience  of  30  years,  that  a  vast 
improvement  could  be  effected  on  the  system  presented  in  the  above 
Table  by  taldng  the  4  foot  stone,  running  at  135,  as  the  standard  for 
universal  use  in  grinding  wheat.  It  is  recommended  further  that  all  mills 
should  be  so  constructed  that  the  velocity  of  the  stones  could  be  varied  at 
pleasure,  ivhen  in  operation,  either  by  running  each  pair  by  conical  pul- 
leys or  drums,  or  by  a  separate  engine,  as  the  state  of  the  Aveather,  or  the 
different  varieties  of  wheat,  may  demand. 
Concerning  the  blast  and  exhaust  the  Miller  remarks  : 
"  It  is  stated  by  some  parties  favorable  to  the  combined  Blast  and  Ex- 
haust that,  by  the  adoptien  of  that  system,  a  saving  of  j)ower  is  effected, 
and  that  eight  bushels  of  wheat  can  be  ground  by  szx -horse  power.  The 
power,  however,  being  unlimited,  the  quantity  ground  can  be  increased 
almost  indefinitely,  in  the  above  proportion,  according  to  the  weight  of 
tlje  millstone,  sixteen  bushels  per  hour  often  being  ground  on  this  sj's- 
tem.  The  application  of  the  Exhaust,  drawing  the  air  through  the  ej^e  of 
the  running  millstone,  does  not  produce  a  greater  current  than  that  of  at- 
mospheric pressure,  the  millstones  grind  somewhat  faster,  and  there  is  a 
corresponding  amount  of  economic  power,  the  millstones  working  more 
freely.  Many  advantages  in  this  respect  result  from  th''  adoption  of 
the  simple  Exhaust,  having  for  its  object  the  removal  oniy  of  the  stive 
from  the  millstone  case." 


052 


iil'KKD   AND   I'lTCII   OF  IJOI/P,  &C. 


To  liRMovK  (inAZK  ruoi\T  MiLi.sTONics.— Tilko  tlio  burrs,  clean  all  tlio 
flour  off  with  a  biooui  aiul  wasli  tliom  \vit)i  lirst  rate  vinegar.  Tlii.s  will 
leave  the  stones  free  from  <^hv/.o,.  'J'lic  better  way  is  to  wash  the  stoiicH  at 
iiif-ht  and  leave  tlieui  to  dry  until  morning.  A  niiller  who  has  used  the 
method  for  25  years,  reconunends  to  take  u^)  tlie  s-tones  wliile  warm, 
and  wash  tlicm  with  a  mixture  of  one  half  ])ail  of  soft  water  and  oue 
quart  shari)  vinotrnr,  ai)])liod  with  a  woollen  cloth.    Lcffcl's  Ncnos. 

Speed  and  Vi  rcn  of  Bolt,— Au  experienced  miiler  Avrites  on  this 
subject  as  follows  : 

Many  years  of  practical  experience  in  custom  milling  and  in  grinding 
all  kinds  of  wheat,  hard  and  f*oft,  wet  and  dry,  has  convinced  me  that 
the  best  speed  to  give  a  bolt  cloth  to  accomplish  the  most  and  best  woi'k, 
is  200  feet  per  minute.  The  reel  should  have  i  to  g  inch  i)itch  per  foot 
and  should  be  kept  as  full  as  its  capacity  requires.  Reels  when  Avorking 
on  hard  wheat  should  have  more  pitch  than  when  Avorking  on  soft  wheat. 
More  millers  get  into  trouble  with  their  bolts  by  running  them  too  fast 
than  by  any  other  cause.  The  faster  you  run  the  cloth  after  you  get  uj) 
tOf  200  feet  per  minute,  the  less  it  will  bolt  and  you  can  give  it  speed 
enough  to  carry  all  the  flour,  middlings  and  bran  together  out  of  the  tail 
end  of  the  reel!  LeffaVs  Nexos. 


THE  HOLMES  AND  BLANCHARD  PORTABLE  MILL. 

The  above  illustration  represents  an  excellent  tjq^e  of  a  geared  Portable 
Grinding  Mill  manufactured  by  the  well  known  mill  furnishing  firm  of 
Holmes  &  Blanchard,  Boston,  Mass.  They  also  manufacture  the  same 
class  of  mill,  at  less  cost,  with  vertical  pulley.  The  stones  are  made  in 
one  entire  piece  from  the  best  French  burrs,  and  are  well  adapted  for 
flouring  Avheat,  grinding  corn,  grain,  feed,  plaster,  salt,  coffee,  spices,  &c  . 
The  makers  claim  that  the  capacity  of  their  mills,  of  Avhich  they  build  a 
great  variety,  can  be  increased  to  almost  any  extent,  by  an  increase  of 
power  or  speed,  or  they  can  be  w^orked  with  light  power  by  diminishing 
the  speed  and  quantity  of  work.   Their  mills,  now  nuinbering  many  him- 


CALCULATIONS  FOR  BELTS,  &C. 


653 


dreds  of  every  size  and  class,  arc  hi,i;bly  spoken  of  by  the  purchasers, 
and  the  writer  can  bear  witness  to  the  utility  of  one  which  rendered  ex- 
cellent service  to  a  large  connnunity  on  his  own  premises  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  until  its  career  of  usefuhiess  was  terminated  by  a  fire 
Avhich  destroyed  the  mill  building  with  all  its  contents. 

The  following  Tabi.e  exhibits  the  proper  speed,  power  required,  perform- 
ance, &c. ,  of  the  Holmes  &  Blanchard  Portable  I\Ii!ls. 


DIAM- 
ETER 
OF 
STONES 

BEST  SPEED 

TEB.  MIXUTK. 

BUSHELS  CORN 
GROUND  PER  HOUR. 

H.  P. 

quired. 

SIZE  OF 
PULLEYS.  .. 

Steam 
power. 

Power. 

Fine. 

Coarse. 

Crack- 
ed. 

Dia. 
Inches. 

Face. 
Inches 

42  inches. 

275 

20 

30 

200 

15 

28 

10 

36 

300 

15 

22 

150 

10 

_^ 

33  " 

325 

12 

13 

150 

8 

20 

8 

30  " 

325 

10 

16 

150 

0 

20 

8 

20 

325 

14 

125 

5 

6 

21 

350 

200 

12 

100 

4 

IG 

6 

20  " 

350 

275 

4 

8 

40 

3 

14 

5 

18 

350 

275 

6 

30 

2 

14 

5 

10  " 

350 

275 

2 

4 

30 

1^ 

14 

5 

To  FIND  THE  Length  of  a  Driving  Belt  before  the  Pulleys 
ARE  IN  Position.— Add  the  circumference  of  the  two  pulleys,  divide  the 
product  by  two,  and  add  the  quotient  thus  obtained  to  double  the  distance 
between  the  centres  of  the  two  shafts,  wliich  will  give  the  length  of  belt 
required.  For  a  cross  belt,  add  the  circumference  of  the  two  pulleys,  mul- 
tiply the  product  by  three,  and  divide  by  two ;  the  quotient  added  to  double 
the  distance  between  centres  of  both  shafts  will  give  the  length  required. 
Horse-power  of  a  belt  equals  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  multiplied  by 
the  width,  the  sum  divided  by  1000. 

One  inch  single  belt,  moviug  at  1000  ft.  per  minute  =  1  horse  power. 

Double  belts  about  700  ft.  per  minute,  per  one  in.  hi  width  =  1  horse 
power. 

For  double  belts  of  great  length,  over  large  pulleys,  allow  about  500  ft, 
per  minute  per  inch  of  width  per  horse-poAver. 

Power  should  be  communicated  through  the  lower  running  side  of  a 
belt,  the  upper  side  to  carry  the  slack. 

Average  breaking  weights  of  a  belt,  3-16  x  1  inch  wide.  Leather, 
350  lbs  ;  3  ply  rubber,  600  lbs.  The  strength  of  a  belt  increases  as  its 
width.  The  co-efflcient  of  safety  for  a  laced  belt  is  leather  =:  1-16  break- 
ing Aveight,  rubber  =  1-3  do. 

To  Determine  where  to  cut  Bell  holes  in  Floors. — Measure 
the  distance  in  inches  from  centre  of  driving  shaft  to  under  side  of  floor, 
on  the  upper  side  make  a  mark  over  the  centre  of  shaft.  Now  measure 
the  distance  from  centre  of  shaft  on  inachine  to  be  driven  to  floor,  making 
a  inark  on  the  floor  immediately  beneath  the  centre,  then  measure  the 
distance  between  the  two  marks.  Transfer  these  figures  to  a  board  or 
aper,  draw  off  the  driving  and  the  driven  pulleys^  after  finding  their 
iameters  at  the  distance  from  each  other  and  the  floor  line  previo^isly 


C54 


CALCULATIONS  lOIl  BELTS,  &C. 


obtained,  n,nd  draw  tlio  lines  rcprescntin.!:?  the  belt  cntting  tlie  floor  lines 
"wliich  will  sliow  Avlicrc  the  belt  passes  throuf:;li  tlic  lioor.  The  drawing, 
can  be  made  to  a  scale  to  reduce  it  to  convenient  dimensions,  maintaining 
the  proportions.  The  holes  may  now  be  marked  off:  on  the  floor  and  cut 
•with  a  certainty  of  being  correct.  In  making  the  drawing  it  is  best  to  do 
it  full  size  on  the  floor  if  room  can  be  had,  and  allowance  must  be  mado 
for  the  thickness  of  flooring. 

WoKKiKO  VALUE  OF  Pui.LEYS. — Pullcys  covcrcd  with  leather,  iron 
pulleys  polished,  and  mahogany  pulleys  polished,  rank  for  working 
value  as  3G,  24,  and  25  per  cent,  respectively^  wood  and  iron  uncovered  be- 
ing almost  identical.  The  smoother  a  pulley  is  turned  the  greater  will  bo 
the  power  imparted  by  it,  and  the  better  will  be  the  hold  of  the  belt.  A 
pulley  which  is  slightly  higher  in  the  middle  of  its  width  exerts  the 
greatest  power  in  retaining  the  belt  from  slipping  oil  as  well  as  making 
it  last  longer  by  imparting  the  greatest  tension  to  the  middle,  or  strong- 
est part  of  the  belt,  to  the  manifest  relief  of  the  edges  or  weakest  part.  To 
obtain  the  best  results  from  belts  it  is  necessary,  in  lacing  or  cementing 
the  ends,  that  the  latter  should  be  cut  exactly  square  across,  and  the 
junction  should  be  equally  true,  otherwise  the  belt  will  be  strained  and 
torn  on  the  tightest  side,  besides  being  rendered  liable  to  run  off  the  pul- 
ley at  any  time. 

Belts  connecting  pulleys  perpendicular  to  each  other  should  be  kept 
tight,  and  should  me  made  of  firm,  well  stretched  leather,  in  order  to 
work  to  the  best  advantage. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  HOKSE-POAVER  OF  A  BELT,  ITS  VELOCITY  AND  THE 
NUMBER  OF  SQUARE  INCHES  IN  CONTACT  WITH  THE  SMALLEST  PULLEY 

BEING  KNOWN. — Divide  the  number  of  square  inches  of  belt  in  contact 
with  the  pulley  by  2,  multiply  this  quotient  by  the  velocity  of  the  belt  in 
feet  per  minute,  and  this  amount  divided  by  36,000  and  the  quotient  will 
be  the  number  of  horse-power. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  WIDTH  OF  BeLTS  REQUIRED  FOR  TRANSMITTING 

VARIOUS  NUMBERS  OF  HORSE-POWER. — Multiply  36,000  by  the  number  of 
horse-power,  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  feet  the  belt  is  to  run 
per  minute,  divide  the  quotient  by  the  number  of  feet  or  parts  of  a  foot 
in  length  of  belt  contact  with  the  smaller  pulley  ;  divide  the  last  quotient 
by  6,  and  the  result  will  be  the  desired  width  of  the  belt  in  inches.* 

To  Prevent  Accidents  from  Shafting. — These  may  be  rendered 
impossible  by  loose  sleeves  formed  of  tin  or  zinc  fitted  to  the  shafting,  and 
lined  with  cloth  or  leather  to  prevent  noise. 

To  Grind  Burrs  into  Face  with  Water.— Make  the  face  of  the 
stone  absolutely  true,  then  bosom  each  stone  slightly  and  grind  them  in 
Avater  at  a  low  speed.  Let  the  speed  be  high  enough,  however,  to  bring 
the  water  to  the  lands.  To  grind  in  face  the  spindle  should  be  slightly 
loose  in  the  bush  and  the  running  stone  made  to  oscillate  1-16  of  an  inch 
or  more.  This  will  prevent  the  burrs  from  creasing  each  other,  and  will 
leave  a  perfect  face.  The  bosom  of  the  mill  should  be  two  brans  at  th« 
eye  and  one  bran  at  the  skirt ;  just  enough  to  prevent  centre  riding.  A 
wedge  face  from  eye  to  skirt,  is  faulty  for  the  manufacture  of  pure  nour. 
The  bran  should  lie  horizontally  throughout  its  passage  through  the  mill. 
The  furrows  serve  as  squashing  surfaces.  Where  there  are  furrows,  no 
bosoming  is  demanded.    Leffel's  Neios. 

To  Prevent  Burrs  Heating. — Dress  from  centre  to  circumference, 
leaving  no  bosom.  Draw  a  line  across  the  centre,  each  Avay,  dividing  a 
four  foot  burr  into  16  squares  or  divisions,  and  other  sizes,  more  or  less, 


*  Note  The  above  estimate  is  based  on  the  rule  of  allowing  each  square 
inch  of  belting  in  contact  with  the  pulley  to  raise  half  a  pound  1  ft.  high  in  1 
minute  and  the  raising  of  36,000  lbs.  same  height  in  same  time  as  a  horse- 
power. 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  MILLERS,  &C. 


655 


in  the  same  i^roportion,  with  all  straight  furrows.  Let  the  draft  be  tho 
diameter  of  the  rock.  Lay  off  the  lands  and  furrows  J  inch  each  observ- 
ing to  dress  smooth.  Sink  the  furrow  at  the  eye  J  inch  deep  for  corn, 
and  run  out  to  j%  at  the  periphery  ;  for  wheat  -/j  at  the  eye,  and  ^  at  tho 
periphery.  When  thus  furnished,  crack  the  lands  in  straight  lines,  square 
with  the  draft  of  cross  lines,  so  as  to  make  the  lands  face  in  the  runner 
and  bed  direct. 

Simple  Alarm  for  Mill,  Hoppers. — Take  a  piece  of  spring  steel 
about  ^  in.  wide,  and  bend  one  end  of  it  so  as  to  form  a  foot  by  which  to 
screw  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  shoe,  tlie  balance  of  the  spring  passing  up 
through  and  into  the  hojiper,  and  bent  over  at  its  upper  end  so  as  to  form  a 
pendant  to  which  rivet  a  small  bell.  As  soon  as  the  grain  in  tlie  hopper 
gets  below  the  bell,  it  will  commence  to  ring  and  thus  notify  the  attend- 
ant.   LeffeVs  ISfeios. 

Temperature  OP  Oat  Meal  Kiln,  Grikdikg  op  Oatmeal. — In 
response  to  a  request  from  a  correspondent,  Mr.  Gray,  an  ex]Derienced 
miller,  says,  "There  is  no  given  temperature  in  drying  oats  ;  it  is  the 
plate  you  bring  to  the  necessary  heat,  not  the  house.  Oats  are  not  all 
the  same  grade,  some  kinds  are  thinner  in  the  hull  than  others.  I  always 
preferred  a  cast  iron  plate  in  place  of  tile,  as  you  get  more  heat.  I  do  not 
think  a  perforated  cylinder  will  make  sweet  meal,  that  is  still  the  great 
want  in  the  country,  the  meal  is  stewed  in  the  drying,  and  has  not  a  fine 
taste.  The  good  old  plan  to  find  out  when  your  kiln  floor  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive the  oats  is  just  to  spit  on  the  plate  and  if  it  raises  the  bead  you  can 
at  once  load  your  kiln  six  inches  deep  Avith  the  oats.  The  cold  oats  will 
cool  it  down  a  little  when  the  miller  must  look  to  his  furnace  and  keep 
up  the  same  heat  he  started  with — not  any  hotter.  It  will  soon  begin  to 
steam,  and  in  about  half  an  hour  skim  off  the  oats  with  the  hand  down 
to  the  plate,  and  he  will  see  whether  it  is  hot  or  cold;  when  the  oats  are 
dry,  say  two  inches  on  the  bottom,  that  will  be  perhaps  over  an  hour, 
take  the  wooden  shovel  and  clean  off  its  breadth  around  three  squares  of 
the  kiln  by  throwing  them  over  on  the  oats.  Then  turn  the  oats  over  to 
the  one  end  (not  the  sides)  neatly  turning  them  on  top  from  the  bottom. 
This  takes  some  practice.  When  done  your  kiln  head  will  be  same  as  at 
beginning.  It  will  steam  again  after  about  an  hour  ;  when  the  steam  is 
off,  turn  it  over  again  but  reverse  the  end  (turn  back).  Don't  let  the  fur- 
nace get  too  hot  now,  keep  its  temperature  down  rather.  In  about  an 
hour  more  the  miller  will  find  his  oats  dry.  He  must  now  open  his  fur- 
nace doors  and  cool  down,  let  the  oats  iay  on  the  kiln  20  minutes  even 
after  they  are  dry.  He  will  find  that  this  will  give  them  a  sweet  taste . 
Never  dry  with  seeds  as  it  imparts  to  the  meal  a  tar  taste.  I  have  tried 
a  good  many  kinds  of  millstones  for  oat  meal,  and  I  find  in  my  long  ex- 
perience that  four  foot  porous  burrs  driven  120  revolutions,  with  a  three 
toed  rynd  loose  on  the  spindle  and  resting  in  3  dents  in  the  runner,  are  the 
best.  I  think  the  20  inch  vertical  burrs  will  make  the  oat  meal  too  floury, 
as  oat  meal  don't  take  so  much  friction,  the  stones  being  kept  so  high — 
more  so  than  in  making  flour."    LeffeVs  News. 

Note. — '■^LeffeVs  Milling  and  Mechanical  Neics"  from  which  the  above 
items  are  transcribed,  is  a.  monthly  journal  (terms  50  cents  per  annum),  pub- 
lished by  James  Leffel&  Co. ,  manufacturers  of  the  celebrated  Leff el  Turbine 
Wheel,  Springfield,  Ohio.  The  paper  is  edited  with  consummate  ability,  and 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  very  many  of  the  items  contained  in  it  are  singly  well 
worth  the  whole  year's  subscription  tenfold. 

The  Indianapolis  Mechanical  Journal  (monthly,  50  cents  per  annum),  J.  H. 
Kerrick,  publisher,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  is  a  most  useful  periodical  to  every 
one  who  either  operates  or  wishes  to  procure  machinery,  and  the  Western 
Mamifacturer  (monthly,  ^2  per  annum),  Coyne  &  Co.,  publishers  (and  Patent 
Agents)  Chicago,  Ills.,  is  unexcelled  on  the  subject  of  statistics  and  general 
iiiformation  of  interest  to  manufacturers. 


050 


lIAIiTlTFON'H   (llilNDINr;  MILL. 


HARRISON'S  IMPROVED  STANDARD  GRINDING  MILL. 


The  above  illustration  represents  a  new  improved  light  standard  20 
inch  grinding  mill  as  constructed  by  Edward  Harrison,  of  New  Haven, 
Conn.  It  weighs  600  lbs.  and  the  manufacturer  claims  for  it  a  grinding 
capacity  (with  from  6  to  20  horse-power)  of  from  6  to  40  bushels  per  hour^ 
and  that  with  1200  revolutions  per  minute,  it  has  a  grinding  surface 
equal  to  ^  more  than  a  common  48  inch  run  with  175  turns  per  minute. 
He  claims  that  the  high  speed  adds  a  large  grinding  surface  to  the  burrs, 
that  the  grain  is  exploded  into  meal,  bran,  &c.,  as  "soon  as  it  touches  the 
burrs,  that  the  vertical  position  of  the  stones  permits  easy  delivery  of  the 
raeal  and  cool  grinding,  and  that  there  is  not  only  no  possibility  of  the 
runner  following  up  the  bed  face  and  grinding  itself  out  of  true,  but  that, 
on  the  contrary,  the  runners  are  self-facing  (the  bed  being  stationery,  the 
runner  rigid,  no  pivot,  bale  and  driver  being  used)  and  grind  themselves 
so  true  that  with  but  little  additional  labor  they  will  run  to  within  the 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  without  touching. 

The  mill  in  its  complete  form,  combining  grinder,  scourer,  and  bolter, 
(the  last  two  are  shown  in  the  next  cut)  is  a  decided  novelty,  and  when 
contrasted  with  other  mills,  presents  manj''  startling  points  of  difference. 
Briefly  described,  the  bolter,  or  mill-case  is  a  cylinder  about  10  ft.  long 
by  3  ft.  in  diam.,  made  of  staves  and  held  together  by  a  band  and  iron 
heads,  into  one  of  which  the  grinder  is  fitted,  which  is  merely  a  20  inch 
pair  of  burrs,  set  vertically,  with  the  runner  turning  on  the  inside,  its 
spindle  passing  horizontally  through  the  bed  stone  in  a  journal  about  10 
ins.  in  length.  The  scourer  and  bolter  is  connected  to  the  grinder  by  in- 
genious machinery.  On  the  top  of  the  case  a  ventilator  runs  the  entire 
length,  having  an  opening  of  about  20  superficial  square  feet,  which  is 


noESi:  POWER  of  streams. 


G57 


-onstructed  for  cooling  the  bolter  quickly,  the  opening  heing  covered  Avith 
a  fibrous  cloth  material  which  permits  the  air  to  escape  freely,  causing  a 
low  ana  even  temperature,  while  detaining  the  fine  flour  dust.  A  dis- 
charge spout  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  case.  The  silk  bolter  occupies 
nearly  the  entire  space  in  the  cylinder,  and  is  fully  protected  from  hot 


substances  passing  into  it  from  the  grinder  by  a  wire  screen.  The  mid- 
dlings cloth  is  attached  to  the  finer  silk,  on  the  reel,  continuously,  and 
around  it  the  middlings  chamber  is  formed  the  full  circumference  of  the 
reel-head,  through  which  passages  connect  to  the  delivery  spout,  in  the 
middle  of  the  cylinder  head  at  the  tail  of  the  mill,  while  sweeps  are  at- 
tached to  the  reel  of  the  bolter  for  scraping  the  flour  up  to  the  discharge 
opening. 

Horse  Powkk  of  Streams. — Taking  Watt's  estimate  that  the  average 
power  of  a  horse  is  sufficient  to  raise  33,000  lbs.  1  foot  in  vertical  height 
per  minute  (by  rheans  of  compound  pulleys)  a  waterfall  has  one  horse 
power  for  every  33,000  lbs.  of  Avater  flowhig  in  the  stream  per  minute,  for 
each  foot  of  fall.   To  compute  the  power  of  a  stream,  therefore,  multi- 


C58 


HORSE  rowicii  of  stueams. 


ply  tho  area,  of  its  cross  section  in  feet  by  the  velocity  in  feet  per  mimite, 
mid  we  h:ive  the  number  of  cubic  feet  flowing  along  the  stream  per  min- 
ute. Multiply  tliis  by  ()2.V,  the  number  of  ])oun(l,H  in  a  culiic  foot  of 
water,  and  tiiis  by  tlio  vertical  fall  in  foot,  and  avo  have  the  foot-pounds 
per  minute  of  tho  fall  ;  dividing  by  3;5,()00  gives  us  the  horse-power. 

For  example  :  a  stream  flows  through  a  Hume  10  feet  wide,  and  tho 
deptli  of  the  watei-  is  4  feet  ;  the  area  of  the  ci'oss  section  will  bo  40  feet. 
The  velocity  is  150  feet  per  miiuite  —  40  x  150  =  GOOO  =  tlie  cubic  feet  of 
water  flowing  i)er  minute.  (iOOO  x  02^  =  375,000  —  the  pounds  of  water 
flowing  per  minute.  The  fall  is  10  "feet  ;  10  x  375,000  =  3,750,000  = 
the  foot  pounds  of  the  watei-fall.  Divide  3,750,000  by  33,000  and  we  have 
113§i  as  the  horse-power  of  the  fall. 

Rule.— Divide  the  continued  product  of  the  width,  the  depth,  tho 
velocity  of  the  water  per  minute,  the  height  of  the  fall,  and  the  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot  of  water  (62i  lbs.)  by  33,000. 

Example.— The  flume  of  a  mill  is  10  feet  wide,  the  water  is  3  feet 
deep,  the  velocity  is  100  feet  per  minute,  and  the  fall  11  feet.  What  is 
the  horse-power  of  the  fall  ? 

,  Operation.— (10  x  3  x  100  x  11  X  62^)^  33,000  =  62^  horse-power. 

"  Almost  every  man  has  about  him  in  his  daily  walk  sufficient  appara- 
tus for  a  tolerably  accurate  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  in 
any  stream.  A  walking  stick,  a  jack-knife,  and  a  watch,  provided  the 
walking-stick  is  just  three  feet  long,  are  all  the  tools  necessary  for  the 
purpose. 

"  Take  a  section  of  the  stream  as  uniform  in  breadth  and  depth  as  pos- 
sible, and  measure  off  upon  its  bank  some  definite  length,  say  from  one 
to  four  hundred  feet,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  tho  water  ;  set  a  stake 
close  to  the  water  at  each  end  of  this  section,  then  throw  into  the  water, 
opposite  the  upper  stake,  a  green  twig  or  limb  of  a  tree  or  other  object  of 
such  specific  gravity  as  to  nearly  but  not  quite  sink,  and  of  such  size  that  one 
portion  shall  remain  at  the  surface  Avhile  another  portion  nearly  touches 
bottom,  the  object  being  to  get  the  average  speed  of  the  water.  The  re- 
sistance caused  by  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  stream  necessitate  some 
care  in  this  part  of  the  experiment. 


.        n     h  c': 

d 

"Note  accurately  the  time  the  object  is  passing  from  stake  to  state, 
and  repeat  the^operation  several  times  and  at  as  many  points  towards  the 
opposite  shore';  the  sum  of  the  several  times  divided  by  the  number  of 
points  at  which  the  speed  was  taken,  gives  tho  average  speed  of  the 
water. 

"  Now  measure  the  depth  at  several  equidistant  points  across  the 
stream,  as  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  (the  diagram  showing  a  cross  section  of  the 
stream).  The  sum  of  these  depths,  divided  by  the  number  of  points  at 
which  the  depth  was  measured  gives  the  average  depth  ;  this  average 
dejpth  multiplied  by  the  breadth  of  the  stream  gives  the  area  of  the  cross 
section  ;  this  area,  multii^lied  by  the  length  of  ithe  section,  gives  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  body  of  water  embraced  in  tlie  section.  Thus  we  have 
the  quantity  and  its  velocity,  which  are  elements  necessary  to  show  tho 
value  of  a  stream  for  manufacturing  purposes,  provided  it  has  sufficient 
fall  anywhere  to  render  it  available, 

"  Allowing  62  pounds  for  each  cubic  foot  of  water,  a  supply  of  1,000 


PERFOKMANCE  &C.  OF  A  HORSE, 


G59 

I 


cubic  feet  per  minute,  and  a  fall  of  10  feet,  we  have  1,000  x  62  =  62,000 
pounds  ;  62,000  X  10  =  620,000  pounds  momentum,  which  last  divided  by 
33,000=18.7-horse  power,  one-fiftli  of  which  being  deducted  for  friction 
and  loss,  would  leave  in  this  case  about  15-horse  power."    The  Millstone. 

Water-wheels  lose  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  power,  and  the  actual 
power  of  the  steam  engine  is  less  than  that  indicated  by  the  horse-power, 
owing  to  a  loss  by  friction,  the  amount  of  which  depeitds  on  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  machinery,  arrangement,  &c.  For  horse-power  of  steam-en- 
gines, consult  page  370. 

Pekformance,  &c.,  of  a  Horse  —A  horse  will  travel  400  yds.  in  4^ 
minutes  at  a  loalk,  400  yds.  in  2  minutes  at  a  trot,  and  400  yds.  in  i  minute, 
at  a  gallop.  The  usual  work  of  a  horse  is  taken  at  22,500  lbs.  raised  1 
foot  per  minute,  for  8  hours  per  day.  A  horse  will  carry  250  lbs.  25  miles 
per  day  of  8  hours.  An  average  draught-horse  will  draw  1,600  lbs.  23 
miles  per  day  on  a  level  road,  weight  of  wagon  included.  TJie  average 
weight  of  a  horse  is  1,000  lbs.  ;  his  strength  is  equal  to  that  of  5  men.  In 
a  horse  mill  moving  at  3  feet  i)er  second,  track  25  feet  diameter,  he  exerts 
with  the  machine  the  power  of  4^  horses.  The  greatest  amount  a  horse 
can  pull  in  a  horizontal  line  is  900"  lbs.  ;  but  he  can  only  do  this  momen- 
tarily, in  continued  exertion,  probably  half  of  this  is  the  limit.  He  attains 
his  growth  in  5  years,  will  live  25,  average,  16  years.  A  horse  will  live 
25  days  on  water,  without  solid  food,  17  days  Avithout  eating  or  drinking, 
but  only  5  days  on  solid  food,  without  drinidng. 

Table  exhibiting  the  Performance!  of  a  Horse  at  different 

KATES  of  speed  ON  RAILROADS,  CaNALS,  TURNPIKES,  &C.,  DRAWING 

PoRCE  83J  lbs. 


Useful  effect  for  1  day  in  tons,  drawn  1  mile- 

Duration  of 

Speed  per  hour. 

day's  work 

On  canal- 

On  a  railroad- 

On  a  turn- 

Miles. 

— hours. 

tons- 

tons. 

pike-tons. 

2% 

8 

520 

115 

14 

3 

213 

02 

12 

G 

154 

82 

10 

4 

102 

72 

9 

5 

52 

57 

7.3 

G 

¥• 

30 

48 

6 

7 

19 

41 

5 

8 

lit 

12.8 

36 

4.5 

9 

9. 

32 

4. 

10 

G.5 

28.8 

3.G 

Gain  in  Fuel  and  Initial  Pressure  of  Steam  Required  when 
Acting  Expansively,  Compared  with  Non-Expansion  oii 
Full  Stroke. 


Initial 

PltESSURE 

Point 

Required. 

of 

Gain 

Cutting 

in 

o:f. 

Fuel. 

Cutting 

Full 

Off. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

Per  cent. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

11.7 

1.01 

1. 

1 

22.4 

1.03 

1. 

32. 

1.09 

1. 

41. 

1.18 

1. 

Point 
of 
Cutting 
Off. 

Gain 
Fuel. 

Initial 

llEQX 

Cutting 
Off. 

Pr.ESSUKE 
JIKED. 

Full 
Stroke. 

j  Stroke. 

Per  cent. 

Stroke. 

Stroke. 

49.6 

1.32 

1. 

58.2 

1.67 

1. 

!  ^ 

67.6 

2.6 

1. 

CGO  Compound  tiakink  enginKv 


IMPROYED  COMPOUND  SURFACE  CONDENSING  MARINE  ENGINE. 

Extraordinary  Duty  of  Steam  Machinery. — Two  Locomotives 
belonging  to  the  Peuusylvauia  R.  R.  Co.,  are  credited  with  the  following 
performances  : — 

Engine  Xo.  55  ran  two  j^ears,  ten  months,  and  twenty-five  days,  and 
made  161,476  miles,  without  once  being  off  her  wheels,  or  receiving  other 
repairs  than  such  as  are  common  to  round-housework.  The  cost  of  run- 
ning her  during  this  period  was  $1.88  per  mile.  The  other  engine,  No. 
422,  ran  three  years,  six  months  and  nineteen  days,  and  made  153,280 
miles,  at  a  cost  of  $2.44  per  mile  without  undergoing  the  slightest 
repairs. 


COMPOUND   MARINE  ENGlNi:. 


GGl 


To  FTND  T?iB  Quantity  of  V^atiIk  necessary  fok  a  Steatii  doil- 
EK. — Ascertain  the  Jiumbcr  of  lbs.  of  copJ  consumed  per  hour,  divide  it 
by  7'5,  mid  tlic  quotient  y/ill  be  the  desired  quantity  of  Avater  in  cubic  ft, 
pc'  hour.    A  cubic  ft.  of  AV.ater  "weighs  02 "5  lbs.    See  i^ago  029. 


The  above  sketch  represents  an  outline  of  the  least-complicated  and 
lowest-priced  form  of  compound-engine,  as  at  present  constructed  on  the 
Clyde,  in  Scotland,  and  on  the  Delaware,  in  the  United  States.  The 
cranks  Y,  Z,  are  coupled  at  an  angle  of  90°  ;  only  two  cylinders,  A  and 
B,  are  used  ;  a,  uniform  distribution  of  steam  pressure  is  secured  by  a 
large  allowance  of  steam  pipe,  and  by  the  steam  reservoir,  0,  P,  between 
the  tv/o  cylinders.  The  valves,  ?/,  y,  are  adjusted  like  those  of  an  ordi- 
nary engine,  the  essential  difference  being  that  the  steam  exhausted  by 
the  first  cylinder.  A,  is  used  over  again  in  the  second  and  largest  one,  B, 
the  combination  effecting  a  steam  expansion  of  about  six  times,  the  pres- 
sure in  the  boiler  usually  ranging  between  60  and  75  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

In  the  City  of  Peking,  a  5,000  ton  vessel,  built  on  tlie  Delaware  for  the 
Pacific  Mail  Company^ there  are  two  pairs  of  compound  engines,  with 


CG2 


CONSUMPTION  or  COAL,  AC. 


cylinders  of  51  nnd  88  iiia.  diam,  Tlic  crank  shafts  are  18  ins.  diain. 
lioilcr  pressure  is  (iO  lbs.  Steam  is  expanded  1)  times.  The  boilers  arc 
10  (cylindrical  inform,  Avitli  cylindrical  lines),  10.^  ft.  long,  13  ft.  diain. ; 
sliclls,  13-1(>  in.  thick,  witii  520  It.  of  grate  surface,  10,500  sq.  ft.  of  heat- 
ing surface,  and  1,(!00  sq.  ft.  of  superheating  surface,  with  smoke  stacks, 
8^  it.  diam.,  and  70  ft.  high. 

"The  simplest  form  of  superheater  used  on  hoard  steamers  consists  of  n 
■\vrought-iron  drum  filled  with  tubes.  They  are  placed  usually  in  the 
np-takes,  or  at  the  base  of  the  funnel  of  a  marine  boiler,  so  disposed 
that  the  waste  heat  and  flame  froin  the  furnaces  will  pass  through 
the  tubes  and  around  the  shell  of  the  drum,  the  steam  being  inside. 
Connection  is  made  witli  the  boiler  and  steam  pipes  of  the  engine,  and 
fitted  with  stop  valves  to  govern  the  admission  of  steam  according  to 
requirements.  A  safety  valve  and  gauge  glass  is  also  fitted,  to  show 
whether  the  superheater  is  clear  of  water,  as  priming  is  liable  to  fill  it 
up.  It  has  been  shown  that  this  contrivance  often  effects  a  saving  of  20 
to  25  per  cent,  in  the  fuel  consumed. 

Table  for  finding  the  Consumption  of  Coal  per  Hour  in  Steamers, 
either  Paddle  or  Screw  {the  same  Screw  beinr/  used  throughout),  at  any 
Bate  of  Speed,  the  Consumption  for  a  particular  Hate' beinr/  knorvn. 
(At  a  given  Amount  of  Coal,  the  JEnc/ineer  may  determine  the  most  pru- 
dent Rate  of  Engine  for  reaching  next  coaling  Port.) 


Speed. 

Consumption 
of  Coal. 

Speed. 

Consumption, 
of  Coal. 

3 

.210 

9 

5  83 

3^ 

.343 

9i 

6.86 

4 

.512 

10 

8.00 

4* 

.729- 

10^ 

9.26 

5" 

1  000 

11 

10  65 

5i 

1  331 

114 

12.15 

6 

1.728 

12 

13.82 

6i 

2.197 

12i 

15  61 

7 

2.744 

13 

17.58 

? 

3.375 

13^ 

19.68 

4. 090 

14 

21.95 

8i 

4.910 

Explanation. 


The  speed  for  the  consump- 
tion of  an  unit  of  coal  is  sup- 
posed here  to  be  5,  which  may  be 
5  miles  or  knots,  or  5  times  any 
number  of  miles  or  knots  ;  then 
if  5  of  such  number  of  miles  re- 
quire 1  unit  of  coal  per  hour,  9 
of  such  units  wUl,  by  the  table, 
require  5.83  units  of  coal,  and  3 
of  them  .216  units  of  coal. 


It  will  be  evident  that  this  table  is  calculated  on  the  principle  that  the 
horse  power  varies  very  nearly  as  the  cube  of  the  speed  ;  the  enormous 
increase  of  consumption  at  increased  velocities  is  in  fact  a  little  greater 
than  that  shown  by  the  Table. 

The  advantages  indicated  above  to  be  obtained  at  low  velocities  are 
evidently  independent  of  those  obtained  at  those  velocities  by  using  the 
steam  expansively.    Engineer's  and  Contractor' s  Pocket  Book. 

To  Preserve  Boiler  Tubes. — A  coating  of  red-lead  and  boiled  linseed 
oil,  applied  to  iron  boiler  tubes  acts  as  a  powerful  preservative. 

A  lacquer  of  linseed  oil  and  caoutchouc  applied  to  the  walls  of  a  steam 
boiler  prevents  the  adhesion  of  sediment  so  that  the  sucale  admits  of  easy 
removal. 

To  Protect  Polished  Steel  or  Iron  from  Rust.—  Go  over  the  sur- 
face with  paraflSne,  or  steep  the  iron  for  a  few  miniites  in  a  solution  of 
Bulphate  of  copper  and  then  transfer  it  into  a  solution  of  hjqDosulphite  of 
Boda  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  result  is  a  blue-black  coat- 
ing not  affected  by  air  or  water. 


CONSUMPTION  OF  FUEL,  &C. 


663 


Breaking  and  CRrsniNO  strains  of  Iron  and  Steel.  Average 

CALCITLATIONS. 

Breaking  stmin  of  wrought  iron  =  23  tons  per  sq.  inch  of  section. 

Crushing    do,             do.  =  17  "  do,  do. 

Breaking  strain  of  cast  iron  =  "  do.  do. 

Crushing   do.             do.  —  50  "  do.  do. 

Breaking  strain  of  steel  bars  —50  do.  do. 

Crushing   do.             do.  r=  16G  "  do,  do. 

Memoranda  of  Temperatures  for  Engineers,  &c. — Melting  ice 
is  32°  ;  boiling  -water  at  atmospheric  pressure  or  exposed  to  air  212°  ; 
steam  at  GO  lbs.  pressure  by  steam  guage  307°  ;  usual  heat  of  superheated 
steam  380°  to  400°  ;  smoke  in  the  f uiuiel  C00°  ;  water  in  hot  well  from 
lOO''  to  120°,  For  raising  steam,  the  horizontal  surfaces  over  the  fire, 
have  double  the  value  of  vertical  surfaces  for  economy  of  heat.  Boiler 
plates  increase  in  strength  up  to  570°  of  heat,  and  get  weaker  with  the 
increase  of  temperature. 

Temperatures  at  sundry  subterranean  depths,  in  deg.  Fahr. 
At  68  ft.  47,9    At  G21  ft.  50.7  .  At  1290  ft.  58 .3   At  1GG2  ft.  G1.2 
"  299      48.8     "  939  "  57.8     "  1414  "  59.4     "  1900  "  G1.4 

Fresh  water  begins  to  freeze  at  32°,  called  the  freezing  point,  but  salt 
water  not  till  28|°.  The  atoms  lose  the  motion  called  heat,  and  become 
fixed  in  crystals. 

Consumption  of  Fuel  in  Marine  Boilers, —  This  will  average 
about  15^  lbs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  per  hour.  In  4  furnaces  3  ft.  wide 
by  6  ft.  long  with  72  sq,  ft,  of  surface,  about  12  tons  of  coal  will  be  burnt 
per  day, 

feet,  lbs, 
72x154 

Thus,  =9.9  cwts.  per  hour,  say  10  cwts.  per  hour  or  12  tons  per 

112 

day.  A  much  simpler  and  equally  correct  rule  is,  that  one  foot  in  Avidth 
of  fire  bar  equals  1  ton  of  coal  per  day ;  so  that  in  the  example  above  tlie 
total  width  of  four  furnaces  is  3ft.  x  "=12  ft,  wide,  or  12  tons  per  day  as 
before. 

A  ship  having  40  ft.  beam  and  ordinary  condensing  engines,  will  re- 
quire 40  tons  of  coal  per  day  to  drive  her  at  10  knots.  The  reason  for 
stating  this  is,  that  it  is  well  'known  from  ordinary  experience  of  average 
steamers  that  the  beam  squared  equals  the  consumption  of  fuel  for  40,  50, 
or  60  days,  according  to  whether  the  engines  are  ordinary  jet,  surface 
condensing,  or  compound.  Thus,  in  present  example  : — 
days  

4/0)160/0  5/0)160/0  0/0)160/0 


40  tons  for  one  day         32  tons  for  2G  tons  8  cwt. 

for  ordinary  con-  surface  for  compound 

densing .  condensing.  engines. 

A  pair  of  surface  condensing  engines  (not  compound)  having  40  inch 
cylinders,  doing  average  work,  AvilJ  require  16  tons  of  coal  per  day  ;  it  be- 
ing a  Avell  known  practical  fact  that  the  diameter  of  one  cylinder,  squared 
and  divided  by  100,  gives  the  average  consumption  of  fuel  in  this  class  of 
engine  yer  day.    Thus,  in  present  example  : — 

42=  =  40  X  40  =  1000  ;  then,         =  16  tons  per  day. 

Compound  engines  burn  J  less,  and  ordinary  jet  i  more  than  the  abova 
Reed's  Engineefs  Hand  Book. 


GG'l-  RULES   FOR  ENGINEERS,  &C. 

Ratio  of  CoMiurKTioN  vim  iiouit  undicii  VyVuioTrs  Loilkkf?.— Cor- 
nisli, --a.V  lbs.  looi,  ;  I.ukI  l)()il(;rs 10  to  2()lbs.  (Kn«li.«]i)  13 

to  14  lbs.  ;  iii;u  iiir  boilers  iinil  (lr;ui,ulit),  10  to  18  lbs.  ;  (bliust),  'M  to 
GO  lbs.  ;  locomoLivo  boihu's,  KO  to  J'JO  Jbs. 

To  find  lloitsio  I'owicu  of  En(;imic  to  kaisk  Watkr  to  a  givin 
Height.— Weij;ht  of  coliiinii  of  water  X  by  its  velocity,  in  foot,  per  uiiii- 
uto,  product     33,000  =  II.  1*. 

To  FIND  THE  Velocity  kequoikd  to  Dischakgk  a  given  volume 
OF  Water  in  any  Given  Time. — Number  of  cubic  feet  X  144  ;  pro- 
ilnct  -r  by  area  of  pipe,  or  opening  in  inches  =  Velocity. 

To  Ascektain  the  Breadth  of  thio  1'orts.— Half  the  throw  of  the 
valve  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  lap  on  the  steam  side  added  to  the 
breadth  of  the  port.  If  this  breadtli  does  not  give  the  required  area  of 
port,  increase  the  throw  of  valve  until  the  area  is  attained. 

Proper  Lift  of  Poppet  Valves.— The  best  results  from  poppet  or 
conical  valves  are  obtained  by  giving  them  a  lift  equivalent  to  one  half 
the  semi-diameter  of  a  circle,  or  ^  the  diameter  of  the  valve.  This  will 
afford  an  opening  equivalent  to  the  area  of  the  port  and  the  eccentrics  and 
the  lifting  toes  should  be  adjusted  so  as  to  produce  this  effect. 

To  FIND  Dimensions  of  Chimney  for  a  Land  Engine.— Multiply 
number  of  lbs.  of  coal  consumed  under  the  boiler  per  liour  by  12 ;  divide  the 
product  by  square  root  of  the  height  of  chimney  in  feet.  Quotient  is  area 
of  chimney  at  smallest  point  in  square  inches. 


Table  Showing  Diameter  and  Height  of  Chimney  for  any  Boiler. 


Ilorse-powoi 
of  Boiler. 

;Vit.  of  Chimney 
in  Feet. 

Interior  Diiinieter 
at  Top 

H.  P.  of 
Boiler. 

Alt.  of  Chimney 
in  Feet. 

Interior  Jyiametcr 
at  Top. 

10 

CO 

14  inches. 

70 

120 

30  inches. 

12 

75 

14  " 

90 

120 

31  " 

16 

00 

16  " 

120 

135 

38  ' 

20 

09 

17  " 

160 

1.50 

43  " 

30 

105 

21  " 

200 

165 

47  " 

50 

120 

26  " 

250 

180 

52  " 

60 

120 

27  " 

380 

195 

57  " 

To  Clean  Greasy  Cotton  Waste. — Boil  it  in  a  strong  solution  of 
common  soda  in  water,  and  save  the  resultant  soapy  liquid  to  keei)  your 
drills  and  reamers  lubricated  when  drilling  iron. 

To  Clean  Grease  from  Bolts. — Moisten  with  benzine,  roll  iu  saw- 
dust, and  brush  afterward. 

Calculations  regarding  Dimensions,  Power,  &c.,  op  Steam 
Boilers  . — Good  authorities  consider  it  quite  a  safe  practice  to  allow 
9  square  ft.  heating  surface  for  Cylinder  boilers  per  H.  P. 
12      "       "       "       "       "  flue 
15      "       "      "       "      "      tifbular         "  " 

One  half  the  circumference  of  the  boiler  multiplied  into  the  length  and 
reduced  to  square  feet  will  give  the  heating  surface  in  cylhider  boilers  ; 
or,  the  heating  surface  in  the  shell  of  flue  and  tubular  boilers.  To  find 
the  heating  surface  in  the  tubes  or  flues,  multiply  their  external  circum- 
ference by  their  length  and  reduce  to  square  feet.  The  heating  surface 
of  the  tubes  or  flues  added  together  and  then  adding  the  heating  surface 
in  the  shell,  Avill  give  the  total  heating  surface.  This  divided  by  12  or  15 
as  the  case  may  be  will  give  the  horse  power  of  any  particular  boiler  in 
terms  of  heating  surface  as  given  above.  This  is  to  be  understood  as 
being  purely  conventional  and  arbitrary,  and  not  the  actual  horse  power, 
which  can  only  be  determined  by  an  experimental  test,  made  by  a  com- 
petent expert. 


HEATING  SURFACE,  &C.,  OF  BOILERS. 


G6o 


The  folio wincj  Tables  will  serve  as  :i  guide  in  the  selection  of  boilers, 
and  may  be  quite  serviceable  to  millwrights  and  others. 

Table  I.— II.  V.  of  Cylinder  Boilek  at  9  feet. 

Diam, 


II.  P. 

10 
12 
15 
18 
20 


06  in. 

38 

40 

44 

46 


Length. 
19  ft. 
22 
20 
28 
30 


Heating  Surface 

90  sq.  ft. 
103  " 
135 
162 
180 


Table  II.— H.  P.  of  2  Flub  Boileus  at  12  feet 

Diam.  Boiler,  Diam.  Flues. 

34  in.  10  in, 

30  13 

40  14 

22               44  16 

25               46  17 

Table  III.- H.  P.  of  5  Flue  Boilers  at  12  feet, 
H.  P.      Diam.  Boiler.      Diam.  Flues. 

(  2—10  in. 
I  3- 8 
j  1—13 

(2—8 

1—  14 

2—  10  18  356 
1—  8 


H.  P. 

15 
18 
20 


Length. 
IS  ft. 
20 
20 
IS 
20 


Length. 


44  in. 

46 

50 


14  ft. 
16 

18 


Heat.  Surf. 
176  sq.  ft 

222 
254 
260 
302 


Heat  Surf. 
245  sq.  ft. 


Table  IV. — H.  P.  of  Boilers  >YiTn  G-inch  lap  avelded  Tubes  at 

12  FEET. 

H.  P.  Diam.  Lengtli. 

15  42  in.  12  ft. 

20  42  16 

25  44  18 

30  46  18 

36  46  20 

42  48  20 


No  of  Flues.  Heat  Surf. 

6  179  ft. 

6  239 

7  302 
9  363 

10  434 

13  503 


T-Able  V. — H.  P.  OF  Boilers  with  3-incii  tubes  at  15  feet. 


H.  P. 

Diam. 

Length. 

No  of  Tubes. 

Heat  Surf. 

15 

36  in. 

8  ft 

30 

227  ft. 

19 

36  ' 

10 

30 

283 

22 

36 

12 

SO 

3.39 

27 

40 

12 

36 

402 

31 

44 

12 

42 

465 

36 

44 

14 

42 

543 

42 

48 

14 

50 

638 

xn  regard  to  the  diameter  and  length  of  a  boiler,  it  might  be  observed 
that  cylinder  boilers  are  usually  made  from  18  to  30  feet  in  length,  and 
from  30  to  48  inches  in  diameter.  Flue  boilers  from  18  to  24  feet  in 
length,  and  from  36  to  60  inches  in  diameter.  Tubular  from  8  to  18  feet 
in  length,  and  from  30  inches  to  5  feet  in  diameter. 


6GG         ON  liOiLEiiS,  rowEU  op  explosives. 

Boilers  liavin;:  lap-wcldod  tiibcs  increase  in  extra  cost  Avlicn  their 
Icnj^tlis  exceed  18  feet.  These  tubes  wouki  have  to  be  made  to  order, 
which,  in  case  of  rei)airs,  might  cause  considerable  loss  of  time  in  having 
to  wait  for  them  to  be  made.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  diameters  of  boilers 
below  4  feet  than  go  over  it,  using  two  or  more  boilers  as  may  be  needed 
to  furnish  the  requisite  Jimount  of  steam. 

In  large  and  important  works  the  subjects  of  boilers,  engines,  etc., 
ought  to  be  referred  to  a  competent  mechanical  engineer,  who  will  ad- 
vise as  to  the  kind,  size,  and  number  to  be  emjjloyed.    The  Mill  Stone. 

To  fuid  the  contents  of  cylinder  boilers  multiply  the  area  of  the  head 
in  inches  by  the  length  in  inches  and  divide  the  product  by  '1728  ;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  the  boiler  will  con- 
tain. Example  :  Diameter  of  head,  36  inches  ;  area  of  head,  1017.87 
inches  ;  length  of  boiler,  20  feet  or  240  inches.  Now  multiply  1017.87  by 
240  and  the  product  will  be  244,283.80  ;  divide  this  by  .1728  and  the  re- 
sult will  be  141.37  cubic  feet,  which  will  be  the  contents  of  the  shell. 

In  flue  boilers,  multiply  area  of  the  head  in  inches  by  the  length  of  the 
shell  in  inches  ;  multiply  the  combined  area  of  the  flues  in  inches  by 
their  length  in  inches,  subtract  this  product  from  the  first  and  divide  the 
remainder  by  "1728  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
water  the  boiler  Mill  contain. 

To  FIND  THE  Length  of  Belting  when  closely  Rolled.— The  sum 
of  the  diameters  of  the  roll  and  the  eye  in  inches,  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  turns  made  by  the  belt,  and  this  product  multiplied  by  the  decimal 
.1309,  will  be  the  length  of  the  belt  in  feet.  Anchinchloss. 

To  Measure  Scantlings,  Joists,  Plank,  Sills,  &c.—7?uZe.— Multi- 
ply the  width,  the  thickness  and  the  length  together  (the  width  and  thick- 
ness in  inches  and  the  length  in  feet),  and  divide  the  product  by  12  ;  the 
result  will  be  the  square  feet.  To  Measure  Boards — Multiply  the  length 
(hi  feet)  by  the  width  (in  ijiches)  and  divide  the  product  by  12  ;  the  re- 
sult will  be  the  number  of  Square  feet  it  contains. 
Explosive  force  of  various  substances  used  for  fire  arms, 
artillery,  blasting,  &c, 


Heat. 

Volume 

Estimated 

of  Gas. 

Explosive 

lorce. 

509 

0.173  liter. 

88 

008 

0.225  " 

137 

641 

0.216  " 

139 

764 

0.248  " 

190 

Powder,  Chlorate  of  Potash  for  its  base . . 

972 

0.318  " 

309 

590 

0.801  " 

472 

687 

0.780  " 

536 

,  578 

0.585  " 

680 

1420 

0.484  " 

680 

1424 

0.408  " 

582 

Picrate             "  "   

1422 

0.337  " 

478 

1320 

0.710  " 

939 

The  above  instructive  table  is  by  the  celebrated  M.  Berthelot,  who 
further  describes  nitro-glycerin  as  "  really  the  ideal  of  portable  force. 
It  burns  completely  without  residue  ;  in  fact,  gives  an  excess  of  oxygen  ; 
it  developes  twice  as  much  heat  as  powder,  three  and  a  half  times  more 
gas,  and  has  seven  times  the  explosive  force,  weight  for  weight,  and, 
taken  volume  for  volume,  it  possesses  twelve  timesmore  energy."  From 
the  extreme  danger  of  the  work,  none  but  a  competent  chemist  should 
attempt  to  manufacture  it. 


GOLD  MINING,  SPEED  OF  BODIES. 


667 


Many  other  explosives  derive  their  energy  from  nitro-glycerin.  Dy- 
namite is  nitro-glycerine  compounded  with  rotten-stone,  or  silicious,  or 
infasorinl  earth,  tripoli,  &c. ;  a  compound  of  nitro-glycerin  and  saw-dust 
has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  dualui ;  a  mixture  of  plaster  of  Paris 
and  nitro-glycerin  has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  "  selenitic  powder;" 
and  fine  jwwder,  blended  with  nitro-glycerin,  has  been  vended  under  the 
name  of  "  lithofracteur,"  or  "rendrock."  The  practical  miner  will  be 
interested  in  the  above,  as  well  as  in  the  following  : — 
Table  showing  the  quantity  of  gold  to  the  ton  of  ore,  cor- 

responding  to  the  weights  in  grains  obtained  from  400 

grains  of  mineral. 


If  400  grains  o' 
Ore  give 
Fine  Gold, 


Grains. 

.001  

.002   

.003  

.004  

.005  

.006  

.007  

.008  

.009  

.010  

.020  

.030  

.040  

.050  

.OfiO  

.070  

.080  

.090  

.100  


One  ton  of 

Ore 
.will  yield, 


If  400  Grains  of 
Ore  give 
Fine  Gold, 


Grains. 

,200...... 

.300  

,400  

.500  

.600  

.700  

.800  

.900  

1.000  

2.000   

3.000  

4.000  

5.000  

6.000  

7.000   

8.000  

9.000  

10.000  

20.000  


One   ton  of 
Ore 
will  yield. 


16 
24 
32 
40 
49 
57 
65 
73 
81 
163 
245 
326 
408 
490 
570 
653 
735 
816 
1633 


Dwts. 


Mr,  Black,  of  San  Francisco,  estimates  that  in  mining  operations  the 
average  cost  of  handling  a  cubic  yard  of  aurif  eroiis  gravel  with  the  pan 
is  $20  ;  with  the  rocker,  $5  ;  with  the  long  torn,  %1  ;  and  with  the  hy- 
draulic process,  20c.  See  other  items  for  miners  on  page  451,  An  ex- 
cellent compilation  on  this  subject  is  "  The  Miner's  Hand-Book,"  by 
Julius  Silvermith,  for  sale  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York. 

Table  showing  the  Average  Velocities  of  Various  Bodies  ,, 


Per  hour. 

Per  Bee 

or 

4  feet. 

or 

10  " 

or 

29  " 

or 

26  " 

or 

14  " 

  3  " 

or 

4  " 

or 

10  " 

or 

10 

or 

52  '* 

or 

117  " 

or  1466  '« 

 743  " 

or 

1142  «« 

 192000  miles  per  sec. 

Electricity  «   

 288000  " 

^^  i 

Parker's 

Philosophy. 

G68 


ON  SUGyVIi  MILLS,  &C. 


Enormous  Rf.sults  of  SricAMrowKu. — Tlio  nf;j{jrosato  steam-power 
in  uso  ill  thv,  world  is  at  pi'cscnt  three  and  oiui-liall'  millioiirt  hors(!-power 
employed  in  stationary  engines,  and  t(!n  millions  horse-power  in  loeomo- 
tivo  e'n.fjines.  'J'his  force  is  maiiilainod  -without  tlic  consumption  of 
animal  food,  except  by  tlic  miners  who  dig  tlie  coals,  and  the  force  main- 
tained in  their  muscle's  is  to  the  force  generated  by  the  product  of  tlieir 
labor  about  1  to  1,080.  This  steam-power  is  equal  to  the  working  force 
of  25  millions  of  hox'ses,  and  one  liorse  consumes  three  times  as  much 
food  as  one  man.  The  steam-power,  therefore,  is  equivalent  to  the  sav- 
ing of  food  for  75  millions  of  luimau  beings.  Further,  three  power-looms 
attended  by  one  man,  produce  78  pieces  of  cotton  fabric,  against  4  pieces 
produced  by  one  hand-loom,  worked  by  one  man  in  the  year  1800.  A 
carpenter's  planing  machine  does  the  work  of  twenty  men. 


SUGAR  MILL. 


Sugar  Mill,. — The  sugar  canes  are  crushed  in  a  press  consisting  of 
three  hollow  cast  iron  rollers,  represented  in  the  cut  by  a  b  c,  placed 
horizontally  in  a  cast  iron  f  rat^e.  By  means  of  the  screws,  i,  i,  the  ap- 
proximate distance  of  the  rollers'^s' adjusted.  One  roller  is  half  as  large  as 
the  others,  and  is  moved  by  three  cogged  wheels  fitted  on  to  the  axis  of  the 
rollers.  Thesngar  canes  are  transferred  from  the  slate  gutter,  d,  d,  to  the 
rollers,  a,  c,  which  press  them  a  little,  and  from  thence  they  are  carried 
to  the  arched  i)late,  n,  to  the  rollers  c,  h.  The  pressed  sugar  canes  fall 
over  the  gutter/,  the  expressed  juice  collecting  in  g,  g,  and  running  off 
through  h.  The  middle  roller  is  termed  the  king  roller  ;  the  side  cylin-- 
ders  are  individually  the  side  roller  and  niacasse. 

Sugar  Mill. — For  Expressing  20,000  Ihs  of  Cane  Juice  per  day. 
Non-condensing  Engine.  Cylinder  15  ins.  in  diameter  by  4  ft.  stroke. 
Pressure,  50  lbs.  per  sq .  in.,  cut  off  at  \  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Revolu- 
tions. 36  per  minute.  Boiler.  One  of  62  ins.  diam.  by  30  ft.  in  length, 
Avith  2  18-in.  return  flues.  Grates.  36  Square  ft.  Rolls.  Two  sets  of  three 
each,  of  24  ins.  diam.  by  5  ft.  in  length  ;  geared  2^  to  30  of  engine,  giving 
a  speed  of  periphery  of  15^  ft.  per  minute.  Fly-Wheel.  18  ft.  diam.  ; 
weight  5  tons. 

This  arrangement  of  a  second  set  of  rolls  is  a  late  improvement  ;  its 
object,  that  of  expressing  the  cane  a  second  time.  An  increase  of  20  per 
cent,  is  effected  by  it. 


KULES  FOR  MACHINISTS,  &C. 


GGD 


For  a  Crop  of  3000  Boxes  or  Sugar  of  500  lbs.  -EAcn.— Cylinder. 
10  ius.  in  diam.  by  4  it.  stroke.  Pressure,  GO  lbs.  per  square  in.  Revo- 
hit  Ions  48,  driving  1  set  of  rolls,  24  ins  by  4  ft.,  at  a  speed  of  periphery  of 
36  ft.  per  minute.  Boiler.  52  ius.  bv  24  ft.,  with  2  16-in  return  flues. 
Grate  Surface.  25  square  ft.  Fly  Wheel.  16  ft.  diara. ;  weight.  4  tons. 
Enciineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Book. 

Cotton  Press.  Non-condensing  Engine.  For  1000  Bales  in  12  hours. 
Cylinder  14  in.  in  diam.  by  4  ft.  stroke.  *  Pressure.  40  lbs.  per  sq..  at  full 
stroke.  Revolutions.  60'per  minute.  Boilers.  Three,  plain  cyliudical, 
without  flues,  30  in.  in  diam.  by  2(5  ft.  in  length.  Grates.  32  square  ft. 
Presses.  Four,  geared  G  to  one,  Avith  2  screws  cacli  of  7^  in.  diam.,  by  Ig 
in.  pitch.  Shaft  ( Wrought  Iron).  Journal,  8^  in.  Fly-wheel.  16  ft. 
diameter,  weight,  4  tons.' 

Rules  to  Ascertain  the  Pressure  ov  Slide  Valves. — Multiply 
the  unbalanced  area  of  the  valvS  in  inches  by  the  pressure  of  steam  in 
lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  the  weight  of  the  valve  in  lbs.,  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  0  15 

To  get  an  Engine  into  Line  and  Square  the  Shaft.— Set  up 
two  lines,  one  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylhider,  or  through  the  cylinder, 
if  possible,  and  the  other  perpendicular  to  tlie  first,  in  the  same  piano. 
These  are  reference  lines  to  measure  from,  to  bring  the  shaft  and  guide 
into  line. 

Hint  to  Machinists. — In  turning  steel  or  other  hard  metal,  use  a  drip 
composed  of  petroleum  2  parts,  and  turpentine  1  part.  This  will  ensure 
easy  cutting  and  perfect  tools  when  otherwise  the  work  would  stop  owing 
to  the  breakage  of  tools  from  the  severe  strain. 

To  Melt  Brass  Turnings  and  Filings  with  Little  Waste. — 
Compress  firmly  in  a  crucible  until  it  is  full  ;  then  cover,  and  lute  the 
top  with  pipe  or  fire-clay.  Brass  scraps  may  be  melted  with  new  brass, 
putting  it  in  with  tlie  zinc  after  the  copper  is  melted. 

To  Temper  Anvils. — Heat  the  anvil  and  immerse  it  in  a  tank  of 
cold  water  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  or  play  a  stream  of  cold 
water  from  a  hose  on  its  face. 


PROPER  SIZE,  SPEED,  &C.,  OF  EMERY  WHEELS. 


Diam.  of  Wheel 
i.i  inches. 

Rev.  per 
miuute. 

Number  of 
Emei-y. 

Grade 
of  Cut. 

2  

Wood  Rasp, 
Rasp  File. 
Rough.  File. 
Bastard  File. 
Second  Cut  File. 
Smooth  File. 
Superfine  File. 
Dead  Smooth  File. 

4  

. ...  16  to  20  ... 

C  

8  

10  

12  

1100   

....  70  to  KO . . . . 

14    

900  

...  90  to  100.... 

16  

18  

700  -.  

20  

22  

24  

26  

400...-  

36  

325  

Emery  wheels  may  be  trued  by  means  of  a  diamond  tool,  a  red  hot 
iron,  or  by  a  file  applied  to  the  Avet  periphery  of  the  wheel.  For  emery 
cement,  see  page  424.  In  using  emery  paper  or  cloth  for  finishing,  the 
paper,  although  the  easiest  to  destroy,  imparts  the  smoothest  polish  to 
the  metal,  and  the  longer  it  is  used  the  better  it  polishes. 


G70 


AVKIGIIT,   DIMENSIONS,   &C.,   OF  TIN  PLATKS. 


NuMnKii,  Wkioitt,  Sizk,  Ltcxoth,  axd  Bkkatii  of  Tin  Plates. 


Brand  Makk. 


1  c 

1  X 
1  XX 
1  XXX 

1  xxxx 
1  xxxxx 
1  xxxxxx 

D  C 

P  X 

D  XX 
D  XXX 
Dr  xxxx 
D  xxxxx 
D  xxxxxx 

S  D  C 
S  D  X 
S  D  XX 
S  D  XXX 
S  D  XXXX 
S  D  xxxxx 
S  D  xxxxxx 

TTT  Taggers, 

1  C 

1  X 

1  XX 

1  XXX 

1  xxxx 

1  c 

1  X 
1  XX 
1  XXX 

1  xxxx 

Leaded  or  )1C 
TernpR    \  1  x 


No.  oi 

Sheet? 


225 

225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
225 

100 
100 
100 
100 

foo 

100 
100 

200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 


225 
225 
225 
225 
225 

112 
112 
112 
112 
112 

112 
112 


Length  and 
Hieudtlx. 


Inches. Inches 

14  by  10 

'  '  by  10 


14 


14  l)y  10 
14  by  10 
14  by  10 
14  T)y  10 

14  by  10 

17  by  m, 

17  by  12| 

17  by  12A 

17  by  12| 

17  by  12| 

17  by  12^ 

17  by  12^ 

15  by  11 
15  by  11 
15  by  11 
15  by  11 
15  by  11 
15  by  11 
15  by  11 

14  by  10 


12  by  12 
12  by  12 
12  by  12 
12  by  12 
12  by  12 


14  by  20 
14  by  20 
14  by  20 
14  by  20 
14  by  20 


by  20 
bv  20 


WoiKlit  per 
Box. 


Cwt.  qr.  lbs. 


0  21 

3-14 

0  14 

1  7 

2  0 

2  21 

3  14 
0  7 


2    0  27 


1  20 

2  13 
about 

10  0 


Each  1  X  r.dvances 
^i;i.75  to  ^f2.00 


N   ^  ^  O 


«.2 

>  O  0) 


c«  ^  tip 


About  the  same  weight 
per  Box,  as  the  plates 
above  of  similar  brand, 
14  to  10. 


For  Roofing. 


OIL  CANISTERS,  {from  2h  to  125  qalls.)  WITH  THE  QUANTITY  AND 
QUALITY  OF  TIN  REQUIRED  FOR  CUSTOM  WORK. 


Quantity  and  Quality. 


Plates,  I  X  in  body. 
SDX 
DX  " 
"  IX 
*'  DX 
DX 


33 


60 
90 
125 


Quantity  and  Quality. 


13^  Plates,  IX  in  body,  3 

breadths  high. 
13^  Plates,  S  D  X  in  body 
13$      "        DX  " 
15|      "        DX     "  * 
20       "        DX  " 


*  The  bottom  tier  of  plates  to  be  placed  lengthwise. 


diagiia:m  for  bevel  covers,  &c. 


671 


Varnishes  for  Pipes  and  Iron-Work.— Coal  tar,  30  gals.  ;  tallow, 
6  lbs.  ;  rosin,  1^  lbs.  ;  lamp-black,  3  lbs. ;  fresh  slaked  lime,  finely  sifted, 
30  lbs.  Stir  airtlioroughly  together,  and  apply  hot.  Ajiother.—Tar  oil, 
20  lbs.  ;  asphaltura,  5  lbs.  ;  powdered  rosin,  5  lbs.  Heat  all  together  ir 
an  iron  kettle,  very  carefully,  to  prevent  ignition. 


M 


To  Strike  out  can  tops  and  Bevel  Covers  For  Vessels.— 
Describe  the  angle  MAC,  and  from  the  point  F,  the  altitude  height 
you  desire  the  breast,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  H  ;  then  on  the  line  C, 
mark  the  point  E  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  can,  and  on  the  line  H 
mark  the  point  G  one-lialf  of  the  opening  in. the  top  of  breast  ;  draw  the 
line  B  to  cross  through  the  points  E  and  G  to  intersect  the  line  M  ;  place 
one  foot  of  the  compasses  at  tlie  point  I  and  the  other  on  the  i^oint  E,  and 
delineate  the  circle  E  N  L  ;  next,  span  the  compasses  from  i^oint  I  to 
point  G  and  outline  the  circle  G  D  K  ;  then  span  from  A  to  E,  and  step 
the  compasses  six  times  on  the  circle  E  N  L,  which  gives  the  dimensions 
of  the  breast.  The  allowance  for  the  locks  is  represented  by  the  dotted 
lines. 

Beautiful  Bronze,  Applicable  to  all  Metals.— Take  10  parte 
aniline  red  (fuchsine),  and  5  of  aniline  pui^Dle,  and  dissolve  in  100  parts  of 
95  per  cent,  alcohol,  taking  care  to  help  the  solution  by  placing  the  vessel 
in  a  sand  or  water  bath.  As  soon  as  the  solution  is  effected,  5  parts  of 
benzoic  acid  are  added,  and  the  whole  is  boiled  from  five  to  ten  minutes 
until  the  greenish  color  of  the  mixture  is  transformed  into  a  fine  light- 
colored,  brilliant  bronze.   Apply  with  a  brush . 

Imitation  Nickel  Plating. — Coarse  rasped  granulated  zinc  is  boiled 
for  some  time,  in  a  mixture  of  3  parts  by  weight  of  sal  ammoniac,  and 


G72 


FKUSTllUMS,   KLLirSES,  NAILS,  &C 


10  of  wjitcr,  the  objects  iniinci'Hod  ,ind  stirred  up  witli  a  zinc  rod.  Tlio 
deposit  is  silvery  l)ri,i4lit,  ;uid  rcisists  meeluuiieul  action  us  well  as  a  coat- 
iui;  ol'  nickel.  Tlui  ])r()cess  can  he  I'econiniended  for  .^oods  which  are 
meant  for  a  second  coating  of  some  other  metal,  since  auy  other  is  easily 
deposited  on  zinc. 

A 


•  How  TO  Strike  out  the  Frustrum  of  a  Cone.— In  the  figure  E 
G  II  D  represent  the  desired  frustrum  ;  continue  the  liaes  D  E  and  G  I£ 
until  they  meet  at  the  apex  C  ;  then  from  C  as  a  centre,  Avith  the  radius 
C  H,  lay  off  the  arc  H  B  ;  also  from  C,  with  the  radius  C  G,  describe  the 
arc  G  A  ;  make  G  A  twice  the  length  of  E  F  G,  drawing  the  line  C  A, 
and  G  II  A  B,  is  the  desired  outline  of  the  plate  you  require. 

TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  AN  ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  longer  diameter  by  the  shorter  diameter,  and  by 
•7854,  and  the  product  wall  be  the  area. 

Kxample. — Required  the  area  of  an  ellipse  whose  longer  diameter  is  G 
inches  and  shorter  diameter  4  inches  ? 

64-4+-  7854     18-8496,  the  area. 

To  FIND  THE  SURFACE  OF  A  SPHERE  OR  GLOBE. — Multiply  the  diameter 
by  the  circumference  ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  3"1416  ; 
or  multiply  four  times  the  square  of  the  radius  by  3'14ir). 

No.    OF  American  Machine  made  Cut  ^Iails  in  a  Pound  as 

VERIFIED  BY  ACTUAL  COUNT. 


Size.     |  Number. 


3  penny  408 

4  "   275 

5  "   227 


Size.    |  Number. 


6  penny   ..150 

8    "   100 

10  "   m 


Size.    |  Number. 


12  penny   52 

20   "    .32 

30    "    25 


Spikes. 

Boat.  Ship. 

No.  4  1-4  in  13  to  1  lb.   No.  4  5-lG  in  8  to  1  lb 

No.  5  5-16  in  8     "        No.  5  3-8  in  6  " 

No.  6  3-8  in  5    "        No.  6  3-8  in  5  " 

No.  7  5-8  in  \4    "        No.  7  3-8  in  3^  " 

No.  8  3-8  in  3  " 

No.  9  9-16  in  2  " 

No.  10  9-16  in  1|  " 

Note  on  Forgings. — Iron,  while  heating,  if  exposed  to  air,  AAdll 
oxycUze  ;  when  at  white  heat,  if  in  contact  with  coal,  it  will  carbonize,  or 
become  steely.   Iron  should  be  heated  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Iron. — Give  a  smart  heat,  protected  from  the 
air  ;  if  injured  by  cold  hammer  in  f/,  anneal  slowly  and  moderately  ;  if 
ftarcZ  or  steely,  give  one  or  more  smart  heats,  to  extract  the  carbon. 


COST  OF  CARS,  CAR  BUILDING,  &C. 


673 


Cost  of  a  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Passenger  Car.— The  Lon- 
don Engineering  gives  in  detail  the  cost  of  constructing  one  first-class 
Standard  Passenger  Car,  at  the  Altoona  shops  of  the  Pennsjdvania  R.R., 
the  total  cost  being  $4,423.75.    The  principal  items  are  as  follows  :— 


57  Sash  Balances   44  61 

61  Lights  Glasses   65  83 

2  Stoves   77  56 

25  Sets  Seat  Fixtures   50  5o 

3  Bronze  Lamps   13  50 

2  Bronze  Door  Locks   15  20 

Butts  and  Hinges   15  58 

13  Basket  Racks   77  35 

12  Sash  Levers   42  00 

61  Bronze  Window  Lifts. . . .  24  40 

61  Windo-w  Fasteners   16  47 

238  Sheets  Tin   41  44 

Galvanized  Iron   25  31 

96  yards  Scarlet  Plush  — ...  228  87 

44  yards  Green  Plush   109  99 

61  yards  Sheeting   10  30 

243  lbs.  Hair   72  95 

12  Springs   22  96 

12  Spiral  Elliptic  Springs. . .  20  29 

1  Head  Lining   80  63 

2  packets  Gold  Leaf   14  58 

Various  small  items   261  44 


Labor  $1263  94 

Proportion  of  Fuel  and  Stores  28  61 

2480  feet  Poplar   86  80 

3434  feet  Ash   127  08 

1100  feet  Pine   20  90 

2350  feet  Yellow  Pine   70  50 

500  feet  Oak    10  00 

450  feet  Hickory   13  50 

700  feet  Michigan  Pine   49  00 

400  feet  Cherry   16  00 

439  feet  Maple  vineer   24  14 

4  pairs  Wheels  and  Axles. . .  332  85 

2  pairs  Passenger  Car  Trucks  533  62  273 

13  gallons  Varnish   52  34 

45  lbs.  Glue...   14  33 

2925  lbs.  Iron   87  75 

792  lbs.  Castings   16  99 

Screws   61  88 

Gas  Regulator  and  Gauge  25  25 

2  Two-Light  Chandeliers..  50  72 

2  Gas  Tanks   84  00 

1  Air-Brake,  complete. . . .  131  79 

§4,423  75 

Comparative  Cost  of  Freight  by  Water  and  Rail. — The  Mis- 
sissipi  Transportation  Co.  have  proved  by  actual  test  that  a  single  Tow- 
boat  can  transport  at  one  trip  from  the  Ohio  to  New  Orleans,  29,000 
tons  of  coal  loaded  in  barges.  They  estimate  that  in  this  way  the  boat 
and  its  tow,  worked  by  a  few  men,  carries  as  much  freight  to  its  destina- 
tion as  3,000  cars  and  100  locomotives,  manned  by  600  men,  could  trans- 
port, and  they  propose  to  undertake  the  shipment  of  wheat,  pork,  and 
other  produce  on  the  same  plan. 

A  standard  locomotive  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  32-i  tons 
weight,  with  cylinders  16  inches  diameter,  24-inch  stroke,  60-inch  d^rivers 
with  four  drivers  and  four  truck  wheels,  will  haul  over  the  Central  Rail- 
road, with  its  level  grades  and  straight  line,  1,000  tons,  or  say  50  loaded 
cars.   The  same  locomotive  would  work  as  follows  : 

20-foot  grade  460  tons  or  say  23   loaded  card. 

40-foot  grade  290  tons  or  say  14^^  loaded  cars. 

60-foot  grade  205  ions  or  say  10  loaded  cars. 

80-foot  grade  150  tons  or  say   8  loaded  cars. 

100-foot  grade  120  tons  or  say  6  loaded  cars. 

Passenger  Cars — 4  feet  8^  inches  Gauge.— For  60  persons  ;  Body 
48  ft. ;  length  over  platform,  54  ft. ;  width,  9  ft.  6  ins. ;  height  at  sides,  7 
ft.  10  ins. ;  at  dome,  10  ft.  3  ins. ;  saloon,  6  ft.x  2  ft.  9  ins. ;  passage  be- 
tween seats,  1  ft.  10  ins. ;  seats  1  ft.  4  ins.  wide,  3  ft.  2  ins.  long  inside,  1 
ft.  4  ins.  from  floor ;  sash  lights,  2  ft.  X  2  ft.  7  ins. ;  doors,  2  ft ,  3  in.  X  6  ft. 
4  ins.;  framing— 2  side  sills,  5|x  9  ;  4  inside  do.,  4X9  ;  end  do.,  6x9  ; 
transom  beams,  9x14  ;  pillars,  2X3  ;  end  do.,  5  ins.  rad.  ;  flooring  1-J 
ins.,  double,  laid  diagonal,  crossed  at  angle  of  45°  ;  2  trues  rods,  Ig  ins., 
iron  ;  dome  braced  by  Iron  knees,  2xf  ins.  ;  platforms,  2  ft.  6  ins.  wide  ; 
bumper  beam,  7x8  at  centre,  4x3^  at  ends  ;  weight,  empty,  39,000  lbs.  ; 
dead  weight  per  passenger,  6501b9.'j  weight,  loaded,  46,980  lbs.  ;  load  on 
eacli  wheel,  light,  3,250  lbs. ;  if  loaded,  3,915  lbs. 

Sleeping  Coach.— For  64  passengers  :  Body  61  ft.  long,  8  ft.  10  ins, 
wide  inside,  7  ft.  10  ins.  high  at  sides,  9  ft.  7  ins.  at  dome  ;  carried  on 


674 


DIMENSIONS  OF  CARS,  &C. 


twelve  33-111.  wheels,  10  elliptic  springs,  30-111.  centres,  5  leaves,  5-10  ins., 
1  do.,  j|X3^,  steel — weiglit,  1)3.^  lbs.  each— and  8  rubber  H))iinKs  over 
axles,  8x7  ;  dead  weight,  Avithout  passengers,  20  tons,  or  812.5  lbs.  per 
passenger  ;  if  loaded,  1)45.5  lbs,  per  passenger  ;  load  on  each  wheel — 
5.042  H)s.  Western  Palace  Cars,  oil  IG  wheels,  loaded,  weigh,  78,500 lbs., 
or  4,907  lbs.  load  on  each  wheel. 
Jiox  Caks.— 27  ft.  5  ins.  long,  8  ft.  0  ins.  wide,  7  ft.  3  ins.  high  at  sides, 

8  ft.  at  roof  ;  doors,  5  ft.  X5  ft.  10  ins. ;  track  to  top  of  car,  10  ft.  10  ins. ; 
timbers— 2  side  sills,  4iXS  ;  4  inside  do.,  3^x8  ;  end  do.,  5x84  ;  transoms, 
5x12  ;  pillars  for  doors,  3??x4  ;  end  do-"",  34x4.^  ;  plates,  5x34  ;  ridge 
heam,  24X3.^-;  rafters — l^xSl^  at  sides,  1^x12  at  centre;  intermediates  1^  x 
24  ;  weight,  17,800  lbs.  ;  do.,  loaded,  37,800  lbs.;  dead  weight  for 
crich  ton  carried,  if  loaded,  1,780  lbs.  ;  load  on  each  wheel,  if  light,  2,225 
lbs. ;  if  loaded  to  capacity,  4,725  lbs. 

Baggage  Cars. — 45  ft.  long,  9  ft.  4  ins.  wide,  7  ft.  4  ins.  at  sides,  9  ft. 
at  crown  of  roof  ;  end  doors,  2  ft.  2  ins.xO  ft.  4  in.  ;  end  side  doors,  3  ft. 
xO  ft.  2  ius. ;  centre  doors,  3  ft.  10  ins.  X  0  ft.  2  ins. ;  timbers — 0  longitu- 
,  diual  sills,  54x94  ;  4  truss  rods,  1^  ins.,  iron  ;  weight  of  c^r,  27,000  lbs.; 
capacity,  12  tons";  total  weight,  if  loaded,  51,000  lbs. ;  carried  on  8  wheels 
==0,375  lbs.  on  each  wheel. 

Coal  Cars — 8  Wheels.— 10-ton,  8-wheel  cars  :  Body,  20  ft.  long,  21 
ft.  10  in.  over  all  ;  7  ft.  wide,  7  ft,  8  in.  over  allx4  ft.  high  ;  from  top  of 
rail  to  body,  2  ft.  04  ins. ;  rail  to  centre  of  buffer,  2  ft,  74  ins.;  buffers,  lOx 
12  ins. ;  2  ft.  1  in.  centre  to  centre  ;  total  weight,  empty,  13,440  lbs. ; 
loaded,  35,840  lbs. ;  per  Avheel=4,480  lbs. 

Coal  Cars — 4  Wheels. — 0  tons,  4  wheels  :  Body,  11  ft.  long  ;  over 
all,  13  ft.xO  ft.  7  ins.  wide  ;  7  ft.  5  ins.  over  allx4  ft.  3  ins.  high  ;  frame 
of  oak,  4|X84  ;  end  sills,  84x94  ;  body  carried  on  4  oak  springs,  each  3 
XOf  ;  at  ends,  24xO|x9  ft.  long,  bolted  together  •  wheels,  6  ft.  centre  to 
centre  ;  journal  boxes  bolted  to  the  springs  ;  weight,  empty,  0,720  lbs., 
loaded,  20,100  lbs.  ;  on  each  wheel=5,040  lbs. 

English  Railavay  Carriages— 4  feet  84  inches  Gauge. — Extreme 
length  over  buffers,  22  ft. ;  frame,  17  ft.  11  ins.  longxO  ft.  8  ins.  wide  >; 
body,  18  ft.  long X 7  ft.  4  ins.xO  ft.  2  ins.  high  ;  compartments,  each  0  ft. 
long  ;  sides  and  ends  of  under  framing,  11x4  ;  transoms,  9x3x11x3  ; 
.  framing  of  i)ody,  3x2^x2^x24  ;  flooring,  2  thicknesses  of  f  boarding, 
laid  diagonally  ;  roof,  |  thick  on  ribs,  24xlf ,  2  feet  apart ;  doors,  1  ft.  11 
ins.xS  ft.  5  iiis.  high  ;  seats,  1  ft.  0  ins.  fi'om  floor  ;  wheels,  30  ins,  diam 

9  ft.  centre  ;  journals,  0  ft.  4  ins.  apart. 

Freight  Wagons. — Bodies,  7  ft,  0  ins.  widexlO  ft.  long,  20  ft.  over  buf- 
fers ;  open  wagons,  sides,  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  0  ins,  high  ;  covered  goods  wag- 
ons, sides,  0  ft,  9  ins.  high, 

mechanical  movements. 

In  the  construction  of  models,  or  machinery,  the  skilful  raechanic.and 
inventor  will  study  to  avoid  clumsiness  in  the  arrangement  of  parts,  and 
will  naturally  take  jjride  in  selecting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  simplest  and 
best  forms  of  mechanical  movements.  As  suggestive  for  this  purpose  we 
have  brought  together  and  condensed  an  extensive  series  of  mechanical 
movements.  Here  the  mechanic  may  find  at  a  glance  the  movement 
suited  for  liis  purpose,  and  may  see  the  separate  parts  best  adapted  to 
any  special  combination  of  mechanism. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  various  movements  as 
numbered  : 

1.  Shaft  coupling.  2,  Claw  coupling.  3.  4.  Lever  couplings.  On  the 
driving  shaft,  a  disk  with  spurs  is  mounted,  and  to  the  shaft  to  be  driven 
a  lever  is  hinged.   By  causing  this  lever  to  catch  in  the  spurs  of  the  disk 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS.  G75 

the  coupling  is  effected,  5.  Knee  or  rose  coupling,  of  which  26  is  a  side 
view. 

6.  Universal  joint.  7.  8.  Disk  and  spur  coupling.  9.  Prong  and  spui 
lever  coupling. 


10.  Fast  and  loose  pulley.  11.  Sliding  gear,  the  journal  boxes  of  one 
of  the  wheels  being  movable.  12.  Friction  clutch.  By  tightening  or  re- 
leasing a  steel  band,  encircling  a  pulley  on  the  shaft,  the  machinery  is 
thrown  in  or  out  of  gear.  13.  14.  Shoe  and  lever  brakes.  15.  16.  Change 
of  motion  by  sheaves.  17.  Spiral  flanged  sliaft.  18.  Connected  with  the 
rod  are  pawl  links,  catching  into  ratchet-teeth  in  the  wheel  to  which 
rotary  motion  is  to  be  imparted.  "When  the  rod  moves  in  one  direction, 
one  of  the  pawls  acts  ;  and  when  the  rod  moves  in  the  opposite  direction 


C7G 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


the  other  pawl  acts  in  tlio  f4aiTio  direction  a»  tlio  fn-Kt.  19.  The  recipro. 
cutiii;^  motion  of  a  rod  is  converted  into  rotary  motion  of  tlie  fly-wlieel  by 
a  weiftlit  snspended  from  a  cord,  wliicli  passcH  over  a  small  jjulley  that 
connects  witli  a  treadle,  from  which  the  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  fly- 
wheel. 


20.  "Flying  horse,"  used  in  fairs  for  amusement.  By  pulling  the 
cords  radiating  from  the  crank,  the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses 
on  the  ends  of  the  arms  are  enabled  to  keep  the  apparatus  in  motion.  21. 

22.  Bow-string  arrangements  to  connect  reciprocating  into  rotary  motion. 

23,  Same  purpose  by  differential  screw,  24,  The  same  by  double  rack 
and  wheels.  25.  Coupling  for  square  shafts.  26.  Side  view  of  Fig.  5. 
27.  Sliding-spur  pulley  coupling.  28.  Lever  with  bearing  roller  to 
tighten  pulley  bands.   29,  Chain  wheel. 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


677 


30.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  into  reciprocating  rotary  motion  by  two 
racks  and  cog-wheel.  31.  Oblique-toothed  wheels.  32.  Worm  and  Avorm- 
wheel.  33.  34.  Claw  coupling  with  hinged  lever.  35.  30.  Disk  couplings, 
with  lugs  and  cavities.  37.  Disk  coupling  with  screw  bolts.  38.  39. 
40.  Shaft  couplings. 


41.  Face  view  of  Fig.  12.    42.  Friction  cones.    43.  Friction  pulleys. 

44.  Self-releasing  coupling.  Disks  with  oblique  teeth.  If  the  resistance 
to  the  driven  shaft  increases  beyond  a  certain  point,  the  disks  separate. 

45.  Hoisting  blocks.  46.  Elbow  crank,  for  changing  motioji.  47.  Re- 
ciprocating into  rotary  motion  by  zigzag  groove  on  cylinder.  48.  An- 
other form  of  Fig.  29.    49.  Reciprocating  into  a  rotary  motion. 

50.  Same  purpose.  51.  Same  purpose,  by  double  rack  and  two 
ratchet  pinions.    When  the  double  rack  moves  in  one  direction,  one 


678 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


pillion  is  rigid  Avith  tlio  shaft :  when  tlio  rack  moves  in  tlio  opposite 
direction,  tlio  other  pinion  is  rigid,  and  a  continuous  rotary  motion  is 
imparted  to  the  lly-wlieel  shaft.  52.  Reciprocating  into  oscillating.  53. 
Rotary  into  reciprocating.    By  tho  action  of  the  wheel-pins  the  carriage 


ismoredin  one  direction,  and  by  the  action  of  said  pins  on  an  elbow- 
lever,  it  is  moved  in  the  opposite  direction.  54.  Stamp  rod  and  lifting 
cam.  55.  For  giving  reciprocating  motion  to  rack.  56.  Same  motion 
to  a  bar  with  slot,  by  means  of  an  eccentric  pin,  projecting  from  a  re- 
volving disk,  and  catching  in  the  slot.  57.  Walking-beam  and  fly-wheel. 
68.  Reciprocating  motion  to  pnmp  or  other  rod  by  means  of  eccentric  disk 
and  friction  rollers.    See  81  and  104.    59.  Hoisting  crane. 


MECHANICAL 


679 


60.  Friction  gears.  See  43.  61.  Eota,ry  into  reciprocating  by  rising 
and  falling  pinion  acting  on  endless  rack.  62.  By  the  revolving  cam,  a 
rising  and  falling  or  a  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted  to  a 
drum.  63.  Reciprocating  motion  to  a  frame  by  means  of  endless  rack 
tind  pinion.    64.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  to  a  toothed  rack  by  a 


toothed  segment  on  a  lever-arm,  which  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  a 
weight,  and  of  an  eccentric  wrist-pin,  projecting  from  a  revolving  disk.  65. 
Reciprocating  motion  to  a  rod.  The  wheels  are  of  different  diameters,  and 
consequently  the  rod  has  to  rise  and  fall  as  the  wheels  revolve.  { See  110. ) 
66.  Cam  and  elbow-lever.  67.  Rod  reciprocates  by  means  of  cam.  68. 
KcYolving  into  reciprocating  motion,  by  an  endless  segmental  rack  and 


G80 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


pinion,  the  .ixlo  of  which  revolves  .'ind  slides  in  a  slot  toward  and  from 
tho  racic.  Tliis  rack  is  secured  to  a  disk,  and  a  ropo  round  said  disk  ox- 
tends  to  the  body  to  wliicli  a  reciprocating  motion  is  to  bo  inii)artcd.  09. 
Elliptic  gears. 

70.  Bevel  gear.  71.  Worm  and  worm-wheel.  72.  Transmitting 
motion  from  one  axle  to  another,  witli  three  different  velocities,  by  means 
of  toothed  segments  of  unequal  diameters.  7.'3.  Continuous  revolving 
into  reciprocating,  by  a  cam-disk  acting  on  an  oscillating  lever.  74.  In- 
termittent revolving  motion  to  a  shaft  with  two  pinions,  and  segment  gear- 
Avhecl  on  end  of  shaft.  75.  Oscillating  lever,  carrying  pawls  which 
engage  teeth  in  the  edges  of  a  bar  to  which  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted. 
76.  Oscillating  lever,  connects  by  a  link  with  a  rod  to  which  a  recti- 
linear motion  is  imparted.  77.  Oscillating  lever  and  pawls,  which  gear 
in  the  ratchet-wheel.  78.  Common  treadle.  79.  Describing  on  a  re- 
volving cylinder  a  spiral  line  of  a  certain  given  pitch  which  depends 
upon  trie  comparative  sizes  of  the  pinion  and  bevel-wheels. 

80.  Marking  a  spiral  line,  the  graver  moved  by  a  screw.  81.  (See 
'Fig.  58.)  82.  Plunger  and  rods.  83.  Crosshead  and  ro^ls.  84.  Recip- 
rocating rod  guided  by  friction  rollers.  85.  Revolving  into  reciprocating 
motion,  by  means  of  roller-arms,  extending  from  a  revolving  shaft,  and 
acting  on  lugs  projecting  from  a  reciprocating  frame.  86.  Crank  motion. 
87.  Reciprocating  motion  by  toothed  wheel  and  spring  bar.  88.  The 
shaft  carries  a  taper,  which  catches  against  a  hook  hinged  to  the  drum, 
so  as  to  carry  said  drum  along  and  raise  the  weight  on  the  rope.  When 
the  tappet  has  reached  its  highest  position,  the  hook  strikes  a  pin,  tho 
hook  disengages  from  the  tappet,  and  the  weight  drops.  89.  Reciprocat- 
ing motion  to  a  rod  by  means  of  a  groove  in  an  oblique  ring  secured  to 
a  revolving  shaft. 

90.  Double  crank.  91.  Cam  groove  in  a  drum,  to  produce  recipro- 
cating motion.  92.  Belts  and  pulleys.  93.  Pulleys,  belts,  and  internal 
gear.  94.  As  the  rod  moves  up  and  down,  the  teeth  of  the  cog-wheel 
come  in  contact  with  a  pawl,  and  an  intermittent  rotary  motion  is  im- 
parted to  said  wheel.  95.  By  turning  the  horizontal  axles  with  different 
velocities,  the  middle  wheel  is  caused  to  revolve  with  the  mean  velocity. 
96.  Oscillatuig  lever  and  cam  groove  in  a  disk.  97.  Lazy  tongs.  98. 
Oscillating  segiuent  and  belt  over  pulleys.  99.  Converting  oscillating 
into  a  reciprocating  motion  by  a  cam-slot  iuthe  end  of  the  oscillating  lever 
which  catches  over  a  pin  projecting  from  one  of  the  sides  of  a  parallelo- 
gram which  is  connected  to  the  rod  to  which  reciprocating  motion  is  im- 
parted. 

100.  Oscillating  motion  of  a  beam  into  rotary  motion.  101.  Motion  of 
a  treadle  into  rotary  motion.  102.  Double-acting  beam.  103,  Single- 
acting  beam.  104.  "(See  Figures  58  and  81.)  105.  Device  to  steady  a 
piston  by  a  slotted  guide-piece,  operated  by  an  eccentric  on  the  driving- 
shaft.  106.  Rod  operated  by  two  toothed  segments.  107.  Two  cog- 
wheels of  equal  diameter,  provided  with  a  crank  of  the  same  length,  and 
connected  by  links  with  a  cross-bar  to  which  the  piston-rod  is  secured. 
108.  Device  for  a  rectilinear  motion  of  a  piston-rod  based  on  the  hypocy- 
cloidal  motion  of  a  pinion  in  a  stationary  wheel  with  internal  gear.  If  the 
diameter  of  the  pinion  is  exactly  equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  in- 
ternal gear,  the  hypocycloid  becomes  a  sight  line.  109.  Same  purpose 
as  56. 

110.  Action  similar  to  65.  111.  Revolving  motion  by  a  circular  slid- 
ing pinion  gearing  in  an  elliptical  cog-wheel .  112.  Similar  to  96.  113. 
Carpenter's  clamp.  The  jaws  turn  on  their  pivot-screws,  and  clamp  the 
board.  114.  An  irregular  vibratory  motion  is  given  to  the  arm  carrying 
the  wheel  A,  by  the  rotation  of  the  pinion  B.    115.  Intermittent  rotary 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


motion  of  the  pinion-shaft,  by  the  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  largo 
wheel.  The  part  of  the  pinion  shown  next  the  wheel  is  cut  on  the  same 
curve  as  the  playi  portion  of  the  circumference,  and,  tlierefore,  serves  as 
a  lock  whilst  the  wheel  makes  a  part  of  a  revolution,  and  until  the  pin 
upon  the  wheel  strikes  the  guide-piece  upon  the  pinion,  when  the  pinion- 
shaft  commences  another  revolution.  IIC.  Stop-motion  used  in  watchea 
to  limit  the  number  of  revolutions  in  winding  up.  The  convex  curved 
part,  a,  b,  of  the  wheel  B,  serving  as  the  stop .  117.  Several  wheels,  by 
C3nnectiug-rods,  driven  from  one  pulley.  118.  Intermittent  circular  mo- 
tion is  imparted  to  the  toothed  wheel  by  vibrating  the  arm  B.  When  the 
arm  B  is  lifted,  the  pawl  is  raised  from  between  the  teeth  of  the  wheel, 
and  travelling  backward  over  the  circumference  again,  drops  between 
two  teeth  on  lowering  the  arm,  and  draws  with  it  the  wheel.  119.  Re- 
ciprocating rectilinear  motion  is  given  to  the  bar  by  the  continuous  motion 
of  the  cam.  The  cam  is  of  equal  diameter  in  every  direction  measured 
across  its  centre. 

120.  Mechanism  for  revolving  the  cylinder  in  Colt's  fire-arras.  When 
the  hammer  is  drawn  back  the  dog,  a,  attached  to  the  tumbler,  acts  on 
the  ratchet,  &,  on  the  back  of  the  cylinder,  and  is  held  up  to  the  ratchet  by 
a  spring,  c.  121.  Alternate  increasing  and  diminishing  motion,  by  means 
of  eccentric  toothed  wheel  and  toothed  cylinder.  122.  Oscillating  or 
pendulum  engine.  The  cylinder  swings  between  trunnions  like  a  pendu- 
lum. The  piston-rod  connects  directly  with  crank.  123.  Intermittent 
rotary  motion.  The  small  wheel  is  driven,  and  the  friction  rollers  on  its 
studs  move  the  larger  wheel  by  working  against  the  faces  of  oblique 
grooves » or  projections  across  the  face  thereof.  124.  Longitudinal  and 
rotary  motion  of  the  rod  is  produced  by  its  arrangement  between  two 
rotating  rollers,  the  axles  of  which  are  oblique  to  each  other.  125.  Fric- 
tion indicator  of  Roberts.  Upon  the  periphery  of  the  belt-pulley  a  loaded 
carriage  is  placed,  its  tongue  connected  with  an  indicator.  With  a  eiven 
load  the  indicating  pointer  remains  in  a  given  position,  no  matter  what 
velocity  is  imparted  to  the  pulley.  When  the  load  is  changed  the  indi- 
cator changes,  thus  proving  that  the  friction  of  w^heels  is  in  proportion  to 
load,  not  velocity.  126.  Circular  intermittent  rectilinear  reciprocating 
motion.  Used  on  sewing-machines  for  driving  the  shuttle ;  also  on  three- 
revolution  cylinder  printing-presses.  127.  Continuous  circular  into  in- 
termittent circular  motion.  The  cam  is  the  driver.  128.  Sewing- 
machine,  four-motion  feed.  The  bar  B  carries  the  feeding-points  or 
spurs,  and  is  pivoted  to  slide  A.  B  is  lifted  by  a  radial  projection  on  cam 
C,  which  at  the  same  time  also  carries  A  and  B  forward.  A  spring 
produces  the  return  stroke,  and  tlie  bar,  B,  drops  by  gravity.  129. 
Patent  crank  motion,  to  obviate  dead  centres.  Pressure  on  the  treadle 
moves  the  slotted  slide  A  forward  until  the  wrist  passes  the  centre,  when 
the  spring  B  forces  the  slide  against  the  stops  until  next  forward  move- 
ment. 

130.  Four-way  cock.  131.  One  stroke  of  the  piston  gives  a  complete 
revolution  to  the  crank.  132.  Rectilinear  motion  of  variable  velocity  is 
given  to  the  vertical  bar  by  rotation  of  the  shaft  of  the  curved  arm.  133. 
Pantagraph  for  copying,  enlarging,  and  reducing  plans,  etc.  C,  fixed 
point.  B,  ivory  tracing  point.  A,  pencil  trace,  the  lines  to  be  copied 
with,  and  B,  the  pencil,  will  reproduce  it  double  size.  Shift  the  slide  to 
which  C  is  attached,  also  the  pencil  slide,  and  size  of  the  copy  will  be 
varied.  134.  Ball-and-socket  joint  for  tubing.  135.  Numerical  register- 
ing device.  The  teeth  of  the  worm  shaft-gear  with  a  pair  of  worm- 
wheels  of  equal  diameter,  one  having  one  tooth  more  than  the  other. 
If  the  first  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the  second  101,  the  pointers  will 
indicate  respectively  101  and  10,100  revolutions.    136.  Montgolfier'a 


682 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 


liydraulic  ram.  Tlio  viglit  hand  valvo  being  kept  open  by  a  "weipjht 
or  spring,  the  current  flowing  throngli  tlie  pipe  in  the  direetion  of  tlio 
arrow,  escai)CK  tliercby.    Wlien  tlio  pressure  of  tlio  water  current 


overcomes  the  weight  of  the  right  valve,  the  momentum  of  the  water 
opens  the  other  valve,  and  the  water  passes  into  the  air-chamber.  On 
equilibrium  taking  place,  the  left  valve  shuts  and  the  right  valve  opens. 
By  this  alternate  action  of  the  valves,  water  is  raised  into  the  air-cham- 
ber at  every  stroke.    137.  Rotary  engine.    Shaft  B  and  liub  C  are  ar- 


KNOTS,  AND  HOW  TO  TIE  THEM. 


683 


tanged  eccentric  to  the  case.  Sliding  radial  pistons,  a,  a,  move  in  and 
out  of  hub,  C.  The  pistons  slide  through  rolling  packings  in  the  hub  C. 
138.  Quadrant  engine.  Two  single-acting  pistons,  B,  B,  connect  with  crank 
D.  Steam  is  admitted  to  act  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  pistons  alternately 
through  valve  a,  and  the  exhaust  is  between  the  pistons.  139.  Circular 
into  rectilinear  motion.  The  scolloped  wheel  communicates  motion  to  the 
horizontal  oscillating  rod,  and  imparts  rectilinear  movement  to  the  up- 
right bar.  140.  Rotary  motion  transmitted  by  rolling  contact  between 
two  obliquely  arranged  shafts.    Scientific  American  Reference  Book. 

Special  note  to  inventoks. — For  full  and  complete  information 
relating  to  the  obtaining  of  Patents,  Inventors,  and  others  interested,  are 
referred,  to  the  Scienti^c  American  Hand-Book,  forwarded  free  by  mail  on 
application  to  Mann  &  Co.,  37  Park  Row,  New  York. 

Information  can  also  be  obtained  by  addressing  Coyne  &  Co.,  office 
Western  Manufacturers  Chicago,  Ills. 

The  knots  represented  on  the  preceediug  page  of  engravings  are  as 
follows  : 

KNOTS,  AND  HOW  TO  TIE  THEM. 


1.  Simple  overhand  knot. 

2.  Slip-knot  seized. 

3.  Single  bow-knot. 

4.  Square  or  ruf-knot. 

5.  Square  bow-knot. 

6.  Weaver's  knot. 

7.  German  or  figure-of-8  knot. 

8.  Two  half-hitches,  or  artificer's 
knot. 

9.  Double  artificer's  knot. 

10.  Simple  galley  knot. 

11 .  Capstan  or  prolonged  knot. 

12.  Bowline-knot 

13.  Rolling-hitch. 

14.  Clove-hitch. 

15.  Blackwall-hitch. 
IG.  Timber  hitch. 

17.  Bowline  on  a  bight. 
18  Running  bowline. 

19.  Catspaw. 

20.  Doubled  running-knot. 

21.  Double  knot. 

22.  Six-fold  knot. 

23.  Boat-knot. 

24.  Lark's  head. 

25.  Lark's  head. 

26.  Simple  boat-knot. 

27.  Loop-knot. 

28.  Double  Flemish  knot. 

29.  Running-knot  checked 

30.  Crossed  running-knot. 

31.  Lashing  knot. 


32.  Rosette. 

33.  Chain- knot. 

34.  Double  chain-knot. 

35.  Double  running-knot,  with 
check-knot. 

36.  Double  twist-knot. 

37.  Builders'  knot. 

38.  Double  Flemish  knot. 

39.  English  knot. 

40.  Shortenmg-knot. 

41.  Shortening-knot. 

42.  Sheep-shank. 

43.  Dog-shank. 

44.  Mooring-knot. 

45.  Mooring-knot. 

46.  Mooring-knot. 

47.  Pigtail  worked  on  the  end  of  a 
rope. 

48.  Shroud-knot. 

49.  A  bend  or  knot  used  by  sailora 
in  making  fast  to  a  spar  or  a 
bucket-handle  before  casting 
overboard  ;  it  w  ill  not  run. 
Also  used  by  horsemen  for  a 
loop  around  the  jaw  of  a  colt  in 
breaking  :  the  running  end,  af- 
ter passing  over  the  head  of  the 
animal  and  through  the  loop, 
will  not  jam  therein. 

50.  A  granny's  knot. 

51.  A  weaver's  knot 


The  principle  of  a  knot  is,  that  no  two  parts  which  would  move  in  the 
same  direction  if  the  rope  were  to  slip, should  lie  alongside  of  and  touch- 
ing each  other. 


684         cArAciTiEs  of  vaiuous  iron  avouks 

Cost  of  Iron  Production. — In  Staffordshire,  the  niakln;:^  of  l)ar« 
marked  "best,  beat,  best,"  corresjioiids  to  a  coiisuinptioji  of  5  tons  of 
Coal  per  ton  of  Iron  made  from  tlic  forgo  pigs,  which  tiicrnsclvcs  requiro 
iTom  2  to  2^  tons  of  Coal  for  their  production.  Calculating  waste  of  iron 
in  puddling,  &c.,  one  ton  of  the  best  l)rands  of  Stal'fordsliire  bars  repre- 
sent 8  to  U  tons  of  good  coal  consumed. 

Gartshekrie  Iron  Works,  Scotland.— Furnaces,  16.  Proportion 
of  charges,  about  32  cwts.  of  calcined  ore  are  used  to  the  ton  of  iron,  G 
cwts.  of  pure  limestone,  or  10  cwts.  of  limestone  containing  a  high  per- 
ceiitage  of  alumina,  which  is  sometimes  preferred,  forming  a  surplus  of 
quickly  melted  slag.  The  charges  are  made  up  with  the  coal  in  quan- 
tities of  about  30  cwts.  each,  and  are  hoisted  to  the  top  of  the  furnace  by  a 
very  simple  contrivance.  Temperature  of  blast  800°.  Weekly  production 
of  each  furnace  about  160  tons. 

CoLTNEss  Iron  Works  :— Furnaces,  12.  The  calcined  ironstone 
contains  from  60  to  65  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  the  furnaces  are  charged 
with  an  addition  of  12  cwts.  of  unburnt  limestone,  and  48  cwts.  of  coal  for 
every  ton  of  iron  made.  The  make  per  furnace  varies  from  12  to  15  tons 
at  a  cast,  the  furnace  being  tapped  once  in  every  12  hours.  From  8  to  12 
tuyeres  are  in  each  furnace  arranged  in  groups  of  3  in  each  arch  formed 
by  the  square  foundation.  The  tuyeres  are  usually  1^  in.  diam.  at  the 
nozzle,  temperature  of  blast  is  between  600°  and  700°.  "Power  is  furnish- 
ed by  a  pair  of  condensing  beam  engines,  worked  with  32  lbs.  steam  pres- 
sure and  a  vacuum  of  26  ins.  The  steam  cylinders  are  48  ins.  diam.  and 
the  blowing  cylinder  100  ins.,  pressure  of  blast  in  the  blast  main  is  3^  ins. 
The  bloAving  cylinder  in  the  lower  row  of  furnaces  is  120f  ins. 

GovAN  Iron  Works,  Glasgow. — Furnaces,  6  ;  height  50  ft.  The 
charges  are  made  up  in  loads  of  15  cwts.  of  ore  and  limestone  for  every 
load  of  10  cwts.  of  coal.  Consumption  of  coal  for  every  ton  of  iron  made 
is  about  50  cwts.  Blowing  Cylinders  2  ;  pressure  of  blast  2j  lbs.  The 
make  of  each  furnace  is  about  12  to  15  tons  per  cast,  tapped  every  12  hours. 
The  blowing  engine  is  supj)lied  with  steam  by  7  double-flued  Cornish 
boilers  fired  Avith  coal  slack,  and  placed  below  the  ground  level  close  to 
the  engine  house.  The  charge  of  gray  iron  for  each  refinery  is  24  cwts., 
and  6  or  7  charges  are  made  per  day  with  ordinary  coke  for  fuel. 

Barrow-in-Furniss  Iron  Works  : — Furnaces,  11.  The  charge  per 
ton  of  iron  is  34  cwts.  of  ore,  6^  cwts.  of  limestone,  and  from  10  to  21 
cwts.  of  coke.  Ore  yields  57  per  cent,  of  iron,  weekly  production  4000 
tons.  The  dimensions  of  the  larger  furnaces  which  form  the  second 
group,  are,  height  56  ft.,  diam.  at  the  boshes,  7  ft.,  greatest  inner  diam. 
16  ft.  6  ins.,  diam.  at  top,  11  ft.  6  ins.,  they  are  tapi^ed  every  6  hours  and 
give  about  20  tons  at  each  cast.  The  blast  i^ressure  varies  from  3  to  3 J 
lbs.,  each  furnace  has  6  tuyeres,  diam.  of  tuyeres  is  from  2|  to  3^  ins., 
temperature  of  blast  600°  to  650°.  Fbrty-two  boilers,  all  fired  with  gas, 
supply  the  steam  to  the  different  engines;  of  these,  22  work  up  to  25  lbs., 
and  12  to  35  lbs.  pressure.  The  first  set  of  engines  comprise  3  vertical 
beam  engines  :  diam.  of  one  steam  cylinder  is  52  ins.,  of  the  other  two 
48  ins.,  each  blowing  cylinder  placed  at  one  end  of  the  corresponding 
beam,  is  100  ins.  in  diam.  with  9  ft.  stroke. 

Iron  Founding. — In  dimensions,  the  McKenzie  cupola,  so  extensively 
used  in  America,  is  from  the  drop  bottom  to  the  bottom  of  the  charging 
door,  9  ft.  high.  The  longer  diameter  outside  is  5  ft.  4  ins.,  and  the  short- 
er diameter  4  ft.  4  ins.  The  blast  is  admitted  through  an  annular 
tuyere  or  opening  which  extends  completely  round  the  bottom  part.  The 
blast  is  led  into  a  chamber  surrounding  the  boshes  of  the  cupola,  and 
from  this  chamber  it  escapes  througli  the  annular  tuyere.  The  cupola 
is  fitted  with  a  drop  bottom.  A  cupola  of  that  kind  is  charged  with  1400 
lbs.  of  coal,  then  4000  lbs.  of  iron,  400  lbs.  of  coal,  4000  lbs.  of  iron  again, 


CAPACITIES  OP  VARIOUS  IRON  WORKS. 


and  the  alternate  charges  of  400  lbs.  of  coal  and  4000  lbs.  of  iron  are  re- 
peated for  the  necessary  height.  The  blast  is  supplied,  when  the  furnace 
is  at  work,  at  the  extremely  high  pressure  of  2^  Jbs.  per  sq.  inch  ;  but 
when  the  furnace  is  first  started  the  slight  resistance  met  with  by  the 
blast  does  not  permit  a  pressure  of  more  than  lb.  to  be  obtained.  The 
blast  is  applied  in  about  40  minutes  after  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  iron 
begins  to  run  in  about  20  minutes  after  the  blast  is  turned  on.  "When 
the  furnace  is  fairly  at  w^ork  the  melting  proceeds  at  the  rate  of  almost  4 
tons  per  hour.  0)ie  of  the  McKenzie  cupolas  at  Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.'s 
tube  works,  at  Philadelphia,  measures  7  by  4  ft.,  and  is  bloAvn  with  a 
pillar  of  blast  of  about  24  ins.  of  water.  The  regular  day's  work  is  23 
tons  of  metal  run  down  in  2J  hours,  the  iron  beginning  to  melt  in  15 
minutes  from  the  time  the  blast  is  turned  on,  and  running  at  the  rate  of 
10  tons  per  hour.  It  is  charged  about  4^  ft.  deep  with  iron  and  anthra- 
cite coal,  and  about  1  ton  of  the  latter  is  burned  for  every  9  tons  of  metal 
melted.  In  melting  small  quantities,  in  say,  a  No.  3  McKenzie  cupola, 
a  good  proportion  is  to  put  in  a  bed  about  900  lbs.  coal,  and  charge  from 
4000  to  5000  lbs.  of  iron,  then  150  to  200  lbs.  coal,  and  charge  1000  to  2000 
lbs.  on  the  top  of  it.  In  Ireland's  cupola,  the  furnace  should  be  filled  with 
coke  to  the  top  of  the  boshes,  and  four  separate  cwts.  of  iron,  alternated 
with  three  cwts.  of  coke,  should  then  be  introduced  to  fill  it  up  to  the 
charging  door.  In  these  furnaces  a  ton  of  freely  running  iron  has  been 
run  down  by  1^  cwt.  of  coke,  but  more  usually  from  2  to  2h  cwts.  are  re- 
quired. The  furnace  should  be  kept  in  careful  repair  and"  each  charge 
well  levelled  oft.  In  the  Woodward  cupola  a  steam  jet  is  used  instead 
of  a  fan,  and  the  steam  required  for  the  jet  to  create  the  draught  is  only 
equal  in  quantity  to  the  requirements  of  an  engine  for  driving  a  fan  of 
sufficient  power  to  work  the  same  size  of  ordinary  cupola  ;  and  the  con- 
sumption of  coke  in  melting  is  IJ  cwt.  per  ton  of  iron. 

Blowing  or  Blast  Engines. — Iron  works  at  Mt.  Savage,  Md.  For 
blowing  4  furnaces,  14  feet  diam.,  each  making  100  tons  of  pig  iron  per 
week. 

Engine  {Condensiny) ,  Diameter  of  cjdinder,  56  in.  ;  length  of  stroke, 
10  ft. 

RevohiUons.  15  per  minute.  Pressure.  60  lbs.  per  square  in.,  cut  oil 
at  \  of  the  stroke. 

Boilers.  Six  of  60  in.  in  diameter,  and  24  ft.  in  length,  with  one  22-in. 
flue  in  each,  double  returned.    Grates.    198  square  ft. 

Blast  Cylinder .  126  in.  in  diameter  by  10  ft.  stroke.  Revolutions.  15 
per  minute. 

Pressure  of  Blast.    4  to  5  lbs .  per  square  in. 

Area  of  Pipes.    2300  square  in.,  or  \  that  of  the  cylinder. 
For  Blowing  Two  Furnaces  and  Tavo  Fineries,  making  240  Tons 
or  Forge  Pig  per  Week. 

Engine  {Non-condensing).  Diameter  of  cyliiider,  20  in.  ;  length  of 
stroke,  8  ft.  Revolutions.  28  per  minute.  Pressure.  50  to  60  lbs.  per 
square  in.  (full  stroke). 

Boilers.  Six  of  36  in.  in  diameter,  and  28  ft.  in  length  (without  flues). 
Grates.    100  square  ft. 

Blast  Cylinders.  Two  of  62  in .  in  diameter,  by  8  ft.  stroke.  Revolutions. 
22  per  minute.    Pressure  oj  Blast.    2^  lbs.  per  square  in. 

Area  of  Pipes.   3  ft,  or  J  that  of  the  cylinders. 

One  biast  furnace  has  two  3-in,,  and  one  3^  in.  tuyeres,  the  other  has 
three  of  3  in 

One  finery  has  six  tuyeres  of  IJ  in,,  and  the  other,  four  of  1|  in. 
The  ore  yields  from  40  to  45  per  cent,  of  iron.    The  temperature  of  the 
blast  is  OOQo. 


G86 


KULI'.S  roil  MECHANICS,  &c. 


DowLAis  Iron  Wokks.— riirn.ices  17.  Weekly  profltiction  about  180 
tons  ])er  funiaco,  total  annual  procluction  of  pig  iron  about  150,000  tons, 
total  annual  consumption  of  coal  about  1,000,000  tons.  The  furnaces  aro 
blown  by  G  beam  engines.  The  largest  has  a  55  in.  steam  cylinder  and 
13  ft.  stroke  of  steam  piston,  while  the  blowing  cylinder  is  12  ft.  diam., 
and  the  blast  piston  has  a  stroke  of  12  ft.,  the  great  beam  being  divided 
unequally  ;  Aveight  of  working  beam  44  tons,  of  lly  Avheel  .'35  tons.  Blast 
is  discharged  into  a  main  5  ft.  diam.  and  about  140  yards  long.  No  fur- 
nace is  more  than  18  ft,  in  diam.  at  the  boshes,  and  few  are  as  much  as? 
CO  ft.  high,  square  at  the  base  and  assuming  the  circular  form  about  half 
way  up.  They  are  tapped  3  times  in  24  hours,  are  fed  with  raw  coal,  and 
consume  30  cwts.  of  coal  per  ton  of  iron  made.  Temperature  of  blast  612°, 
pressure  of  blast  3  to  3J  lbs. 

The  furnaces,  mines,  forges,  Bessemer  steel  works,  &c.,  employ  in  all 
nearly  100  steam  engines,  9000  work  people  (of  which  about  5500  are 
underground  and  3500 above),  and  700  horses. 

,  CoHKSiVB  Strength  of  Tie-Bars,  Suspension  Rods,  &c. — Breaking 
weight  in  tons,  equal  area  of  section  of  rod  in  square  inches,  multiplied 
by  cohesive  force  per  square  inch  in  tons. 


Cohesive  strength  of  steel  =  50  tons 

"  "  Wrought  iron  23  " 

"  Cast-iron  7-^  " 

"  "  Wr'ght  copper  15  " 

"  "  Cast-brass         8  " 

"  "  Lead  0.75  " 

"  "  Boxwood         10  " 


tons 

Cohesive  Str.  of  ash  =  8 
"       "      Beech  5.5 

Oak  5.5 
"       "      seasoned  6 
"       "      pitch  x)ine  6 
"       "      Chestnut  5 

Fir  5.5 


111  use,  take  J  of  the  above  as  breaking  weight, 

A  mixture  of  30  per  cent,  of  wrought  iron  with  cast-iron,  carefully 
fused  in  a  crucible,  increases  strength  of  cast-iron  one  third.  Chilling 
the  under  side  of  cast  iron  materially  increases  its  strength.  Chilled  bars 
of  cast  iron  deflect  more  readily  than  unchilled.  Girders  cast  with  face 
up  are  stronger  than  when  cast  on  side,  as  1  to  .96  ;  also  strongest  when 
cast  with  bottom  flange  up.  Cast-iron  and  wrought  iron  beanis,  having 
eimilar  resistances,  have  weights,  as  2.44  to  1. 

To  Test  the  Quality  of  Iron.— If  fracture  gives  long  silky  fibres 
of  leaden-gray  hue,  fibres  cohering  and  twisting  together  before  breaking, 
may  be  considered  a  toxigli  soft  iron.  A  medium,  even  grain,  mixed  with 
fibres,  a  good  sign.  A  short  blackish  fibre  indicates  badly  refined  iron, 
A  very  fine  grain  denotes  a  hard  steely  iron,  apt  to  be  cold-short,  hard  to 
■work  with  a  file.  Coarse  grain,  with  brilliant  crystallized  fracture,  yel- 
low or  brown  spots,  denote  a  brittle  iron,  cold-short,  working  easily 
when  heated  ;  welds  easily.  Cracks  on  the  edge  of  bars,  sign  of  hot- 
ehort  iron.  Good  iron  is  easily  heated,  soft  under  the  hammer,  throws 
out  but  few  sparks. 

To  find  the  Weight  of  Timber  Beams,  Posts,  and  Joists. — Mul- 
tiply length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  inches  and  the  depth  in  inches,  and 
the  prodlict  by  one  of  the  following  factors  :  For  elm,  2.92  ;  yellow  i)ine, 
2. 85  ;  white  pine,  2.47  ;  dry  oak,  4.04. 

Weight  of  Timber  Work,  Timber  Flooring.— Multiply  breadth 
in  feet  by  length  in  feet  by  the  thickness  in  inches  and  by  one  of  the 
following  factors,  according  to  the  material  :  For  elm  use,  3.50  lbs.  ; 
for  yellow  pine,  3,42  ;  for  white  pine,  2.97  ;  for  dry  oak,  4.85. 

Nickel  Plating  without  a  Battery, — To  a  solution  of  from  5  to 
10  per  cent,  chloride  of  ziuc,  as  pure  as  possible,  add  enough  sulphate  of 


SUNDRY  USEFUL  ITEMS. 


687 


nickel  to  produce  a  strong  green  color,  and  bring  to  a  boil  in  a  porce- 
lain vessel.  The  i)iece  to  be  plated,  which  must  be  perfectly  bright  and 
free  from  grease,  is  introduced  so  that  it  touches  the  vessel  as  little  as 
possible.  Boiling  is  continued  from  thirty  to  sixty  minutes,  water  being 
added  from  time  to  time  to  replace  that  evaporated.  During  ebullition 
nickel  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  and  brilliant  coating.  The 
boiling  may  be  continued  for  hours  witliout  increasing  tlie  thickness  of 
this  coating.  As  soon  as  the  object  appears  to  be  i^lated  it  is  washed  in 
water  containing  a  little  chalk  in  suspension,  and  then  carefuUy  dried. 
The  chloride  of  zinc  and  sulphate  of  nickel  must  be  free  from  metals 
precipitable  by  iron.  If,  during  the  ])recipitation,  the  liquid  becomes 
colorless,  sulphate  of  nickel  should  be  added.  The  spent  liquid  may  be 
used  again  by  exposing  it  to  the  air  until  the  iron  is  precipitated,  filtering 
and  adding  the  zinc  and  nickel  salts  as  above.  Cobalt  also  may  be  de- 
I)osited  the  same  way. 

To  Remove  Iron  Mould  from  Marble. — Take  butter  of  antimony 
1  oz.,  oxalic  acid  1  oz.  ;  dissolve  them  in  1  pt .  water,  add  flour,  and  brhig 
the  composition  to  a  proper  consistence.  Then  lay  it  evenly  on  the 
stained  part  with  a  brush,  and,  after  it  has  remained  for  a  few  days, 
wash  it  off,  and  repeat  the  process  if  tlie  stain  is  not  quite  removed. 

Green  Transparent  Varnish  FOR  Metals.— Grind  a  sm.all  quan- 
tity of  Chinese  blue  with  double  the  quantity  of  finely-powdered  chro- 
mate  of  potassa  (it  requires  the  most  elaborate  grinding)  ;  add  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  copal  varnish  thinned  with  turjientine.  The  tone  may 
be  altered  by  more  or  less  of  one  or  tlie  other  ingredients.  Green  bronze 
liquid  :  One  quart  of  strong  vinegar,  ^  oz.  of  mineral  green,  |-  oz.  raw 
umber,  ^  oz.  sal-ammoniac,  I  oz.  gum  arable,  2  oz.  French  berries,  ^  oz. 
copperas  ;  dissolve  over  a  gentle  fire,  allow  to  cool,  and  then  filter. 

Profits  of  Manufacturers.— In  the  State  Census  of  Massachusetts, 
of  1875,  Col.  Wright,  of  Boston,  separates  the  value  of  the  raw  material 
from  the  value  added  by  \vov\<.  done.  Thus  we  have  under  the  head  of 
boots  and  shoes,  not  the  value  of  the  boots  and  shoes,  but  the  value 
addedto  the  leather  by  the  work  done  to  convert  it  into  boots  and  shoes. 
This  is  stated  to  amount  to  $89,375,792,  for  which  the  employes  received 
$18,727,124,  or  $455.05  each  on  an  average,  and  the  employers  appro- 
priated $70,648,668.    Cotton  and  other  industries  show  similar  results. 

Proceeds  of  One  Ton  of  Cotton  Seed. — A  correspondent  of  Lef- 
fel's  ISFeivs  reports  cotton  seed  as  worth  now,  delivered  at  the  mills  in  New 
Orleans,  $11  per  ton,  the  mills  furnishing  the  bags  it  is  put  up  in.  From 
that  ton  of  seed  will  be  gotten  : 


250  lbs.  lint  worth  Sets,  per  lb.,  or  $12.50 

About  500  lbs.  hull  worth   2.50 

About  from  40  to  45  galls,  oil.  say  40  galls,  at  50  cents   20.00 

Say  800  lbs.  oil  cake,  worth  l^^  cent  per  lb   12.00 

Or,  $11  worth  of  seed  works  to  value  of  $47.00 


Arrangement,  Proportion,  Capacity,  &c.,  of  Grain  Elevators. 
— ^On  this  subject  Pallett  rules  that  the  jDulleys  should  beat  least  24  inches 
diameter,  and  about  one  inch  thicker  than  the  width  of  the  belt,  and 
nearly  half  an  inch  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  to  malie 
the  strap  keep  on.  These  pulleys  should  have  a  motion  of  twenty- 
five  revolutions  per  minute.  The  buckets  should  be  about  fifteen  inches 
apart.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  buckets  will  pass  per  minute, 
carrying  162  quarts  and  hoisting  300  bushels  per  hour.  If  this  is  not 
fast  enough,  make  the  strap  wider  and  the  buckets  larger,  increase 
the  .  velocity  of  the  pulley  (not  above  35  revolutions),  nor  place  more 
buckets  than  one  for  every  twelve  inches,  or  they  will  not  empty. 


G88 


ON  1'AI13I  BUILDINGS. 


ON  FARM  BUILDINGS. 


The  following  plan  for  a  barn  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the  Country 
Gentleman,  and  is  of  a  size  suitable  for  about  75  acres  of  laud  under  cul- 
tivation on  the  system  of  mixed  husbandry ;  but  the  size  may  be  either 
expanded  or  diminished  to  answer  all  possible  requirements  in  any  given 
case. 

The  size  is  42X60  ft.  Fig.  1  shows  the  common  or  principal  floor,  and  is 
so  constructed  that  a  loaded  wagon  can  be  driven  in  at  one  end,  unloaded, 
and  then  i3ass  out  at  the  other.  Tlie  contrivance  for  this  purpose,  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  cellar  or  basement,  is  shown  in  the  perspective 
view  at  the  head  of  this  article,  an  embankment  being  made  at  each  end, 
which  would  be  facilitated  if  the  building  were  placed  between  two  slight 
knolls  or  in  ii  moderate  hollow,  in  which  case  amj)le  drains  should  be 


Flg.l. 

provided  round  the  Avhole.  In  the  plan  fig,  1,  V  V  represent  ventila- 
tors or  hay  shutes  ;  A  trap  door  for  throwing  down  chaff  or  straw,  G 
granary,  and  S  stairs.  The  bay  contains  950  square  feet,  and  will 
hold  about  40  tons  of  compact  hay  of  about  500  cubic  ft.  to  the  ton  when 
■\jrell  settled.  In  addition,  there  is  room  on  the  platforms  over  the  floor 
and  horse  stables  to  hold  about  20  tons  more.  By  marking  off  a  scale  of 
feet  on  one  of  the  ventilators,  the  owner  may  at  any  time  gain  an  approx- 
imate idea  of  the  quantity  of  hay  on  hand. 


ON  FARM  BUILDINGS. 


689 


Fig,  2  represents  tlie  basements.  The  roots  are  drawn  in  on  the  bam 
floor  and  dumped  down  the  trap  A,  shown  in  fig.  1.  In  fig.  2,  AAAA  re- 
present calf  pens,  or  boxes  lor  cows  in  calf. 


PAssAcefsxso 


c 0 w  sr/!BtF.  /gygg 

EHgn  A  MANURB 


Fig.  2. 

Rules  for  Farmers.— The  prime  auxiliaries  to  good  farming  are  : 
1.  Sufficient  capital  to  buy  the  farm  and  stock  it  well,  2.  The  proper 
selection  of  a  farm  commensurate  with  these  requisites,  3.  The  selection 
of  good  land  and  the  rejection  of  barren,  no  matter  how  cheap,  4.  To  lay- 
it  out  in  good  style,  and  provide  it  with  good  buildings,  fences,  and  gates. 
5.  Stock  it  with'  the  best  animals  and  implements  at  a  reasonable  price, 
and  provide  good  shelter  for  both,  6,  Bring  the  soil  into  good  heart  by 
draining,  killing  of  weeds,  manuring,  deep  ploughing,  and  a  proper  rota- 
tion of  crops  covering  every  part  of  it.  7,  Diligence  and  careful  oversight 
of  all  operations,  correct  accounts  in  the  matter  of  Avages,  buying,  selling, 
weighing,  measuring,  cost  of  crops,  animals,  net  returns  of  each,  ac- 
cumulation and  preservation  of  maiuire,  &c.  8.  Early  rising,  remembering 
that  "  He  that  would  thrive  must  rise  at  five.  He  that  has  thriven  may 
lie  till  seven."  9.  Regular  and  careful  feeding  of  stock  with  considerate 
and  merciful  treatment  of  horses,  cattle,  &c.,  at  all  times. 

Touching  the  rotation  of  crops  the  following  courses  have  proved  well 
adapted  to  most  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  : 

I.  1st  year,  corn  and  roots,  well  manured.  2nd  year,  wheat,  sown 
with  clover  seed,  35  lbs.  per  acre,  3rd  year,  clover,  1  or  more  years, 
according  to  fertility,  and  amount  of  manure  on  hand, 

II.  1st  year,  corn  and  roots  with  all  the  manure,  2nd  year,  barley 
and  peas,  3rd  year,  wheat,  sown  with  clover.  4th  year,  clover  one 
or  more  years. 

The  next  illustration  represents  the  frame  of  an  improved  stable  and 
barn  which  appeared  not  long  ago  in  the  columns  of  the  Globe  and  Canada 
Farmer,  concerning  which  the  owner  furnished  the  following  particulars  to 
that  journal : ' '  Barn  56  x  80  feet,  outside  posts  20  feet  high,  the  purline  posts 
33  feet ;  has  five  bents,  20  feet  spans,  framed  according  to  cut.  The  size  of 
timber  used  is  from  6  to  8  inches  ;  the  sills  are  3  x  12  in.  plank  bedded  on 
the  stone  wall.  The  barn  proper  is  56  x  60,  leaving  20  x  56  feet  for  a  straw 
house.  The  driving  floor  is  16  feet  wide,  the  bays  on  each  side,  loft,  all 
floored  over  with  double  inch  boards.  The  double  doors  work  on  rollers. 
There  is  a  ventilating  door  in  each  gable  end,  working  with  a  small  pulley 
from  the  floor  :  also  one  on  the  roof,  all  very  useful  in  the  time  of  thresh- 
ing to  allow  dust  to  escape.  On  each  side  of  the  driving  floor  is  a  ladder 
reaching  to  the  top  of  the  barn.  The  granary  is  20  feet  square.  The  bins 
are  six  feet  deep  on  each  side,  leaving  8  x  20  feet  to  keep  the  mill  in  for 
clearing  up.  The  barn  is  well  lighted .  If  stone  is  scarce,  the  wall  need 
be  no  higher  than  to  clear  the  ground,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  No.  1  cut 
pine  shingles  are  best  for  roof.   This  stable  is  in  three  parts.   1st.  25  feet 


690 


ON  FARM  BUILDINCJS. 


is  taken  from  one  end  and  divided  in  three  parts  ;  the  centre  is  a  feed 
room  20  x  25  feet  ;  stables  18  feet  deej),  Avith  five  stalls  in  each  part.  2d. 
Tliero  is  a  yard  'AO  x  50  for  young  stock.  Thei  e  is  a  trap  door  at  tlic  side 
of  the  drive  iioor  to  drop  down  straw.  If  water  can  be  had  a  well  is  pre- 
ferable in  this  yard.  Tliero  is  a  large  door  on  each  side  to  drive  in  and 
take  out  tlie  manure.  3d.  The  cow  stable  is  directly  under  the  straw 
house,  25x56  feet,  divided  into  three  parts:  the  centre  is  the  feed  room,  25 
X  20  feet,  with  trap  door  'ibove  to  let  down  the  chaff.   The  stables  are  15 


feet  deep,  with  six  stalls  on  each  side.  There  will  be  sufficient  light  to 
all  the  stables,  feed  room  and  yard  ;  outer  doors  for  stables  and  inner 
doors  leading  into  the  centre  yards.  Height  of  stables,  8^  and  9  feet. 
The  advantages  over  old  style  of  building  are  as  follows  :— Lighter  and 
shorter  timber.  There  are  two  rovfs  of  central  posts  run  to  the  top  of 
building,  forming  the  purline  work,  and  the  whole  building  being  framed 
into  these  posts  makes  a  much  stronger  frame  ;  is  handier  for  storing  ; 
for  forks  working  ;  for  threshing  ;  is  better  ventilated  ;  all  straw  inside  ; 
all  stock  inside  ;  manure  all  under  cover,  and  when  a  farmer  has  one  of 
these  barns  he  has  all  the  outbuildings  he  requires." 

Weight  of  Hay. — Hay,  well  settled  in  mows  or  stacks,  fifteen  cubic 
yards  make  a  ton.  Rule  "for  long  or  square  stacks  :  Multiply  the  length 
in  yards  by  the  width  in  yards,  and  then  by  half  the  height  in  yards,  and 
divide  by  fifteen.  Rule  for  circular  stack's  :  Multiply  the  square  of  the 
circumference  in  yards  by  four  times  the  height  in  yards,  and  divide  by 
100  ;  the  quotient  by  fifteen. 


AGRICULTURAL  FACTS. 


691 


SUNDRY  ITEMS  OF  INTEREST  TO  FARMERS. 

A  BUSHEL  OF  WHEAT,  60  Ibs.,  should  yield,  of  flour,  about  48  lbs., 
shorts,  8  lbs.,  bran  4  lbs.  Wheat  flour  is  of  the  best  quality  from  grain  that 
has  been  cut  before  it  comes  to  full  maturity,  being  whiter  and  softer,  and 
such  flour  carries  a  better  figure  in  the  market.  Coarse  or  thick-husked 
graiu  will  yield  more  bran  and  less  flour  than  the  kind  noted  above. 

Proceeds  op  Grists. — On  this  subject  a  correspondent  of  the  Country 
Gentleman  remarks  :  "  The  product  and  waste  in  grinding  depend 
much  upon  the  quality  and  cleanness  of  the  wheat.  I  have  had  winter 
wheat  turn  out  40  pounds  of  flour  and  12f  pounds  of  bran,  middlings,  etc., 
to  the  bushel.  The  '  waste  '  in  grinding  clean  wheat  should  be  not  more 
than  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  quarter.  Spring  wheat  will  not  make  as 
much  flour.  The  following  from  a  '  grist '  of  the  last  crop  of  spring  wheat 
is  a  good  average  of  a  dozen  more  that  I  have  noted. 


Weight  of  wheat,  -       -      -     1,486  lbs. 

"flour,   952  lbs. 

"     "  bran,   240  " 

"     "  screenings,       -      -      -      -      -      -       32  " 

"     "  middlings  (canaille)     -      -      -      -      -     88  " 

"     "  toll,   148  " 

"    "  waste,  26  "-1,486  lbs- 


Here  is  24|  bushels,  and  the  yield  of  flour  is  38.45  pounds  per  bushel, 
and  the  offal  amounts  to  14.54  pounds  per  bushel,  while  the  waste  is 
only  1.05  pounds  per  bushel.  It  is  proper  here  to  state  that  I  sent  a  '  grist ' 
out  of  the  same  bin,  to  a  new  mill  a  few  weeks  before,  and  the  return  was 
only  36  pounds  in  flour  and  the  '  waste'  or  wheat  stuck  to  the  mill,  besides 
the  toll,  5^  pounds  to  the  bushel.  1  did  not  repeat  my  experiment  at  that 
mill. 

A  miller,  writing  to  the  Mill  Stone,  claims  that  he  can,  on  custom  work, 
make  from  38  to  42  lbs.  of  flour  to  the  bushel  of  wheat,  besides  his  seventh 
for  toll,  and  on  merchant  work  he  can  make  1  barrel  of  fancy  flour  out 
of  4^  bushels  of  wheat.  This  he  cites  as  good  work,  and  right  here  it 
may  "be  remarked  that  many  farmers  raise  an  outcry  against  the  miller, 
because  he  fails  to  give  first  class  flour  and  ample  returns  from  badly 
damaged  or  improperly  cleaned  grain.  In  a  canticle  descanting  on  the 
hard  times,  composed  by  a  rural  poet  of  the  writer's  acquaintance,  the 
versifier  sought  to  immortalize  his  name  by  a  burlesque  on  the  fair  fame 
of  every  tradesman  in  the  town.  The  stanza  reflecting  on  the  honest 
miUer  was  as  follows  : 

And  there's  the  miller,  he  grinds  for  his  toll, 

And  he  ought  to  do  right  for  the  sake  of  his  soul. 

But  still,  tlierg,  he  goes,  with  the  dish  in  his  fist, 

He  gives  you  the  toll  and  he  keeps  the  grist. 

Millers,  as  a  general  rule,  are  fair-dealing  men.  From  time  immemorial 
they  have  been  called  "honest,"  and  it  is  no  more  than  fair  that  they 
should  be  honestly  dealt  with.  If  you  wish  first  class  returns  bring  first 
class  grain  to  the  mill. 

Estimating  the  produce  of  an  acre  in  oats  at  50  bushels,  they  will 
contain  450  pounds  of  flesh-forming  food;  and  672  pounds  of  fat-forming 
food  ;  while  three  tons  of  hay  off  the  same  acre  will  carry  480  pounds  of 
flesh-formers  and  2790  pounds  of  fat-fqrmers.  Hay  is  a  standard  food 
for  cattle. 

Measuring  Hay  in  Bulk.— To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  ia  a 
mow,  multiply  the  length,  width  and  depth  together.  Five  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  ordinary  clover  and  timothy  hay,  packed  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  will  make  a  ton.  Generally,  so  many  things  have  to  be 
taken  into  consideration,  in  calculating  the  weight  of  hay  in  bulk,  it 


692 


AGllICULTUKAL  FACTa. 


makes  it  difficult  to  ascertain  it  precisely.  For  instance,  fine  new-mown 
hay,  lilio  red-top  or  herds  grass,  would  probably  not  require  (juito  5(X) 
cubic  feet  I'or  tlie  ton  ;  timothy  alone,  requires  about  550  ;  clover  (550  ; 
coarse  meadow  hay  700  or  more.  After  being  stacked  thirty  days,  the 
bulk  would  be  decreased  from  five  to  ten  per  cent.  Again,  hay  will  vary 
somewhat  in  measurement  a(;cording  to  the  time  it  is  cut. 

'Die  government  standard  for  a  ton  is  T^-  feet  ;  this  gives  422  cubic  feet. 
To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  stack,  multix^ly  the  area  of  the  base 
by  one  third  the  perpendicular  height. 

It  is  estimated  that  25  cubic  yds.  of  common  meadow  hay  in  the  wind- 
tow  compose  a  ton,  and  10  cubic  yds.  of  haled,  or  pressed  hay,  the  same 
weight. 

A  truss  of  neio  hay  is  GO  lbs. ,  of  old,  56  lbs. ,  a  load  of  hay,  30  trusses  ; 
a  bale,  300  lbs.   A  truss  of  straw  is  40  lbs. 

Table  exhibitikg  capacities  of  gkaix  nixs,  &c.,  10  ft.  high. 


Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

Bin 

6  ft. 

7  ft. 

8  ft. 

9  ft. 

10  ft. 

11  ft. 

12  ft. 

l.'ift. 

14  ft. 

15  ft. 

IGft. 

20  ft. 

22  ft. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Long. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

3 

145 

169 

192 

217 

241 

265 

289 

313 

338 

302 

386 

482 

530 

4 

193 

225 

257 

289 

321 

354 

386 

418 

450 

482 

514 

643 

708 

5 

241 

282 

321 

302 

402 

442 

482 

522 

563 

603 

643 

804 

884 

6 

290 

338 

386 

434 

482 

530 

579 

627 

675 

723 

771 

964 

1060 

338 

394 

450 

50( 

563 

619 

675 

731 

788 

844 

900 

1125 

1238 

8 

386 

450 

514 

579 

643 

707 

771 

830 

900 

964 

1029 

1286 

1414 

9 

434 

507 

579 

651 

723 

796 

868 

940 

1013 

1085 

1157 

1446 

1592 

10 

482 

563 

643 

723 

804 

884 

964 

1045 

1125 

1205 

1280 

1607 

1768 

11 

531 

619 

707 

79f 

884 

972 

1061 

1149 

1238 

1326 

1414 

1768 

1944 

12 

579 

675 

771 

see 

964 

1061 

11.57 

1254 

i  1350 

1446 

1543 

1929 

2122 

Measuring  Corn  in  the  Crib. — Many  rules  are  given  by  which  the 
number  of  bushels  of  corn  in  a  crib  may  be  ascertained,  but  all  of  them 
must  be  more  or  less  unreliable,  from  the  fact  that  they  assume  that  two 
bushels  of  ears  are  equal  to  one  of  shelled  corn — some  corn  will  not  make 
it,  while  some  will  more  than  do  it.  We  give  several  such  rules,  any  one 
of  which  will  be,  probably,  sufficiently  accurate. 

1.  Measure  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  the  rail ; 
multiply  them  together  and  divide  by  two,  the  result  is  the  number 
of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

2.  Level  the  corn  so  it  is  of  equal  depth  throughout,  multiply  the  length, 
breadth  and  depth  together,  and  this  product  by  four,  and  cut  off  one 
figure  to  the  right  of  the  product.  The  others  will  represent  the  number 
of  bushels  of  shelled  corn, 

3.  Multiply  length  by  height  and  then  by  width,  add  two  ciphers  to  the 
result  and  divide  by  124.  This  gives  the  number  of  bushels  of  ears. 
Another  rule  is  to  proceed  as  above  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet,  and  then 
assume  that  1 1-5  cubic  feet  make  one  bushel  of  ears. 

4.  Multiply  length  by  breadth  and  the  product  by  the  height,  all  in 
inches,  divide  this^by  2,748,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  bushels . 
of  ears.  From  two-thirds  to  one-half  of  this  will  be  the  number  of  bushels 
of  shelled  corn,  depending  upon  the  kind  and  quality.  _  The  first  of 
these  rules  is  the  one  generally  used  as  an  approximate  estimate. 

To  Measure  Grain  in  the  Granary.— Divide  the  cubic  feet  by  56 
and  multiply  by  45,  and  the  result  will  be  struck  measure. 

Loss  FROM  Shrinkage.— It  is  said  that  corn  loses  one-fifth  and 
wheat  one-fourteenth  by  drying.  From  this  estimate  it  seems  that 
it  would  be  more  profitable  to  the  farmer  to  sell  unshelled  corn  in  the  fall 
at  75  cents  per  bushel,  than  to  keep  it  until  Spring  and  sell  it  at  $1,  and 


AGRICULTURAL  FACTS. 


693 


that  wheat  at  $1.25  in  December,  is  equal  to  $1.50  the  succeeding  June. 
In  cases  of  potatoes,  taking  those  that  rot  and  are  otherwise  lost,  together 
with  the  shrinliage,  there  is  little  doubt  that  between  October  and  June 
the  loss  to  the  owner  that  holds  them  is  not  less  than  33  per  cent. 

The  English  Quarter,  at  which  wheat  is  quoted  in  the  Eng  ish  reports, 
is  560  pounds  or  one-fourth  of  the  ton  gross  weight  of  2240  pounds.  The 
English  legal  bushel  is  70  pounds,  and  consequently  8  of  those  bushels  is 
a  quarter — equal  to  9^  of  our  statute  bushel  of  60  pounds. 

TABLE  EXHIBITING  CONTEXTS  OF  CORN-CRIBS,  CONTAINING  CORN  IN  THE 
EAR,  COMPUTED  ON  A  BASIS  OF  3,840  CUBIC  INS.  PER  BUSH.  HEIGHT 
OF  CRIB,  10  FT. 


Lgth 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

135 

149 

162 

175 

189 

202 

216 

243 

270 

297 

324 

351 

378 

405 

153 

173 

189 

205 

221 

236 

258 

284 

315 

347 

378 

410 

441 

473 

180 

198 

216 

234 

252 

270 

288 

324 

360 

396 

432 

468 

504 

540 
608 

203 

223 

243 

263 

283 

304 

324 

365 

405 

446 

486 

527 

507 

25 

225 

248 

270 

292 

315 

337 

360 

405 

450 

495 

540 

585 

630 
693 

675 

2i8 

272 

297 

322 

347 

371 

396 

446 

495 

545 

594 

644 

743 

6 

270 

297 

324 

351 

378 

405 

432 

486 

540 

594 

648 

702 

756 

810 

293 

322 

351 

380 

410 

439 

468 

527 

585 

644 

702 

761 

819 

878 

7 

315 

347 

378 

409 

441 

472 

504 

567 

630 

693 

756 

819 

882 

945 

V' 

338 

371 

405 

439 

473 

506 

540 

608 

675 

743 

810 

878 

945 

1013 

360 

396 

432 

468 

504 

540 

576 

648 

720 

792 

864 

936 

1008 

1080 

383 

421 

459 

497 

536 

574 

612 

689 

765 

842 

918 

995 

1071 

1148 

9 

405 

446 

486 

526 

567 

607 

648 

729 

810 

891 

972 

1053 

1134 

1215 

10 

450 

495 

540 

585 

539 

675 

720 

810 

900 

990 

1080 

1170 

1260 

1350 

11 

495 

545 

594 

643 

693 

742 

792 

891 

990 

1089 

1188 

1287 

1386 

1485 

12 

540 

594 

648 

702 

756 

810 

864 

972 

1080 

1188 

1296 

1404 

1512 

1620 

Example.— Under  28  and  opposite  Sis  1,008,  representing  the  number  of 
bushels  of  corn  in  the  ear  contained  in  a  crib  28  ft.  long,  8  ft.  wide,  and  10  ft. 
high.   This  space  would  contain  1,800  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 


Rule  when  the  Crib  is  Flared  at  the  Sides.— Multiply  half  the 
sum  of  the  bottom  breadths  in  feet  by  the  perpendicular  height  in  feet, 
and  the  same  again  by  the  length  in  feet,  multiply  the  last  product  by  "63 
for  heaped  bushels  of  ears,  and  by  *42  for  the  number  of  bushels  in 
shelled  corn.  This  rule  is  based  on  the  generally  accepted  estimate  that 
3  heaped  half  bushels  of  ears,  or  4  even  full,  form  1  of  shelled  corn. 

Another  Rule  with  Equal  Sided  Cribs.— Multiply  the  length  in 
feet  by  width  in  feet,  and  this  last  by  the  height  in  feet,  multiply  the 
resulting  product  by  '63  and  the  proceeds  will  show  the  heaped  bushels  of 
ears.    To  get  the  number  of  bushels  in  shelled  corn  multiply  by  -42. 

Memoranda.— A  barrel  of  corn  is  5  bushels  shelled.  By  this  latter 
measure  crops  are  estimated,  and  corn  bought  and  sold  throughout 
most  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  At  New  Orleans  a  barrel  of 
"corn  is  a  flour  barrel  full  of  ears.  In  some  parts  of  the  west  it  is  common 
to  count  100  ears  to  the  bushel. 

Another  Way  to  Measure  Corn  in  the  Crib.— Multiply  the 
length,  breadth,  and  height  together  in  feet,  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet ; 
multiply  this  product  by  4  and  strilie  off  the  right  figure,  and  the  result 
will  be  shelled  bushels,  nearly. 

To  Find  the  Contents  of  a  Barrel  or  Cask.— Multiply  the 
square  of  the  mean  diameter  (in  inches)  by  the  length  of  the  barrel  (also 
in  inches),  divide  this  product  by  29.5  and  point  oE  one  figure  to  the 
right ;  the  result  will  be  the  answer  in  wine  gallons. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  add  that  to  find  the  mean  diameter,  we  add 
together  the  greatest  and  least  diameters  and  divide  by  2. 


694 


AGIIICULTUKAL  FACTS. 


To  Find  the  Number  of  Bushkls  of  Apples,  Potatoes,  &c.,  in 
A  Box  oil  Bin. — Ivlulti[)ly  the  length,  breadth  and  depth  together  (all  in 
feet),  and  this  product  by  8,  pointing  off  one  figure  in  the  product 
for  decimal. 

SxoRAr.E  OF  Roots  in  Cellars,  &c. — It  -will  require  about  15  cubic 
feet  of  space  to  hold  10  bushels  of  roots.  At  this  late  the  following  table 
will  serve  to  estimate  the  dimensions  of  a  root  house  or  cellar  required 
for  the  storage  of  various  quantities  of  roots. 

1,000  Bushels  of  roots  will  require  1,500  cub.  ft.,  or  j  f  j  \nt  q  ?  5^1  h'; 


1,500     "  "  "  2,250 


or,  20  X  9.4  x  8  high. 
20  X  12.G  X  9  high, 
or,  20x14.0x8  high. 


a  «  "      qnoo  "         ( 20x  1G.8  x  9  high 

'''^  i  or,  20  X  18.9  x  8  liigh. 

oAAA     u  u  u      4  5pY)  u  1  20  X  25.0  X  9  high, 

"^'^  I  or,  20  X  28.0  x  8  high. 

Anno     "  fiOOO  "  t  20  x  33.4  x  9  high, 

,^>^  ^'"^  f  or,  20  x  37.6  x  8  high. 

7AAA     «  u  u     lOKOn  "  }  20  X  58.4  X  9  high, 

■^^'^  )  or,  20  X  65. 7  X  8  high. 

inoon    "  "  i^nno  f  20  x  83.4  x  9  high, 

(  or,  20  X  93. 9  X  8  high. 

Capacity  of  Wacon-Beds.— jRwZe  1.— If  the  opposite  sides  are 
parallel,  multiply  the  length  inside  in  inches  by  the  breadth  inside  iu 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  depth  inside  in  inches,  and  divide  the 
product  by  2,150.42  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel),  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  capacity  in  bushels. 

Example. — What  is  the  capacity  of  a  wagon-bed  10  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide, 
and  15  inches  deep. 

Work. — 120  inches,  length,  x  48  inches,  width,  x  15  inches,  depth, 
=  86,400  —  2,150.42  =  40  bushels.  Ans. 

Rule  2. — Should  the  head  and  tail  boards,  or  either  of  them,  be  set  in 
bevelling,  add  the  top  and  bottom  lengths  together  and  divide  by  2  for  the 
mean  length,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing,  rule.  Should  the  sides 
be  sloping  add  the  top  and  bottom  widths,  and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean 
width,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing  rule. 

Should  the  contents  be  required  in  cubic  feet,  divide  the  product  by 
1,728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  cubic  foot),  instead  of  2,154.42,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

Gross  and  Net  Weight  and  Price  of  Hogs. — A  short  and  simple 
method  for  finding  the  net  weight  or  price  of  hogs,  when  the  gross 
weight  or  price  is  given,  and  vice  versa. 

Note. — It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  gross  weight  of  hogs,  dimin- 
ished by  one-fifth  or  20  per  cent,  of  itself  gives  the  net  weight,  and  the 
net  weight  increased  by  one-fourth  or  25  per  cent,  of  itself  equals 
the  gross  weight. 

To  find  the  net  weight,  or  gross  price  :  Multiply  the  given  number  by 
•8  (tenths). 

I  365 

Example. — A  hog  weighing  365  lbs.  gross,  will  weigh  292  lbs.  |  .8 

net,  and  pork  at  $3.65  net,  is  equal  to  $2.92  gross.  (  

I  292.0 

To  find  the  gross  weight,  or  net  price  :  Divide  the  given  number  by  "8 
(tenths). 

Example. — A  hog  weighing  348  lbs.  net,  weighs435  lbs.  gross;  (  •8)348^ 
and  pork  at  $3,48  gross,"is  equal  to  ^.35  net.  | 


AGRICULTURAL  FACTS. 


695 


To  Find  tite  Number  of  Shingles  Required  in  a  Roof.— J??;?e. 
— Multiply  tlie  number  of  square  feet  by  8,  if  the  sliiugles  are  exposed  4-^ 
ins. ,  or  by  7  1-5  if  exposed  5  ins.  To  find  the  number  of  square  feet, 
multiply  the  length  of  the  roof  by  twice  the  length  of  the  rafters. 

To  tiud  the  length  of  the  rafters  at  one  fourth  pitch,  multiply  the  width 
of  the  building  by  .56  (hundredths)  ;  at  one-third  pitch,  multiply  it 
by  -6  (tenths)  ;  at  two-lifths  pitch,  by  -64  (hundredths. )  This  gives 
the  length  of  the  rafters  from  the  apex  to  the  end  of  the  wall,  and  what- 
ever projects  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Note. — By  ^  or  J  pitch  is  meant  that  the  apex  or  comb  of  the  roof  is  to 
be  i  or  ^  tlie  width  of  the  building  higher  than  the  walls  or  base  of  the 

f    For  4  pitch,  30  X  .0  =  18. 


With  1  foot  projection  =  19 
2  times  19  =  38 
42  and  2  =  44 


Example. — How  many  shingles  are 
required  to  cover  a  building  42  feet 
long  and  30  feet  wide  ;  the  roof  to 
have  J  pitch,  and  to  project  1  foot  on  1672  sq.  feet, 

each  end,  and  1  foot  on  each  side  for  8 

the  eaves — the  shingles  to  lie  4^  inches   — 

to  the  weather.  [       Ail's.  13,376 

Capacities  of  Cisterns. 

For  a  circxdar  cistern,  take  the  diam.  in  feet,  square  that  (see 
table  on  page  612),  and  multiply  by  -785398  ;  that  gives  the  area  in  feet  ; 
multiply  this  by  1.728  and  divide  by  231,  and  you  will  have  the  number 
of  gallons  capacity  of  one  foot  in  depth  of  the  cistern  ;  from  this  calculate 
the  depth. 

If  for  a  Square  Cistern,  multiply  length  by  breadth,  and  proceed  to 
multiply  the  result  by  1,728  and  to'divide  by  231,  as  before.  Calculated 
in  this  way  we  find  that  each  foot  iu  depth  of  a 


Circular  Cistern. 


5  feet  in  diam.  holds  4.66  bbls. 

6  "  "     6.71  " 

7  "  "     9.1.3  " 

8  "            "  "    11.93  " 

9  "  "  "  15.10  '•' 
10   «            "  "  18.65 


Square  Cistern. 


5  feet  by  5  feet  holds  5-92  bbls. 

6  "         6     "      "     8.54  " 

7  "         7     "      "    11.63  " 

8  "         8     "      "    15.19  " 

9  "  9  "  19.39  " 
10    "        10     "       "    23.74  " 


In  calculating  the  capacity  of  cisterns,  &c.,  Sl^  gals,  are  estimated  to  1 
barrel,  and  63  gals,  to  1  hogshead. 

To  Compute  the  Weight  of  Live  Cattle.  For  cattle  of  a  girth 
of  from  5  to  7  feet,  allow  23  lbs.  to  the  superficial  foot.  For  a  girth  of 
from  7  to  9  ft. ,  allow  31  lbs.  to  the  superficial  foot.  For  small  cattle  and 
calves  of  a  girth  of  from  3  to  6  ft.  allow  16  lbs.  to  the  cubic  foot.  For  pigs, 
sheep,  and  animals  measuring  less  than  3  ft.  girth,  allow  11  lbs.  to  the 
superficial  foot. 

Rule, — Measure  the  girth  in  inches  back  of  the  shoulder,  and  the 
length  in  inches  from  the  square  of  the  buttock  to  a  point  even  with  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  blade.  Multiply  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  di- 
vide the  product  by  144  for  the  superficial  feet,  and  then  multiply  the 
superficial  feet  by  the  number  of  lbs.  allowed  as  above  for  cattle  of  va- 
rious girths,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  pounds  of  beef,  veal, 
or  pork  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  animal.  To  find  the  number  of  stone, 
divide  the  number  of  lbs.  by  14, 

Example.— What  is  the  estimated  weight  of  beef  in  a  steer,  whose  girth 
is  6  ft.  4  ins.,  and  length  5  ft.  3  ins. 

Work— 76  ins.  girth,  x  63  ins.  length,  =  4788  144  =  33|  square 
feet,  X  23  =  764|  lbs. ,  or  54|  stone.   Ans . 


COG 


AGIllCULTURAL  TABLES. 


When  the  animal  is  hut  lialf  fattened,  a  deduction  of  14  llw.  in  every 
280,  or  1  stone  in  every  20  must  be  made  ;  and  if  very  fat,  1  stone  for 
every  20  must  bo  added.    See  other  rules  on  page  558. 

Tlieso  rules  are  a  very  close  approximation  to  tlie  truth,  subject  to  very 
plight  variations  owing  "to  the  condition,  bi-eed,  &c.,  of  various  animals. 
The  following  Table  is  compiled  from  two  English  authorities  on  the 
subject  : 

Kenton's  Table. 


It.  in. 

It. 

in. 

Btone 

lb. 

stone 

  3 

6   

  21 

0   

  21 

5  0   

  4 

  24 

0   

  24 

5  ()   

  3 

9   

........  27 

1   

  27 

5  C   

  4 

0  

  34 

4   

  .34 

G  0   

  4 

G   

  38 

8   

  38 

C  0   

  5 

0   

  43 

1   

  43 

6  6   

  4 

G   

  45 

9   

  45 

  4 

9   

  48 

0   

  48 

G   

  64 

G   

  C4 

7  0   

  6 

0   

  70 

5   

  70 

8  0   

  6 

G  

  99 

8   

8  0   

0   

  107 

5   

  107 

00 
00 
00 
07 
U 
00 
07 
00 
07 
03 

r 

0 

In  reference  to  the  very  important  item  of  Sheep  Husbandry,  the  fol 
lowing  valuable  Table  presents  the  results  of  numerous  experiments  bj 
De  Raumer  : 

TABLE   SHOWING  THE  EFFECTS   PRODUCED  BY  AN  EQUAL  QUANTITY  OF 
THE  FOLLOWING  SUBSTANCES  AS  FOOD  FOR  SHEEP. 

Increased  weight  of 


Produced 
Tallow- 
Lbs. 

121/2 
IIV2 

591/2 

& 
60 

41 

35 

43 

33 

The  following  Table,  from  Delisser's  Horseman's  Guide,  exhibits  the 
percentage  of  different  nutritive  elements  in  the  various  kinds  of  food 
supplied  to  horses  in  this  and  other  countries  : 


Lbs.  Designation. 

1000  potatoes  raw  with  salt. . 
"  without  salt 
"    mangel- wurtzel,  raw.. . . 

living  animal  in 
Lbs. 

44 
381/2 

155 

146 

136 
134 

133 

90 

129 

120 

Trodueed 
Wool 
Lbs. 

if' 

10 

14 
12 

10 


14V2 


Description  of  Food. 

Wood 
Fibre. 

Sugar  and 
Starch. 

Fibrine  and 
Albumen. 

Fattv  Mat- 
ter. 

Saline  Mat- 
ters. 

Water. 

Black  Butter  Corn. 

none. 

53.5 

15.5 

10.5 

9.2 

11.2 

Oats. 

30.0 

43.0 

11.4 

0.6 

2.5 

.12.5 

Indian  Corn. 

8.0 

53.0 

14.0 

6.0 

5.0 

14.0 

Linseed, 

19.0 

35.0 

20.0 

8.0 

6.0 

12.0 

Beans. 

14  5 

40.0 

26.0 

2.5 

3.0 

14.0 

Peas. 

9.0 

48.0 

24.0 

2.0 

3.0 

14.0 

Barley. 

14.0 

52.0 

13.5 

2.5 

3.0 

15.0 

Old  Hay. 

30.0 

40.0 

7.0 

2.0 

7.0 

14.0 

Clover. 

25.0 

40.0 

9.0 

3.0 

9.0 

14.0 

Barley  Straw. 

46.0 

340 

1.5 

none. 

6.5 

12.0 

Oat  Straw. 

50.0 

31.0 

LO 

a  trace. 

5.5 

12.5 

Wheat  Straw. 

55.0 

27.0 

0.5 

none. 

5.5 

12.0 

Bran. 

54.0 

2.0 

20.0 

4.0 

7.0 

13.0 

Carrots. 

3.0 

10.0 

1.5 

none. 

1.5 

84.0 

1  pt.  of  Black  Butter-Corn  as  imported  from  the  Indies,  and  sold  in 
many  of  the  feed  stores,  is  considered  equivalent  to  12  qts.  of  oats  for 
nourishing  qualities  when  fed  to  a  horse.   Hard  working  horses  can  be 


AGRICULTURAL  TABLES. 


697 


Irept  in  prime  order  by  feeding  them,  1st,  At  Wight  after  work,  J  peclc 
oats,  and  A  pt.  black  butter  corn,  with  8  to  10  lbs.  pood  hay.  2d,  In  the, 
Morning,  |  peck  oats,  1  pt.  Indian  meal,  with  say,  2  lbs.  hay.  3d,  During 
the  day,  ^  peck  of  oats  with  a  little  hay.  4th,  On  Saturday  Night  a 
good  warm  bran  mash.  5th,  On  Sunday,  an  extra  allowance  of  hay. 

These  rules  followed  out,  will  ensure  to  a  horse  a  weekly  allowance  Df, 
Fibrine  and  Albumen,  22  lbs. ;  Fat,  5^  lbs. ;  starch  and  sugar,  85  lbs,  so 
that  the  relative  proportion  of  nitrogenous  to  carbonaceous  food  is  as  1 
to  4  ;  while  for  a  fattening  animal  it  is  as  1  to  5.  Horses  should  be  water- 
ed before  feeding. 

Table,  showing  the  results  or  experiments  in  the  feeding  of 

GOOD  HAY  AND  OTHER  SUBST^iNCES,  AS  FOOD  FOR  STOCK. 


10  lbs  of  hay  are  equal  to 
8  to  10  lbs.  clover  hay. 
45  to  50  "   green  clover. 
40  to  50  "    wheat  straw. 
20  to  40  "   barley  straw. 
20  to  40  **   oat  straw. 
10  to  15  "   pea  straw. 
20  to  25  "  potatoes. 
25  to  30  "   carrots  (red). 
40  to  45  "       ♦*  (white). 


10  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

30  to  35  lbs.  mangold  wurtzcl. 

45  to  50  "  turnips. 

20  to  30  "  cabbage. 

3  to  5       peas  and  beans, 
5  to  G  "  wheat. 

5  to  6  "  barley. 

4  to  7  "  oats. 

5  to  7  "   Indian  corn. 
2  to  4  "   oil  cake. 


Note. — In  calculations  of  this  kind,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for 
variations  caused  by  the  condition,  age,  digestion,  breed,  &c.,  of  the 
animal,  and  the  variety  or  mixture  of  the  food  dispensed.  The  same  re- 
marks are  eminently  true  of  the  following. 

Table,  showing  the  difference  between  good  hay  and  the 
substances  noted  below,  as  food  for  stock,  being  the  mean 
cf  experiment  and  theory. 
100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 


275  lbs.  green  Indian  corn. 

442  "  rye  straw. 

360  "  wheat  " 

164  oat  " 

180  "  barley  " 

153  "  pea 

200  "  buckwheat  straw. 

201  *'  raw  potatoes. 
175  "  boiled  potatoes. 
339  "  mangold  wurtzel. 
504  "  turnips. 

300  "  carrots. 


100  lbs  of  hay  are  equal  to 
54  lbs.  rye. 
46   "  wheat. 
59   "  oats. 

45   "   peas  and  beans  mixed. 

64  "  buckwheat. 

57   "   Indian  corn. 

68   "  acorns. 
105   "   wheat  bran. 
109   "   rye  " 
167   "   wheat,  pea,  and  oat  chaff. 
179   '*   rye  and  barley,  mixed. 


The  following  Table  shows  the  amount  of  hay  or  its  equivalent  per  day, 
required  by  each  100  lbs.  of  live  weight  of  various  animals  : 

Working  Horses   3.08  lbs. 

"       Oxen  ,  2.40  " 

Fatting  Oxen   5.00  " 

*'      "      when  fat....-  4.00  " 

Milch  Cows  from  2-25  to  2.40  " 

Dry       "    2.42  " 

Young  growing  cattle     3.08  " 

Steers   2.84  " 

Pigs    3.00  " 

Sheep   3.00  * 

Winter  Treatment  of  Hens. — Hens  will  produce  an  abundance  of 
eggs  during  winter  if  they  are  provided  Avith  a  warm  comfortable  roost 
during  the  night,  and  a  sheltered  sunny  exposure  during  the  day.  Give 
them  plenty  of  dry  ashes,  gravel,  and  sand  to  roll  in  ;  a  box  of  slacked 
or  old  lime  to  nibble  at,  with  an  allowance  of  finely  chopped  meat  every 
other  day,  and  plenty  of  corn  and  oats,  boiled  soft,  and  spiced  with 
cayenne  pepper.  Add  the  table  crumbs,  potato  parings,  &c.,  with  plenty 
of  lukewarm  water,  and  they  will  render  ample  returns.  No  living  thing 
kept  on  a  farm  pays  better  than  hens  if  they  are  only  well  used. 


698 


AGKICULTUKAL  TABLES. 


NUTKITIVE  VALUK  OF  VARIOUS  CROPS,  AR  TO  BTARCII,  CUM,  GLUTEN, 
ALBUMEN,  CASEIN,  OIL,  SALINE  MATTER,  &C'. 


-a 

o 

13 

p 

o 

i« 

ii 

DESiaNATIOIT. 

Buslicls. 

IDB. 

or  wo 

fibre. 

k 

^  3 
<  3 

Oil. 

a 
1 
§ 

1  Husk 

Starch 

Glntei 
an 

Wheat  

25 

1500 

,225 

825 

180 

45 



30 

35 

1800 

270 

1080 

230 

50 

50 

50 

2100 

420 

1050 

300 

100 

75 

25 

1600 

130 

900 

380 

34 

48 

25 

1600 

160 

640 

420 

40 

50 

30 

1800 

'■  100 

1260 

220 

130 

30 

12  tons 

27000 

1080 

4800 

540 

45 

240 

30  " 

67000 

1340 

6000 

1000 

200 

450 

3000 

1500 

900 

40 

80 

150 

ly^ 

3400 

1020 

1360 

240 

120 

220 

2  " 

4500 

1120 

1800 

420 

200 

400 

20  " 

45000 

430 

2300 

1300 

130 

600 

Johnston. 

In  the  following  table,  by  Sprengel,  the  grain,  leaves,  peas,  straw,  and 
hay,  are  estimated  after  they  have  been  dried  in  the  air,  the  roots  after 
they  have  been  taken  from  the  field.  The  potato  loses  in  drying  69  per 
cent,  of  water  ;  the  turnip,  91;  the  carrot,  87;  the  turnip  leaf,  86;  the 
carrot  leaf,  parsnip,  and  i)arsnip  leaf,  each  87,  and  the  cabbage  93, 
Table  showing  the  quantity  and  kinds  of  inorganic  matter 

REMOVED  from  THE  SOIL  IN  1000  LBS.  EACH  OP  THE  FOLLOAVING 
CROPS. 


Wheat— Grain . 

"  Straw. 
Barley— Grain. 

Straw. 
Oats— Grain  . . . 
"   Straw  . . . 

Eye— Grain  

"  Straw... 
Field  )  Bean. . . 
Bean )  Straw... 
Field )  Pea .... 
Pea  J  Straw . . 
;  Boots .. 
t  Tops... 
Boots. . 
Leaves. 

Carrots  

Parsnips  

Bye  Grass  

Bed  Clover  

White  Clover . . 

Lucerne  

Sainfoin  


Pota's 
Tur.  ] 


."2 

«j 

a 

g 

> 

.2 

C3 
C 

a 

o 

1 

S 

o, 

g< 
o 

.5 

o 

o 

o 
tn 

B 

1 

3 

iZ 

3 

m 

2 

O 

2.25 

2.40 

0.96 

0.90 

0.26 

4.00 

0.50 

0.40 

0.10 

trace 

11.77 

0.20 

0.29 

2.40 

0.32 

0.90 

28.70 

0.37 

1.70 

0.30 

35.18 

2.78 

2.90 

1.06 

1.80 

0.25 

11.82 

.59 

2.10 

0.19 

trace 

23,49 

1.80 

0.48 

5.54 

0.76 

1.46 

38.56 

1.18 

1.60 

0.70 

0.14 

0.20 

52.42 

1.50 

1.32 

0.86 

0.67 

0.14 

19.76 

0.35 

0.70 

0.10 

0.40 

25.80 

8.70 

0.02 

1.52 

0.22 

0.06 

45.88 

0.79 

0.12 

0.05 

0.02 

0.02 

57.40 

5.32 

1.22 

0.44 

0.24 

1.64 

0.23 

0.46 

0.09 

0.42 

0.34 

10.40 

0.32 

0.11 

1.78 

0.12 

0.25 

22.97 

1.70 

0.51 

0.17 

27.93 

4.15 

8.16 

1.65 

1.58 

0.34 

1.26 

0.89 

2.92 

0.41 

21.36 

16.56 

0.50 

6.24 

2.09 

0.10 

2.20 

0.34 

2.26 

0.80 

0.07 

0.05 

31.21 

8.10 

7.39 

0.58 

1.36 

0.20 

4.10 

0.53 

1.90 

0.38 

0.10 

24.64 

2.35 

27.30 

3.42 

0.60 

9.96 

3.. 37 

2.40 

0.04 

0.20 

0.07 

49.71 

4.028 

2.334 

.331 

.324 

.050 

.084 

.540 

.401 

.160 

.032 

8.284 

8.19 

.09 

12.97 

1.70 

.04 

4.94 

.42 

1.97 

.50 

.02 

30.84 

2.386 

1.048 

.752 

.254 

.030 

.388 

.80] 

.367 

.239 

.032 

6.303 

3.23 

2.22 

6.20 

..59 

.03 

1.28 

2.52 

.98 

.87 

.17 

18.09 

3.533 

.922 

.657 

.384 

.039 

,137 

.270 

.514 

.070 

.033 

.060 

6.619 

2.079 

.702 

.468 

.270 

.024 

.162 

.192 

.100 

.178 

.0051  V 

4.180 

8.81 

3.94 

7.34 

0.90 

0.31 

27.72 

3.53 

0.25 

0.06 

52.86 

19.95 

5.29 

27.80 

3.33 

0.14 

3.61 

4.47 

6.57 

3.62 

74.78 

31.05 

5.79 

33.48 

3.05 

1.90 

14.73 

3.53 

5.05 

2.11 

0.63 

91.32 

13.40 

6.15 

48.31 

3.48 

0.30 

3.30 

4.04 
3.41 

13.07 
9.16 

3.18 
1.57 

0.30 

95.52 
69.57 

20.57 

4.37 

(21.95 

2.88 

0.66 

5.00 

AGRICULTURAL  TABLES,  *!tC.  699 

As  a  means  of  enaTjliiig  the  farmer  to  form  an  approximate  estimate  of 
tlve  amount  removed  from  the  soil  by  liis  crops,  we  append  the  following 
valuable  tables  by  Prof.  Johnston  : — 

Table  showixg  the  amount  of  organic  substances  kemoved  from 

THE  soil  in  1000  LBS.  EACH  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS  WHEN  PER- 
FECTLY DRY. 


Hay,  about  

Red  Clover  Hay. 

Potatoes  

Wheat.  

Wheat  Straw.... 

Oats  

Oat  Straw  


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Ash. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

JL.bs. 

458 

50 

387 

15 

CO 

474 

50 

378 

21 

77 

440 

58 

447 

15 

40 

4G1 

58 

434 

23 

23 

484 

53 

3891/2 
367 

331/2 

70 

507 

64 

22 

40 

601 

54 

390 

4 

51 

Table  showing  inorganic  matter  removed  from  the  soil  in  1000 

LBS.  each  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS  IN  THEIR  ORDINARY  STATE 
OF  DRYNESS. 

Beans  about  30  lbs. 

Peas                           "  30  " 

Pea  straw                    "  50  *' 

Meadow  Hay               "  50  to  100 

Clover  Hay                  "  90  lbs. 

Rye  Grass  Hay             '<  95  " 

Potatoes                      "  8  to  15 

Turnips                        '<  5  to  8 

Carrots                        "  15  to  20 


Wheat  about  20  lbs. 

Wheat  straw   "  50  " 

Barley   "  30  " 

Barley  straw   "  50  *' 

Oats   "  40  " 

Oat  straw   "  60  " 

Rye   "  20  " 

Rye  straw   "  40  '* 

Indian  Corn   "  15  " 

Indian  Corn  Stalk....  "  50  " 

Grand  Idea  for  Farmers  ;  Best  Fodder  at  $1.00  per  Ton — Mr. 
Francis  Morris  of  Howard  Co.,  Ind.,  thus  recounts  a  very  unusual  ex- 
perience in  preparing  and  using  corn  fodder.  The  system,  if  carried  out 
to  its  ultimate  results,  would  render  almost  any  farm  a  fair  equivalent  to 
a  gold  mine,  so  far  as  profit  is  concerned. 

"  About  the  1st  of  last  August,  I  planted  five  acres  of  ordinary  wheat 
land  in  Indian  corn,  and  I  allowed  it  to  grow  until  the  1st  of  October, 
when  it  was  in  tassel.  I  then  had  it  cut  down  with  a  reaper  and  passed 
through  the  ordinary  process  of  chopping,  using  for  that  purpose  an  or- 
dinary feed-cutter.  The  fodder  thus  produced  was  mixed  with  straw  in 
proportion  of  four-fifths  corn  fodder  to  one  fifth  straw.  It  was  then  put 
in  trenches,  trampled  down,  and  covered  with  earth.  The  fodder  re- 
mained in  this  state  until  last  Christmas  day,  when  the  trenches  were 
opened  and  the  fodder  taken  out  and  fed  to  the  cattle.  The  fodder  was 
found  to  be  in  as  perfect  a  state  of  preservation  as  when  it  was  first  put  in, 
and  the  cattle  seemed  to  relish  it  from  the  first,  and  now  prefer  it  to  any 
other  kind  of  food.  The  cost  of  producing  this  fodder  was  only  $1  a  ton, 
which  is  only  one-twentieth  as  much  as  the  cost  of  timothy  hay,  which 
is  not  equal  to  it  in  any  respect.  If  the  land  is  planted  early  in  the  spring, 
20  or  30  tons  can  be  raised  to  the  acre,  but  in  France  the  land  is  highly 
manured  and  the  corn  is  sowed  only  two  feet  apart,  which  often  makes 
the  yield  as  high  as  80  tons  to  the  acre.  The  same  land  can  afterwards 
be  planted  in  barley,  and  loses  none  of  its  strength  by  the  planting  of  the 
corn,  as  it  is  a  principle  in  agriculture  that  the  strength  of  the  land  is  only 
lost  in  the  formation  of  the  grain.  By  the  use  of  this  fodder  every  farm 
of  100  acres,  planted  with  10  acres  of  "this  fodder,  would  be  able  to  fatten 
100  head  of  cattle  during  the  winter,  which  would  yield  a  profit  of  50  per 
cent.,  besides  the  immense  advantage  of  having  such  an  amount  of  stable 
manure,  which  in  itself,  if  utilized,  would  pay  for  the  fodder  thus  used." 

The  advantages  of  this  method,  Mr.  Morris  states,  are  best  shown  by  a 


700 


AGRICULTURAL   FACTS,  &C. 


comparison  between  the  cost  of  production  of  tliis  fodder  nnd  the  cost  of 
timothy  hay. 


rhosphate,  10  acres,  at  f  IG  §1G0 

Team  and  plow  for  30  days   CO 

Man  to  tend  the  team   15 

Catting   15 

Hauling  and  preserving   250 

Total  cost  §500 


"  A  fair  estimate  of  the  crop  of  these  ten  acres  would  be  500  tons. 
Five  liundred  tons  of  timothy  hay  would  cost  $10,900,  and  as  this  500  tons 
of  chopped  fodder  will  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  timoUiy  hay,  it  is 
easily  seen  that  every  community  can  thus  raise  its  own  meat  at  about 
half  the  cost  to  import  it." 

Of  all  the  vegetable  products  used  as  food,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  their 
dry  state,  carbon  forms  almost  ^ .  the  weight,  oxygen  a  little  over  ^, 
hydrogen  a  little  more  than  5  per  cent,  nitrogen  from  1^  to  4  per  cent,  and 
earthy  matter  from  1  to  20  per  cent. 


A  SIMPLE  STUMP-  PULLER. 
The  above  cut  represents  a  simple  stump  machine  illustrated  in  the 
columns  of  the  American  Agriculturist.  It  is  worked  by  a  lever,  moved 
preferably  by  a  stout  yoke  of  oxen.  The  end  of  the  lever  is  supplied 
with  a  strong  clevis,  sufficiently  long  to  pass  around  so  as  to  be  used  on 
either  side.  The  fulcrum  of  the  lever  consists  of  a  chain  which  is  to  be 
fastened  to  the  largest  stump  near  (a) ;  on  each  side  of  this  is  a  clevis, 
with  a  short  chain  and  hook  attached.  To  work  the  machine,  fix  a  chain 
to  the  stump  to  be  pulled,  hook  on  to  one  of  the  short  chains  of  the 
machine  (6),  draw  up  the  oxen  until  that  chain  is  tight ;  hook  on  the 
other  chain  (c),  turn  the  team,  and  draw  up  as  far  as  they  can  go  ;  hook 
the  chain  (6),  turn  and  draw  again,  and  so  repeat  until  the  stump  is 
drawn  out.  Then  fasten  on  to  another,  and  repeat  the  process  until  all 
the  stumps  are  out  within  reach  of  the  one  the  machine  is  anchored  to. 
The  machine  will  then  have  to  be  moved  to  another  anchoring  place,  and 
so  on  until  the  field  is  cleared.  The  last  stump  left  must  be  grubbed 
out.    It  will  be  necessary  to  remember  that  the  power  of  this  lever  ia 


DYNAMITE  VS.  STUMPS,  &C. 


701 


very  great ;  nnd  stump  pulling  requires  stout  impleraents'and  chains.  A 
breakage  may  not  only  cause  delay,  but  a  blow  from  a  snapping  chain 
may  very  easily  be  fatal ;  it  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  for  safety 
that  the  chains  be  made  of  the  best  iron,  with  the  best  workmanship,  and 
strong  enough  to  hold  against  all  the  resistance  they  may  meet.  The 
lever  should  be  strengthened  with  iron  plates  in  those  parts  where  the 
holes  are  bored  for  the  clevis  bolts. 

Dynamite  vs.  Stumps  and  Rocks. — Late  experiments  by  John  O'Don- 
nell,  of  Jamacia,  L.  I.,  before  an  invited  party  of  farmers,  prove  con- 
clusively that  stumps  and  rocks  can  be  sent  flying  by  means  of  dynamite 
at  a  very  low  cost.  The  stronger  and  fresher  the  stump  is  the  further  it 
flies.  Five  stumps  were  attacked.  The  first  was  of  oak,  partly  decayed. 
The  men  employed  punched  a  hole  with  a  crowbar  between  two  project- 
ing roots,  but  not  being  experts,  did  not  insert  the  instrument  fully  under 
the  stump.  Consequently,  only  two-thirds  of  it  was  blown  out.  The 
partial  decay  of  the  wood  was  another  hindrance.  It  did  not  offer  the 
necessary  resistance.  A  partially  rotted  chestnut  stump  was  blown  to 
fragments.  The  crowbar  was  badly  inserted  under  an  apple-tree  stump, 
and  that,  like  the  oak,  was  shattered  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds.  With 
a  sound  and  sturdy  oak  stump,  however,  the  dynamite  was  fully 
triumphant.    The  stump  was  blown  out  utterly. 

A  charge  was  place  under  a  rock  weighing  about  two  tons.  It  was 
thrown  from  its  bed  and  shattered  to  pieces.  A  rock  half  its  size  was 
thrown  twenty  feet,  but  not  broken.  A  hole  about  a  foot  deep  was  then 
drilled  into  a  well-embedded  rock,  and  charged  with  four  ounces  of 
dynamite.  It  was  much  broken,  and  the  pieces  not  dislodged  were  easily 
pried  out  with  the  crowbar. 

About  two  inches  of  a  cartridge  an  inch  in  diameter  had  hitherto  been 
used  upon  the  stumps,  but  the  closing  experiment  was  made  with  an 
entire  cartridge  eighteen  inches  long  upon  a  fresh  oak  stump  twenty 
inches  in  diameter.    Many  of  the  fragments  were  thrown  125  feet. 

The  dynamite  is  put  up  in  jmckages  of  oiled  muslin,  shaped  like  a 
candle,  and  impervious  to  water.  One  end  is  opened,  and  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  powder  with  a  stick  for  the  insertion  of  the  percussion  cap,  which 
is  an  inch  long,  and  loaded  for  half  its  length  with  fulminate  of  mercury. 
A  fuse  is  inserted  in  the  cap,  which  is  squeezed  with  nippers  that  it  may 
fit  tightly.  The  little  interstices  must  be  filled  with  soap,  to  render  the 
cap  waterproof.  Aftei  the  cap  is  in  position  in  the  powder,  the  top  of 
the  cartridge  must  be  tied  tight  around  the  fuse,  so  that  ,no  water  may 
enter.  On  the  cartridge  being  placed  against  the  stump,  water  must  be 
poured  into  the  hole  and  the  ground  around  thoroughly  soaked  and 
pressed  that  it  may  offer  a  strong  resistance.  A  little  semi-circular  dam 
should  then  be  heaped  around,  within  which  more  water  should  be 
l^oured,  by  way  of  adding  to  the  resistance.  The  fuse,  which  should 
project  outside  of  the  dam,  is  then  lighted.  It  reaches  the  cap  in  less  than 
two  minutes,  which  affords  ample  time  for  the  operators  to  reach  a  safe 
distance.  The  explosion  makes  little  noise,  and  after  viewing  a  dance  in 
the  air  of  a  myriad  of  fragments,  spectators  find  a  large  hole,  with  a  few 
loose  roots  around  and  the  ground  ready  for  the  plough. 

Cockroach  Destroyer.— To  destroy  cockroaches,  mix  finely 
powdered  borax  and  fine  sugar,  half-and-half,  and  spread  around  where 
the  roaches  are  most  troublesome.  For  a  few  days  it  may  seem  that  the 
remedy  is  doing  no  good,  but  soon  the  roaches  will  begin  to  die,  and  in  a 
short  time  you  will  be  rid  of  them.  This  is  said  to  be  an  infallible  rem- 
edy. Cayenne  pepper  will  keep  the  pantry  and  storeroom  free  from 
cockroaches  and  ants. 


702 


AGRICULTURAL  TAIJLES. 


QUANTITIES  OP  SEED  REQUIRED  TO  THE  ACRE,  &0. 

TABLU  SlIOWINC)  TJIK  QUANXITV  OF  OAKDKN  SKKI)  KOR  A  GIVEN  SPACE. 

l>eBi;,'iiation.  Space  and  quantity  of  seeds. 


Asparagus  

"  Roots. 
Eng.Dwarf  Beans 
French  " 
Beans,  Pole,large 
"       "  small 

Beets  

Broccoli  and  Kale 

Cabbage  

Cauliflower  

Carrot  

Celery  

Cucumber  

Cress  

Egg  Plant  

Endive  

Leek  

Lettuce  

Melon  

Nasturtium  

Onion  

Okra  

Parsley  

Parsnip  

Peppers  

Peas  

Pumpkin  

Radish  

Salsify  

Spinage..  

Squash  

Tomato...,  

Turnip  

"Water  Melon  


1  oz.  produces  1000  plants  and  requires  a  bed  12  ft.  sq. 

1000,  plant  a  bed  4  feet  wide,  225  long. 

1  quart  plants,  from  100  to  225  of  row. 

"     "         "    from  100  to  150  feet  of  row. 

"     "         "     100  hills. 

"     "         "    300  hills,  or  250  feet  of  row. 

10  lbs.  to  the  acre  ;  1  oz.  plants  150  feet  of  row. 

1  oz.  plants  2500  plants,  and  requires  40  sq.  ft.  of  ground. 

Early  sorts  same  as  broccoli,  and  require  CO  sq.  ft.  ground. 

The  same  as  cabbage. 

1  oz.  to  150  of  row. 

1  oz.  gives  7000  plants,  and  requires  8  sq.  feet  of  ground. 

1  oz.  for  150  hills. 

1  oz.  sows  a  bed  16  feet  square. 

1  oz.  gives  2000  plants. 

1  oz.  gives  3000  plants,  and  requires  80  feet  of  ground. 

1  oz.  gives  2000  plants  and  requires  CO  feet  of  ground. 

1  oz,    "    7000     <'    and  requires  seed  bed  of  120  feet. 

1  oz.  for  120  hills. 

1  oz.  sows  25  feet  of  row. 

1  oz.   "  200  *' 

loz.   "  200  " 

1  oz.    <*  200   "  " 

loz.    "  250   "  *' 

1  oz.  gives  2500  plants. 

1  quart  sows  120  feet  of  row. 

1  oz.  to  50  hills. 

1  oz.  to  100  feet. 

1  oz.  to  150  feet  of  row. 

1  oz.  to  200  feet  of  row. 

1  oz.  to  75  hills  

1  oz.  gives  2500  plants,  requiring  seed  bed  of  80  feet. 
1  oz.  to  2000  feet. 
1  oz.  to  50  hills. 


Table  showing  the  quantity  of  seed  required  to  the  acre. 


Designation.  Quantity  of  seed. 

Broom  Corn.   1  to  1]4  bush. 

Potatoes   5  to  10  " 

Timothy  12  to  24  quarts. 

Mustard  8  to  20  " 

Herd  Grass  12  to  16  " 

Flat  Turnip  2  to  3  lbs. 

Red  Clover  10  to  16  " 

White  Clover   3  to  4  " 

Blue  Grass  10  to  15  " 

Orchard  Grass  20  to  30  " 

Carrots    4  to  5  " 

Parnsnips  6"to  8  ,  " 

Table  showing  the  quantity  per  acre  when  planted  in  rows  on 

DRILLS . 


Designation. 

"Wheat  

Barley  

Oats  

Rye  

Buckwheat , 

Millet  

Corn  

Beans   


Hemp. 
Flax.., 
Rice . . . 


Quantity  of  seed. 
.11/4  to  2  bush. 

.1%  to  21/2  " 

.2     to  4  " 

.1     to  2  " 

.  %  to  11/3 

.1    to  1%  •< 

.  1/4  to  1 

.1    to  2  " 

.2y2  to  3%  " 

.1    to  IK  " 
.      to  2 
.2    to  2% 


Broom  Corn  1    to  li^  bush. 

Beans  1%  to  2  " 

Peas  lV2to2  « 


Onions   4  to  5  lbs. 

Carrots   2  to  2J^  " 

Parnsnips  4  to  5  " 

Beets   4  to  6  " 

To  Estimate  the  Quantity  of  Peat.— Peat,  as  ordinarily  in  the  bed, 
will  weigh  2,100  to  2,400  lbs.  per  cubic  yard,  if  drained  in  the  bed, 
1,340  to  1,490  ;  when  air-dried,  320  to  380  lbs.,  when  it  will  shrink  to  | 
or  1-6  its  original  bulk. 

Vitality  of  Seeds.— Beans  will  retain  vitality  for  2  years,  beet  7, 
cabbage  4,  carrot  2,  sweet  corn  2,  cucumber  10,  lettuce  3,  melon  10,  onion 
1,  peas  2,  parsnip  1,  radish  3,  squash  10,  tomato  7,  turnip  4. 


AGRICULTURAL  TABLES. 


703 


Table  showing  germination  of  wheat  sowed  at  vakiods  depths. 

Appeared  above      No.  of  plants 
ground  in 

Seeds  sown  to  the  depth  of  U  inch.  11  days 

  1    "  12  " 

"        "        "         "   2   "  18  " 

 3   "  " 

"        "  "    4   "  " 

"   5  " 


that  came  up. 
% 
all. 


23 


In  sowing  wheat  the  rule  is  to  give  it  a  thinner  covering  in  a  close 
heavy  soil,  than  in  one  that  is  light,  gravelly,  and  sandy. 
Table,  showing  the  period  of  reproduction  and  gestation  of 
domestic  animals. 


iJJiiBiuXS  A  llOiN  . 

Proper  age 
for  reproduc- 
tion. 

Period  of  tho 
power  of  re- 
productionin 
years. 

Mare 

4 

years. 

10 

to 

12 

5 

a 

12 

to 

13 

Cow   

3 

10 

to 

14 

Bull'        .  . 

3 

ti 

8 

to 

10 

2 

6 

2 

7 

1 

6 

1 

G 

2 

6 

He  Goat,  

2 

5 

4 

10 

to 

12 

5 

12 

to 

15 

She  Bulfalo,... 

8 

2 

II 

8 

to 

9 

Dog,  

She  Cat,  

2 

8 

to 

9 

1 

5 

to 

6 

He  Cat,  

1 

9 

to 

10 

Doe  Rabbit,.... 

6  months 

5 

to 

G 

Buck  Rabbit, . . 

6 

5 

to 

6 

6 

ft 

5 

to 

G 

3 

to 

5 

Goose,  

Pea  Hen,  

Guinea  Hen, . . . 

O 


20  to 


30  to  45 
40  to  50 


6  to  10 
20  to  40 


5  to  G 


30 

12  to  15 


Shortest  pe- 

Mean peri- 

Longest 

riod,  days. 

od,  days. 

period,  dys. 

322 

347 

419 

240 

283 

321 

146 

154 

161 

109 

115 

143 

150 

156 

163 

365 

380 

391 

281 

308 

335 

55 

60 

63 

48 

50 

56 

20 

28 

35 

19 

21 

24 

24 

£6 

30 

28 

30 

32 

27 

30 

33 

IG 

18 

20 

25 

28 

30 

20 

33 

25 

40 

42 

45 

Man 
Tlie  Camel 
The  Horse 
The  Ox 
The  Lion 
The  Dog 
The  Cat 
The  Hare 
The  Guinea  p 


grows    for    20  years,  and  lives 


Growth  and  life  of  animals. 

90 
40 
25 
15 
20 
12 
9 
8 


or  100  years. 


"  5  "  " 

"  4  «*  "  "       15  to  20 

II  4  <«  << 

"  2  "  "  "       12   to  14 

"  1%  "  "  "         9   or  10 

<(  2  (<  <«  <« 

"  7  months,  and  lives  6  or  7  " 
To  Rid  a  House  of  Rats. — Wet  a  few  pounds  of  unslacked  lime  with 
strong  lye  made  from  potash  ;  let  it  be  quite  soft ;  spread  it  around  the 
holes  so  that  the  rats  cannot  avoid  treading  in  it ;  let  it  remain  a  week  or 
so,  and  if  it  gets  dry  scrape  it  off  and  moisten  again.  The  mixture  bums 
their  feet,  and  they  will  not  be  likely  to  make  a  second  visit.  Do  not  let 
it  come  in  contact  with  oil  cloth  or  paint. 


701 


LAND  mp:asurement. 


ON  LAND  MEASUREMENT. 
To  aid  farmers  in  arriviiifj  at  accurate  results  in  the  measurement  of 
an  acre,  \vc  append  the  following  table.   A  field  of  any  of  these  diinen- 
eions  contains  one  acre: 

n  yards  wide  by  0G8  loug.  | 


242 

IGl 
97 
303 


10  yards  wide  by  4ft3  long. 


121 
CO 
88 
]03 
82 


THE  SIDE  OF  A  SQUARE  TO  CONTAIN 
One  acre,  208.71  feet  ;  12.05  rods  ;  G4 

14    acre,  147.58  feet ;  8.94  rods  ;  45 

1/3   acre,  120.50  feet ;  7.30  rods  ;  37 

1/4  acre,  104.3«feet;  6.32  rods ;  32 

%   acre,  73.79  feet ;  4-47  rods  ;  22^^  paces. 

Table  for  farmers,  surveyors,  &c.,  giving  exact  proportions  of 
an  acre  in  square  feet  in  a  lot  less  than  an  acre. 


paces, 
paces, 
paces, 
paces. 


'  Square 
Feet. 

IS 

Square 
Feet. 

lOOths 
of  acre. 

Square 
Feet. 

lOOtha 
of  acre. 

Square 
Feet. 

!  lOOths 
of  acre. 

436 

.01 

11326 

.26 

22216 

.51 

33106 

.76 

871 

.02 

11761 

.27 

22651 

.52 

33541 

.77 

1307 

.03 

12197 

.28 

23087 

.53 

33977 

.78 

1742 

.04 

12632 

.29 

23522 

.54 

34412 

.79 

2178 

.05 

13068 

.30 

23958 

.55 

34848 

.80 

2614 

.06 

13504 

.31 

24394 

.56 

35384 

.81 

S049 

.07 

13939 

..32 

24829 

.57 

3-819 

.82 

3485 

.08 

14375 

.33 

25265 

.58 

36255 

.83 

3920 

.09 

14810 

.31 

25700 

.59 

36690 

.84 

4356 

.10 

15246 

.35 

26136 

.60 

37026 

.85 

4792 

.11 

15682 

.36 

26572 

.61 

37462 

.86 

5227 

.12 

16117 

.37 

27007 

.62 

37897 

.87 

5663 

.13 

16558 

.38 

27443 

.63 

38333 

.88 

6098 

.14 

16988 

.39 

27878 

.64 

38768 

.89 

C534 

.15 

17424 

.40 

28314 

.65 

39204 

.90 

t)97a 

.16 

17860 

.41 

28750 

.66 

39640 

.91 

7405 

.17 

18295 

.42 

20185 

.67 

40075 

.92 

7841 

.18 

18731 

.43 

29621 

.68 

40511 

.93 

8276 

.19 

19166 

.44 

30056 

.69 

40946 

.94 

8712 

.20 

19602 

.45 

30492 

.70 

41381 

.95 

9148 

.21 

20038 

.46 

30923 

.71 

41818 

.96 

9583 

.22 

20473 

.47 

313C3 

.72 

42253 

.97 

10019 

.23 

20909 

.48 

31799 

.73 

42689 

.98 

10154 

.24 

21344 

.49 

32234 

.74 

43124 

.99 

108S«J 

.25 

21780 

..50, 

32670 

.75 

43560 

1.00 

SmA'WI  Lots. — In  laying  off  small  lots  the  following  admeasurements 
will  be  lound  to  be  both  accurate  and  useful : — 

521  feet  square,  or  2,722^  square  feet,=  ,\  of  an  acre. 
732/3       "        "        5,445  "  =% 

1041/3        "        "      10,890  *'  =1/4 

120%        "        "      14-,520  "  =1/3 

147  "        "      21,780  "  r=J4 

'20S%       "        "      43,560  "         =1  acre. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Acres  in  a  Body  of  Land.— i??/?e,— Mul- 
tiply the  length  by  the  width  (in  rods),  and  divide  the  product  by  160  : 
the  rosult  will  be  the  answer  in  acres  and  hundredths. 

When  the  opposite  sides  of  a  piece  of  land  are  of  unequal  length,  add 
them  together  and  take  one-half  for  the  mean  length  or  width.  Multiply 
this  by  the  depth,  and  divide  by  31^.    This  will  give  the  result  required. 


LAND  BIKASUUEMENT. 


705 


SUHVSrOIl'S  LONG  MEASrrRB  FOR  MEASURING  DISTANCES,  BOUNDARIES, 
ARKAS,  RAILWAYS,  &C. 

^iVo  inches  link.  I  4  rods  1  chaim. 

25  liuks  1  rod..  |  83  chains  1  mile. 

KQUIVALENTS. 

Mile.  Chains.  Kods.  Links.  Inches. 

1          =3         80         =         320         =  8,000          =  63,360 

1         ^.  4         =  100         =  792 

=  25  198 

1         -  7.92 
Surveyor's  long  measure,  scale  of  units,  7-92,  25,  4,  80.  , 

TABLE  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  LINEAR  MEASURE. 


3   inches  1  palm. 

4inr»TiAa  1  lionrl  ?  Used  in  measuring  the  height  of 

mcnes  l  liana.^         horses  at  the  shoulder. 

9   inches  1  span. 

3   feet  1  pace  or  step. 

3.28  feet  1  metre. 

6  feet  1  fathom.  ) 

880    fathoms   ^  ^        1  mile.        |  U-^— ^^<^epthsataea. 

3  geographical  miles  1  league. 

60  "  1   ,lp(;y„pp    < Of  latitude; 

69—  statute  "1       ^^o^^'  <Of  longitude  on  the  equEttor. 

Surveyor's  square  measure,  for  measuring  the  contents  of 

farms,  fields,  &c . 
625  square  links  (sg.  I.)  1  pole,  P. 

16  poles  1  square  chain,  sq.  ch. 

10  square  chains  1  acre,  A. 

640  acres  ..1  square  mile,  sq.  mi. 

36  square  miles  (6  miles  square)  1  township,  1}}. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Tp.    Sq.  Mi.          A.              Sq.  Ch.  P.  Sq.  Links. 

1     =     36              2304       =      230,400       =  3,686,400  =  2,304,000,000 

1     =        640       ■=         6,400       =  102,400  =  64,000,000 

10       =  160  =  10,000 

1       =  16  =  1,000 

1  =  625 


Surveyor's  square  measure,  scale  of  units,  625,  16, 10,  640,  36. 

An  Acre  is  the  unit  of  land  measure,  and  is  10  square  chains  (10,000 
links),  or  a  piece  of  land  3  chains  16^  links  (or  about  69^  yds. ),  on  each 
of  the  four  sides,  or,  if  of  a  different  shape,  as  much  land  as  is  embraced 
in  that  compass. 

A  Rood  is  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  or  40  perches,  and  contains  25,000 
square  links  ;  if  square,  it  should  measure  1  chain  and  58  links,  or  about 
34f  yds.  on  each  side. 

A  Perch  (sometimes  called  a  pole  or  rod)  is  the  160th  of  an  acre,  and 
contains  30^  square  yds.,  or  625  square  links,  and  embraces  5^  yds.,  or 
25  running  links  of  the  chain,  on  each  of  the  four  sides. 

Gunter's  Chain,  the  unit  of  measure  used  by  surveyors,  is  a  metallic 
chain  22  yds.  in  length,  and  is  divided  into  100  links  of  7  inches  each. 
Measurements  are  calculated  in  chains  and  hundredths.  As  a  substi- 
tute for  the  chain,  some  engineers  use  a  steel  measuring  tape  100  feet 
long,  with  each  foot  divided  into  tenths.  It  takes  10,000  links  to  make 
1  square  chain,  as  100  times  100  is  10,000.    An  acre  embraces  10  square 


700 


LAND  MEASUREMENT. 


chains,  or  100,000  square  links.  Tho  outside  measurements  of  land  is 
estimated  hy  rxinniiifi  cliains  and  links,  tho  contents  by  square  chains 
juid  links  (beini^  a  rej?iilar  system  of  decimals),  the  latter  being  a  multi- 
])lc  of  the  former.  In  land  measurement,  the  chain  is  drawn  straight  over 
hills  and  hollows.  Correctness  in  the  measurement  is  ensured  by  the  use 
of  a  compass  (sustained  by  a  tripod)  resembling  a  quadrant. 

Farmers  and  others  not  possessed  of  a  Giuiter's  ^hain  or  metallic 
measuring  tape,  may  effect  correct  measurements  by  the  use  of  a  notched 
pole  KJ.j  feet  long,  containing  25  divisions,  formed  by  24  notches,  each  of 
t  icm  astride  over  inches  apart.  The  25  spaces  will  represent  25  links, 
the  pole  \  of  a  chain  ;  be  careful  to  get  the  spaces  correctly  laid  oft" 
and  accurately  numbered  on  the  pole  Avith  pen  and  ink. 

In  the  United  States  Government  Land  measurement  a  town- 
ship consists  of  36  sections,  each  1  mile  square,  a  section  contains  040 
acres,  a  quarter  section,  ^  mile  square— 160  acres,  an  eighth  section,  h,  a 
mile  long,  north  and  south,  and  |  mile  wide— 80  acres,  and  a  sixteenth 
section,  J  mile  square — 40  acres.  In  the  surveys  of  the  Public  Lands  of  the 
United  States  they  are  laid  out  in  ranges  of  townships  which  run  longi- 
tudinally, and  are  numbered  on  the  maps  in  Roman  characters,  or 
capital  letters,  according  to  their  proximity  to  the  northern  border  of 
a  State.  The  ranges  of  townships  run  from  west  to  east,  the  extreme 
northern  line  of  townships  in  any  State  would  be  all  number  1,  the  next 
number  11  and  so  on  down.  In  a  township  the  sections  are  all  numbered 
1  to  36,  beginning  at  the  north-east  corner,  as  shown  in  the  diagram. 

In  drawing  out  deeds  the  area  or  contents  of  the 
land  is  described  in  acres,  roods,  and  perches,  the 
extent  of  each  boundary  is  expressed  by  chains  and 
links  ;  if  the  land  is  of  extra  value,  the  odd  yards 
and  links  are  noted  in  describing  the  contents.  In 
laying  off  arms,  less  than  half  a  perch  is  not 
reckoned,  while  a  half  perch  or  more  is  counted  a 
full  perch.  The  description  of  landed  property  as 
detailed  in  deeds  should  be  definite  and  explicit  as 
to  contents  and  boundaries.  Illustration— The  dia- 
gram exhibits  a  piece  of  land,  embracing,  say  20 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

NW  1  NE 
SWTSK" 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16* 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

acres  fronting  on  the  west  of  Stanley  road, 

Land  of  John  Ecid. 


Land 
of 
Daniel 
Wilson. 


Land  of  A.  Kodgers. 
the  land  of  John  Reid  is  on  the  south  side  ;  that  of  Alex.  Rodgers  on  the 
north  side  ;  that  of  Daniel  Wilson  on  the  west  side  ;  and  the  Stanley  road 
on  the  east  side.  In  the  Deed  the  lot  should  be  described  as  follows  ; 
"  Beginning  at  a  post,  stake,  or  tree,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Stanley 
road  at  the  north-east  corner  of  land  owned  by  John  Reid,  running 
westerly,  parallel  with  the  land  of  said  Reid,  twenty-five  chains,  to  land 
belonging  to  Daniel  Wilson,  thence  northerly,  parallel  with  the  land 
of  said  Wilson,  sixteen  chains  and  sixty  links,  to  land  of  Alex.  Rodgers, 
then  easterly,  parallel  with  the  land  of  said  Rodgers,  twenty-five  chains 
to  the  Stanley  road,  then  southerly,  along  said  road,  sixteen  chains  and 
sixty  links  to  the  place  of  beginning, — containing  twenty  acres  of  laud, 
be  the  same  more  or  less." 


LEGAL  WEIGHT  OF  A  BUSllEL. 


707 


An  English  acre  is  a  square  of  about  70  yds.  each  way  ;  a  Scotch  of 
77^  yds. ;  and  an  Irish  of  88^  yds.  Every  mile  of  mere  hedge  and  ditch 
is  about  an  acre.  Roads  and  fences,  1  rod  wide,  occupy  1  acre  for  every 
mile  of  length. 

Note.— An  English  acre  comprises  4,840  square  yds.  ;  the  Scotch, 
6,150  ;  the  Irish,  7,840  ;  the  French  (hectare),  11,950  ;  the  Dutch,  9,722  ; 
the  Prussian  (morgen),  3,053  ;  the  Dantzic,  G,650  ;  that  of  Amsterdam, 
9,722  ;  that  of  the  United  States  is  English  measure. 

FOK  TABLE  OF  SURFACE  MEASUREMENTS,  SEE  PAGE  128. 
EQUIVALENTS. 

Sq.  Ml.      A.  -     Sq.  Eod.       Sq.  Yd.  Sq.  Ft.  Sq.  Ins, 

1    =   640   =    102,400   =   3,097,600    =   27,878,400    =  4,014,489,600 
1   =        160    =         4,840    —         43,560    =  6,272,640 
1     =  301/4—  2721/4=  39,204 

1    =  9     =  1,296  • 

1     =  144 

Table  op  avoirdupois  pounds  in  a  bushel,  as  prescribed  by 
statute  in  the  several  states  named. 
The  letter  m  signifies  sold  by  measure. 


COMMODITIES. 


Barley  

Beans  

Blue  Grass  Seed  

Buckwheat  

Castor  Beans  

Clover  Seed  

Dried  Apples  

Dried  Peaches........ 

Flax  Seed  

Hemp  Seed  ..i. .. 

Indian  Corn  

Indian  Corn  in  ear. . . 

Indian  Corn  meal  

Oats   

Onions  

Potatoes  

Rye  

Rye  Meal  

Salt  

Timothy  Seed  

Wheat  

Wheat  Bran  


56 
44 
52 
70 
48 
32 
..57 
60  60 
56  54 


56 
44 
56 

50 

331/3 
57 
60 
56 


■J: 


30  30 
52 


42 

60 

28 
28  28 


56^ 


32 1 34 

'.'Xm 

56  56 


32  . 
50 


42 


In  Pennsylvania  80  lbs.  Coarse,  70  lbs.  ground,  or  62  lbs.  fine  salt  make 
1  bushel,  and  in  Illinois,  50  lbs.  common,  or  55  lbs.  fine  salt  make  1  bushel. 
In  Tennessee  100  ears  of  corn  are  a  bushel.  A  heaping  bushel  contains 
2815  cubic  inches. 

In  Maine  64  lbs.  of  ruta  baga  turnips  or  beets  make  1  bushel. 

A  cask  of  lime  is  240  lbs.  Lime  in  slacking  absorbs  2^  times  its  volume, 
and  2|  times  its  weight  in  water. 

The  United  States  Standard  bushel  contains  2150.42  cubic  inches.  A 
cubic  foot  contains  1728  cubic  inches,  so  that  a  bushel  is  to  a  cubic  foot, 
as,  say  2150  to  1728,  or  about  the  proportion  of  4  to  5  ;  hence  to  convert 
cubic  feet  to  bushels,  multiply  by  |. 

To  FIND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  A  BiN  IN  CUBIC  FEET.— Abate  the  COUteuts 

one-fifth,  and  the  result  will  be  the  contents  in  bushels. 


708 


A G II I C  ULT UUA L  TABL ICS. 


ON  FENCES. 

As  the  mjiintcnancc  of  fences  is  a  most  important  cousidcratiun  on 
every  farm,  wo  present  the  following 

Table  showing  the  numuer  of  kails,  riders,  and  stakes  required 

von  EVERY  TEN  RODS  OF  ZIG-ZAG  FENCE. 


Length 
of  rail. 

Dellec- 
tioii  from 
right  line. 

Length 

of 
p.anel. 

Num- 
ber of 
panels. 

No.  of  rails  for  cachlO  rods 

ber  of 
kes. 

0 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

5  rails 
high. 

6  rails 
high. 

7  rails 
higli. 

S  ^ 

3 

'A 

'A 

12 
14 

C 
7 

8 

8 
10 
12 

20% 
133/4 

103 
83 
69 

123 
99 
84 

144 
116 

95 

42 
34 

28 

21 
17 
14 

For  longer  distances  than  10  rods,  the  proper  number  of  rails,  &c  , 
may  be  computed  by  multiplying.  For  instance  :  If  lor  50  rods  of 
fence,  multiply  the  above  number  by  5  ;  if  lor  100,  multiply  by  10,  &c. 
The  like  rule  will  apply  to  the  next 


Table,  showing  the  number  op  rails  and  posts  required  for 
each  ten  rods  of  post  and  rail  straight  fence. 


thof 
-feet. 

Length  of 
panel— feet. 

1 

0 

0 

II 

Number  of  rails  for  each  10  rods- 

Leng 
rail- 

Numl 
pan 

^ 

5  rails 
high. 

6  rails 
high. 

7  rails 
high. 

8  rails 
high. 

10 

8 

20% 

21 

103 

123 

144 

165 

12 

10 

17 

83 

99 

116 

133 

14 

12 

13% 

14 

69 

84 

95 

109 

16M 

14^ 

12 

57 

69 

81 

93 

Approximate  comparative  cost  of  zig-zag  and  straight  rail 
fences. 


Zig-zag  rail  fence- 
Twelve  rails,  at  §25  per  thousand     30  cents. 

Ground  covered  by  fence,  with  total  worm  from  stake  to  stake, 

in  alternate  panels  of  six  feet,  at  §50  per  acre   78  *' 

Two  stakes,  at  two  cents  apiece   4  " 

S1.12perl2ft. 

Straight  rail  fence- 
Eight  rails,  at  i$25  per  thousand   20  cents. 

Ground  covered  byfence^  two  feet  wide   26  " 

Two  stakes   4  " 

Wire   2 


HO  52  per  12  ft. 

A  board  fence,  4  ft.  6  ins.  high,  with  cedar  posts  6  ft.  apart,  4  boards, 
respectively,  6  inches,  6  inches,  9  inches,  and  12  inches  broad,  with  a 
coping  board  and  vertical  board  covering  the  joints  against  the  posts, 
may  be  constructed,  when  lumber  costs  not  over  $16  per  1000,  at  a  cost 
of  not  more  than  $1  for  every  12  ft.  in  length,  without  counting  labor. 

The  cheapest,and  everything  considered, the  most  efficient  fence  a  farm- 
er can  construct,  is  one  made  of  wire;  such  fences  vary  in  cost  according 
to  the  number  of  wires  used,  the  number  of  posts,  size  of  wire,  &c.  The 


AGRICULTURAL  TABLES. 


709 


following  table  exhibits  the  length  of  wire  of  each  number  that  a  given 
weight  will  make,  from  which  may  be  computed  the  cost  of  a  wire  fence. 
63  lbs.  of  No.  6  runs  223  yards,  and  costs  $3  45  or  8i  cents  per  rod. 
"  7   "     229    "  "       3  55  or  7i  " 

<'  8  "    322    "  "       3  65  or  6|  " 

Cost  of  materials  ofaroire  fence,  posts  eight  feet  apart,  with  a  bottom 
board  twelve  inches  wide,  and  a  scantling  three  by  four  on  top: 

Ih  posts,  at  5  cents   1h  cents. 

12  feet  of  inch  board,  at  $16.00  per  tliousand  feet.  1*J  " 

Scantling,  12  feet,  at  $16.00  per  thousand  feet         19  " 

5  wires=^60  ft.  oi  No.  6,  at  8|  cents  per  rod  ^  " 

75^  cents  per  12  ft. 

In  view  of  the  increasing  scarcity  of  timber  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  it  would  be  well  for  farmers  to  exercise  greater  care  for  the 
preservation  of  their  standing  trees,  and  as  occasion  offers,  plant  out 
more.  Nature  never  fails  to  respond  generously  to  all  such  investments. 
For  interesting  facts  regarding  the  growth  of  forest  trees,  consult  pp.  84 
and  118.  This  subject  reminds  the  writer  of  the  advice  given  by  a  Scotch 
laird  to  his  son  and  heir  on  his  death  bed.  The  laird's  ruhng  passion 
during  a  long  life  had  been  to  set  out  trees,  and  Avhen  the  closing  scene 
arrived,  the  son  was  called  to  his  father's  bed-side,  and  while  standing 
there  anticipating  salutary  counsel  befitting  the  solemnities  of  the  oc- 
casion, the  dying  laird  exclaimed  ;  "  Now  Jock,  mind  what  I'm  gaun  to 
tell  ye,  when  I'm  gane  be  aye  stickin'  in  a  tree,  for  it'll  grow  when  you'r 
sleepin'! " 

The  CHEMIOA.I.  ixgredients  of  plant  food,  in  pounds  avoirdupois, 

CONTAINED  IN  ONE  TON  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  MANUKES. 


Manures.  ! 

Chlorine . 

Sulphu- 
ric Acid. 

lbs.  oz. 

1  4 

2  3 

Phospho- 
ric Acid. 

Soda. 

Mag- 
nesia. 

Potash 

Am- 
nionia. 

Farm  Yard  Manure. . . 

lb.  oz. 
1  9 
3  0 

lbs.  oz. 

5  1 
120  0 
580  0 

lbs.  oz 
1  10 
4  10 

lbs.  oz. 
18  3 
2  7 

Ibs.oz. 
2  4 
6  7 

lbs.  oz. 
13  5i 
47  ]5t 
145  5 
444  3 
221  9J 
50  2 

62  0 
22  9% 
1344  0 

93  8 
194  31/4 

283  9 
5  1234 

36  15 

2  113/^ 
833  0 

66  8 
7  11/4 

1317  0 

3  8 

Mxd.  Urine  p.  100  gals. 

1  G 

2  6 

5  9 
8  3 

2  0 

18  31/4 
364  0 
470  0 

Siiln.  of  Arnion  

1357  0 

A  dragoon-horse  kept  in  a  box-stall  with  1  hour's  exercise  each  day  for 
a  w^eek,  was  fed  as  follows  : — 

Oats  each  day  10  lbs.  =  70  lbs.  per  week 
Hay  "  12   "  =  84   "    "  " 

Straw  "     "    8  "  =  56  "  " 


He  drank  within  the  week  27  gals,  of  w^ater  ;  during  the  time  of  his 
exercise  the  loss  of  manure  is  supposed  to  be  4  lbs.  daily,  or  28  lbs.  per 
week,  yet  althogh  the 

Total  forage  consumed  amounted  to  210  lbs., 

The  manure  and  litter  produced  was  327|  lbs. 

Thus  if  lost  manure  be  added,  yielding  with  "the  addition  of  the  moisture 
imparted  to  the  litter  by  urine,  an  increase  of  two-thirds  beyond  the  weiglit 
of  the  food  consumed.  Experiments  prove  that  a  cow  of  average  size  voids 
about  60  lbs.  of  manure,  or  about  1^  cubic  feet  per  day,  or  more  than  3 
cords,  weighing  over  10  tons,  per  year.    Composted  with  peat  or  swamp 


710 


AGRICULTUHAL  TABLES. 


muck,  three  parts  to  one  of  manure,  it  would  form  12  cords  of  excellent 
compost.  It  is  f  lu  tlicr  estimated  tliat  the  liquid  manure  is  equally  valuable 
witlithe  solid,  and  if  this  also  is  utilized  by  the  peat  absorbents,  either 
under  the  stable  or  in  it,  24  cords  of  an  excellent  fertilizer  is  secured. 
Tliis,  ai)plied  to  2  acres  of  worn-out  meadow,  producing  say,  1  ton  of 
hay  or  less  per  acre,  would  increase  the  crop  to  o  tons  to  the  acre  the  first 
year,  besides  greatly  increasing  tlie  crops  for  5  years  longer.  In  every 
case  never  fail  to  save  your  liquid  manure,  for  it  is  well  worth  every  effort 
that  can  be  made. 

Table  showing  the  comparative  increase  of  corn  by  various 

FEliTILlZEKS. 


QUANTITY  OF  FERTILIZER. 


28 


58 

51 

74% 

35^ 

42% 

44 

60 
43 


18 

30 
23 
463/4 

14% 
8 

14J^ 

171/4 
15 


No  Manure  

500  lbs.  SuperpJiosphate  of  Lime  

690  "  Guano   

.,300  "    Superphosphate  Lime  &  640  lbs.  Guano. . . . 

5  320  "   Guano  and  640  lbs.  dissolved  Bones  

1040"   Guano  and  400  lbs.  Superphosphate  Lime 

16  loads  Stable  Manure  

32    *'  " 
9  16    "             "      &  206' bus",  leached  Ashes.  .".'.'.  . 
1016    "  &  640  lbs.  Super  P  Lime  

11  32    "  "      &  320  lbs.  Guano  &  1320  lbs.  ) 
Superphosphate  Lime  j 

12  Hog  manure  from  108  bus.  corn  

*  Only  the  increase  over  the  experiments  7  and  8  with  stable  manure  alone. 

Table  exhibiting  the  number  of  loads  of  manure  and  the 
number  of  heaps  in  each  load  required  to  an  acre,  the 
heaps  at  given  distances  apart. 


.5 

12  50 
19  00 
25  10 
18  40 
38  60 

16  00 
32  00  ' 
12  00* 

17  80* 

16  80* 
16  20 


IB  O  O  • 
TO  CS  L>  ?> 

a  V  :i 


qrts 
14% 
G 

6% 
8 

6% 
15 

14% 
22% 
28 


•istance; 
:aps  apa 
n  yardsj 

NUMBER  OF  HEAPS  IN  A  LOAD. 

1 

2 

3 

1  4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

538 

269 

179 

134 

108 

891/2 
66 

77 

67 

60 

.54 

3^ 

395 

168 

132 

99 

,79 

50% 

491/2 

44 

391/2 

4 

203 

151 

101 

751/2 
60 

60K 

50% 

431/4 

37% 

33^ 

4^ 

239 

120 

79K 

47% 

39% 

341/4 

30 

26>^ 

5 

194 

97 

64% 

48J4 

38% 

321/4 

27% 

241/4 

21^ 

6 

160 

80 

53i| 

40 

32 

263/4 

22% 

20 

17% 

131 

67 

44% 

33^ 

27 

223^ 

191/4 

16% 

15 

6^ 

115 

571^ 

38V4 

28% 

23 

19 

I6I/4 

141/4 

12% 

7 

99 

49^ 

33 

24% 

19% 

16% 

14 

121/4 

7H 

86 

43 

28% 

21 

171/^ 

141^ 

121/4 

10% 

91/2 

?i 

8 

15% 

37^ 

251/4 

19 

15% 

I2V2 

10% 

9% 

8I/2 

8^ 

67 

335^ 
30 

221^ 

16K 

131/2 

111/4 

9% 

8% 

71/2 

6% 

9 

60 

20 

15 

12 

10 

81/2 

6% 

6 

93^ 

53^ 

2634 

18 

103/4 

9 

?% 

11 

6 

51/2 

5% 

10 

481/2 

241/^ 

I6V4 

9% 

8 

6 

4% 

EXPLANATION.— The  left  hand  column  gives  the  distance  in  yards 
between  the  heaps  each  way  in  each  row  ;  at  the  top  of  the  columns  are 


AGRICULTURAL  FACTS,  &C.  71  i 

iudicated  the  number  of  heaps  in  each  load,  and  the  number  of  loads  re- 
quired per  acre  will  be  found  at  the  point  where  the  two  lines  meet. 

Memoranda. — 1  cubic  ft.  of  half  rotten  stable  manure  will  weigh  56 
lbs. ;  if  coarse  or  dry,  48  lbs.  A  load  ofmamire  is  about  36  cubic  ft.,  and 
if  of  the  first  quality  will  weigh  2,016  lbs. ;  if  of  the  second,  1728  lbs.  8 
loads  of  the  first  kind  spread  over  an  acre  will  give  108  lbs.  to  each  square 
rod,  and  about  3-^-  lbs.  to  each  square  yard. 

To  apply  guano,  mix  it  thoroughly  for  a  few  days  with  5  times  its  bulk 
of  vegetable  mould  or  loam,  and  some  charcoal  or  gypsum,  after  brealf- 
ing  the  lumps  and  sifting  in  alternate  layers.  Avoid  the  use  of  aslies  or 
lime,  as  they  tend  to  expel  the  ammonia,  and  keep  under  cover,  dry, 
until  used.  It  may  then  be  scattered  broadcast  upon  meadows  or  grain, 
or  placed  near  the  seeds  of  young  plants  in  the  hill.  Use  from  200  to  500 
lbs.  guano  to  the  acre,  the  latter  quantity  to  the  more  barren  soils. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  compositioji  of  Bone  dust.  In  100 
parts,  there  are  of 


Lime  

Phosphate  of  Magnesia. 
Soda,  and  Common  salt. 


Carbonate  of  lime  3.75 

Fluoride  of  calcium  3. 

Gelatine  (the  substance  of  horn)  33.25 


Analysis  of  a  manure  heap  in  the  condition  usually  applied  to  a  field. 
Fresh.  Dried  at  212°. 


Water  04.96 

Organic  matter  24.71 

Inorganic  salts   .10.33 


Carbon  .37.40 

Hydrogen  .5.27 

Oxygen  .25.52 

Nitrogen  1.76 

Ashes  (inorganic  matter). ...  .30.05 
The  urine  voided  from  a  cow  during  one  year  contains  900  lbs.  solid 
matter,  and  compared  with  Peruvian  guano  at  $50  per  ton  is  worth  $20. 
It  will  manure  l|  acres  of  land,  and  is  more  valuable  than  its  dung,  in 
the  ratio,  by  bulk,  of  7  to  0,  and  in  intrinsic  value  as  2  to  1. — Dana. 

The  Urine  of  the  Cow  contains  of  water  92.G  per  cent. 

"         "        Horse     "  "  94, 

"         "        Sheep    "  "     ..:  96.  " 

"  "         Hog       "  "  '  92.6'  " 

"         '<        Human"  "      C3.3  " 

The  remainder  is  composed  cf  salts .  and  rich  food  for  vegetables. — 
Sprengel. 

Analysis  of  Bolivian  guano  by  bkof.  Johnston. 

Water   6.91 

Organic  Matter,  containing  Ammonia   .55.52 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda   6.31 

Carbonate  of  Lime   3.87 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia  25-68 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand  n  ,  1.71 

Analysis  of  Peruvian  guano  b\-  prof,  johnston. 

Water  13.09 

Organic  Matter,  containing  Ammonia  53.17 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda   4.63 

Carbonate  of  Lime   4.18 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia   23.54 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand  <   1.39 

Prof.  Johnston's  Tests  for  Good  Guano.— The  drier  the  better, 
there  is  less  water  to  pay  for  and  transport.  The  lighter  the  color  the 
better,  it  is  the  less  completely  dissolved.  If  it  has  not  a  strong  am- 
mouiacal  smell  it  ought  to  give  ofE  such  a  smell  when  a  spoonful  of  it  is 
mixed  with  a  spoonful  of  lime  in  a  wine-glass.  When  put  into  a  tumbler 
of  water  and  stirred  well,  and  the  water  and  fine  matter  poured  off,  it  ought 


712 


AGRICULTURAL  TAliLKS. 


to  leave  hut  little  sand  or  stones.  When  heated  to  redness  over  a  fire  or 
a  brif^lit  flame,  until  tiie  animal  matter  is  burnt  away,  the  ash  should 
nearly  all  dissolve  in  dilute  muriatic  acid. 

ANALYSIS  OF   FISH  GUANO. 

heat 


Water  expelled  by  212 

Sand  

Oil   

Organic  Matter  

Super-Phospliato  of  Lime  

Sulphate  of  Lime,  Ilydrated 


8.00 
0.33 
2.40 

50.72 
9.85 

19.G21 


Sulphate  of  Magnesia  0.71 

"  Potash  2.05 

"  Soda  2.42 

Chloride  of  Sodium  1.12 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  2.72 

JJr.  Jpjohn. 


Table,  showing  the  effect  riiODUCEi)  upon  the  quantity  of  the 

CROP  UY  equal  quantities  OF  DIFFERENT  MANUltES  APPLIED  TO 
THE  SAME  SOIL,  SOWN  WITH  AN  EQUAL  QUANTITY  OF  SEED. 

lleturn  in  Bushels  for  each  Bushel  of  Seed. 
Manure  applied.  Wlieat,     Barley.      Rye.  Oats. 


Wheat. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

14 

IG 

14 

14 

13Vo 

12 

16 

13'"" 

10 

13 

11 

10 

9 

"7 

11 

9 

3 

7 

6 

4 

4 

Blood   

Night  Soil  

Sheep  Manure  — 

Horse  "   

Pigeon  "  

Cow  "   

Vegetable "   

Without  Manure  

Analysis  of  fresh  farm-yard  manure,  composed  of  horse,  cow,  and  pig 
excreta,  about  14  days  old,  by  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker,  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester,  England.  Accord- 
ing to  this  analysis  one  ton  (2,000  lbs.)  farm-yard  manure  contains — 

Soluble  silica  (silicic  acid)   24  lbs. 

Ammonia  (actual  or  potential)   15%  " 

Phosphate  of  lime   13/^  " 

Lime.   23/^  " 

Magnesia   Sy^j  " 

Potash   131/2 

Soda   If  " 

Common  salt     ^"s  " 

Sulphuric  acid   2%  " 

Water...  1323?  " 

Woody  fibre,  &c   579 

Of  course  no  two  samples  of  farm-yard  manure  are  exactly  of  the 
same  composition.  That  analyzed  by  Dr.  Voelcker  was  selected  with 
much  care,  as  representing  a  fair  average. 

Note. — ^In  estimating  the  value  of  barn-yard  manure  the  value  of  the  differ- 
ent excreta  will  always  range  in  value  according  to  the  kind  of  food  pro- 
vided f6r  the  stock.   See  last  column  of  Table  on  page  716. 

Table  showing  the  comparative  value  of  animal  manures,  with 
farm- yard  manure  as  the  standard. 


100  lbs.  farm-yard  manure  are  equal  to 
125  lbs.  solid  excrement  of  the  Cow 


liquid 
Mixed 


"  Horse 

"  Cow. 

"  Horse. 

"  Cow, 

"  Horse. 

«'  Sheep. 

"  Pig. 


3 
5 
15 
4 
3 
3 
3 


lbs.  Dry  Flesh. 
"   Pigeon  Dung. 
"    Liquid  Blood. 
"   Dry  Blood. 
"  Feathers. 
"  Cow  Hair. 
"  Hair  Shavings. 
Dry  AVoollen  raga 
Johnston. 


AGRICULTURAL  TABLES. 


713 


Table  siiowino  the  relative  value  of  decomposed  vegetablb 
manures,  from  the  ikorganic  matter  they  contaik. 

Inorganic  Matter, 
lbs.  lbs. 

ton  Wheat  Straw  made  into  manure  returns  to  tlie  soil   70  to  360 

"    Oat  "  "  "  "   100  to  180 

"   Hay         "  "  "         "  "   100  to  300 

"   Barley     "  "  "         "  "   100  to  120 

"   Pea  "  "  "         "  "   100  to  110 

Bean        "  "  "         "  "   100  to  130 

"   Rye  "  "  "  "    50  to  100 

"    Dry  Potato-tops      "  "  "  "   400 

"    Dry  Turnio-tops     "  "  "  "   370 

"   Rape  Cake  "  "         "  "   120 

"   Malt  Dust  "  '<         "  "   180 

"   Dried  Seaweed      "  "  "  560 

Johnston. 

Table  showing  the  relative  values  of  decomposed  vegetables 
AS  manures,  from  the  nitrogen  they  contain. 
100  lbs.  of  farm-yard  manure  is  equal  to 


130  lbs.  Wheat  Straw  Manure. 


150  " 

Oat         "  " 

20  " 

Dried      "  " 

180  " 

Barley     "  " 

26  " 

Bran  of  Wheat  or  Corn  " 

85  " 

B'kwii't  " 

13  " 

Malt  Dust  " 

45  " 

Pea        "  " 

8  " 

Rape  Cako 

50  " 

Wheat  Clialf 

250  " 

Pine  Sawdust  " 

80  " 

Green  Grass  " 

180  " 

Oak       "  " 

75  " 

Potato  Tops  " 

25  " 

Coal  Soot  " 

80  lbs.  Fresh  Seaweed  Manure, 


Boussingault. 
Moisture  absorbed  by  various  manures. 

1000  parts  horse-manure,  dried  at  a  temperature  of  lOO**  Fahr.,  ab- 
sorbed by  exposure  to  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  62*  Fahr.: 

Moisture                                                                                 . .  145  parts. 

1000  parts  cow-manure,  ixnder  same  circumstances   130  *' 

"         pig-dung,           "        "             "    120  *' 

'•'        sheep-dung,      "        "    81  " 

"        pigeon-dung,     "        "            "    50  " 

"        rich  all UYial  soil,        "            "    14  " 

"        fresh  tanners'  bark,    "            "    115  " 

"        putrified,           "        "            "   145  " 

**        refuse  marine  salt,     "           "    49>^  " 

«       [soot,                         "            "    S6  " 

"        burnt  clay,                 "            "    21)  " 

"        coal  ashes,                 "            "    14  " 

"        lime,                        "    11  ' 

*'        sediment  from  salt-pans,         "    10  " 

'<        crushed  rock-salt,       "           "    10  " 

"        gypsum,                    "            "    9  " 

chalk,                  '     "           "    4  " 

Everything  on  a  farm  should  be  utilized,  even  the  outflow  of  the 
kitchen  slops  should  be  discharged  on  a  bed  of  swamp  muck.  Good  wood 
ashes  weigh  about  60  lbs.  to  the  bushel ;  of  this  6|  lbs.  are  soluble  in 
warm  Avater.  They  are  worth  to  the  farmer  from  60  to  70c.  per  bushel 
as  a  fertilizer,  if  leached,  they  are  worth  perhaps  a  quarter  of  that  sum . 
They  are  excellent  for  all  crox^s,  altogether  unequalled  for  fruit  trees,  and 
in  a  most  unfavorable  season  250  bushels  of  i^otatoes  have  been  raised 
from  1  acre  dressed  with  them. 

The  products  of  the  water  closet,  both  liquid  and  solid,  should  be  deo- 
dorized and  composted  by  mixture  Avith  dried  peat,  ashes,  or  dry  earth 
of  a  loamy  nature.  The  privy  vault  or  box  should  be  easily  accessible 
at  all  times,  and  ought  to  be  kept  well  supplied  with  a  mixture  of  these 


714 


AGRICULTURAL  TAIiLKS. 


absorbents.  No  bettor  fertilizer  than  this  exists  nndcr  the  gun  ;  .about  10 
bushels  of  the  com])ost  Avill  be  a  good  dressing  for  an  acre.  In  Cliina  no 
other  fertilizer  is  used,  and  about  400,000,000  of  i)eoi)le  exist  on  tlie  crops 
nourished  by  it.  The  dry  earth  closet  introduced  into  England  l)y  the 
Kev.  Mr.  Moule,  and  the  Wakefield  closet  in  the  United  States,  are  most 
powerful  auxiliaries  of  the  agriculturist,  and  deserve  the  highest  commend- 
ation. 

TaBLK  showing  AMOUNT  OF  SEED  POTATOES  REQUIRED,  WHEN  CUT  OR 
UNCUT,  AND  WHEN  SET  AT  DIFFERENT  DISTANCES  APART,  IN  DRILLS 
TWENTY-EIGHT  INCHES  FROM  CROWN  TO  CROWN. 

"VVliole,  and  planted   C  inches  apart  77  buHhels  per  aero. 

"  "    9  "  PO  "  " 

"  "    12  "  "  "  " 

"  "    18  "  "  26  "  " 

"  "    24  "  "  19  "  " 

Cut  into   two  sets    6  "  "  38  "  " 

"    9  "  25  " 

"  "    12  "  "  19  "  " 

«  "    18  "  "  13  "  " 

Cut   into  four  sets      "    6  "  "  19  "  " 

"  "    9  "  "  13  "  " 

"  "    12  "  "  10  "  " 

Cut   into  five  sets      "    G  "  "  15  "  " 

"  "    9  "  "  10  "  " 

Cut   into    six  seta      "    6  "  "  13  "  " 

Table  showing  the  quantity  of  land,  in  acres  and  tenths, 
ploughed  by  a  team  and  plough  moving  at  the  rate  of  two 
miles  per  hour,  per  day  of  10  hours, 


Width  of 
furrow  in 
inches. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow  in 
inches. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow  in 
feet. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow  in 
feet. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

5 

1.0 

12 

2.4 

2 

4.8 

13.2 

6 

1.2 

14 

2.8 

6.0 

6 

14.4 

7 

1.4 

IG 

3.2 

3 

7.2 

15,6 

8 

l.G 

18 

3.6 

8.4 

7 

16.8 

9 

1.8 

20 

4.0 

4 

9.6 

18.0 

10 

2.0 

22 

4.4 

10.8 

19.2 

11 

2.2 

5 

12.0 

Arguments  in  Favor  of  Soiling  Cattle. — By  soiling  is  understood 
the  feeding  of  cattle  in  yards  or  in  stables,  with  grass  or  other  green  fod- 
der cut  in  the  fields,  and  hauled  to  them.  The  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  a 
high  authority,  states  the  following  as  the  main  advantages  of  the 
system  :  1st.  The  saving  of  land.  2nd.  The  saving  of  fencing.  3rd. 
The  economizing  of  food.  4th.  The  better  condition  and  greater  comfort 
of  the  cattle.  5th,  The  greater  product  of  milk.  6th,  The  attainment  of 
manure .    See  page  47. 

In  reference  to  the  3rd  item,  the  economy  of  food,  he  says  :  "  There 
are  six  ways  by  v/hich  beasts  destroy  the  article  destined  for  their  food — 
1.  By  eating  ;  2.  By  walking  ;  3.  By  dunging  ;  4,  By  staling  ;  5.  By  lying 
down  ;  G.  By  breathing  on  it.  Of  these  six,  the  first  only  is  useful.  All 
the  others  are  wasteful."  He  asserts  that  a  milch  cow  may  be  kept  by 
th's  method  during  the  ordinary  pasturing  season  on  the  product  of 
acre  of  land,  while  at  least  2  acres  of  the  same  land  would  be  necessary 
on  the  pasturage  system,  and  some  place  the  proportion  in  favor  of  soil- 
ing as  high  as  1  to  7.  By  this  system  interior  fences  may  be  abolished 
in  every  case,  weedy  head-lands  got  rid  of,  and  the  plough  performs  its 
healthy  work  from  one  side  of  the  farm  to  the  other,  without  let  oi: 
hindrance. 


ON  SOILING  CATTLE. 


715 


The  system  recommended  by  Mr.  Quincy  is  as  follows  • 

"1.  As  early  in  April  as  the  state  of  the  land  will  permit,  which  is 
usually  between  the  5th  and  the  10th,  on  properly  prepared  land,  sow 
oats  at  the  rate  of  4  bushels  to  the  acre. 

"  2.  About  the  20th  of  the  same  mouth,  sow  oats  or  barley,  at  the  samo 
rate  per  acre,  in  like  quantity  and  proportions. 

"  3.  Early  in  May,  sow,  in  like  manner,  either  of  the  above  grains. 

"4.  Between  the  10th  and  15th  of  May,  sow  Indian  corn  (the  flat 
Southern  being  the  best)  in  drills,  3  bushels  to  the  acre,  in  like  quan- 
tity and  proportions. 

5.  About  the  5th  of  June  repeat  the  sowing  of  corn. 

"  7.  After  the  last  mentioned  sowing  barley  should  bo  sown  in  the 
above-mentioned  quantity  and  proportions,  in  succession,  on  the  15th 
and  25th  of  June,  and  on  the  1st  of,  or  early  in  July  ;  barley  being  the 
best  qualified  to  resist  the  frosts." 

Mr.  Quincy  relied  on  the  mowing  of  his  best  grass  land  to  carry  his  stock 
through  the  month  of  June,  or  from  the  earliest  pasturing  season  to  the  1st 
of  July,  when  he  anticipated  fodder  from  his  first  sowing  of  oats,  and  after 
the  first  severe  frost  he  relied  on  the  tops  of  12  acres  of  root  crops  for  the 
supply  of  15  cows. 

The  plan  adopted  by  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  another  eminent  agricultur- 
ist, for  12  Cows,  is  as  follows  :— 

"  1.  Early  in  the  autumn  sow  3  acres  of  winter  rye  to  be  cut  from  May 
15th  to  June  15th. 

"  2.  Early  in  April,  3  acres  oats,  to  be  cut  from  June  15th  to  July  1st. 

"  3.  Late  in  April,  2  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from  July  1st  to 
July  15th. 

"  4,  Early  in  May,  2  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from  July  15th  to 
August  10th. 

"5.  Middle  of  May,  2  acres  corn,  to  be  cut  from  August  10th  to 
September  1st. 

"  6.  Middle  of  June,  the  3  acres  from  which  rye  has  been  cut  to  be 
sown  with  corn,  tolbe  cut  from  September  1st  to  September  20th. 

"7.  Early  in  July,  the  first  three  acres  sown  with  oats  to  be  re-sown  with 
barley,  to  be  cut  from  September  20th  until  the  harvest  of  roots  and 
cabbages  furnish  a  stock  of  green  refuse,  which  will  suflice  until  winter 
feeding  commences. 

"  8.  In  September,  3  acres  of  the  4  comprising  Nos.  4  and  5,  should  be 
sown  with  rye  for  the  following  spring's  use,  and  the  rotation  should 
follow  in  regular  order.  The  latter  end  of  the  season  should  be  helped 
out  with  root  crops .  The  reason  alleged  by  Mr.  Waring  for  this  ap- 
portioning 12  acres  for  12  cows,  is  the  bad  condition  of  the  land,  but  he  is 
satisfied,  that  if  all  the  manure  made  in  the  soiling  season  were  to  be 
applied  to  the  ground  year  after  year,  that  they  might  be  made  in  time  to 
support,  during  the  whole  of  the  "usual  pasturing  season,  30  milch  cows,  or 
5  cows  to  each  acre.  He  urges  that  in  the  Northern  States  the  earliest 
abundant  food  will  be  secured  by  the  use  of  winter  rye,  and  that  the  best 
and  most  abundant  food  for  the  late  summer  and  earlier  autumn  will  be 
secured  by  the  use  of  Indian  corn. 

To  Construct  an  Ice-House. — This  indispensable  appendage  to  the 
farm-house  and  dairy  may  be  constructed  at  a  small  cost.  One  writer 
remarks  :  "  Last  January  I  drew  1  large  load  of  sawdust  and  spread  it  on 
the  ground  on  the  north  side  of  my  horse-barn,  then  drew  the  ice  (sawed 
in  square  cakes)  and  built  up  a  square  pile  some  8x10  ft.  and  7  or  8  ft. 
high,  filling  up  the  spaces  between  the  cakes  with  pounded  ice.  I  then 
set  up  scantling  and  built  a  board  house  around  it  2  feet  larger  each  way 
than  the  ice  ;  then  filled  in  sawdust  around  and  2  to  3  ft.  on  top,  and 
covered  with  boards  and  slabs.   We  have  used  freely  through  the  season, 


71G 


COMl'ONKNTS  OF  FAIIM  PRODUCE. 


sold  to  pic-iiic  parties,  given  away  to  sick  neiglibors,  and  have  plenty  ol 
ice  yet." 

Anotlicr  writer  reports  his  method  as  follows  :  "  I  set  posts  in  tho 
ground,  so  as  to  make  a  house  12  ft.  square  (three  posts  on  each  side), 
then  board  or  plank  it  up  8  ft.  hi^h,  on  the  inside.  The  surface  earth  is 
now  dug  out  G  ins.  deep,  and  sawdust  filled  in  1  ft.  deep,  making  it  (}  ins. 
above  the  level  of  the  earth.  The  ice  is  carefully  packed,  9  ft.  square  and 
6  ft.  high,  leaving  a  space  of  18  ins.  betv/ccn  ice  and  boards,  closely 
packed  Avith  sawdust,  and  the  same  thickness  of  sawdust  placed  on  top. 
I  have  an  old  fashioned  board  roof  over  this  ice-honse.  Tlie  space  above 
the  sawdust  is  left  open,  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  through  and  tlic 
sun  shine  in.  The  result  i.^  that  we  have  used  ice  daily  and  have  ai)lenty 
yet.  As  to  the  cost,  four  men  with  one  team,  cut,  hauled  and  j^acked  tho 
ice,  and  filled  in  the  sawdust  in  less  than  2  days,  notwithstanding  we  had 
to  haul  the  ice  over  ^  mile." 


Average  composition,  per  cent,  and  per  bon,  of  various  kinds  of 
agricultural  produce,  &c. ,  by  john^  b.  lawe8,  of  rothailp- 

STBAD,  ENGLAND. 


PER  CENT. 

LBS.  PEii  (LONG) 

TON. 

acid 
hos- 

1 

^  2 

ire  in 
n  1  1 

matt 

ic 

as  p 
imc. 

"3 
S 

V 

ric  nc 
as  p 
lime. 

S  £  o 

Total  dry 

Total  min 
ter  (ash) 

Phosphor 
reckoned 
phate  of  ] 

Potash. 

I  Nitrogen. 

1  Total  dry 

£s 

H 

Phospho: 
reckoned 
phate  of 

j  Potash. 

Nitrogen. 

V.ilue  of 
and  cts 
(2,000  lb 

Linseed  cake  

88.0 

7.00 

4.92 

1.65 

4.75 

1971 

156.8 

110.2 

37.0 

106.4 

19.72 

Cotton  seed  cake.. 

89.0 

8.00 

7.00 

1.12 

6.50 

1994 

179.2 

156.8 

70.0 

145.6 

27.86 

Eape  cake  

89.0 

7.00 

5.75 

3.76 

5.00 

1994 

179.2 

128.8 

39.4 

112.0 

21.01 

90.0 

8  00 

3.38 

1.37 

3.80 

2016 

89.6 

75.7 

30.7 

85.1 

15.65 

Beans  

84.0 

4.00 

2.20 

1.27 

4.00 

1C82 

67.2 

49.3 

28.4 

89.6 

15.75 

Peas  

84.5 

3.00 

1.84 

0.96 

3.40 

1893 

53.8 

41.2 

21.5 

76.2 

13.38 

Tares  

84.0 

2.40 

1.63 

0.66 

4.20 

1892 

44.8 

S6.5 

14.8 

94.1 

16.75 

Lentils  

fS.O 

2.00 

1.89 

0.96 

4.30 

1971 

67.2 

42.3 

21.5 

96.3 

16.51 

Malt  dust  

94.0 

3.00 

5.23 

2.12 

4.20 

2106 

190.4 

117.1 

47.5 

941 

18.21 

Locust  beans  

85.0 

8.50 

1.25 

1904 

39.2 

28.0 

4.81 

Indian  meal  

88.0 

1.75 

i.13 

6!35 

1.80 

1971 

29.1 

25.3 

7.8 

40.3 

6.65 

AVheat  

85.0 

1.30 

1.87 

0.50 

1.80 

1904 

38.1 

^2.0 

11.2 

40.3 

7.08 

Barley  

84.0 

2.20 

1.35 

0.55 

1.65 

1882 

49.3 

30.2 

12.3 

37.0 

6.32 

Malt  

95.0 

2.60 

1.60 

0.65 

1.70 

2128 

58.2 

35.8 

14.6 

38.1 

6.65 

Oata  

86.0 

2.85 

1.17 

0.50 

2.00 

192G 

63.8 

£6.2 

11.2 

44.8 

7.70 

Fine  pollard*  

86.0 

5.60 

6.44 

1.46 

2.60 

1926 

125.4 

144.2 

32.7 

58.2 

13.53 

Coarse  pollardt  

86.0 

6.20 

7.52 

1.49 

2.58 

1926 

138.9 

1C8.4 

33.4 

57.8 

14.36 

Wheat  bran  

86.0 

6.60 

7.95 

1.45 

2.55 

1926 

147.8 

178.1 

32.5 

57.1 

14.59 

Clover  hay  

84.0 

7.50 

1.25 

1.30 

2.50 

1882 

168.0 

28.0 

29.1 

56.0 

9.64 

Meadow  hay  

84.0 

6.00 

0.88 

1.50 

1.50 

1882il34.4 

19.7 

33.6 

33.6 

6.43 

Bean  straw  

82.5 

5.55 

0.90 

1.11 

0.90 

1848 

124.3 

20.2 

24.9 

20.2 

3.87 

Pea  straw  

82.0 

5.95 

0.85 

0.89 

18371 133.3 

19.0 

19.9 

20.2 

3.74 

"Wheat  straw  

84.0 

5.00 

0.55 

0.65 

oieo 

1882 

112.0 

12.3 

14.6 

13.4 

2.68 

Barley  straw  

85.0 

4.50 

0.37 

0.63 

0.50 

1904 

100.8 

8.3 

14.1 

11.2 

2.25 

Oat  straw  

83.0 

5.50 

0.48 

0.93 

o.co 

1859 

123.2 

10.7 

20.8 

13.4 

2.90 

Man  pel  wurtzel  

12.5 

1.00 

0.09 

0.25 

0.25 

280 

22.4 

2.0 

5.6 

5.6 

1.07 

Swedish  turnips  , . . 

11.0 

0.68 

0.13 

0.18 

0.22 

246 

13.4 

2.9 

4.C 

4.C 

0.91 

Common  turnips, . . 

8.0 

0.68 

0.11 

0.29 

0.18 

179 

15.2 

2.5 

6.P 

4.0 

0.86 

Potatoes  

24-0 

1.00 

0.S2 

0.43 

0.35 

537 

22.4 

7.2 

9.G 

7.8 

1.50 

0.70 

0.13 

0.23 

0.20 

302 

15.7 

2.9 

5.1 

4.5 

0.80 

Parsnips   

15.0 

1.00 

0.42 

).3C 

0.22 

336 

22,4 

9.4 

8.1 

4.9 

l.U 

*  Middlings,  Canielle.  t  ShipstufE. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  VARIOUS  FOODS.  717 
Tabetj  showing  nutritive  equivalents  of  various  foods. 


Food, 


Irisli  potatoes  

Carrots  

Parsnips  

Jerusalem  articlioke,. . . 

Sugar  beet  

Turnips  (Swedej..  

Common  white  turnip. . . 

Mangel  wurtzel   

Gi-een  pea  straw  

Spurrey  (green  

Green bucJi wheat  stalks. 
Common  vetch  (green).. 

French  vetch  (green)  

Green  stalks  white  lupin 
Green  stalks  white  bean 

Green  oats  (fodder)  

Timothy  grass  (green)  — 

lied  top      *'  "   

Superior  English  hay  

lied  clover  (green)  

AVhite  clover  (green)  

Lucerne  (green)  

Red  clover  (hay)  

White  clover  (hay)  

Lucerne  (hay)   

Wheat  flour  

Indian  corn  

Ilye  meal  

Barley  jneal  

Oatmeal  

Buckwheat  meal  

Peas  

Kidney  beans  

Wliite  field  beans  

Lentils  

English  linseed  cake  

American  linseed  cake.  . 


Amount  oj 

Amount  oti 

Nutritive 

flesh-form- 

fat -  forming.  Total  nutri- 

equivalents 

ing  matter 

live  matter 

OJ.     x\)\j  IDS. 

best 

luu  I  us . 

100  lbs. 

100  lbs. 

English  hay. 

18.0 

20.. 3 

245.3 

0  G 

(3.(5 

7.2 

691.6 

1  2 

7-0 

8.2 

607.3 

1  0 

18.8 

19.8 

251.5 

0-9 

13.6 

14.5 

6.2 

6.2 

803.2 

V.J 

3.3 

4-2 

1185.7 

3  0 

12. G 

13.6 

367.6 

0  9 

7.9 

8.8 

665.9 

O  7 
^.  1 

2^3 

5.0 

960.0 

0.2 

4.7 

4.9 

1  9 

2!g 

4.5 

1  inr  R 

0.7 

4^7 

6.4 

099  9 

1  8 

2.3 

4^1 

1212.1 

I  Q 

2.7 

3.7 

1345  9 

1  0 

8.5 

9.5 

624  2 

i.O 

9.7 

13.7 

363.4 

3  3 

8.7 

12.0 

415.0 

13.5 

36.3 

49.8 

100  0 

2.0 

3.6 

6.6 

907-1 

1.-5 

2.7 

4.2 

1185  7 

1  0 

3.6 

905.4 

18*7 

4L2 

120  8 

IfS.  i 

40.0 

58.7 

84  6 

12.7 

38!o 

50.7 

98.2 

14  7 

66.4 

81.1 

61.4 

11.0 

66.7 

77.7 

64.2 

14.3 

55.8 

70.1 

71.0 

13.0 

52.0 

65.0 

76.0 

18.0 

51.1 

69.1 

72.0 

9.0 

52.1 

61.1 

81.5 

23.1 

41.9 

C5.0 

76.0 

23.9 

39.3 

63.2 

78.7 

24.0 

39.7 

63.7 

78.2 

25.7 

38.9 

64.6 

77.0 

22.1 

51.0 

73.1 

68.0 

22.2 

48.6 

70.8  1 

70.3 

Bee  Fdowers. — The  following  select  list  of  bee-flowers,  plants,  trees, 
&c.,  is  commended  to  the  attention  of  bee  keepers  on  the  high  authority 
of  Mr.  King,  Editor  of  the  Bee  Keepers'  Magazine,  New  York,  as  one  ot 
the  most  accurate  and  reliable  ever  published .  Those  plants  marked 
with  an  asterisk  are  i^rime  favorites  of  the  bees,  and  yield  large  quantities 
of  honej'-. 

Bee  keepers  would  almost  double  the  product  of  their  hives  by  taking 
advanta,ge  of  the  grand  modern  discovery  of  artificial  comb  foundations. 
These  foundations  are  made  of  wax,  or  other  suitable  materials,  by 
means  of  a  machine,  are  sold  at  a  very  reasonable  price  by  the  pound, 
and,  when  placed  in  liives,  are  the  means  of  saving  the  bees  a  vast 
amount  of  time  and  work  in  tlie  construction  of  comb,  every  pound  of 
which,  estimated  in  honest  bee  labor  represents  at  least  20  lbs.  of  honey. 
Another  notable  discovery  is  the  use  of  salicylic  acid  for  curing  foul 
brood  and  other  useful  purposes.  The  mixture  is  compounded  as  fol- 
lows :  Mix  together  128  grs.  salicylic  acid,  128  grs.  of  soda  borax,  and 
16  ozs.  of  distilled  water.   To  use,  uucap  the  brood  in  all  the  frames  tha* 


718 


LIST  OF  BKE  ILOVVKKS,  &C. 


show  any  diseased  cells,  and  thoroughly  spray  the  bees,  brood,  comb, 
and  all,  with  an  atomizer  filled  with  tlie  solution. 


Erica  Carnca* 

Winter  aconite* 

Rosemary* 

Laurustiuu3 

Hazel* 

Snow-drop. 

Crocus* 

AVillow* 

Osier* 

Primrose 

Hepatica 

Violet 

Alsike  clover* 


Sprincj. 
Almond 

Wallflower*  (single) 

Borage* 

Onion 

Gooseberry 

Apricot 

Peach 

Apple* 

Gooseberry* 

Currant* 

Laurel* 

Linden  or  bass  wood 

Sximmer. 
White  clover* 


Silverleaf  buckwheat*  Catnip 


Syringa 
Helianthemnm 
Annual  i)oppy* 
Sea-kale 
French  willow* 
Sweet-briar 
Bean 

Yellow  lupin 


Mignionette* 
Blackberry 
Chesnut 
Mallow 
Lime* 
Hyssop 
Teazle* 
Nasturtium 
Autumn. 
French  buckwheat* 
sowed  at  midsum- 
mer 

Spanish  broom* 
Hollyhock* 


Turnip* 

Cabbage,  &c.* 

Strawberry 

Tulip* 

Hawthorn. 

Gorse  or  furze 

Columbine 

Laburnum 

Barberry* 

liibes  Sanguineum 

Dutch  clover* 

Sycamore  maple* 


Lucerne  clover* 
Spanish  needle 
Yellow  vetch 
Sainbois 
Broom 
Wheat 

Viper's  bugloss* 
Raspberry* 
Symphora 
Racemosa 


Michaelmas  daisy        French  buckwheat*  Heath* 
Winter  savory  sowed  at  midsum-  Sunflower 

Purple  houseleek  mer  Lemon  thyme* 

Ivy  Spanish  broom*  St.  John's  wort 

Honeysuckle  Hollyhock*  Melilotus  leucantha* 

Cucumber  Pickles. — Select  nice,  firm  cucumbers  ;  pour  on  them,  foi 
three  successive  mornings,  boiling  water  enough  to  cover  ;  add  a  hand- 
ful of  coarse  salt.  The  night  before  pickling  throw  on  cold  water  and 
drain  ;  put  into  jars  with  ground  spices  in  a  bag,  sugar  and  salt  enough 
to  taste,  alum  size  of  an  English  walnut  to  each  jar  ;  pour  vinognr  hot  in 
each  jar,  and  cover  tight  while  hot. 

To  FIND  THE  SIZE  OF  A  BiN  TO  HOLD  A  CERTAIN  NTJMBER  OF  BUSHELS. 

Augment  the  number  of  bushels  ^,  and  the  result  will  exhibit  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  the  bin  will  comprise.  Then,  when  two  dimensions  of  the 
bin  are  known,  divide  the  last  result  by  their  product,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  other  size. 

Per  Ceistage  of  Oil  in  Seeds,  Grain,  &c. 
Oil  per  cent. 
Linseed  11  to  22  say  17 


Hempseed  14  "  25  "  19 

Rapeseed  40  "  70  15 

White  Mustard  36  "38  "  37 

Sweet  Almond  40  "  54  47 

Bitter  Almond  28  "  46  "  37 

Turnip  Seed.  40  "  50  "  45 

Wheat  Flour   2  "   4  "  3 

Barley    2  *'  3  "  2J 


Oil  per  cent. 

Oats  5  to  8  say  6^ 

Indian  Corn  5  "  9  "  7 

Wheat  Bran  3  "  5  '*  4 

Potatoes,  turnips  and  cab- 
bage  1^ 

Wheat  Straw  2  "  3^"  3 

Oat  Straw   4 

Meadow  Hay  2  "  5  "  3J 

Clover  Hay  3  "  6  "  6 


FACTS  FOtl  DAIKYMEN. 


719 


TABLE  SHOWIXa  THE  AMOUNT  OF  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  OBTAINABLE  FKOM 
MILK. 

100  lbs.  milk  contains  about  3  lbs.  pure  butter. 
100   "      "  "         "     7.8  lbs.  cheese. 

100  "  "  averages  "  3.5  lbs.  common  butter. 
100  "      "  "   11.7  lbs.  common  cheese. 

100      skim  milk  yields  "   13.5  lbs.  skim  milk  cheese. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  INGREDIENTS  CONTAINED  IN  VARIOUS  KINDS  Ot 
MILK.    IN  100  PARTS  THERE  ARE  OF— 


Woman, 

Cow. 

Ass. 

Goat. 

Ewe 

87.9 

87-0 

91.7 

80.7 

85.6 

C.5 

4.8 

6.1 

5.3 

5.0 

3.6 

3.1 

0.1 

3.3 

4.2 

1.5 

4,5 

1.8 

4.1 

4.5 

Water, 
Milk  Sugar, 
Butter, 
Casein, 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  cows'  milk  varies  according  to  the  food  sup- 
plied, breeds,  &c. 

In  every  1000  PARTS  OF  MILK  THERE  ARE  OF— 


Chloride  of  potassium ,    9  parts. 
Phosphate  of  magnesia,  4  '* 
Free  soda,  3 
Common  salt,  3  " 


Water,  840  parts. 

Milk-Sugar,  45  " 

Butter,  or  oil,  40  " 
Casein,  40  " 

Phosphate  of  lime,  17  " 

The  time  required  for  the  full  amount  of  cream  to  rise  to  the  surface 
of  new  milk  at  different  temperatures  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
table  : — 

10  to  12  hours  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  77°  Fahr. 
18  to  20      "         "  "  "        68°  " 

24  "         "  "  "        55°  " 

36  "  "  "  "  50° 


1  gal,  of  milk  weighs  10  lbs.  4  ozs  ;  being  heavier  than  water  in  the  pro- 
portion of  103  to  IGO.  The  best  temperature  at  which  to  churn  cream  i<? 
from  55°  to  60*^  Fahr.  ;  for  milk  65°  Fahr.  Milk  will  produce  scarcely 
any  cream  even  in  the  space  of  a  month  if  it  is  kept  at  33°  to  38°  Fahr. 
Milk  turns  sour  by  the  fermentation  of  the  sugar,  and  its  transformation 
into  lactic  acid,  thus  causing  the  milk  to  curdle  ;  vinegar  or  rennet  will 
produce  the  same  effect.  Good  cream  will  pi-oduce  about  |  of  its  weight 
of  butter  ;  cheese  made  from  good  milk  contains  nearly  33  per  cent,  of 
water;  that  from  skim-milk  about  60  per  cent. 


720 


DIRKCTIONS  FOR  CHURNING,  ETC. 


Tho  perfection  of  milk  keeping  is  .ittained  when  a  stream  of  pure 
spring  water  flows  through  tlic  room  where  it  is  kept,  wiiere  fresh  air 
circulates  freely  through  slatted  windows  or  doors  uncoiitamiuated  hy 
the  odor  of  decayiug  vcgetal)h;s  or  animal  matter,  and  when  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  55°  to  I'ahr.  iJuring  winter  great  profit  avouUI  re- 
sult from  bringing  the  temperature  of  the  milk  to  about  120°  Fahr.  pre- 
vious to  setting,  and  during  all  seasons  the  greatest  amount  of  crean'i  will 
be  collected  when  the  milk  in  tho  pans  is  not  over  2  inches  in  deptli. 
During  warm  weather  the  milk,  after  being  drawn  from  the  cow,  should 
as  soon  as  possible,  be  cooled  down  to  02°,  This  may  be  done  by  setting 
tlie  pail  in  cold  water,  or  by  putting  a  little  pulverized  ice  in  the  pail  pre- 
vious to  straining.  A  small  piece  of  crystallized  soda  about  the  size  of  a 
marble,  dissolved  in  a  little  water  and  added  to  a  pail  of  freshly  drawn 
milk,  will  increase  the  amount  of  cream,  improve  the  butter,  and  correct 
acidity.  Milk  vessels,  strainers,  churns,  &c.,  should  be  keptscrupuloxtsly 
clean  and  free  from  taint  of  every  kind  by  frequent  scaldings  witli  boil- 
ing water.  During  very  hot  weatlier  the  milk  room  may  be  cooled  by 
hanging  Avet  linen  sheets  near  the  doors  and  windows,  with  the  lower 
parts  of  the  sheets  immersed  in  cold  water,  and  during  cold  weather  the 
temperature  may  be  raised  by  means  of  a  fire  in  a  stove,  on  which  a 
vessel  of  water  may  be  placed  to  prevent  too  much  dryness  of  air. 

In  skimming  the  milk,  deposit  the  cream  in  clean  stone  crocks,  or  tin 
pails,  and  after  sprinkling  a  handful  of  fine  salt  over  the  surface,  set 
away  in  a  cool  place,  to  remain  until  churned.  In  filling  the  churn  leave 
out  Avhatever  milk  may  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  cream  crock  as  its 
sour  taste  wall  be  sure  to  promote  acidity  in  the  butter.  Churning  should 
occupy  from  ^  to  f  of  an  hour  ;  rapid  churning  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
affects  the  quality  and  lessens  the  quantity  of  the  butter  ;  if  it  should  be 
liard  and  granular,  refusing  to  come  together  well,  throw  in  a  little  warm 
Avater,  churning  all  the  while,  and  the  butter  will  be  gathered  and  ready 
to  take  up. 

As  the  question  of  correct  temperature  is  all  important  in  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  and  cheese,  frequent  use  should  be  made  of  a  good 
thermometer.  Great  loss  is  certain  to  result  if  this  useful  instrument  is 
dispensed  with. 

In  churning,  use  care  to  keep  the  cream  Avell  Avashed  down,  so  that  the 
whole  will  granulate  Avith  regularity;  and  when  the  butter  has  formed  in 
small  lumps,  pour  off  the  buttermilk,  leaving  the  butter  in  the  churn  ; 
pour  in  a  i)ailful  of  pure  cold  water  and  well  wash  the  butter  in  it,  gather- 
ing it  into  a  solid  compact  mass  and  Avorking  it  to  squeeze  out  the  butter- 
milk. Next,  remove  it  to  the  butter  dish  and  again  well  wash,  at  a 
temperature  not  higher  than  55°  or  58°,  until  the  milk  is  utterly  removed 
from  the  butter  and  the  Avater  quite  clear,  then  salt,  with  the  best  Ashton 
salt,  at  the  rate  of  ^  lb.  to  10  lbs.  butter  :  work  the  salt  well  in  and  use 
every  effort  to  rid  the  butter  of  water  and  milky  brine,  for  depend  upon  it, 
the  product  Avill  not  be  first  class  xmless  this  is  done. 

In  packing  butter  use  neat  firkins,  tubs,  or  pails  made  of  white  oak  ; 
purify  each  by  filling  Avith  a  strong  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  boil- 
ing hot,  alloAvingthe  Avater  to  stand  for  24  hours.  Avoid  packing  butter  in 
vessels  containing  undissolved  salt  at  the  bottom  ;  unless  covered  with  a 
cloth  the  butter  will  be  damaged  by  coming  in  contact  Avith  it.  Take  great 
precautions  to  remove  all  rancid  or  suspicious  butter  from  firkins  that 
are  to  be  refilled.  All  butter  made  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer 
should  be  shipped  and .  sold  without  loss  of  time,  as  it  will  only  keep 
SAveet  for  a  short  period.  Butter  made  during  warm  weather  should  be 
packed  in  firkins  and  kept  in  a  dry  cool  place.  To  preserve  it  from  the 
air,  cover  the  butter  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  (or  deep  enough  to  ex- 
clude the  air)  with  strong  brine  containing  in  solution  2  tablespoonf uls  of 


ON  CHEESE  MANUFACTURE. 


721 


white  sugar  and  a  piece  of  saltpetre  double  tlie  size  of  a  pea.  In  tlic  fall 
the  butter  may  be  repacked  in  pails  and  tubs,  to  market  as  fresh  batter. 

If  butter  is  too  soft  while  being  worked  and  salted,  allow  it  to  stiffen 
for  3  or  4  hours  in  a  cool  place,  then  begin  again  and  finish  the  work.  In 
packiiig  never  mix  even  the  smallest  amount  of  poor  butter  with  good  ;  it 
is  certain  to  taint  and  ruin  the  whole  package.  The  rancidity  of  butter 
may  be  prevented  by  thoroughly  washing  and  salting  before  the  cLeesy 
particles  and  milky  matter  is  acidified  by  expovsure  to  the  air,  and  by 
using  due  caution  to  exclude  air  from  the  package  by  a  covering  of  water 
well  saturated  with  salt. 

The  oil  of  butter  is  a,  substance  of  peculiar  richness,  unlike  any  other 
known  oil,  and  the  fat  of  butter,  when  compacted  by  expressing  the  oil, 
is  identical  vv^ith  the  solid  fat  of  the  human  body.  Chemical  analysis  and 
numerous  experiments  prove  that  the  butter  in  cow's  milk  comes  direct 
from  the  fat  of  the  animal.  Tlie  fatty  globules  are  carried  into  the  circu- 
lation, deprived  of  stearine  by  respiratory  combustion,  and  the  oil  is  then 
sent  to  the  udders,  where,  under  the  influence  of  mammary  pepsin  it  is 
changed  into  the  components  of  butter.  It  is  on  this  i^rinciple  that  the 
oleomargarine,  now  being  vended  in  such  immense  quantities  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  is  manufactured  from  cow's  fat  or  beef  suet. 

First  class  butter  is  free  from  every  trace  of  a  rancid  taste  or  smell. 
When  cut  with  a  knife  it  should  neither  soil  the  blade,  exude  any  dew  or 
milky  brine,  should  be  neither  sticky  nor  greasy,  but  should,  in  summer, 
possess  a  rich  yellow  color,  with  a  granular,  waxy  composition;  in  Avinter 
the  color  should  be  of  whitish  cast  or  of  a  pale  yellow  tint.  A  plentiful 
clover  pasture  surpasses  all  other  food  for  producing  the  best  quality  of 
milk  and  butter. 

On  Cheese  Manufacture. — The  following  practical  directions  are 
by  an  experienced  manufacturer : 

•'  When  two  milkings  are  united,  strain  the  evening's  milk  and  cool  by 
means  of  pieces  of  ice  dropped  into  the  ])ails  before  straining.  In  the 
morning  take  off  all  the  cream,  mix  it  with  twice  the  quantitj'-  of  new 
milk.  Add  warm  Avater  enough  to  raise  it  to  the  temperature  of  98°. 
Rub  annatto  through  a  silk  cloth  sufficient  to  make  the  curd  the  color  of 
rich  cream.  Into  this  put  rennet  sufficient  to  curd  in  35  minutes.  Stir 
the  whole  into  the  milk  previously  raised  to  the  temperature  of  85°.  The 
milk  should  be  warmed  by  means  of  a  pail  of  hot  Avater  set  into  it,  but 
never  by  [putting  it  over  the  fire,  for  the  least  burning  of  the  milk  will 
spoil  the  cheese.  While  the  curd  is  settiiig,  cover  with  a  cloth  to  pre- 
vent the  surface  from  cooling.  The  method  of  cutting,  scalding,  and 
pressing  depends  upon  the  varieties  of  cheese  to  be  manufactured. 
About  J  of  a  pound  of  the  best  Ashton  salt  is  sufficient  for  20  lbs.  of  curd. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  whey  be  entirely  expressed." 

Calves  may  be  raised  in  first  class  order  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  value  of  the  butter  made  from  the  milk  saved,  by  the  use  of 
oil  meal,  the  cheapest  molasses,  and  skim  milk.  The  right  quantity  fora 
3'^oung  calf,  is  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  meal  (oil  cake)  and  the  same  of 
molasses,  divided  into  3  parts,  for  2  dnjs'  feed,  added  to  the  skim  milk. 
At  tlie  end  of  the  first  Aveek  each  may  be  increased,  and  at  10  days  a 
spoonful  of  molasses  and  the  same  of  oil  meal  may  be  given  at  each  feed. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  third  Aveek  a  spoonful  of  oat  or  barley- 
meal  may  be  added  to  each  feed,  but  this  should  be  cooked.  The  oil 
meal  should  be  scalded  and  allowed  to  form  a  thick  mucilage  before 
being  mixed  with  the  skim  milk,  the  molasses  may  be  added  direct,  and 
the  whole  given  milk  warm.  Calves  raised  on  tins  food  have  weighed 
125  lbs.  at  4  weeks  old.  Hay  tea  is  sometimes  used  to  bring  up  a  calf ; 
this  is  the  soluble  coustitaents  of  the  hay,  obtahied  by  cooking. 


722 


I  ATTENING  POWER  OF  FOODS. 


At  the  noted  agriciiltnnil  colle;;o  of  Ilohcnheim,  Germany,  probably 
the  best  conducted  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  tluiy  raise  calves 
entirely  by  hand,  and  the  daily  allowance  of  fo(jd  is  as  follows  : 


MILK. 

lbs. 

1st  week   12  . 


2nd  "   

3rd  "   

4th  "   

5th,  Gth,  and  7th  weeks. 

8th  week  

9th  "   

10th  "   

11th  "   

12th  "   

13th  "   


. ..  0 

...  0 

...  0 

...  0 

...  1 

...  2 

...  2 

.—  2 

...  3 


IN  Kir  AY. 

Iba. 
...  0 
...  0 
...  0 
...  0 

V2 


In  the  ninth  week  the  milk  is  first  mixed  with  water,  and  a  little  fine 
oatmeal  is  stirred  in.    The  meal  is  afterwards  mixed  with  the  dry  fodder 

After  three  months  the  milk  is  withheld,  and  then  the  young  animals 
receive  daily,  till  two  and  one-half  years  old,  from  twenty  to  twenty -two 
pounds  of  hay  or  its  equivalent.  But  the  calves  never  after  receive,  even  in 
summer,  any  dry  food  till  they  are  nine  months  old.  The  average  feed- 
ing is  so  divided  that  the  younger  portion  receives  less,  the  older  more, 
till  two  and  one-half  years,  when  they  begin  to  receive  the  regular  rations 
of  the  older  cattle,  including  the  grain  fodder  as  indicated  above.  The 
growth  witli  this  treatment  is  such  that  these  animals  (not  Shorthorns) 
attain  the  following  weights  at  various  ages  : — 


nETFERS. 

Average  weight  of  calves  at  three  months   233  lbs  

"         "         "         "    six  months  351  "   

"         "         "         "    twelve  months   640  "   

"         "         "         "    two  years  1184  "   

Daily  increase  of  calves   1.5  "   

"         '*    in  second  year   1.4"   

Fattening  Power  of  Foods,  Production  of  Pork, 


BULLS. 

353  lbs. 
472  " 
750  " 
1300  " 
1.8  " 
1.5  " 


Carefully  conducted  experiments  prove  that  1  bushel  of  corn,  w^eighing 
56  lbs.,  will  produce  10 lbs.  of  pork.  Throwing  off  J  to  come  at  the  net 
weight,  gives  8  2-5  lbs.  of  pork  as  the  proceeds  of  1  bush,  corn,  or  1  lb. 
of  pork  as  the  product  of  6§  lbs.  of  corn.  1  lb.  of  pork  is  made  by  3  4-5 
lbs.  of  cooked  corn  meal.  Experiments  made  by  C.  M.  Clay,  of  Kentucky, 
showed  that  one  bushel  of  drif  corn  made  5  Ibs.lOozs.  of  pork  ;  of  boiled 
corn,  14  lbs.  7  ozs.,  and  boiled  meal,  16  to  18  lbs.  The  following  Table 
shows  the  relation  which  the  price  of  corn  bears  to  that  of  pork  on  the 
assumption  that  it  requires  6§  lbs.  of  corn  to  produce  1  lb.  of  pork. 

TABLE   SHOWING   THE   PRICE   OF  PORK  PER   POUND   AT  DIFFERENT 
PRICES  PER  BUSHEL  FOR  CORN. 


FATTENING  POWER  OF  FOODS. 


723 


By  reversing  the  preceding  Table  we  obtain  the  price  of  corn  at  different 
prices  per  lb.  for  pork.  The  utility  of  the  Table  is  apparent.  For  in- 
stance, if  corn  is  selling  at  50c.  per  bushel  and  pork  for  only  6c.  per  lb. , 
it  would  be  most  profitable  to  sell  the  corn  ;  but  should  corn  be  selling  at 
40c.  per  bushel  and  pork  for  6c.  per  lb.,  it  would  be  the  most  profitable  to 
sell  the  latter.  The  Table  must  be  regarded  as  an  approximation 
merely,  as  the  results  will  vary  according  to  the  sample  of  grain,  breed, 
constitution,  age,  digestion,  condition,  habits,  health,  &c.,  of  the  animal. 

In  fattening  pigs,  peas  to  begin  with  are  the  most  valuable  food  to  fill 
up  the  flesh  on  the  bones ;  this  well  accomplished,  corn  is  the  most  efiigient 
in  the  formation  of  fat.  A  mixture  of  peas  and  corn,  or  peas  and  barley, 
will  give  better  results  than  either  of  these  grains  fed  separately.  Peas 
contain  in  1,000  parts — 

264  parts  gluten,  and  496  of  starch,  gum  and  sugar. 
Com  123    "        "       "  716 

Barley   64    "        "        "   684        "        "  " 

Gluten  and  albumen  are  ^es7i-f orming,  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  s,xefai- 
forming  elements.  From  numerous  experiments,  Mr.  Harris,  in  his  work 
on  the  pig,  deduces  the  following  :  that 

A  moderately  fat  lieifer  or  steer  wiU  dress  59^;  per  cent.  meat. 
"  "  mutton  sheep    "     "    59|      "  " 

U  pig  u         u  u 

The  preponderance  in  favor  of  the  pig  is  immense.  It  is  remarked  by 
an  eminent  cattle  feeder,  Mr.  Glyde,  "that  an  ox  requires  two  per  cent 
of  his  live  weight  per  day :  if  he  works,  2J  per  cent  ;  a  milch  cow  3  per 
cent;  a  fattening  ox,  5  per  cent  at  first,  and 4|  per  cent  when  half  fat,  and 
4  per  cent  when  fat ;  grown  sheep,  3^  per  cent  to  keep  them  in  their 
store  condition."  An  ox,  to  replace  the  daily  loss  of  muscular  fibre,  re- 
quires from  20  to  24  ozs.  of  dry  gluten  or  vegetable  albumen  daily.  This 
would  be  supplied  by — 

120  lbs.  of  turnips  or  17  lbs.  clover  hay. 
115  "       wheat  straw  or  12  lbs.  peas. 
75  '*       carrots  or  12  lbs.  barley. 
67  "       potatoes  or  10  lbs.  oats. 
20  '*       meadow  hay  or  5  lbs.  beans. 

The  Society  of  Shakers,  at  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  noted  for  pork  raising,  say  : 
"  For  fattening  animals,  swine  particiilarly,  we  consider  three  of  cooked, 
equal  to  four  of  raw  meal." 

"  Unless  food  be  thoroughly  deprived  of  its  vegetative  powers  before  it 
enters  the  stomach,  the  whole  nourishment  which  it  is  capable  of  afford- 
ing cannot  be  derived  from  it.  The  most  effectual  mode  of  destroying 
the  living  principle  is  by  the  application  of  heat,  by  steaming  or  boiling." 
— Louden' s  Encyclopedia  of  Af/ricultwe. 

"  As  to  the  steaming  of  food  for  cattle,  there  is  abundant  experience  to 
recommend  it.  The  process  of  cooking  renders  soluble  that  which  would 
otherwise  be  imperfectly  digested.  It  removes,  in  some  cases,  what 
Avould  otherwise  be  unwholesome,  and  it  renders  savory  what  would 
otherwise  be  distasteful." — Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 

If  30  lbs.  of  hay  is  required  per  day  to  keep  1  cow  in  passable  order 
during  a  Canadian  winter,  numerous  experiments  establish  the  fact 
that  22  lbs.  of  steamed  hay  will  answer  the  same  purpose  equally  well. 
This,  with  20  head  of  cattle,  will  effect  a  saving  of  160  lbs.  per  day,  or 
$150  during  5  winter  months,  with  hay  at  $10  j)er  ton. 

Augustus  Whitman,  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  writes  :  "  Wliile  28 
lbs.  per  day  of  good  hay  are  required  to  keep  dry  cows  (weighing  from 
1,150  lbs.  to  1,450  lbs.)  in  an  even  condition  of  flesh,  upon  20  lbs.  of 
steamed  food  a  handsome  gain  is  made.   The  trial  that  furnished  the 


724 


IlKSULTS   OF  COOKED  FOOD. 


data  for  tlic  statement  Avas  made  a  year  since,  when  six  dry  cows,  in  con- 
dition as  nearly  alilce  as  could  be  "found,  were  divided  into  three  pairs, 
and  each  pair  fed  differently  from  the  others  for  3  Aveeks  ;  note  was  then 
made  of  the  result,  and  the  trial  continued  another  3  weeks,  f^iving  to 
each  pair  what  another  pair  had  previously  been  alloAved.  The  result 
Avas,  that  upon  28  lbs.  per  day  of  good  dry  hay,  two  cows  Aveigliing  1,184 
lbs.  and  1,45(5  lbs.  respectively,  just  about  held  their  own  ;  while  another 
pair  Aveighing  1,302  lbs.  and  1,120  lbs.  respectively,  upon  20  lbs.  per  day 
of  steamed  feed,  gained  54  lbs.  and  30  lbs.  lleversing  the  feed  for  the 
second  three  Avecks,  the  last  named  barely  held  their  own,  Avhile  the  first 
gained  40  lbs.  and  30  lbs.  respectively. 

"  I  should  say  that  the  cattle  on  long  hay  had  all  they  would  eat  at  the 
three  regular  feeds,  and  the  quantity  consumed  Avas  found  to  be  at  the 
close  of  the  trial  equal  to  28  lbs.  per  day,  as  above  stated.  You  Avill  very 
properly  ask,  what  is  the  mixture  made  of  ? 

"  My  steiam  box  (in  three  divisions)  holds  enough  to  fdl  200  feed  boxes 
of  about  one  bushel  each,  and  requires  to  pack  it  well  900  lbs.  of  dry 
fodder.  This  is  made  up  of  300  lbs.  good  hay  and  000  lbs.  of  corn  stover, 
dried  fodder,  corn  or  oat  or  barley  straw.  This  is  cut  tolerably  fine  and 
Avell  mixed,  and  AA'heu  i^acked  in  layers  for  steaming  is  thoroughly  wet 
and  seasoned  Avith  180  quarts  wheat  shorts,  60  quarts  cotton  seed  meal, 
and  00  quarts  corn  meal. 

"  The  rule  for  feeding  now  observed,  and  thai  has  been  used  for  the 
past  winter,  is  somewhat  changed  from  previous  years,  and  is  a  boxful 
of  steamed  feed  morning  and  noon,  and  5  lbs,  dry  hay  at  night.  The  two 
boxes  of  feed  contain  3  lbs.  good  hay,  0  lbs.  straw  (or  its  equivalent),  1 
lb.  shorts,  and  If  lbs.  meal  (half  each  cotton  seed  and  corn),  and  upon 
this  good  gain  is  made,  as  the  monthly  record  shows." 

A  cheap  and  serviceable  steamer  may  be  improvised  by  making  a  box 
of  Avell  jointed  2  in.  pine,  about  7  or  8  feet  long  by  2^  ft.  wide,  Avith  a 
bottom  of  No.  10  sheet  iron,  nailed  securely  on  to  the  loAver  edge  of  the 
sides  and  ends,  and  turned  up  a  little  outside  of  them,  gay,  5  an  inch. 
Place  a  false  bottom  perforated  with  numerous  holes,  about  3  ms.  above 
the  fast  bottom,  and  arrange  a  tight  fitting  cover  for  the  top.  Set  the 
box  on  brick  work  over  a  suitable  fireplace,  so  that  the  wooden  edges  of 
the  box  will  be  safe  from  the  fire,  and  give  a  proper  draught  by  a  suitable 
chimney  erected  at  the  opposite  end  from  fireiDlace. 

The  space  between  the  low^er  and  false  bottom  being  partly  filled  with 
water,  the  cut  hay  or  other  provender  is  packed  tightly  in  above  the  false 
bottom,  the  cover  is  shut  tight,  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  steam  enters 
the  perforations  in  the  false  bottom  and  cooks  the  contents  of  the  box. 

Hon.  G.  Geddes,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  says  : — "That  there  is  no  branch 
of  farming  that  was  less  understood  and  promised  more  advantages,  than 
the  preparation  of  food.  He  had  thoroughly  proved  years  ago  that 
cookng,  independent  of  grinding,  at  least  doukled  the  value  of  food." 

Geo.  a.  Moore,  of  Erie  Co.,  said  he  had  fed  200  sheep  on  eookedfood, 
and  he  had  fully  satisfied  himself  that  the  value  of  food  was  tripled  by 

COOKING. 

Professor  Mapes  says  ( Transactions  American  Institute,  1864,  p.  373)  : 
"  The  experiment,  often  tried,  has  proved  that  eighteen  or  nineteen  pounds 
of  cooked  corn  is  equal  to  fifty  pounds  of  raw  corn  f®r  hog  feed.  Mr. 
Mason,  of  New  Jersey,  found  that  pork  fed  with  raw  grain  cost  12^  cents 
per  pound,  and  that  from  cooked  4§  cents.  Cooked  corn  stalks  are  as 
soft  and  almost  as  nutritious  as  green  stalks.  Cattle  can  be  fattened  at 
about  half  the  expense  upon  cooked  food  as  upon  uncooked." 

Experiments  made  by  Mr.  Owen  Merchant,  of  Warsaw,  N. Y. ,  proved 
that  a  yoke  of  poor  oxen,  valued  at  about  $40,  were  fatted  on  cooked 


RESULTS  OF  COOKED  FOOD. 


725 


potatoes  and  bran  in  five  weeks  and  three  daj-s,  and  made  extra  beef, 
which  was  sold  in  the  market  for  first  quality. 

James  Buckingham  gave  in  the  Prairie  Farmer  an  experiment  with 
raw  and  cooked  meal,  and  found  that  a  hog  fed  on  bushels  raw  meal 
gained  19  pounds,  and  another  fed  on  one  bushel  cooked  meal  gained  22 
pounds. 

S.  H.  Clay,  of  Keutuckj-,  found  by  experiment  that  a  bushel  of  raw 
corn  makes  51  pounds  of  pork,  whilst  a  bushel  of  cooked  meal  makes  17^ 
pounds. 

Mr.  A.  Avery,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  says,  after  two  years'  trial  : — "I 
think  I  have  saved  $10  per  head  on  keeping  (say  $600  on  the  stock  feed), 
besides  having  the  milch  cows  in  better  condition  than  ever  before."  He 
says  again,  in  April,  1869,  "  This  you  see  gives  me  a  clear  profit  of 
$537.25  on  4i  months'  feed. 

Messrs.  Dewey  and  Stewart,  ot  Owosso,  Mich.,  says: — We  have  fed 
G4:  head  of  cattle,  7  horses,and  340  sheep,  fattened  22  head  of  cattle  and  70 
sheep.  We  think  we  have  saved  one-third  the  expense  in  wintering  this 
stock. 

By  Professor  Voeloker's  analysis,  1  ton  of  wheat  straw  contains: — 
35  lbs.  of  oil,  26  lbs.  albumen, 

390  "  digestible,  85  "  mucilage. 
Experiments  by  E.  W.  Stewart,  of  New  York,  proved  a  bushel  of 
wheat  straw  with  two  quarts  middlings  or  meal  was  equal  to  the  same 
weight  of  cut  hay,  and  was  w^orth  25  per  cent,  more  than  uncut  hay.  It 
was  also  found  that  the  animals  would  eat  25  per  cent,  more  hay  uncut 
than  cut.  The  same  experiment  Avas  then  made  with  corn  meal,  and  1^ 
pints  was  found  to  make  a  bushel  of  straw  equal  to  hay. 

Mr.  Skinner,  of  New  York,  says  he  "  fed  44  head  of  milch  covins  on 
steamed  straw  and  shippings,  and  26  head  on  hay  not  steamed.  The 
straw  was  cut  and  steamed  with  the  shippings.  Each  cow  received  10  lbs. 
of  straw  and  8  lbs.  of  shippings,  and  the  expense,  including  labor  and 
fuel,  was  29  cents  per  head,  daily.  The  26  cows  on  hay  cost  35  cents  per 
head,  daily,  showing  a  balance  of  6  cents  per  day  each  in  favor  of  the 
straw  and  shippings.  Those  fed  on  the  straw  were  full  and  plump,  were 
gaining  flesh,  and  doing  better  than  those  fed  on  hay." 

Ill  Alcsath,  Hungary,  similar  trials  were  made  about  the  year  1839  on 
a  very  large  scale,  resulting  in  a  decided  success.  The  trials  were  made 
208  draught  oxen,  108  days— daily  profit  of  steaming   $13  00 
2,000  old  wethers,    120    "  "  "  12  50 

34  stud  horses     180    "  "  "  1  42 

The  profit  on  180  days'  winter  feeding  on  the  above  animals  being  $4,850, 
an  amount  quite  worth  saving.  Cooking  largely  increases  the  bulk  of  the 
grain,  a  great  advantage  in  preparing  it  for  feeding  cattle. 

4  measures  of-  corn  have  been  increased  to  13 
4  "  barley  "  "  10 
4         "         bran  "         "  14 

Thomas  J.  Edge  writes  to  the  Practical  Farmer: — "I  found  that  5 
bushels  of  whole  corn  made  47f  lbs.  of  pork.  Five  bushels  (less  miller's 
toll)  of  corn  ground  and  made  into  thick  slop  with  cold  luater,  made  54^ 
lbs  of  pork.  The  same  amount  of  meal  Avell  boiled  and  fed  cold,  made 
83J  lbs.  of  pork.  The  corn  cost  $1.30  per  bushel;  the  pork  made  from  the 
tohole  corn  barely  paid  for  the  corn,  while  the  same  amount  of  ground 
corn  cooked,  paid  the  whole  cost  of  the  cooking  and  a  little  more  than  $1 
per  bushel  over."  In  this  instance  the  pork  sold  at  $14  per  cwt.  In  a 
second  experiment  10  bushels  of  corn  on  the  cob,  fed  in  the  usual  way,  on 
the  ground,  made  29^  lbs.  of  pork,  while  the  same  amount  of  shelled, 
ground  by  horse-power  and  well  boiled,  made  64  lbs.  of  pork. 


72G 


RESULTS  OF  COOKKD  FOOD. 


I).  IsETT  reports  in  tlie  rmctical  Farmer,  that  "  he  formerly  fed 
liis  teain  liorscs  70  lbs.  of  chop  for  each  horse  ])er  week,  besides  tlie  hay 
they  would  eat,  and  that  by  cooking  his  chop  he  found  that  his  horses 
did  better,  and  looked  better,  kept  in  better  spirits,  and  in  every  Avay 
were  better,  fed  on  50  lbs.  per  week  than  on  the  larc^e  amount  uncooked, 
making  a  saving,  as  he  claims,  on  8  weeks,  of  ^{-'57. 00, 

Note.—l\\  steaming  hay,  chaff,  straw,  &c.,  the  fodder  should  first  bo  cut 
and  then  moistened  by  a  large  sprinkling  pot  or  hose,  adding  water  at  the  rate 
of  at  least  3  gals,  to  5  bushels  of  feed  while  it  is  being  stirred  up  with  a  fork; 
then,  if  bran,  meal,  or  other  more  concentrated  food  is  to  be  fed  with  it,  It 
should  be  sifted  on  evenly,  and  mixed.  Sift  in  a  little  salt  at  the  same  time. 
Food  thus  prepared  and  fed  to  horses  affected  with  the  heaves  will  often  effect 
a  thorough  cure.  The  steaming  process  has  also  a  wonderful  transforming 
power  in  rendering  mildewed,  musty,  smutty,  and  rusted  straw,  hay,  com, 
fodder,  &c.,  into  lirst-class,  nourishing  fodder.  Every  offensive  odor  and  re- 
pulsive taint  is  completely  dissipated  by  the  steaming  process. 

In  the  Practiciil  Farmer  for  Dec.,  1868,  "  Agricola  "  writes,  "  I  have 
demonstrated  to  my  own  satisfaction,  with  the  use  of  the  Prindle 
Steamer  *  and  careful  weighing,  that  Avliile  5  bushels  of  boiled  mush  will 
make  84  lbs.  of  pork,  3  bushels  of  meal  and  5  bushels  of  pokitoes  will  make 
72  lbs.  of  pork;" 


In  doing  business  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  much  the  best  way  to  use  an 
Agricultural  Boiler,  like  that  of  Prindle' s,  represented  in  the  cut,  which 
illustrates  the  method  by  which  the  steam  is  transmitted  to  the  barrel  or 
box  containing  the  fodder  to  be  cooked.  The  uses  of  such  a  contrivance 
are  manifold.   It  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  as  a  small  still  for  dis- 


*  -ZVo^e— Farmers  will  be  pleased  to  learn  that  this  unequalled  Agricultural 
Steamer  and  Farmer's  Boiler,  is  the  invention  of  Daniel  R.  Prindle,  him- 
self a  practical  farmer,  of  East  Bethany,  N.Y.  It  was  victorious  at  the 
World's  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  Full  information,  circulars,  &c., 
obtained  free,  by  addressing  the  inventor  as  above,  or  the  manufacturers, 
Barrows,  Saveky  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


prindle' S  AGRICULTUKAIi  BOILER, 


TIMBER  MEASUREMENT. 


727 


tilling  essential  oils,  refining  coal  oil,  boiling  clothes,  warming  bath  tnbs, 
heating  small  rooms,  scalding  hogs,  &c.  These  boilers,  made  by  Savery 
&  Co.,  Philadelphia,  are  provided  with  safety  valves,  flexible  pipes,  &c., 
and  may  be  procured  in  the  United  States  from  Robert  C.  Reeves,  dealer 
in  Agricultural  implements,  &c.,  185  and  187  Water  Street,  New  York, 
Another  Boiler,  somewhat  similar,  is  sold  by  William  Rennie,  Toronto, 
Ont. 

Number  of  Feet  in  Length  of  the  following  Dimensions  of  Timrei? 

KEQUIRED  TO  MAKE  1000  FeET  OF  BOAUD  AND  CUBIC  MEASURE  RE- 
SPECTIVELY. 


No.  of  ft.  in 

in  length 

in  length 

Size. 

length  to 
make  1000 

Size. 

to  make 

Size. 

to  make 

1000  feet 

1000  feet. 

ft.  cubic  m. 

board  m. 

board  m. 

5x5 

5,760 

2 

X  6 

1,090 

6  X  10 



200 

5x6 

4,800 

2 

X  7 

857.2 

6  X  11 

181.10 

5x7 

4,114.3 

2 

X  8 

750 

6  X  12 

166.8 

5x8 

3,600 

2 

X  9 

666.8 

7x7 

244.11 

5x9 

3,200 

2 

X  10 

600 

7x8 

214.3 

5  X  10 

2,880 

2 

X  11 

545.6  . 

7x9 

190.6 

5  X  11 

2,618-2 

2 

X  12 

500 

7  x  10 

171.5 

5  X  12 

2,400 

2h 

X  5 

960 

7  x  11 

1.55.10 

6x6 

4,000 

2h 

X  6 

800 

7  X  12 

142.19 

6x7 

3,428.7 

2i 

X  7 

685.9 

8x8 

187.6 

6x8 

3,000 
2,666.8 

2|  X  8 

600 

8x9 

166.8 

6x9 

2i  X  9 

533.4 

8  X  10 

150 

6  X  10 

2,400 

2i 

X  10 

480 

8  X  11 

136.4 

6  X  11 

2,181.8 

3 

X  5 

800 

8  X  12 

125 

6  X  12 

2,000 

3 

X  6 

666.8 

9x9 

148.2 

7x7 

2,9.38.9 

3 

X  7 

571.5 

9  X  10 

133.4 

7x8 

2,-571.4 

3 

X  8 

500 

9x11 

121.3 

7x9 

2,285.8 

3 

X  9 

444.4 

9  X  12 

1 11.2 

7  X  10 

2,057.3 

3 

X  10 

400 

10  X  10 

120 

7  X  11 

1,870.1 

3 

xll 

363.7 

10  X  11 

109.1 

7  X  12 

1,714.3 
2,550 

3 

X  12 

333.4 

10  X  12 

100 

8x8 

1 

X  5 

600 

11  X  11 

99.2 

8x9 

2,000 

I 

X  6 

500 

11  X  12 

90.9 

8  X  10 

1,800 

1 

X  7 

428.7 

12  X  12 

83.4 

8  xll 

1,636.4 

t 

X  8 

375 

12  X  14 

71.5 

8  X  12 

1,500 

4 

X  9 

333-4 

12  X  16 

62.5 

9x9 

1,777.9 

4 

X  10 

300 

12  X  18 

55.6 

10  X  10 

1,600 

4 

X  11 

272.8 

12  X  20 

50 

9  X  11 

1,455.5 

4 

xl2 

250 

16  X  18 

41.8 

9  X  12 

1,333.4 

5 

X  6 

400 

20  X  20 

30 

10  X  10 

1,440 

5 

x  7 

342.10 

20  X  24 

25 

10  X  12 

1,200 

5 

X  8 

^  300 

22  x24 

22.8 

11  X  11 

1,190 
1,091 

5 

X  9 

266.8 

18  X  24 

27.10 

11  X  12 

5 

X  10 

540 

18  X  20 

33.4 

12  X  12 

1,000 

5 

X  11 

218.2 

14  X  16 

53.7 

14  X  16 

642.10 

5 

X  12 

200 

15  X  18 

44.5 

16  X  18 

500 

6 

X  6 

333.4 

16  X  20 

S7.6 

18  X  20 

400 

6 

X  7 

285.8 

13  X  14 

66.11 

20  x22 

327.3 

6 

X  8 

250 

30  X  40 

10 

22  x24 

272.8 

6 

X  9 

222.2 

36  X  36 

9.3 

To  MEASURE  Lumber 
BY  THE  Board  Rule.— 
Place  the  rule  across 
the  board  to  be  meas- 
ured, with  the  far  end 
flush  with  the  off  side  of 
the  board,  and  note  the 
width  in  inches;  then 
measure  the  length  of 
board  and  turn  the  rule 
to  same  length,  examin- 
ing the  section  or  col- 
umn of  that  length,  and 
the  contents  will  be 
found  indented  on  the 
rule  just  over  the  nigh 
edge  of  the  board. 

Rule  to  measure 
Logs  or  Round  Tim- 
ber.—M  u  1 1  i  p  1  y  the 
length,  taken  in  ft.,  by 
the  sqiiare  of  one  quar- 
ter of  the  mean  girth, 
measured  in  inches,  and 
tliis  product  divided  by 
144  will  give  the  requir- 
ed contents  in  cubic  ft. 
In  measuring  tapering 
timber  take  the  girth 
about  one-third  the  dis- 
tance from  the  large  to 
the  small  end. 

RuLB  for  any  Size. 
— Multiply  the  number 
of  ft.  in  the  face  of  the 
timber  to  be  measured, 
by  the  thickness  in 
inches,  and  the  result 
will  be  the  contents  in 
ft.  of  board  measure. 


The  foregoing  table  will  be  found  extremely  useful  to  every  timber 
merchant,  mill  owner,  lumberman,  and  farmer.  For  other  tables  relat- 
ing to  Timber  measurement,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  series  com' 
meuciug  with  page  617. 


728 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


l)tliivi"ijtn  . 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS;  AGE,  ORIGIN  AND  ULTIMATE 
DURATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

(looloi^y  is  a  nol)lc  science  of  hut  recent  ovij^in; 
it  treats  of  the  sti  ucture  and  mineral  construc- 
tion of  tlio  eartli's  crust,  the  varied  strata  wliicli 
compose  it,  tlie  fossils  they  contain,  and  tiie 
t)emendous  forces  eni[*]oyed  in  their  fornuition. 
The  diat,n'am  disi))ays  tlic  order  in  which  the  dilTor- 
ent  strata  are  super-imposed  on  each  other  ;  tliey 
extend  to  an  estimated  de])th  of  82,G00  feet  or  np- 
Avards  of  15  miles,  from  the  surface  down  to  the 
granite.  The  granite,  styled  by  geologists,  the 
primitive^  crystalline,  or  if/neons  rocks,  owing  to 
tlieir  evident  origin  from  the  action  of  fire,  forms 
tlie  foundation  of  the  stratified  rocks,  and  at  one 
period  the  surface  of  the  globe  was  entirely  com- 
posed of  these  rocks  in  an  incandescent  condition 
like  molten  iron.  Gradually  cooling  during  tho 
lapse  of  ages,  a  crust  was  formed,  water  was  con- 
densed from  the  atmosphere,  and  tlie  formation 
of  the  stratified  or  aqneoics  rocks  began.  As  an 
instrumentality  in  creation,  water  seems  to  have 
been  endowed  with  absolute  power,  for  its  irre- 
sistible potency  appears  to  be  omnipresent  in  the 
formation  of  everything  terrestrial.  Each  strati- 
fied layer  bears  manifest  proof  of  having  at  one 
time  composed  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which 
we  dwell,  and  a  duration  of  time,  estimated  by 

  Prof.  Agassiz  to  be  not  less  than  15,000,000  of 

g^^^J^^ljr^i^j^Sgj  years  have  been  required  to  produce  the  different 
strata  that  have  been  formed  since  first  the  dry 
land  appeared.  The  substances  of  which  the 
^^^^^^^^^-ff*  stratified  rocks  consist  have  all  been  deposited  by 
s~  slnds tonel^S^^  the  actiou  of  water  ;  each  imbeds  in  its  rocky 
prison  enormous  quantities  of  the  fossil  remains 
of  organized  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
which  at  one  time,  although  at  periods  iuconceiv- 
bly  remote,  flourished  in  the  sunshine,  on  the 
blooming  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  position 
in  which  these  various  strata  exist  with  respect  to 
each  other,  computing  from  the  granite  upAvards 
together  with  the  estimated  thickness  of  each,  but 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  they  can  all  be  found 
in  any  one  particular  part  of  the  earth.  Some 
will  always  be  found  missing,  the  existence  and 
absence  of  such  deposits  being  caused  by  the 
alternate  submersions  and  dessications  which  have 
existed  at  different  times  on  every  part  of  the 
earth's  surface.  All  land  and  stratified  rocks 
have  been  formed  by  tidal  and  sub-marine  action, 
and  whatever  the  strata  may  be  in  any  given  place, 
the  order  of  their  succession  is  always  the  same. 
The  Primary  comprises  the  Azoic  and  Cambrian 
or  bottom  rocks,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian  or 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  the  Carboniferous  or  Coal 
System,  and  the  Permian .  The  Secondary,  which  succeeds,  comprises 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


729 


the  Trias  and  Oolite,  and  the  cretaceous  or  Chalk  formation.  Tlie 
Tertiary  consists  of  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  Pliocene  and  the  Pleistocene, 
or  superficial  deposits. 


Primary 


Secondary 


Tertiary 


f  Azoic  (lifeless)  and  Cambrian  rocks 
I  Silurian,  Lower  and  Upper 
\  Devonian,  or  Old  Red  Sandstone 
Carboniferous,  or  Coal 
Perniian 
Trias  and  Oolite 
Cretaceous,  or  Chalk 
Eocene,  or  lower  tertiary 
Miocene,  or  middle  tertiary- 
Pliocene,  or  upper  tertiary 
Diluvium,  or  superficial  deposits 


Feet. 
26,000 
30,000 
«J,000 
10,000 
2,000 
2,500 
1,100 

2,000 


86,600 

1st.  The  primitive  or  igneoxis  roclcs  (granite)  contain  no  organic  re- 
mains, they  bear  evidence  of  having  existed  at  one  time  in  a  molten  state 
by  reason  of  intense  heat.  These  rocks  protrude  through  the  earth  in 
many  places,  forming  mountains,  &c.,  in  numerous  localities,  the  upheaval, 
as  many  suppose,  being  caused  by  volcanic  forces  operating  from  be- 
neath. 

2d.  The  Cambrian,  Azoic,  metamorphic  or  transition  rocks  are  partly 
crystalline,  but  manifestly  stratified,  and  composed  in  great  part  of  the 
disintegrated  material  of  the  underlying  granite,  with  slight  deposits  of 
sea  shells.  The  "  Azoic  "  rocks  denote  those  devoid  of  all  traces  of  or- 
ganic life. 

3d.  The  Silurian  formation  resting  on  the  Cambrian,  contains  remains 
of  Zoophytes,  Mollusks,  and  Crustaceans,  all  of  them  submarine  inverte- 
brate animals  of  a  very  low  order.  Tlie  Zoophite  is  a  sort  of  starfish 
fixed  on  the  top  of  a  slender  stalk,  rising  from,  and  adhering  to  the 
bottom  of  the  Avater,  supplied  with  long  tentacles  or  fingers,  armed  with 
suckers  stretching  forth  on  all  sides  to  seize  their  prey  and  convey  it  to 
a  stomach  of  a  simple  organism  with  one  orifice."  The  mollusks  are 
pulpy,  boneless  creatures  with  or  without  shells,  like  the  modern  oyster, 
muscle,  snail  or  slug.  Of  the  Crustaceans  the  most  highly  developed  were 
the  trilobites,  now  quite  extinct,  but  at  this  time  existing  in  great  profu- 
sion and  variety;  the  nearest  existing  resemblance  to  the  trilobites  is 
to  be  found  in  the  lobster,  crab,  shrimp,  or  crayfish  families.  Of  the 
vegetable  creation  no  traces  are  to  be  found  in  this  formation  beyond 
the  casts  of  some  specimens  of  Fucoids  or  sea-weeds.  In  the  Silurian 
formation  no  vertehrated  animals  have  been  anyivhere  discovered.  To  this 
class  belong  all  those  animals  furnished  Avith  a  vertical  spine  or  backbone, 
Avith  connecting  skeleton,  as  Fishes,  Reptiles,  Birds,  Mammals  and  the 
Human  race.   No  dry  land,  or  land  vegetation  existed  during  this  epoch. 

4th.  The  Devonian  or  Old  Red  Sandstone  formation,  resting  on  the 
Silurian,  contains  the  fossil  remains  of  nearly  200  A^arietics  of  vertebrate 
fishes.  All  these  fishes  Avere  cartilaginous,  clad  in  strong  integuments  of 
bone  composed  of  enamelled  plates,  instead  of  the  scales  which  cover  the 
existing  races  of  the  deep.  Owing  to  the  intense  internal  heat  of  the  globe, 
the  water  composing  the  seas  during  this  period  were  in  a  tepid  or  Avarm 
condition,  hence  the  need  of  this  defensive  exterior  on  the  finny  tribes. 
As  the  globe  cooled  down  and  the  alternations  of  summer  heat  and 
Avinter  cold  set  in  (as  evidenced  by  the  appearance  of  annual  season  rings 
in  the  fossil  trees)these  fishes  disappeared  and  others  came  into  existence. 
The  dawn  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  epoch  was  heralded  by  tremendous 


730 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


and  wide  pprend  volcanic  explosions  causing  tlic  upheaval  of  the  undcily- 
iug  granite,  lilting  with  it  the  super-imposed  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata, 
tftcreby  I'orniiug  mountains  and  dry  land  above  the  surface  of  the  waters. 
Land  vegetation  soon  followed.  Vertebrate  fishes  were  created,  their 
armored  condition  attesting  a  very  high  temperature  on  the  earth  during 
tlie  whole  period.  This  formation  contains  67  species  of  Zoophytes,  48 
of  Crustacea,  88  of  conchifera,  82  of  moUusca,  &c.,  but  no  quadrupeds'. 

5th.  The  carboniferovs  system,  resting  on  that  of  the  Old  lied  Sandstone, 
contains  deposits  of  Shale,  Sandstone  and  Limestone,  interspersed  with 
Ironstone  and  coal.  The  internal  heat  of  the  earth  was  still  of  a  high  tem- 
perature during  this  epoch,  vast  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  gas  were 
emitted  from  the  ground,  hot,  hazy,  damp  vapors  filled  the  atmosphere, 
the  conditions  of  shade,  heat  and  humidity,  extending  even  into  the  frigid 
zones,  generated  a  growth  of  Ferns,  Calamites,  Lepidodendra,  Sigillaria 
and  Stigmaria  of  prodigious  extent  and  the  most  astonishing  dimensions. 
These  different  growths,  compared  with  which  the  mostluxuriant  tropical 
vegetation  of  modern  times  are  but  as  a  howling  wilderness  or  a  barren 
desert,  existed  at  widely  different  periods  ;  each  underwent  a  complete 
submersion  under  water,  sand  and  gravel,  and  it  is  to  the  great  masses  of 
vegetable  matter  which  composed  these  primeval  forests  that  the  coal 
measures  owe  their  origin.  The  transmutation  of  the  vegetable  into  the 
mineral  substance  of  coal  has  occupied  incalculable  ages,  but  on  close  in- 
gpection  tlie  vegetable  structure  is  plainly  visible,  and  no  doubt  can  exist 
of  its  organic  origin. 

The  fossil  remains  imbedded  in  the  limestone  sections  which  alteniate 
with  coal  seams  mainly  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  ages.  Rep- 
tiles of  the  Batrachian  or  frog  species,  and  terrestrial  animals  in  the 
forms  of  insects  of  a  low  order,  chiefly  of  the  Scorpion,  Cockroach, 
Cricket  and  Beetle  tribes,  now  first  appear.  The  festering  heat  was  unsuit- 
able to  higher  organisms,  no  sunbeam  could  penetrate  the  dense  mists, 
silence  held  universal  sway,  while  a  profuse,  flowerless  and  almost  fruit- 
less vegetation,  unparalleled  in  immensity  by  anything  ever  known  in  the 
history  of  this  planet,  tenanted  the  sombre  and  death-like  solitudes.  These 
forests  grew  with  amazing  rapidity  until  the  soft  and  pulpy  masses  fell 
beneath  their  own  weight  and  succeeding  forests  sprang  from  their  i)ros- 
trate  trunks.  A  terrible  revulsion  of  nature  takes  place;  these  precious 
materials  are  destined  for  the  future  use  of  man.  Water,  the  main-spring 
of  all  terrestrial  activity,  the  irresistible  agent  of  creative  power,  comes 
upon  the  scene  with  overwhelming  force,  these  forests  are  submerged, 
and  covered  with  strata  of  sand  and  gravel,  long  since  transmuted  into 
sections  of  rock.  Thus  the  bosom  of  the  earth  was  made  the  store-house 
of  those  vast  treasures  of  coal  and  iron  which  daily  minister  to  the  wants 
of  man. 

6th.  The  Permian  system  is  superimposed  on  the  Carboniferous  forma- 
tion. Violent  subterranean  convulsions  appear  to  have  dislocated  the  coal 
beds  about  the  commencement  of  this  epoch,  and  on  the  broken  inasses  the 
Permian  system  of  sedimentary  rocks  were  deposited.  The  ancient  order  of 
fishes  occur  in  this  formation  for  the  last  time,  the  Trilobite  disappears  from 
existence,  and  undoubted  traces  of  an  air-breathing  oviparous  reptile  of 
the  Saurian  (lizard)  family  appear.  Fossil  footsteps  of  four-footed  ani- 
mals, apparently  those  of  tortoises,  exist,  and  for  the  first  time  we  dis- 
cover the  annual  season  rings  in  the  fossil  woods,  thus  attesting  that  the 
unclouded  sunbeam  had  free  access  to  vegetation.  This  formation  com- 
prises, 1st.  The  red  conglomerate.  2d.  The  magnesian  limestone.  3d. 
The  variegated  sandstone.  4th.  Muschelkalk  ;  and  5th.  Uppermost, 
Variegated  marl.  The  petrifactions  of  the  vegetables,  zoophytes,  Crus- 
tacea, fishes  and  fresh  water-shells  are  numerous.   With  the  Permian 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


731 


system  closes  the  Primary  or  Paloeozoic  class  of  rocks  wliich  form  the 
earth's  crust,  and  the  j)rimeval  forms  of  organized  animal  life  disappear. 

7th.  The  Secondary  Period. — The  Trias  and  Oolite  sy stem  xQ^t's  on  the 
Permian  formation.  The  Trias  is  a  deposit  of  shelly  limestone  and  varie- 
gated sandstones.  The  Oolite,  which  rests  on  it  is  also  a  series  of  calca- 
reous or  limestone  beds  principally  composed  of  conglomerate,  or  collec- 
tions of  small  round  grains  or  spheroids  resembling  a  cluster  of  minute 
eggs,  or  the  roe  of  a  fish.  This  epoch  has  been  styled  "  The  Age  of  Rep- 
tiles,'" from  the  enormous  number  of  fossil  remains  visible  in  this  form- 
ation. One  species  of  frog  seems  to  have  equalled  a  large  hog  in  size. 
The  Icthyosaurus,  an  amphibious  animal,  often  exceeded  30  feet  in  length, 
with  a  head  and  teeth  resembling  those  of  a  crocodile,  and  eyes  as  largo 
as  a  man's  head,  with  a  huge  voracious  stomach,  and  four  fins  like  the 
paddles  of  a  whale.  The  half  digested  remains  of  fishes  and  other  rep- 
tiles found  in  its  stomach  attest  its  carnivorous  habits,  terrible  ferocity, 
and  tremendous  strength.  The  Plesiosaurus  "united  to  the  head  of 'a 
lizard  the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  a  neck  of  vast  length  resembling  the  body 
of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  proportions  of  an  ordinary  quad- 
ruped, the  ribs  of  a  chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale."  The  struc- 
ture would  permit  it  to  plunge  downwards  at  the  fishes  below  it  or  seize 
birds  on  the  wing  above  it.  The  Meqilosaiirus  was  an  enormous  reptile, 
measuring  from  40  to  50  feet  in  length,  resembling  the  crocodile  of  the 
present  day.  Tlie  Iguanodon  was  still  larger,  attaining  a  length  of  from 
60  to  70  feet.  The  Saurian  monsters,  the  Fterodactyles,  resembled  a 
gigantic  bat  or  vampire,  with  strange  dragon-like  wings,  extending  in 
some  cases,  27  feet,  by  means  of  which  it  could  soar  aloft,  but  per  Cuvier, 
it  must  be  classed  in  the  Saurian  or  Lizard  tribe,  inasmuch  as  the  beaks 
are  armed  with  teeth."  Most  of  them  had  the  nose  elongated  like  the 
snout  of  a  crocodile,  and  armed  with  conical  teeth.  Prom  their  wings 
projected  fingers  terminated  by  long  hooks,  forming  a  powerful  paw,  and 
their  eyes  were  of  vast  size,  enabling  tliem  to  %  by  night.  In  the  lower 
Oolite,  fossil  remains  of  small  animals  of  the  Marsupial  family  have  been 
found.  Of  this  class  are  the  Kangaroo  and  Opossum  species,  forming  the 
connecting  link  between  the  reptile  and  mammal  tribes.  The  footprints 
of  birds  of  vast  size  have  been  found  in  quarries  of  laminated  flagstones, 
the  foot  of  the  largest  measured  18  inches  in  length,  distance  between  the 
footsteps  was  from  4  to  6  feet,  indicating  legs  about  7  feet  long.  Remains 
of  reptiles  in  immense  numbers  are  everywhere  abundant  ;  butterflies, 
dragon-flies,  ants,  &c.,  existed  in  swarms,  trees  of  Cypress,  Palm  and  Pine 
species  flourished  with  tlie  ferns,  conifers  and  calamites  of  the  coal 
period,  and  flowering  shrubs  and  fruit-bearing  plants  grew  in  profusion., 
The  extensive  coal  beds  existing  throughout  the  Oolite  system  afford' 
evidence  of  a  rank  vegetation. 

8th.  The  Chalk  or  Cretaceous  system,  formed  by  deposits  in  deep  seas, 
constitutes  the  last  bed  of  the  Secondary  period.  It  is  largely  composed 
of  organic  remains,  calcareous  shells  of  animals  so  minute  that  a  cubic 
inch  would  embrace  ten  millions  of  them.  The  fossils  embrace  Birds, 
Reptiles,  Fishes,  Mollusks,  Zoophytes,  Crustaceans  and  marine  substances 
from  the  sponge  to  the  alligator.  The  existing  classes  of  fishes  are  found 
for  the  first  time  in  this  formation,  and  the  ancient  races  disappear. 

_9th.  The  Tertiary  System,  resting  on  the  chalk  formation,  has  been 
divided  into  three  eras,  viz  :  The  Eocene  or  Lower  Tertiary,  The  Mio- 
cene, or  Middle  Tertiary,  and  the  Pliocene,  or  Upper  Tertiat^j.  Some- 
times a  fourth  era  is  added  named  the  Pleistocene,  embracing  the  super- 
ficial deposits.  The  Eocene,  or  lowest  layer  marks  the  origin  of  the 
recent  or  now  existing  races  of  quadruped  Mammals.  The  Palsetherium, 
now  extinct,  is  described  as  partaking  of  the  various  character  of  the 
Rliinoceros,  the  Horse,  and  the  Tapir  ;  the  AnaplotJierium,  evidently  a 


732 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


marine  animal,  rcscmblod  an  Ass  in  form,  and  embraced  several  speoieg. 
Tlie  Adapis  resembled  an  enoriuoiis  lIod|ieli<)<^-,  aiid  the  (Jlieiroijotamiis  a 
Peccar}'.  The  Miocciui  or  )niddle  de[)osit  contains  the  remains  of  the 
axWw.t  D'uwtliP.rlum  Ghjanleinn,  an  enormous  lierlnvorous animnl,  which 
must  liave  been  18  ft.  in  lenj;tli,  furnished  witli  a  trunk  liice  an  elepliant, 
and  tusks  like  those  of  a  walrus.  In  ascending-  to  the  Pliocene  or  upper 
deposit,  we  find  the  organic  remains  of  tlie  MaitonoUi,  Mastodon,  Megal- 
onyx,  and  Mc(/alherium,  all  of  immense  dimensions  and  (jnitc  superior  as 
regards  size  and  strength  to  the  Elephant,  the  lihinoceros,  the  Hippopota- 
mus, and  the  Sloth,  which  represent  them  at  the  present  day.  liesidcs 
these,  bears,  tigers,  hyenas,  and  other  flesh  eating  animals,  some  of  them 
extinct,  abounded  in  vast  numbers,  and  the  Whale,  Seal,  and  Morse 
species  now  appear  for  the  first  time.  I'or  a  distance  of  10  or  12  miles 
around  Charleston,  S.C.,  there  exists  in  the  post  pliocene  beds  of  the 
tertiary  formation,  about  8  or  10  feet  below  the  surface,  and  in  the  beds 
of  rivers,  such  enormous  quantities  of  the  bones  of  animals  that  800  to 
1,000  tons  can  be  excavated  from  a  single  acre.  Over  300,000  tons  were 
shipped  from  that  locality  in  187G. 

;  According  to  Lyell,  there  are  now  50,000  species  of  fossils  recognized, 
but  they  are  believed  to  be  of  very  distant  epochs.  The  fossil  species 
distinct  from  living  species,  are  mammalia,  120,  birds,  25,  amphibia,  50, 
fishes,  400,  and  mollusca  3,100,  in  all  4795,  besides  vegetables  ;  the  number 
is  constantly  being  increased  by  new  discoveries,  miners  are  conversant 
with  an  immense  number  of  fossilized  vegetables,  none  of  them  resembling 
the  plants  of  present  growth.  If  coals  are  cut  into  thin  slices  their  vegetable 
structure  can  be  detected  with  the  microscope,  and  numerous  cells  per- 
ceived that  are  filled  with  a  yellow  bituminous  liquid  that  causes  the 
flame  seen  in  common  fires,  and  whose  gaseous  products  form  illuminating 
gas.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  measuring  GO  feet,  was  lately  found  in  a  quarry 
in  Lothian.  It  penetrated  through  10  or  12  strata  of  white  sandstone,  but 
its  back  had  become  pure  coal,  and  forests  of  standing  trees  have  been 
discovered  in  Yorkshire  and  in  Ireland,  in  stone. 

In  the  English  coal  measures,  300  species  have  been  detected,  compris- 
ing ferns,  palms,  calamites,  reeds,  cactai,  lepidodendrons,  &c.,  at  least 
50,000  years  old  ;  the  last  named,  which  now  grow  no  higher  than  3  ft., 
were  in  the  lowest  coal  measures,  great  trees,  whose  fragments  are  45 
feet.  In  the  m^agnesian  limestone,  over  the  coal,  only  8  species  of  fuci, 
or  marine  plants,  have  been  found.  A  fossil  forest  has  been  discovered 
under  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  petrified  with  calcsinter,  mixed  with  vol- 
canic dust.  Below  th.e  coal  beds  a  large  tree  has  been  found  3  ft.  in  diam., 
and  36  ft.  long,  and  in  many  cases  the  entire  trunks  of  fossilized  trees 
form  roofs  over  the  coal  strata.  As  submersions  destroyed  the  primeval 
forests,  so  we  have  the  resulting  strata  ;  but  myriads  of  ages  have  failed 
to  render  all  of  them  perfect  coal,  hence  the  different  varieties  of  that 
product. 

The  coral  reefs  furnish  evidence  of  an  antiquity  of  the  globe  far  exceed- 
ing any  received  estimate.  The  formations  are  of  very  slow  growth,  not 
exceediing  G  inches  in  a  century,  and  are  composed  of  the  remains  of  dead 
polypes  united  with  gluten,  forming  rocks  of  great  density  and  cohesion. 
The  great  coral  reef  of  New  Holland  is  350  miles,  continuously,  and  then 
in  parts  1,000  miles,  and  from  20  to  50  in  depth.  East  of  Hew  South 
Wales  is  a  reef  500  miles  long,  and  more  than  200  fathoms  perpendicular, 
yet  these  mountain  masses  of  limestone  in  the  ocean  are  formed  by  pol- 
ypes, insignificant  in  size,  but  infinite  in  numbers,  composed  of  simple 
gelatinous  bodies,  or  small  stomachs  in  shells  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which 
cohere  together  Avith  great  tenacity  after  death.  Within  half  a  mile  of 
many  coral  reefs  tliere  are  no  soundings  to  the  depth  of  several  hundred 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


733 


fathoms.  The  Ammonites,  a  fossil  shell  in  a  spiral  form,  curved  like  a 
ram's  horn,  existed  in  various  sliapes  during  the  secondary  and  transition 
periods,  but  became  extinct,  perhaps,  100,000  years  ago.  The  uummulitc, 
a  fossil  Cephalapod,  resembling  a  coin,  were  so  numerous  as  to  form  im- 
mense mountains  of  limestone,  and  yet  so  ancient  that  they  arc  abundant 
in  the  stones  of  the  pyramids  and  sphinx,  yet  even  then  as  embedded  fos- 
sils. 1234  species  of  fossil  shells  have  been  described  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, mostly  extinct  species  :  other  thousaiids  have  been  found  in  other 
countries,  mostly  extinct. 

Tlie  Geological  Society  of  London  has  a  slab  2  ft.  square  in  vrhich  is 
embedded  250  fishes.  Fossil  sea  turtles  have  shells  8  ft.  long.  There  are 
beds  of  sea  shells  2,000  ft.  high  on  Mount  Etna,  and  strata  of  grey  clay, 
filled  with  shells,  much  higher.  Shells  and  organic  remains  abound  in 
Chili,  from  9  to  1,400  ft.  above  the  sea  level.  Workmen  near  Eurelca, 
Nevada,  while  blasting  in  the  solid  rock,  40  ft.  below  the  surface,  found 
imbedded  in  a  piece  of  it  a  petrified  wasp's  nest,  the  texture  of 
which,  tliough  turned  to  stone,  was  plainly  visible.  On  breaking  it  open, 
some  cells,  larva,  and  two  perfectly  formed  wasps  were  found,  also  pet- 
rified. The  rock  is  of  a  granite  sandstone  of  sedimentary  formation. 
The  Atlantosaurus,  an  enormous  monster  from  Colorado,  is  per  Prof. 
Marsh,  the  largest  land  animal  as  yet  discovered.  It  was  some  50  or  GO 
ft.  in  length,  and,  when  erect,  at  least  30  ft.  high.  It  doubtless  browsed 
tipon  the  foliage  of  the  mountain  forests,  portions  of  which  are  preserved 
with  its  remains. 

The  islands  of  the  Icy  Sea,  per  Pallas,  are  full  of  elephants  and  rhinoc- 
eros' bones,  and  the  islands  opposite  the  Lena  are  almost  composed  of  them 
and  fossil  wood.  A  mammoth,  a  carnivorous  animal,  much  larger  than 
an  elephant,  was  found  in  Siberia  in  the  ice,  perfect  in  its  eyes,  liesh,  hair, 
skin,  &c.,  with  long  mane  and  tail  of  stout  black  bristles  ;  many  others, 
together  with  elepliants,  have  been  found  in  Siberia,  and  Hudson's  Bay, 
a  positive  proof  that  the  temperature  of  the  Tropics  existed  at  one  time  in 
these  regions.  The  bones  of  the  Mastodon  of  North  America,  as  arranged 
in  Peale's  Museum,  forma  skeleton  18  ft.  long,  11  ft.  5  ins.  high,  with 
tusks,  10  ft.  7  ins.  The  Iguamadon,  an  enormous  herbivorous  ieptile,dis- 
covered  by  Mantell,  is  70  ft.  long,  the  body  is  4  ft.  9  ins.  in  diam.,  with  ii  horn 
of  bone,  and  a  tail  52|  ft.  The  bones  of  the  Mammoth  are  quite  numerous 
in  the  United  States  ;  the  molar  tooth  weighs  8  lbs. ,  and  the  joint  of  the 
bone  of  the  leg  is  a  foot  in  diam. 

The  Era  of  Superficial  Deposits. — This  may  be  called  the  modern 
age  of  geology,  but  what  human  being  will  presume  to  say  when  it  began? 
Tlie  formations  of  gravel,  sand,  clay,  peat,  marl,  coral  reefs,  &c.,  have 
been  formed  since  this  epoch  commenced,  and  vast  changes  caused  by 
submersions  and  convulsions  have  taken  place  all  over  the  globe.  These 
silent  but  irresistible  forces,  the  tools  of  creative  power,  are  incessantly 
at  work  rendering  the  world  a  fit  habitation  for  man,  and  as  we  approach 
this  momentous  period  of  the  world's  history  we  also  discover  for  the 
first  time,  evidences  of  the  existence  of  those  plants  and  cereals  which 
furnish  his  daily  bread.  Agassiz  has  recorded  his  opinion,  that  the  order 
of  the  Rosacese  to  which  belong  the  apple,  pear,  the  plum,  and  the  various 
fruits  of  that  description,  as  well  as  the  raspberries,  strawberries,  bram- 
bl cherries,  and  roses  in  all  their  varieties,  were  introduced,  contempora- 
neously with,  or  only  a  short  time  before,  the  first  appearance  of  the 
human  race.  The  gradual  transformation  of  varieties  since  the  ferns  of 
the  coal  period,  is  indeed  immense. 

During  the  glacial  period,  in  which  the  climate  of  Greenland  extended 
as  far  south  as  New  York,  the  world  was  covered  Avith  immense  moving 
masses  of  ice,  which  in  their  progress  from  north  to  south  moved  rocks 


734 


GKOLOGICAL  FACTS. 


liinulreds  of  miles  and  ro  mod  oiled  the  topoj^rapliy  of  variona  countries. 
The  effects  of  these  glaeial  movements  were  the  pulverization  of  the 
varions  rocks,  thus  formin;^  sand  from  sandstone,  calcareous  soil  from 
limestone,  and  clay  from  granite  and  gneiss,  transforming  barren  rock 
into  fertile  soil. 

The  alluvial  deposits  contain  remains  which  indicate  a  vast  antiquity. 
The  skeleton  of  a  whale  was  dug  up  in  the  vicinity  of  Niagara  a  few 
years  ago,  a  sure  indication  that  that  region  formed  at  one  time  the  bed 
of  an  ocean.  All  the  land  about  the  Clyde  rests  upon  beds  of  shells, 
bones  of  stags,  elephants,  &c.,  and  at  Yealm  Bridge,  and  Ketley,  near 
Plymouth,  there  are  caves  containing  bones  of  rhinoceroses,  elephants, 
liyenas,  bears,  foxes,  wolves,  dogs,  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  &c.  Agassiz 
describes  300  new  species  of  fossil  fish  found  in  England,  of  which  50 
exists  in  London  clay.  A  bed  of  oyster  shells  \)  miles  long  and  18  feet  thick 
exists  in  the  interior  of  Norfolk;  a  pair  of  stags'  horns  have  been  found  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mersey,  near  Liverpool,  at  30  feet,  and  pieces  of  timber 
at  40  feet.  Palms  and  cocoa  nuts  have  been  found  imbedded  in  the 
London  clay,  clearly  indicating  the  existence  at  one  time  of  a  tropical 
climate  in  Avhat  is  now  the  temperate  zone.  An  old  Roman  port  off 
Ronmey  marsh  is  now  several  miles  out  at  sea,  and  proofs  are  abundant 
that  Great  Britain  was  at  one  time  united  to  the  continent. 

No  doubt  exists  that  the  Falls  of  Niagara  were  at  one  time  precipitated 
into  an  ocean  over  Queenston  Heights,  and  Sir  Charles  Lyell  computes 
that  a  period  of  at  least  30,000  to  35,000  years  have  elapsed  while  the 
falls  have  been  cutting  their  way  through  seven  miles  of  rock  to  their  pre- 
sent position  ;  the  retrograde  movement  is  still  going  on,  slowly  but  surely, 
every  day. 

A  volcano  now  extinct,  near  Mount  D'Orr  in  the  interior  of  France, 
emitted  a  flow  of  lava  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  which  filled 
up  the  channel  of  a  river  in  its  course.  The  water  rose,  passing  over 
the  impediment  in  its  course,  and  lias  up  to  this  time  cut  a  channel 
50  feet  deep  through  the  lava  bed.  From  the  remains  of  an  old 
Roman  bridge  known  to  have  been  constructed  about  2000  years  ago,  it 
appears  that  the  erosion  of  the  water  into  the  lava  has  been  con- 
siderably less  than  six  inches  during  that  period,  which  would  indicate 
that  it  has  required  over  200,000  years  to  cut  the  channel  to  its  present 
depth  of  50  feet. 

Myriads  of  ages  have  elapsed  while  the  rushing  waters  have  been 
cutting  out  those  tremendous  ravines  in  the  hard  rock,  known  as 
the  Canyons  of  Mexico,  Texas,  Colorado,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  great  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  river  is  298  miles  long  and 
the  sides  rise  ijerpendicularly  above  the  water  to  a  height  of  5000  or 
COOO  feet. 

On  Oak  Orchard  creek  and  the  Genesee  river,  between  Rochester  and 
Lake  Ontario,  are  enormous  chasms,  Worn  bj""  the  water,  7  miles  long. 
On  the  Genesee,  south  of  Rochester,  a  cut  exists  from  Mount  Morris  to 
Portage,  sometimes  400  feet  deep.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near  the 
source  of  the  Missouri  river,  there  is  a  gorge  6  miles  long  and  1200  feet 
deep.  In  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  the  river  has  eroded  a 
l>assage  through  limestone  rock  ,7  miles  long,  to  which  distance  the 
cataract  has  receded.  In  the  passage  of  the  Connecticut  river  at  Brattle- 
boro  and  Bellows  Falls,  it  can  be  proved  that  the  river  was  once  at  least 
700  feet  above  its  present  level. 

From  these  and  thousands  of  other  proofs  which  might  be  cited,  the  in- 
ference is  unavoidable  that  vast  periods  have  elapsed  since  the  beginning 
cf  the  present  geographical  distribution  of  sea  and  land,  but  step  by  step, 
during  the  slow  but  majestic  march  of  Time,  we  can  always  see  that  everi; 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARTH. 


735 


instrumentality  employed  by  creative  power  has  been  in  the  continual 
effort  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos  aud  fit  the  earth  as  a  habitation  for  man. 


FIAT  LUX. 

GKEAT  LIGHT  ON  A  DARK  SUBJECT. 

Age,  Origin,  and  Ultimate  Duration  of  the  Earth.— More  than 
140  years  have  elapsed  since  Emanuel  Swedenborg  penned  the  startling 
announcement,  tlie  first  of  the  kind  ever  made,  that  our  earth,  together 
with  her  sisterhood  of  planets,  derived  their  origin  from  matters  and  sub- 
stances evolved  from  the  atmospheres  and  solar  energy  of  the  sun  of  our 
system.  In  his  Principict,  written  in  1734,  and  again  in  his  Worship  and 
Love  of  God,  in  1745,  he  remarks  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  a  vortex ; 
that  it  rotates  upon  its  axis ;  that  the  solar  matter  concentrated  itself  into  a 
belt,  zone,  or  ring,  at  the  equator,  or  rather  ecliptic;  that  by  the  attenua- 
tion of  the  ring  it  became  disrupted  ;  that  upon  the  disruption,  part  of  the 
matter  collected  into  globes,  and  part  of  the  matter  subsided  into  the  sun 
forming  solar  spots  ;  that  the  globes  of  solar  matter  were  projected  into 
space  ;  that  consequently  they  described  a  spiral  orbit;  that  in  proportion 
as  the  igneous  matter  thus  projected  receded  from  the  sun  it  gradually 
experienced  refrigeration  and  consequent  condensation  ;  that  hence  fol- 
lowed the  formation  of  the  elements  of  ether,  air,  aqueous  vapor,  &c., 
until  the  planets  finally  reached  their  present  orbit ;  that  during  this 
period  the  earth  experienced  a  succession  of  geological  changes  which 
originated  all  the  varieties  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  laid  as  it  were 
the  basis  of  the  vegetable,  and  afterwards  of  the  animal,  kingdom. 

These  were  alarming  propositions  to  propound  at  a  time  when  it  was 
almost  universally  accepted  as  a  literal  truth  that  the  world  was  created 
out  of  nothing  in  the  space  of  six  natural  days  about  6000  years  ago,  yet 
since  Swedenborg's  time  scientists  Jiave  abundantly  demonstrated  th© 
truth  of  what  he  taught,  and  this  so  clearly  that  at  this  day  no  enlighten- 
ed mind  will  dispute  the  facts. 

Swedenborg  asserted  that  the  whole  starry  heavens  was  one  vast  sphere, 
and  its  suns  or  stars,  including  their  systems,  to  be  parts  of  a  sphere  con- 
nected with  each  other.  He  writes,  "  Possibly  there  may  be  innumer- 
able other  spheres,  and  innumerable  other  heavens,  similar  to  those  wo 
behold,  so  many  indeed  and  so  mighty,  that  our  own  may  be  respect- 
ively only  a  point. "  Tlie  Essay  in  his  immortal  Principia,  expressly 
called  "  The  Theory  of  the  Siderial  Heavens,"  giving  full  details  of  the 
system,  was  published  in  1733,  long  before  the  advent  of  monster  tele- 
scopes, tAventy-two  years  before  Kant,  twenty -four  years  before  Lambert, 
twenty-six  years  before  Boscovitch,  thirty-four  years  before  Mitchell, 
and  forty-four  years  before  Herschel  gave  the  result  of  their  confirmatory 
discoveries  to  the  world. 

The  grandest  and  latest  discovery  of  modern  astronomy  is  the  motion 
of  the  so-called  fixed  stars,  yet  long  before  this  discovery  was  announced 


7oG 


ORIGIN,   KTC,  OP  THE  EARTH. 


Swedenborj;  npsertod  tliat  the  wholo  universo  was  in  motion,  and  that  the 
paths  Avliich  the  roiintloss  suns  with  tlicir  systems  were  travcrsin.t?  Avas  the 
Milky-Way,  and  that  the  point  at  wliicii  tiiey  entered  was  at  tlic  sonth, 
and  tliat  at  wliich  they  eniei-.u;ed  was  at  the*  jioith.  Tlio  trntli  of  tliis 
theory  lias  been  demonstrated  and  accepted  witliin  the  last  thirty  years 
by  Hnniboklt,  Ilerscliel,  and  other  eminent  observers.  The  knowlcdV?e  of 
these  movements  enable  astronomers  to  predict,  with  absolute  certainty, 
the  different  changes  the  various  constellations  will  undergo  during  the 
lai)se  of  ages  to  come,  and  define  the  reasons  and  causes  of  such 
changes. 

Thefactis  well  attested  that  our  snn  is  only  one  of  a  million  which  trav- 
erse the  Milky  Way.  In  the  crowded  part  of  the  Milky  Way,  Sir  W.  Iler- 
schel,  the  prince  of  astronomers,  had  fields  of  view  in  which,  during  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  he  saw  116,000  stars  pass  through  the  field  of  view  of  a 
telescope  of  only  15'  apei  ture;  and  at  another  time,  in  41  minutes,  he  saw 
258,000  stars  pass  through  the  field.  It  consists  mostly  of  stars  of  the 
10th  or  12tli  magnitude,  but  too  numerous  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye, 
;which  can  only  discriminate  stars  of  the  6th  or  7th  magnitude  ;  power- 
ful telescopes  reach  even  to  a  16th  magnitude.  He  calculated  the  length 
of  the  visual  ray  of  the  telescope  he  used.  It  reached  stars  497  times 
the  distance  of  Sirius  ;  now  Sirius  cannot  be  nearer  than  100,000  X  190,- 
000,000  miles,  therefore  Dr.  Herchel's  telescope,  at  least,  reached  to  100,- 
000  -4-  190,000,000  4-  497  miles  =  9941  billions  miles.  He  saw  stars  42,000 
times  more  distant  that  Sirius  ;  and  a  cluster  11  trillions  of  miles  distant. 
He  says  there  are  nebula;  from  which  light  is  48,000  years  travelling  ! 
Light\ravels  192,000  miles  in  a  second,  or  6^  trillions  of  miles  per  annum, 
then  in  48,000  years  this  would  be  304,000,000,000  of  millions  of  millions 
of  miles  distant  ;  if  the  cluster  ceased  to  exist  we  should  not  know  it  for 
48,000  years  !  Such  distances  can  indeed  be  written,  but  can  never  be 
conceived  by  the  mind  of  man. 

It  is  a  trifling  matter  to  reduce  these  figures  to  writing,  but  quite  an- 
other thing  to  realize  their  full  significance. 

To  assist  our  conception  of  what  constitutes  a  "billion,"  we  will  take 
as  a  unit  a  second  of  time,  of  which  60  flit  away  in  a  minute,  or  86,000  in 
a  day.  Not  the  one-sixteenth  part  of  that  number  have  come  and  gone 
since  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era  to  the  beginning  of  1878,  for 
it  takes  exactly  31,687  years,  17  days,  22  hours,  45  minutes,  and  5  seconds 
to  constitute  a  billion  of  seconds  of  time. 

The  immensity  and  grandeur  of  the  Heavens  penetrates  every  enlight- 
ened mind  with  indescribable  emotions  of  awe  and  reverence  for  the 
Almighty  energies  of  that  Adorable  Intelligence  who  created  and  sus- 
tains  the  whole. 

Touching  the  stability  of  the  solar  system,  it  was  feared  by  many, 
eminent  for  their  attainments  and  acquirements  in  every  branch  of 
human  learning,  that  owing  to  the  mighty  changes  and  apparent  derange- 
ments which  Avere  occurring  in  the  planetary  orbits,  that  impending  ruin 
and  destruction  Avould  ultimately  render  the  earth  uninhabitable  for  man. 
At  a  time  when  the  belief  Avas  prevalent  that  certain  destruction  aw'aited 
the  whole  universe,  Swedenborg  announced  to  the  world  his  theory  that: 
"  As  the  solar  system  is  carried  along  through  the  Milky- Way,  and  after- 
wards compelled  to  diverge  therefrom,  the  jjlanetary  orbits  will  change 
their  form  and  eccentricity  to  a  certain  amount,  and  then  return  to 
their  original  condition,  when  they  will  again  change  and  again  return, 
and  so  oii  to  eternity."  This  beautiful  and  harmonious  theory,  so  well 
calculated  to  terminate  every  groundless  fear,  has  since  been  proved  and 
demonstrated  by  La  Grange^  and  this  doctrine  of  a  cyclar  return  of  the 
Bolar  system  is  now  known  among  the  learned  as  £a  Grange's  theory 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARTH. 


737 


of  the  stability  of  tlie  solar  system;  nevertheless  this  doctrine  was  ex^ 
pounded  hi  Swedenborg's  Frincipia  forty-four  years  before  La  Grange 
put  his  forth,  seventy-one  years  before  Mayer,  and  ninety-one  years 
before  Bessel. 

Irregularities  in  planetary  motions  correct  themselves,  because  every 
motion,  included  in  the  motion  of  tlie  Sun,  is  itself  subordinate,  and 
therefore  must  ultimately  conform.  The  planets  being  acted  upon  by  the 
common  force  of  the  sun,  they  often  interfere  on  the  same  side  witli  the 
sun's  force  on  that  side,  and  this  begets  irregularity  or  disturbance, 
oddly  called  their  own  attractions. 

La  Grange  proved  that  the  mass  of  each  planet  into  the  square-root  of 
the  line  of  apsides,  and  into  the  square  of  the  eccentricity,  give  sums  that 
are  invariable.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  article  that  the  work 
of  creation  has  been  j^rogressing  during  incalculable  myriads  of  age«,  and 
we  may  rest  satisfied  tliat  it  forms  no  part  of  the  Divine  economy  to 
destroy  what  it  has  been  millions  of  years  in  building  up.  The  agencies 
employed  in  the  creation  of  the  universe  are  identical  Avith  those  which 
now  exisit  for  its  preservation.  Harmony  and  perfection  are  everywhere 
real  entities;  derangement  and  disorder  are  apparent  only.  That  the 
sun's  apparent  path  through  the  ecliptic  is  really  caused  by  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun,  may  be  seen  from  the  globes  in  the 
ligure,  representing  the  earth  in  twelve  different  positions,  corresponding 


to  the  twelve  months.  In  the  various  globes,  N  is  the  north  })ole,  DCL 
the  equator,  S  the  place  of  the  Sun,  and  C  S  and  all  lines  from  C  paraUel 
to  this  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  jts  orbit  is  23°  28',  and  this,  with  its  annual 
revolution  around  the  Sun'  causes  the  cliange  of  seasons  known  as 
Spring,  Summer,  Autumu  and  Winter.  Besides  the  diurnal  and  annual 
movements  of  the  earth,  there  is  also  an  onward  movement  of  the  whole 
solar  system  through  space,  in  an  orbit  of  its  own,  at  the  rate  of  154,000,- 
000  miles  per  annum. 

Swedenborg  asserts  that  there  is  an  internal  or  spiritual  sense  concealed 
within  the  letter,  or  natural  sense  of  the  Word,  comparable  to  the 
soul  or  spirit  of  man,  which  fills  the  human  body  just  as  the  hand  fills  a 
glove.  This  sense  he  unfolds  by  means  of  the  science  of  correspondences, 
the  knowledge  of  which  he  claims  was  revealed  to  him.  For  instance, 
wherever  the  end  of  the  World  is  foretold  or  predicted  in  the  Word,  he 
says  that  by  this  we  are  not  to  understand  the  end  of  the  natural  world, 
but  the  church  or  dispensatiou  existing  in  the  world,  the  latter  being 


738 


ORIGIN,   ETC,  OF  THE  EARTH. 


used  in  a  symbolic  sense  to  represent  the  former.  If  after  this  statement 
any  one  i)ersists  in  udherini?  to  a  literal  interpretation,  let  him  take  a 
good  concordance  and  examine  under  the  words  "ever"  and  "forever"; 
he  will  fmd  to  liis  aiuazenicntthattliere  arc  just  as  many  proofs  to  sustain 
tlic  theory  of  the  cvcrhisting  duration  of  tlio  eartli  as  there  are  to  prove 
its  destruction  !  In  tliis  case  what  can  a  man  gain  by  refusing  his  assent 
to  tlic  truth  as  unfolded  by  Swedcnborg  ? 

In  his  work  descriptive  of  the  Last  Judgment,  wliich  Swedenborg  avers 
has  already  taken  place,  not  in  this,  but  in  the  spiritual  world,  during  the 
year  1757,  the  following  passage  occurs  : 

"That  the  procreations  of  tiie  human  race  will  contiinie  to  eternity, 
is  plain  from  many  considerations,  and  of  which  the  following  are  tho 
principal : — I.  That  the  human  race  is  the  basis  on  which  lieaven  is  founded. 
II.  That  the  human  race  is  the  seminary  of  heaven.  III.  Tltat  the  ex- 
tension of  heaven,  Avhich  is  for  angels,  is  so  immense  that  it  cannot  be 
filled  to  Eternity.  IV.  That  they  are  but  few  respectively,"  of  whom 
heaven  at  present  is  formed.  V.  Tliat  the  perfection  of  heaven  increases 
\  according  to  plurality.  VI..  And  that  every  Divine  work  has  respect  to 
Infinity  and  Eternity.  The  angelic  heaven  is  the  end  for  which  all  things 
in  the  universe  were  created,  for  it  is  the  end  on  account  of  which  man- 
kind exists,  and  maidsind  is  the  end  regarded  in  the  creation  of  the  visible 
heaven,  and  the  earths  included  in  it;  Avherefore  that  Divine  worlc, 
namely,  the  angelic  heaven,  primarily  has  respect  to  Infinity  and 
Eternity,  and  therefore  to  its  multiplicalion, without  end,  for  the  i)ivine 
Himself  dwells  within  it.  Hence  also  it  is  clear,  that  the  human  race  AviH 
never  cease,  for  were  it  to  cease,  the  Divine  work  would  be  limited  to  a 
certain  number,  and  thus  its  respectiveness  to  Infinity  would  perish. 
The  Lord  did  not  create  the  universe  for  His  own  sake,  but  for  the  sake 
of  those  Avith  whom  He  Avill  be  in  Heaven  ;  for  spiritual  love  is  such,  that 
it  wishes  to  give  its  OAvn  to  another;  and  as  far  as  it  can  do  this  it  is  in  its 
being,  in  its  peace,  and  in  its  blessedness:  spiritual  love  derives  this  from 
the  Divine  Love  of  the  Lord,  which  is  infinitely  such  ;  from  hence  it  fol- 
loAvs  that  the  Divine  Love,  and  hence  the  Divine  Providence,  has  for  its 
end  a  heaven,  which  may  consist  of  men  made  angels,  to  whom  He  can 
give  all  the  blessed  and  happy  things  which  are  of  love  and  wisdom,  and 
give  them  from  Himself  in  tliem."    L.  J.  G. 

It  will  console  and  comfort  many  honest  but  simple-minded  thinkers 
■who  believe  otherwise,  to  be  told  that  although  these  startling  facts 
seem  to  jar  with  terrific  force  against  their  cherished  articles  of  faith, 
and  even  to  oppose  revealed  truth,  it  is  nevertheless  most  true,  that 
they  do  not,  even  in  the  slightest  degree,  enter  into  conflict  Avith  revela- 
tion. There  is  a  science  of  spiritual  truth  and  there  is  a  science  of  natural 
truth;  there  is  the  Book  of  Revelation  and  there  is  the  Book  of  Nature; 
the  same  Omnipotent  Hand  has  written  both,  each  must  be  understood 
in  a  sense  peatliar  to  itself,  and  Avhen  so  understood,  there  can  be  no  con- 
tradiction between  them.  Wherever  contrariety  or  discordance  appears, 
the  error,  if  any  exists,  is  in  man  himself  and  in  his  natural  proneness 
to  receive  appearances  as  truths.  During  a  depth  of  time  not  to  be 
penetrated,  mankind  inferred,  from  the  apparent  motion  of  tlic  sun, 
planets,  and  stars,  that  thev  reA-olved  around  the  earth  once  in  24 
hours,  but  now  every  school-boy  knows  that  this  idea  is  a  fallacy,  and  an 
outrage  on  natural  truth,  the  real  truth  being  that  in  every  passmg 
hour  Ave  are  moved  by  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  1,037  miles, 
and  in  its  orbit  66,092  miles,  the  diurnal  motion  causing  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  around  the  earth.  Many  readers 
infer,  from  a  perusal  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  that  it  is 
simply  a  narrative  of  the  creation  of  the  world  on  Avhich  we  dvvell,  yet 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,   OF  THE  EArtTII. 


739 


still  it  must  be  said,  that  although  this  belief  is  all  but  universal  among 
the  threat  masses  of  society,  it  is  nevertheless  as  gross  an  outrage  on 
spiritual  truth  as  the  first  noted  fallacy  is  on  natural  truth.  The  sublime 
narration  recorded  in  Genesis  does  not  treat  of  natural  creation,  for  being 
Divinely  composed  it  is  to  be  understood  in  a  sense  entirely  different 
from  merely  human  writings.  This  style  is  such  that  it  describes  spirit- 
ual things  by  means  of  pure  correspondences,  similitudes,  types,  and 
symbolic  imagery  drawn  from  earthly  things.  The  subject  treated  of  is 
indeed  concerning  a  new  creation,  but  one  more  momentous  by  far  than 
even  the  creation  of  a  world.  Many  modern  theologians  are  afraid  to 
enter  on  an  interpretation  of  this  chapter  on  account  of  its  alleged  conflict 
with  the  known  facts  of  science,  but  tlie  theology  that  could  be  endanger- 
ed by  such  an  investigation  is  worthy  of  no  man's  acceptance.  Under- 
stood naturally,  what  reflecting  mind  could  conceive  of  the  existence  of 
light,  evening  and  morning,  day  and  night,  and  grass,  before  the  creation 
of  the  Sun  ;  in  such  case  what  could  exist  but  universal  darkness  and 
Arctic  desolation  !  In  the  first  chapter,  v.  21,  "  every  living  thing  that 
moveth"  is  described  as  being  created  and  "brought  forth  abundantly 
after  their  kind,"  by  the  waters;  in  chap.  ii.  v.  19,  "  every  beast  of  the 
field  and  fowl  of  the  air  "  is  described  as  being  "  made  out  of  theground." 
Understood  literally,  or  in  the  sense  of  the  letter,  these  statements  arc 
contradictory  to  every  rational  idea.,  but  when  interpreted  according  to 
the  law  of  correspondences  they  are  divinely  true  even  as  to  their  minutest 
details. 

At  this  day,  amidst  the  crash  of  creeds  framed  by  self-derived  intelli- 
gence, when  many  are  announcing  from  the  pulpit  the  impending  ruin 
of  our  planet,  when  brazen  infidelity  proclaims  from  the  platform  to  ap- 
plauding audiences  that  there  is  no  hereafter,  and  scoffs  at  sacred  things, 
it  must  gratify  every  lover  of  truth  tO' learn  that  there  exists  in  Sweden- 
borg's  theological  writings  a  system  of  doctrine  and  scriptural  interpreta- 
tion absolutely  impregnable  against  every  assault  of  tlie  eiiemy.  Fronx 
the  wonderful  story  of  Genesis  to  the  sublime  visions  of  the  Apocalypse, 
the  searcher  after  truth  will  find  the  veil  of  mystery  lifted  from  a  thou- 
sand questions  which  have  for  ages  puzzled  the  Avisest  commentators.  Tlie 
system  of  interpretation  is  unerring  in  its  logic,  inflexible  in  its  allegiance 
to  truth,  and  astonishing  in  its  minuteness  of  detail.  In  an  article  in  a 
recent  number  of  the  Galaxy,  in  relation  to  the  contest  between  science 
and  religion,  the  writer  says  :  "  The  modern  school  of  Free  Thought  has 
found  its  one  serious  opponent,  and  its  only  one,  in  Emanuel  Swedenborg, 
whose  Avritings,  first  issued  more  than  a  century  since,  have  had  an  ef- 
fect on  the  Avhole  tone  of  thought  and  metai^hysics,  such  as  few  people 
suspect,  and  hardly  any  realize. 

"It  must  be  remembered  that  Swedenborg  published  his  first  (theolog- 
ical) book  in  1749,  and^that  his  theological  activity  covered  the  very- 
period  wherein  the  French  and  English  school  of  scientific  inquiry,  skei> 
ticism,  and  free  thought,  was  beginning  to  be  most  active. 

"In  the  midst  of  this  period  of  intellectual  bustle  and  activitj^,  the 
Seer  of  the  North,  secluded  in  his  lonely  study  among  the  Swedish 
forests,  with  nothing  before  him  but  a  Hebrew  Bible  and  Greek  Testa- 
ment, was  calmly  writing  those  wonderful  books  which  he  asserts  to  be 
the  result  of  direct  revelations  from  the  Deity. 

"  The  only  system  that  remains  able  to-day  freely  to  admit  the  most  un- 
compromising results  of  scientific  inquiry  Avithout  fear  or  question,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  hold  to  the  absolute  truth  of  Holy  Writ  in  every  jot 
and  tittle,  appears  to  be  that  proclaimed  by  Swedenborg. 

"  The  system  of  theology  it  propounds  is  purely  and  uncompromisingly 
monotheistic.    An  Arab  could  not  quarrel  with  it  on  that  score.   It  is, 


740 


OHIO  IN,  ETC.,  or  THE  KARTII. 


a.t  the  same  Ihno,  so  i)nroly  Cliri.stuui  tluit  tlio  most  zouloiis  evangelical 
of  the  extn^iiuist  ty])o  can  liiul  no  fault  wltli  it,  making  as  it  does  the 
Savioui-  and  liodoomor  its  grand  central  figure. 

"  Finally,  it  is  able  to  concede  to  the  boldest  of  materialists,  the  most 
acute  of  historical  critics,  the  )nost  ardent  evolutionist,  the  most  dogmatic 
of  palicontologists.  the  most  abstruse  of  metaphysicians,  everything 
which  they  can  possibly  claim  to  have  proved,  every  truth,  however  con- 
trary to  current  theological  opinion,  Avhich  they  can  establish,  while  at 
the  "same  time  it  holds  to  the  absolute  truth  of  every  Avord  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. 

"  Nothing  seems  to  shalce  its  faith  in  the  slightest;  it  shuns  no  in- 
quiry and  needs  no  explanation  of  any  fact,  evei'ything  being  plain,  the 
Bible  its  only  standard." 

In  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Biography,  by  Parke  Godwin,  Ave  read  :  "  Swe- 
denborg  was  no  impostor,  but  a  learned  and  pious  man,  and  his  books 
richly  repay  the  most  careful  study." 

The  iVo;ico?i/o/"mi.s<  (English)  assures  us  that:  "He  (Swedenborg)  is 
received  by  all  thinkers  courteouslj^,  and  by  very  many  cordic'dly.  The 
storm  of  violent  denunciation  or  angry  ridicule  which  Avas  launched  against 
him  by  theologians  a  generation  ago,  is  scarcely  remembered  now,  and  is 
not  likely  to  be  revived.  All  are  agreed  that  he  was  a  genuine  and  sin- 
cere man,  who  believed  his  oavu  Avords,  and  did  not  v/ilfuUy  deceive  or 
invent." 

Hon.  Theophilus  Parsons,  late  Professor  in  the  Cambridge  Law  School, 
says  :  "I  regard  him  (Swedenborg)  as  a  man  of  remarkable  ability,  and 
great  and  A^aried  culture  ;  taught,  as  no  other  man  ever  was  taught, 
truths  Avhich  no  other  man  ever  learned  ;  and  thus  instructed  that  he 
might  introduce  among  men  a  new  system  of  truth  or  doctrine,  excelling 
in  character  and  exceeding  in  A'alue  any  system  of  truth  before  known." 

Speaking  of  Swedenborg  and  his  Avritings,  Henry  James,  the  author  of 
"  Substance  and  Shadow,"  says  :  "  Such  sincere  books,  it  seems  to  me, 
were  never  before  Avritten." 

Bishop  Hurd  (author  of  Lectures  on  Prophecies)  says  :  "It  has  been 
said  by  some,  and  received  implicitly  Avithout  further  examination  by 
others,  that  Swedenborg,  after  receiving  his  extraordinary  commission, 
was  mad,  and  became  totally  deprived  of  his  natural  senses  ;  but  this  in- 
sinuation is  such  a  palpable  contradiction  of  truth,  and  such  an  insult  to 
common  sense — being  overruled  by  every  page  of  his  Avritings  as  well  as 
by  every  act  of  his  life  after  that  jieriod — that  Ave  should  haA'e  thought  it 
altogetlier  unworthy  of  notice  were  we  not  aware  that  it  operates  power- 
fully Avith  many,  even  at  this  day,  to  prejudice  them  against  a  character 
which  otherwise  they  would  reA'ere,  and  against  writings  from  Avhich  they 
would  otherwise  receive  the  most  Avelcome  instruction." 

The  venerable  Thomas  Carlyle,  having  looked  upon  the  great  seer  all 
his  life  as  a  visionary  lunatic,  now  says  that  he  stands  rebuked.  He  looks 
upon  Swedenborg  as  one  of  the  loftiest  minds  in  the  realm  of  mind,  one 
of  the  spiritual  suns  that  will  shine  brighter  as  the  years  goon  ;  and  that 
more  truths  are  compassed  in  his  writings  than  that  of  any  other  man. 
His  great  prescience  Avith  regard  to  modern  scientific  discoveries,  since 
made  known,  is  astonishing. 

George  Dawson,  M.  A.  writes  :  "Emanuel  Swedenborg  had  the  privi- 
lege which  belongs  to  all  men  Avho  deA^ote  their  lives  to  thought,  that  as 
the  world  groAvs  older,  they  get  more  reverenced,  better  known,  and 
better  loved.  If  I  were  going  to  be  shut  up  in  prison  three  years,  Swe- 
denborg's  books  would  be  my  choice,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  it 
would  be  six  more  before  I  should  find  them  uninteresting,  strange,  or 
dry." 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARTH. 


741 


Dr  Porteoiis  writes  :  '"The  incomparable  depth,  splendor,  and  vast- 
Jiess  of  Svvedenborg's  genius  are  shown  in  tliis,  that  he  alone  has  ever 
dared  to  tread  the  threefold  realm  of  natural,  mental,  and  spiritual  phi- 
losophy. Few  men  have  approached  the  hem  of  his  garment  in  respect  to 
moral  purity,  his  teaching  and  example  are  calculated  to  make  men 
meek,  gentle,  and  charitable,  and  his  followers  catholic,  intelligent  and 
pious.  p]xamine  all  the  philosophical  systems  extant  and  take  all  the  re- 
ligious literature  of  the  last  century,  and  place  them  in  one  scale,  and 
take  the  voluminous  works  of  Swedenborg,  and  place  them  in  the  other 
scale,  and  the  philosophy  and  libraries  of  the  world  will  kick  the  beam." 
R.  M.  Patterson,  late  Professor  in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  says 
respecting  Swedenborg's  Principia  :  "  It  is  an  extraordinary  production  of 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  that  has  ever  lived,  many  of  the  exper- 
iments and  observations  presented  in  this  work  are  believed  to  he  of  much 
more  modern  daie,  and  are  xmjustly  ascribed  to  m^icli  more  recent  anihors.'' 

"  There  is  in  Swedenborg's  writings  a  marvellous  insight,  a  vision  of 
the  higher  trutlis  of  philosophy  and  religion,  to  which  few  men  have  at- 
tained."— iV.  Y.  Independent. 

"  The  majority  think  and  speak  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  as  a  mystic 
and  dreamer,  when  in  fact,  lie  was  a  practical  man,  an  inventor,  and  pub- 
lic benefactor.  The  metrical  system,  now  under  discussion,  was  first 
suggested  by  him,  and  the  Dutch  are  indebted  to  him  for  important  im- 
provements in  their  docks  and  dykes." — Literary  World. 

"  Swedenborg's  writings  teem  with  the  grandest  and  profoundest 
truths." — North  American. 

Count  Von  Hopken,  for  forty  years  an  intimate  friend  of  Swedenborg's, 
and  for  many  years  Prime  Minister  of  Sweden,  advised  the  king  "that 
no  religion  could  be  better,  as  the  prevailing  and  established  one,  than 
that  deduced  by  Swedenborg  from  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  tliis  on  tlie 
two  following  accounts  :  1st.  This  religion  in  j)reference  to,  and  in  a  high- 
er degree  than  any  other,  must  produce  the  most  honest  and  industrious 
subjects  ;  for  this  religion  places  properly  tlie  xoorship  of  God  in  uses. 
2d.  It  causes  the  least  fear  of  death,  as  this  religion  regards  death 
merely  as  a  transition  from  one  state  into  another,  from  a  worse  to  a 
better  situation  ;  nay,  upon  his  principles,  I  look  upon  death  as  being  of 
hardly  any  greater  moment  than  drinking  a  glass  of  water." 

T.  S.  Arthur,  the  world  renowned  author,  writes  :  "  Only  in  the  reve- 
lations made  for  the  New  Church,  in  which  the  plenary  inspiration  and 
inner  and  Divine  Sense  of  the  Word,  and  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord  and 
his  Providence,  are  fully  explained  and  made  known  for  the  salvation  of 
mankind,  can  be  seen  in  rational  light,  the  truths  on  which  Christian 
unity  and  harmony  can  be  established,  and  by  which  the  growth  of  natu- 
ralism, skepticism,  and  irreverent  infidelity  can  be  arrested  and  de- 
stroyed." 

The  Rev.  Prof.  Von  Goerres  (Roman  Catholic)  writes  : — "Swedenborg 
was  not  a  man  to  be  carried  away  by  an  unbridled  imagination,  still  less 
did  he  ever  manifest,  during  his  whole  life,  the  slightest  symptoms  of 
mental  aberration.  Throughout  the  entire  course  of  his  "learned  re- 
searches and  activity,  we  everywhere  discover  the  pious  and  religious 
man,  who,  in  all  his  sayings  and  doings,  was  intent  upon  good." 

Edwin  Paxton  Hood,  in  the  preface  to  his  Life  of  Sioedenborg.  writes: 
"  That  he  conceives  he  has  derived  much  benefit  from  the  study  of  the 
works  of  Swedenborg,  and  has  much  reason  to  be  grateful  to  that  illus- 
trious, venerable  and  much  misunderstood,  and  comparatively  unknown 
man." 

Design  and  WorJc  (English)  says  of  the  Apocalypse  Revealed :  "  A 
careful  perusal  of  many  of  its  900  and  odd  pages  has  led  us  to  cease  won* 


742 


OUIGIX,  ETC.,  OF  Tlin  KAKTH, 


deringjitthe  fiivor  witli  which  tliis  iTiodom  edition  has  been  rccoived, 
and  to  rocoinmend  otlion;  to  follow  onr  oxiiniple.  Many  a  sornioii  liavc 
we  listened  to  on  tlie  Uevclations.  Several  works,  dealin.if  Avith  the  fior- 
geous  panorama  unfolded  before  the  internal  vision  of  the  Seer  of  Pat- 
mos,  how  we  ti-avelled  throu^^li,  wondering-  at  the  inventive  faculty  as 
displayed  by  connnentator  and  preacher,  but  too  often  feeling  that  a 
stone  iiad  been  given  us  instead  of  bread.  Whoever  takes  earnestly  to 
the  consideration  of  the  pages  of  the  '  Swedish  Seer,'  Avill  find  that  there 
is  more  in  his  text-book  than  he  has  given  it  credit  for  ;  that  it  contains 
truths  illimitable  ;  that  in  their  expounding  no  meretricious  aids  are  re- 
quired ;  that  it  appeals,  not  to  the  eye  or  the  ear,  but  to  the  deepest 
depths  of  the  human  heart  and  mind.  Whosoever  will  read  it  patiently 
and  carefully  must  rise  up  from  its  perusal  a  wiser,  a  more  charitable,  al- 
together a  better  man." 

The  C/iica(/o  ylrfefmce  writes  :  "  Wc  confess  to  having  read  for  years 
some  ])ortion  of  his  works  with  intellectual  and  spiritual  profit,  and  we 
imagine  at  least  that  we  can  trace  his  influence  in  the  conceptions  and 
;reasoning  of  many  modern  authors  of  distinction,  who  do  not  always  give 
Swedenborg  the  credit  he  deserves." 

The  Avriter  of  this  book  has  no  pecuniary  interest  whatever  in  the 
sale  of  Swedenborg' s  writings,  but  conceives  it  to  be  his  duty  to  present 
these  testimonials  in  vindication  of  a  most  deserving  and  worthy  man, 
whose  Avritings  have  been  greatly  nusrepresented  and  misunderstood. 
A  hundred  years  hence  such  a  vindication  will  be  unnecessary.  It  is  a 
veritable  truth  that  Swedenborg  has  rendered  greater  services  to  man- 
kind than  any  other  man  ever  did  or  ever  can  render,  and  this  fact  is 
becoming  better  known  every  day.  When  he  began  to  write  and  pro- 
mulgate his  system  of  doctrines,  a  noted  Lutheran  bishop  and  doctor  got 
np  a  complaint  against  him.  The  doctor,  Avhose  name  was  Ekebom,  had 
the  honesty  to  say  of  himself,  that  he  was  very  careful  not  to  examine 
Swedenborg' s  works.  Swedenborg,  however,  was  a  man  of  good  character 
and  connections,  and  led  such  a  blameless,  quiet,  calm,  and  peaceful  life, 
that  it  was  found  impossible  to  arouse  popular  sentiment  against  him. 

Since  Swedenborg's  clay,  two  men,  wdio  have  all  the  animosity,  but 
lack  the  honestj^,  of  Dr.  Ekebom,  viz  :  Dr.  Pike,  of  Derby,  Eng.,  and 
Enoch  Pond,  of  Bangor,  Me.,  Theological  Seminary, have  rendered  them- 
selves notorious  by  the  publication  of  pamphlets  containing  the  most 
horrible  libels  on  Swedenborg  and  his  writings.  These  detestable  publi- 
cations, which  have  been  answered  and  refuted  time  and  again,  present 
a  combination  of  reckless  assertion,  downright  lies,  malignity,  and  igno- 
rance, which  is  perfectly  amazing.  Each  publication  may  be  described 
in  the  expressive  language  of  Edwin  Paxton  Hood,  as  "a  fountain  of 
mud,"  and  both  combined  are  highly  flavored  with  the  peculiar  sanctity 
which  pervades  the  devotional  exercises  of  Holy  Willie. 

We  have  still  another  notable  detractor  in  ]\Jr.  William  White,  who 
many  years  ago  wrote  a  Life  of  Swedenborg,  in  wdiich  he  rendered  full 
justice  to  the  subject  of  the  memoir.  Of  late  years  he  resumed  his  task 
by  dipping  his  pen  in  ink  (or  rather  in  venom),  and  dashing  off  a  vast 
amount  of  trash  in  the  shape  of  baseless  absurdities  regarding  Swedenborg 
and  his  followers,  which  he  styled  a  "  Life  of  Swedenborg."  In  order'  to 
understand  the  animus  which  pervades  this  work,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
that  Mr.  White  was  at  one  time  agent  for  the  London  Swedenborg  Society, 
and  while  thus  occupied  he  engaged  in  the  sale  of  the  so-called  spiritist  pub- 
lications. The  sale  of  these  books  is  held  by  the  Swedenborg  Society  to 
be  utterly  incompatible  Avith  the  objects  which  it  has  in  but  Mr. 
White  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  Society's  Committee  to  remove  him 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARTH. 


743 


from  office,  and  compelled  them  to  bring  a  suit  in  Chancery  to  effect 
their  purpose.  The  fiual  judgment  was  decisive  against  him,  and  it  was 
while  smarting  imder  this  reverse  that  his  two-volume  Life  of  Sweden- 
borg  was  written.  The  work  in  question  is  composed  throughout  in  a 
vindictive  "spirit,  and  the  malevolent  production  owes  its  origin  to  a 
malicious  feelhig  of  the  worst  kind,  nevertheless  it  is  most  true  that 
slander  has  greater  swiftness  than  truth,  and  the  groundless  assertions  of 
a  defamer  are  frequently  accorded  greater  credence  than  the  veritable 
assertions  of  a  truthful  man. 

In  an  elaborate  article  Avhich  appeared  some  time  ago  in  the  columns  of 
the  EmiUnh  Mechanic,  the  editor  of  that  journal  presented  a  list  of 
SwedenlDorg's  inventions,  v-  hich,  including  a  notice  of  his  mechanical  and 
philosophical  works,  occupied  nearly  two  quarto  pages.  The  following  is  a 
partial  list  of  the  latter : — 1.  An  Introduction  to  Algebra.  2.  Attempts  to 
find  the  Longitudes  of  places  by  Lunar  Observations.  3.  A  proposal  for 
a  Decimal  System  of  Money  and  Measures.  4.  A  Treatise  on  the  Motion 
of  the  Earth  and  the  Planets.  5.  Proofs,  derived  from  Appearances 
in  Sweden,  of  the  Depths  of  the  Sea,  and  the  Greater  force  of  the  Tides 
in  the  Ancient  World.  6.  On  Docks,  Sluices,  and  Salt  Works.  7.  Some 
Specimens  of  Work  on  the  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,  comprising 
New  AttemiDts  to  explain  the  Phenomena  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  by 
Geometry.  8.  New  Observations  and  Discoveries  respecting  Iron  and 
Fire,  and  i)articularly  respecting  the  Elemental  Nature  of  Fire  ;  together 
with  a  New  Construction  of  Stoves.  9.  A  New  Method  of  Finding  the 
Longitude  of  Places  on  Land  or  Sea  by  Lunar  Observations.  10.  A  New 
Mechanical  Plan  of  Constructing  Docks  and  Dykes.  11.  A  Mode  of  Dis- 
covering the  Powers  of  Vessels  by  the  Application  of  Mechanical  Prin- 
ciples. 12.  Miscellaneous  Observations  connected  with  the  Physical 
Sciences — Parts  1-3.  13.  Part  4.  Principally  on  Minerals,  Iron,  and 
Stalactites  in  Banian's  Cavern.  14.  On  the  Depreciation  and  Rise  of 
the  Swedish  Currency.  These  were  some  of  his  works  published  be- 
tween 1722—1733. 

These  were  succeeded  by,  1.  The  Principia:  or,  the  First  Principles  of 
Natural  Things,  in  3  folio  Vols,  with  Plates.  2.  The  Economy  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom  considered  Anatomically,  Physically,  and  Phiiosophi- 
cally,  2  Vols.,  with  Plates.  S.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  Parts  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  2 
Vols.  4.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  Parts  v.,  vi.  5.  Outlines  of  a  Philosoph- 
ical Argument  on  the  Infinite  and  the  Final  Cause  of  Creation.  6.  Some 
Specimens  of  a  Work  on  the  Principles  of  Chemistry,  with  other  Trea- 
tises, 8vo,  21  Plates,  com^Drising  159  figures.  7.  Miscellaneous  Observa- 
tions Connected  with  the  Physical  Sciences.  8vo,  9  Plates,  comprising 
86  Figures.    8.  Posthumous  tracts  on  various  subjects. 

In  1785,  the  Commissioners  appointed  by  the  King  of  France,  for  the 
examination  of  the  subject  of  animal  magnetism,  affirmed  that  there  did 
not  exist  any  theory  of  the  magnet  ;  and  the  Count  de  Buffon,  in  his 
work  on  Natural  History,  affirmed  that  nothing  had  been  written  on  the 
formation  of  the  planets.  Both  these  errors  were  refuted  in  a  most 
scholarly  and  elegant  letter  addressed  to  the  Commissioners  by  the  Mar- 
quis de  Thome,  in  which  he  directed  public  notice  to  Swedenborg's  elab- 
orate and  profound  works  on  these  subjects,  concluding  his  letter  as  fol- 
lows, "  This,  gentlemen,  is  what  I  thought  it  my  duty  to  make  public  for 
the  benefit  of  society,  from  a  regard  for  truth,  and  in  gratitude  to  him, 
to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  major  part  of  the  little  I  know  ;  though 
before  I  met  with  his  writings,  I  had  sought  for  knowledge  amongst 
almost  all  the  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  who  enjoyed  any  reputation 
for  possessing  it.   I  have  the  honor  to  be,  &c. , 

"Paris,  Aug.  4,  1785.  Marquis  de  Thome." 


714 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  TIIi:  EARTH. 


Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  writes:— "  Swcdcnhorff's  writings  would  be  a 
snflioicnt  library  for  a  lonely  and  athletic  student.  Not  every  man  can 
read  them,  but  they  will  richly  reward  him  who  can.  Tlie  grandeur  of  the 
topics  makes  the  grandeur  of  the  style.  One  of  the  missourians  and 
mastodons  of  literature,  he  is  not  to  be  measured  by  whole  colleges  of 
ordinary  scholars.  He  anticipated  in  astronomy  the  discovery  of  the 
seventh  planet  ;  anticipated  tlie  views  of  modern  astronomy  in  regard  to 
the  generation  of  earths  by  the  sun  ;  in  magnetism  some  important  ex- 
periments and  conclusions  of  later  students;  in  chemistrj'-,  the  atomic 
theory,  in  anatomy  the  discoveries  of  Schlienting,  Monro,  and  Wilson, 
and  first  demonstrated  the  office  of  the  lungs." 

The  celebrated  Berzilius  writes: — "  I  have  looked  through  the  Animal 
Kinr/doin,  and  am  surprised  at  the  great  knowledge  displayed  by  Sweden- 
borg  in  a  subject  that  a  professed  metallurgist  Avould  not'have'been  sup- 
posed to  make  an  object  of  study,  and  in  which,  as  in  all  lie  undertook, 
he  teas  in  advance  of  his  age." 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  stated  that  his  mechanical  and  philosophical  works 
would  be  equivalent  to  about  25  volumes  of  500  pages  each.  This  genera- 
tion is  most  deeply  indebted  to  the  incomparable  genius  of  this  extraor- 
dinary man  for  very  important  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
docks,  blast  furnaces,  stoves,  the  smelting  of  metals,  and  a  host  of  inven- 
tions which  are  usually  credited  to  others. 

The  reader  may  infer,  from  a  perusal  of  the  foregoing  list  of  books, 
that  the  labor  involved  in  their  production  might  well  entitle  the  writer  to 
rank  as  a  first  class  literary  giant  in  any  age  or  nation,  but  wonderful  to 
say,  the  most  extraordinary  iDerformances  of  this  most  remarkable  man 
are  still  to  be  recounted. 

In  the  year  1743,  Swedenborg  was  54  years  of  age,  and  here  we  find 
him  relinquishing  his  philosophical  pursuits,  and  devoting  himself  ex- 
clusively to  theology  and  to  the  unfolding  of  the  new  doctrines  which  he 
now  declares  were  first  revealed  to  him.  His  Worship  and  Love  of  God, 
published  in  1745,  seems  to  mark  the  commencement  of  this  new  era  in 
his  Life.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  theological  works  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  order  in  which  the  original  books  were  written  and  pub- 
lished by  the  Author. 

1.  1749-56.  A7'cana[CoeIestia,  The  Heavenly  Arcana  lohich  are  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  Word  of  the  Lord;  unfolded:  beginning  icith 
the  Book  of  Genesis ;  together  ivith  the  Wonderful  things  seen  in  the 
World  of  Spirits  and  in  the  Heaven  of  Angels.  English  Ed.  12  vols.  8 
vo.  £2  8s.,  any  vol.  separate,  4s.  American  Ed.  10  vols.  $1.50  per  vol. 
2.  1758.  Concerning  Heaven  and  its  Wonders  ;  and  concerning  Hell, 
being  a  Relation  of  things  heard  and  seen.  English  Ed.  3s .  American 
do.  $1.25.  3.  1758.  An  account  of  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction 
of  Babylon ;  shoioing  that  all  the  Predictions  inthe  Apocalypse  are  at  this 
day  fulfilled,  being  a  relation  of  things  heard  and  seen,  8  vo.  Eng.  Ed. 
8t?.  American  do.  75c.  4.  1758.  On  the  White  Horse  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse,  chap,  xix.,  loith  References  to  the  Arcana  Coilestia  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Word,  and  its  Spiritual  or  Internal  Sense.  With  an  Appendix. 
English  Ed.  4d  American  do.  10c.  5.  1758.  On  the  Earths  in  our  Solar 
System,  and  on  the  Earths  in  the  Starry  Heavens ;  vnth  an  account  of 
their  inhabitants,  and  also  of  the  Spirits  and  Angels  there,  from  what  has 
been  seen  and  heard.  Eng.  Ed.  8vo.,8d.  American  Ed.  60c.  6.  1758. 
On  the  NewJerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrine,  as  revealed  from  Heaven, 
to  lohich  are  prefixed  some  Observations  concerning  the  New  Heaven  and 
the  ISfeio  Earth.  Eng.  Ed.  8  vo.  Is.  American  do.  paper,  10c.  7.  1763. 
Angelic  Wisdom  conceiving  the  Ditnne  Love  and  the  Divine  Wisdom 
Eng.  Ed,   Demy  8  vo.,  2s.   American  do.  $1.    8.1763.    The  Four  lead' 


ORIGIN,  ETC.,  OF  THE  EARTtJ. 


745 


inrj  Doctrines  of  the  ISfew  Church,  sif/nifiecl  in  Rev.  xxi.  6?/  the  Neio  Jeru- 
salem ;  being  these  respecting  the  Lord.  His  Divine  and  Human  Nat^ires, 
and  the  Divine  Trinity ;  the  Sacred  Scripture  ;  Faith ;  and  Life.  Eng. 
Ed.  8  vo.  25.  American  do.  $1.  9.  17G4.  Angelic  Wisdom  concerning 
the  Diiine  Providence.  Eng.  Ed.  8  vo.  3s.  American  do.  $1.50.  10. 
1765.  The  Apocalypse  Revealed;  in  lohich  are  disclosed  the  Arcana  there- 
in foretold ;  and  lohich  have  hitherto  remained  concealed,  2  vols.  Eng. 
Ed.  8s,  American  do.  ^3.  11.  1768.  Conjugal  I^ove  and  its  Chaste  De- 
lights;  also  Adidterous  Tjove  and  its  Insane  Pleasures  Eng.  Ed.  4s. 
American  do.  $1.25.  12.  1760.  A  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Doctrines  of 
the  Neio  Church  meant  by  thz  New  Jerusalem  in  the  Apocalypse.  Eng. 
Ed.  IQd.  American  do.  40c.  13,  The  Inter  course  between  the  Smd  and 
the  Body,  lohich  is  supposed  to  take  place  either  by  Physical  Influx,  or  by 
Spiritual  Influx,  or  by  Pre-established  Harmony.  Eng.  Ed.  M.  Ameri- 
can do.  10c.  14.  1771,  The  True  Christian  Religion;  or,  the  Universal 
Theology  of  the  New  Church,  foretold  by  the  Lord  in  Dan.  vii,  13,  14,  and 
in  the  Apocalypse  xxi,  1,  2.    Eng.  Ed.  7s.   American  do.  $•2.50. 

These  prices  include  postage  to  destination.  The  bcolis  ma'y  be  ob- 
tained by  addressing  the  Publishing  Society's  Manager,  E.  H.  Swjnney, 
No.  20  Cooper  Union,  New  York,  or  the  London  Society's  Agent,  James 
Spiers, 36 Bloorasbury  St.,  London,  W.  C,  Eng. 

Swedenborg's  '■'■True  Christian  Religion"  c,wd  the  "  Apocalypse  Re- 
vealed," may  be  obtained  absolutely  free  by  any  Protestant  clergyman 
or  student  who  may  enclose  the  postage  for  same  to  the  celebrated  pub- 
lishing house  of  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  The  requisite 
funds  for  this  purpose  are  supplied  by  a  retired  Philadelphia  merchant 
of  princely  means  and  large-hearted  liberality,  who  takes  an  ardent  in- 
terest in  the  work,  and  has  made  ample  provision  for  its  permanent  con- 
tinuance even  after  his  hands  have  laid  it  down.  No  clergyman  or 
student  need  hesitate  to  enclose  the  postage  and  send  for  these  books,  for 
they  will  be  sent  without  fail.  The  New  Church  Tract  and  Publication 
Society,  T.  S.  Arthur  (the  well-known  author).  President,  George  Burn- 
ham  (of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  works),  Treasurer,  offer  Swedenborg's 
"Heaven  and  Hell,"  through  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  to  clergymen  on 
the  same  terms.  In  ordering  these  books  in  this  "way,  enclose  SOc.  for 
postage  on  the  first  named,  18c.  for  the  second,  and  13c.  for  the  last 
noted  work,  and  forward  all  orders  to  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co. ,  715  and 
717  Market  St.,  Philadelphia. 

Up  to  Jan.  1,  1878,  this  well-known  firm  liave  received  and  filled 
requests  from  clergymen  for  14,000  copies  of  the  "  True  Christian 
Religion,"  8,000  copi  s  of  the  "  Apoccdypse  Revealed,"  and  12,000  copies 
of  ^'■Heaven  and  Hel  R  uests  are  still  coming  in,  books  are  still  going 
out,  and  hundreds  of  loiL-  '  ve  been  received  attesting  the  lively  grati- 
tude of  the  recipients  to  t\i-  donors  of  these  books  for  their  inestimable 
gifts.  In  addition  to  this  unusud  traffic  of  supplying  costly  books  free  of 
charge,  J,  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.  publish  elegant  editions  of  many  of  Swe- 
denborg's theological  writings,  which  they  supply  to  purchasers  in  the 
usual  way  of  business,  Lists  and  prices  furnished  by  addressing  or 
applying  .as  above. 

82 


74G 


TABJ-KS,   ETC.,   FOR  PIIINTEUS. 


IMPORTANT  RULES,  TABLES,  &C.,  FOR  PRINTERS. 
A  Thousand  Ems,  Measuring  TypE  OR  Matter.— This  is  done  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  solid  ems  contained  in  the  leufjth  of  any 
quantity  of  type,  by  the  number  contained  in  the  width  of  tlie  measure. 
The  gauge  for  measurement  is  an  em  of  the  type  in  which  tlie  matter 
calculated  is  set.    A  thousand  ems  is  the  space  that  so  many  letter  ra's 
would  occupy.    It  takes  over  2,000  average  letters  to  occupy  the  space  of 
1,000  ems.    In  Britain  the  matter  is  measured  by  ens.    To  determine  the 
number  of  ens  in  a  line,  lay  as  many  of  the  letter  m  flat  wise  in  the  stick 
a.s  will  make  the  measure.    The  following  Table  shows  the  number  of 
ems  contiiined  in  a  i)ound  of  each  of  the  following  sizes  of  type. 
1  lb.   of    Pica   contains    130   ems.  1  lb.     Minion     contains    356  ems. 
"       "    S.  Pica      "         170     "       "       Nonpareil      "        520  " 
"       "    L.  Primer"         200     "       •«       Agate  "         690  " 

"       "    Bourgeois"         270     "       "       Pearl  "         800  " 

"       "    Brevier    "         290  " 

Table  showing  number  of  ems  in  100  square  inches  of  the  sizes  of  type 
from  Pica  to  Agate  inclusive. 

Pica  3,600[Nonpareil  14,400|Mimon  10,404 

Long  Primer  5.625  Small  Pica   4,900lAgato.  19,000 

Brevier   .8,8361  Bourgeois   6,889| 

The  above  list  is  based  on  the  supi^osition  that  lines  of  the  length  of  6 
ems  pica,  7  ems  small  pica,  7.5  ems  long  primer,  8.3  ems  bourgeois,  9.4 
ems  brevier,  10.2  ems  minion,  12  ems  nonpareil,  and  14  agate,  are  equal 
to  an  inch.  This  is  not  strictly  true,  but  tlie  variation  is  so  little  that  it 
will  not  make  a  difference  of  1,000  ems  in  100  ordinary  sized  pages. 

In  one  square  inch  there  are^ 
36  ems  Pica,  |  721/4  ems  Bourgeois.       1144  ems  Nonpareil. 

50     "    Small  Pica.  87      "   Brevier.  200>^  "  Agate. 

561/4"   Long  Primer        1113%  "    Minion.  |225     "  Pearl. 

The  above  is  an  ai^proximation  merely,  as  different  type  founders 
slightly  vary  the  size  of  their  type. 

Metal  for  Backing  Electrotype  Plates.— Lead  91  parts,  tin  4, 
antimony  1. 

To  MAKE  "Writing  Ink  Ineraseable  even  by  Acids. — To  good 
gall  ink  add  a  strong  solution  of  Prussian  blue  in  distilled  water.  The 
ink  writes  greenish  blue  but  afterwards  turns  black,  and  cannot  be 
erased  without  destroying  the  papo 


TABLES,  ETC,  FOR  PRINTERS. 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  TYPE  IN  AMERICAN  UPPER  CASE. 


747 


• 

t 

t 

§ 

II 

IT 

^   1  @ 

1- 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

u 

i 

£ 

(E 

Od 

- 

E 

A. 

M 

II 

M 

P 

Q 

T 

P 

X 

X 

1-^ 

u 

] 

fli 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   TYPE    IN   AMERICAN   liOWER  CASE. 


I& 

oem  j  4em 
sp.  1  sp. 

1  ^ 

3 

5 

6 

T 

8 

0 

b  . 

C 

d 

e 

r 

> 

f 

g 

ff 
fi 

I 

z 

1 

ra 

n 

h 

O 

P 

w 

cn 
qds. 

em 
qds. 

X 

!  ^ 

V 

u 

t 

3  em 
spaces. 

h 

r 

2  & em 
quadrats. 

Weight  of  leads  required  for  any  work.    These  calculations  apply  to 
any  measure,  and  are  based  on  the  use  of  six-to-pica  leads.    The  first 
Table  is  for  solid  matter  Avhich  requires  to  be  leaded. 
1,000  ems  Pearl  require  T^/^  ozs.  leads.  1,000  ems  Bourgeois,  13K  ozs.  leads 
1,000   "   Agate      "     8I/2    "      "      1,000    "  L.  Primer,  " 
1,000   "   Nonpareil      91/2    "     . "      1,000    "  S.  Pica,       16%    "  " 
1,000   "   Minion     "    11%    "      "      1,000    "  Pica,  19       "  " 

1,000    "   Brevier    "   13       "  " 

Example.— It  is  estimated  that  the  matter  to  be  set  will  make  20,000 
ems  Small  Pica  solid.  Required,  the  Aveight  of  leads  necessary  to  lead 
this  matter.  1,000  ems  of  solid  Small  Pica  require  16^  ounces  of  leads 
16i  X  20  =  330  ozs.  =  20  lbs,  10  ozs. 

the  second  Table  gives  the  weight  of  the  leads  contained  in  1,000  ems 
of  leaded  matter. 
1,000  ems  Pearl  contains  51/2  ozs.  leads. 
1,000   <'   Agate        "     6      "  " 
1,000   "   Nonpareil  "    1%   "  " 
1,000   "    Minion      "    9  " 


1,000  ems  Bourgeois  contains  11  ozs.  Ids 
1,000   "   L.  Primer      "      121/0  " 
1,000   "   S.  Pica  "      14  " 

1,000   "   Pica  "     I614  *' 


1,000   "   Brevier      "  101/2  " 

Example.— A  page  of  leaded  Long  Primer  contains  2,000  ems.  Re- 
quired, the  weight  of  leads  necessary  to  lead  thirty -two  pages.  1,000  ems 
of  leaded  Long  Primer  contain  12:V  ounces  of  leads.  12i  X  2  =  25  ozs 
per  page.  25  X  32  =  800  ozs.  =  50  lbs. 

Or,  a  column  of  Nonpareil  contains  8,000  ems.  Required  the  weight  of 
leads  necessary  to  lead  six  columns.  1,000  ems  of  leaded  Nonpareil  con- 
tain 7^  ounces  of  leads.  7^  X  8  =  60  ozs.  per  column.  00  X  6  =  360  ozs. 
=  22 lbs.  8  ozs. 

An  allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  additional  leads  used  foi 
blanking  out  and  in  standing  matter. 


748 


TABLES,   KTC,  FOIl  rillNTKKS. 


Tho  following  table  gives  the  weight  of  lecids  i'.i  1000  cms  of  leaded 
matter  :— 

LEADED  MATTER— 

1000  oivB  Pearl  contaiiiH   51/.  oz3.  leads. 

1000  Agato   "    6  " 

1000    "    Nonpareil   "    71/2   "  *' 

1000    "     Minion   "    9      "  " 

1000     "     Brevier   "    lOi/o   "  " 

1000     "    Bourgeois   "   11      "  " 

3000    "    Lon{j;rrimor   "   121/2    "  *' 

1000    "    Small  Pica   "   14      "  " 

1000    "     Pica   "   IfJi/a  " 

Table  showing  the  Quantity  of  Tapeu  Requjkkd  for  any 
Job  from  50  to  10,000  Copies. — No  allowance  for  waste  or  surplus 
copies.  For  any  number  not  noted  in  Table,  say  3U  to  the  sheet,  use 
double  the  quantity  given  in  column  headed  18. 


2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 

12 

15 

16 

18  1  20  I  24 

32 

M 

to  sht 

to  Bht 

to  Bht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  bht. 

«)  ^ 

qrs 
shts 

&  ^ 

&  -s 

&  -g 

&  "S 

&  -g 

M~ 

1-  1 

0-17 

0—13 

0—  9 

0—  7 

■0-  6 

0—  5 

0-  4 

0-  4 

0—  3 

0-  3 

0—  3 

0-  2 

100 

2-  2 

1-10 

1-  1 

0-17 

0-13 

0-12 

0-  9 

0-  7 

0-  7 

0—  6 

f!-  5 

0—  5 

&--  4 

200 

4—  4 

2-1  n 

2-  2 

1-10 

1-  1 

0-23 

0-17 

0-14 

0-1.3 

0—12 

0-10 

a-  9 

0-  7 

2.50 

5-  5 

3—12 

2-15 

1-18 

1-  8 

1—  4 

0-21 

0-17 

0—16 

0-14 

0-13 

0-1 1 

0-  8 

;wo 

C-  C 

4-  4 

3-  3 

2-  2 

1—14 

1-10 

1—  1 

0—20 

0-19 

0-17 

0-15 

0—13 

0-10 

400 

8-  8 

6-14 

4—  4 

2-19 

2-  2 

1-21 

1-10 

1-  1 

0—23 

0-20 

0—17 

0—1,3 

.500 

10-10 

6-2-3 

5-  5 

3-12 

2-15 

2—  8 

1-18 

1-10 

1-  8 

1—  4 

1-  1 

0-21 

0-16 

COO 

12—12 

8-  8 

G-  G 

4—  4 

3—3 

2—19 

2—  2 

1-16 

1-14 

1-10 

1-  6|  1—  1 

0—19 

700 

14—14 

9-18 

7—  7 

4—21 

3-16 

3—  G 

2-11 

1—23 

1-20 

1-15 

1-11 

1-  G 

0-22 

750 

1.5-15 

10-10 

7-20 

5—  5 

3-22 

3-12 

2—15 

2—  3 

1-23 

1-18 

1-14 

1—  8 

1-  0 

800 

16-16 

n-  3 

8-  8 

5-14 

4—  4 

3-17 

2-1 9 1  2-  6 

2—  2 

1-21 

1-15 

1-10 

1—  1 

000 

18-18 

12-12 

9-  9 

6-  6 

4—17 

4—  4 

3—  3  2-12 

2—  9 

2—  2 

1-21 

1-14 

1-  5 

1000 

20—20 

13—22 

10-10 

C-23 

5—  5 

4-16 

3-12 

2-19 

2-15 

2-  8 

2—  2 

1-18 

1—  a 

1250 

26-  ] 

17—  9 

13-  1 

8-17 

6-13 

.5—19 

4-  9 

S-12 

3-  7 

2~15 

2—  5 

1-10 

loOO 

31-  6 

20—20 

15-15 

10-16 

7-20 

6-23 

5—  5 

4-  5 

S-22 

3-12 

3—  3 

2-15 

1—23 

17.50 

M-ll 

24-  8  18-  6 

12-  4 

0-  3 

8-  3 

6-  2 

4-22 

4-14 

4—  2 

3-16 

3-  1 

2—  8 

2000 

41—16 

27— 19' 20-20 

13-22  10-10 

9-  7 

C-23 

5-14 

5—  5 

4-16 

4—  < 

3-1? 

2-15 

2500 

52—  2 

34—18 

26-  1 

17-10  1.3-  1 

11—15 

8-17 

7-  0 

6-13 

5—20 

5—  .5 

4—  9 

3-  7 

3000 

62-12 

41-16 

31-  C, 

20-20 

15-15 

13-22 

10-10 

8—  8 

7-20 

6-23 

6-  6 

5-  5 

3-22 

•iOOO 

83-  8 

55-14 

41-16 

27—19  20-20  18— 13 

13-22 

11-  3 

10-10 

0-  r 

8-  8 

6-23 

5-  5 

MOO 

104-  4 

()9— 11 

34—18  26—  1123—  4 

17-  9  1.3-22 

13-  1 

10-14 

23-  4 

10-10 

8—17 

6—13 

10000 

208-  8 

138-22 

104-  4 

69— U  52—  2 '46-  8 

34-18  27-19  26—  1 

20-10,17—  9 

13-  1 

Names  and  Sizes  of  Books  as  Classifedby  Publishers.— The 
number  of  folds  and  pages  in  a  single  sheet  when  manufactured. 
Na^eofbook.  foMSn^flfaUl  Contain. 

relic  2  leaves   4  pages. 

Quarto  or  4  to   4     "    8  " 

Octavo  or  8vo   8     "   16  " 

Duodecimo  or  12  mo  12     "   24  " 

IG  mo  *  16     "   22  " 

18  "   18     "   36     "  - 

24  "   24     "   48  " 

32"   32     "     G4  " 

Best  Printers'  Ink. — Boil  3  gallons  best  clear  old  linseed  oil  down  to 
a  thick  "varnisli  ;  add  while  hot  12  lbs.  of  powdered  rosin,  3g  lbs.  dry 
brown  soap  shavings,  5  ozs.  indigo  ;  5  ozs.  Prussian  bine,  and  10  lbs.  best 
lampblack  ;  stir  all  well  together,  let  it  stand  a  week  and  grind. 

For  other  inks,  roller  compositions,  &c.,  see  pages  545-6  and  579.  For 
paper  tables  see  page  577.  

*  N'ote.—Thia  book  is  a  16  mo.,  there  being  32  pages  to  the  sheet.  The 
terms  folio,  quarto,  octavo,  etc.,  denote  the  number  of  leaves  in  which  a  sheet 
of  paper  is  folded. 

The  marks  A,  B,  C ;  1,  2,  3  ;  lA,  2A ;  1*  2*,  etc.,  occasionally  found  at 
the  bottom  of  pages,  are  what  printers  term  signature  marks,  thus,  3*,  being 
printed  for  the  direction  of  binders  in  folding  the  sheets. 


TABLES,  ETC.,   EOli  PRINTERS. 


749 


One  pound  of  leads  or  slugs  covers  four  square  inches.  Hence,  when 
the  space  to  be  filled  by  leads  or  slugs  is  known,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
divide  the  number  of  square  inches  by  four,  and  the  result  will  give  the 
reqnired  weight  in  pounds. — Proof  Sheet. 

How  TO  Estimate. — To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  plain  type  required 
for  a  newspaper  or  magazine,  or  any  other  work,  find  the  number  of 
square  inches  and  divide  the  same  by  fonr,  the  quotient  will  be  the  ap- 
proximate weight  of  matter ;  but  as  it  is  impossible  to  set  the  cases  clear, 
it  is  necessary  to  add  25  per  cent,  to  large  fonts,  to  allow  for  dead  letter. 

Bill  of  Type.— English  type  founders  call  3,000 
lower  case  m's  a  bill,  and  proportion  all  other  sorts 
by  them  ;  so  that  a  bill  of  pica,  including  accents 
and  italic,  weighs  800  lbs.  For  every  lb.  of  italic 
there  are  10  lbs,  of  Roman,  From  the  annexed 
table  an  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  number  of  let- 
ters contained  in  800  lbs.  pica. 


Scheme  for  English 
Wood  Tvpe.— The  following 
table  will  be  useful  in  orderin 
wood  type.  Wood  type  shoul< 
alwaj's  be  ordered  by  the  "a, 
if  for  large  Poster  letters.  A 
'  3  A,"  font  is  generally  auf 
ficient,  while  for  Bmaller'letters 
it  is  always  advisable  to  order  at 
least  a  "  .5  A  "  font.  Of  con- 
densed letters  especially  there 
should  always  be  a  large  font. 


Figures  art 

ut  up  with  Fonts  of 
A  and  upwards, 
and  always  with 
Lower  Case,  so  that 
when  a  Font  of  4  A 
is  ordered  the  Lower 
Case,  and  Figures 
will  always  be  sent 
unless  otherwifie  or- 
|dered. 


em  spaces  18,000 

4  "      "   ...12,000 

5  "   8,000 

Hair    "   3,000 

em  Quads   2,500 

en  Quads  5,000 

Large  Quadrats  80  lbs. 


750 


NAIMKS   AND   SIZKS   OF  TTPE. 


NAMES  AND  SIZES  OF  TYPE. 

Great  Peimek. — In  conversa- 
tion, study  purity  of  language : 
avoid  vulgar  dialects  like  the  fol- 
lowing samples : 

English.  —  English  Rustic.  Measter 
Goddin  used  to  zay  as  how  children  costed 
a  sight  o'  money  to  breng  um  oop,  and 
'twas  all  very  well  whilst  um  was  leetle, 
and  zucked  the  mother,  but  when  um 
begind  to  zuck  the  vather,  'twas  nation 
akkerd ! 

Pica. — Rector.  "  These  pigs  of  yours  are  in 
excellent  condition."  Jarvis.  "  E'as,  sur,  they 
be.  Ah  !  sur,  if  we  was  all  on  its  only  as  fit  to 
die  as  them  are  sur,  it  would  be  good  for  Ave." 

Small  Pica. — Scotch  Elder.  "O!  Sandy,  if  ye 
wad  only  tak'  soond  advice,  an'  drink  watter  instead 
o'  whiskey,  it  wad  be  better  for  your  puir  wife  an' 
bonnie  bairns  :  d'ye  no  ken  whaur  a'  tlie  drunkards 
gang  tae  ?  "  Confirmed  Sot.  "  Yes,  Maister  Tamson, 
richt  weel  I  ken  that,  they  aye  gang  whaur  the}^  get 
the  best  whiskey." 

Long  Primer. —  Cockney  Hair-Dresser.  "  They  say,  sir, 
that  the  cholera  is  in  the  Hair,  sir  !  "  Gent,  (very  uneasy) 
"  Indeed  !  ahem  !  then  I  hope  you  are  very  careful  about 
the  brushes  you  use."  Hair-Dresser :  "  Oh,  I  see  you  don't 
/^understand  me,  sir ;  I  don't  mean  the  'air  of  the  'ed,  but 
the  //air  ^of  the  ^atmosphere  !  " — Punch. 

Cockney  Servant  Girl.  "  Well  mam — Heverythink  con- 
sidered, I'm  afraid  you  won't  suit  me.  I've  always  been 
brought  up  genteel ;  and  I  couldn't  go  nowheres  where  there 
aint  no  footman  kep'.  "  Servant  Man,  Thompson  (who 
is  very  refined),  "  Ho  yes,  mum,  I  don't  find  no  fault  with 


NAMES  AND   SIZES  OP  TYPE. 


751 


1  you,  mum,  nor  yet  with  master — but  the  truth  his  mum,  the 
hotlier  servants  is  so  orrid  vulgar  and  hignorant,  and  speaks 
so  hmigrammatical,  that  I  reely  cannot  live  in  the  same 
'ouse  with  'em,  and  I  should  like  to  go  this  day  month,  if  so 
be  Las  it  won't  illconwenience  you  I  " — Punch. 

Bourgeois. — Mrs.  Brown  (an  Aberdeen  widow  on  the  north 
side  of  forty).  "  Hoo's  a'  wi'  ye  this  mornin',  Mester  Miller  ;  come 
in  an'  sit  doon,  I  was  just  thinkin'  o'  ye;  some  lang-tongued 
hizzies  were  sayin'  that  it  was  a  perfec'  shame  that  a  man  like 
you,  wi'  grey  hair,  an'  a  long  fite  beard  should  mak'  a  feel  o' 
yersel'  getting  married  fan  ye  should  be  thinkin'  o'  deein'.  Its 
a  peer  world  to  live  in  if  a  man  canna  tak'  a  wife  fanever  he 
likes.  J^a,  na,  I  ken  plenty,  some  o'  them  no  far  aff,  that  wad 
be  prood  to  get  ye.  Eh,  sirs,  the  life  o'  a  peer,  lone  woman,  or  a 
lone  man  is  a  weary,  sair  dree  o'  dool  an'  sori'ow  ;  dinna  ye 
think  sae,  Mester  Miller  ?  "  Miller ;  (a  widower  on  the  look  out 
for  another  wife.)  In  my  long  pilgrimage  through  this  vale  o' 
tears,  my  experience  has  been,  that  a  man  is  muckle  the  better 
o'  a  woman,  and  a  woman  is  muckle  the  better  o'  a  man  I  " 

Brevier. —  Wilkins.  "  Well  Tummas,  did  you  'ear  as  liow  Measter 
Smith  liurted  liisself  on  the  leg  just  above  the  liancle."  Tummas, 
"  0  did  um,  that  be  very  bad  for  lie,  and  I  be  A'ery  zany  to  'ear  it. 
Las'  week  my  son  Jan  war  a  drivin'  a  nail,  an'  the  'anmier,  he  flew 
out'n  'is  'and  an'  struck  I  very  'ard  on  the  nose,  the  blood  corned, 
an'  if  it  'ad  struck  much  'arder  it  would  'ave  killed  I  on  the  spot  sure." 

Blarney,  Yankee  {jnst  arrived).  "  Guess  your  legal  fare  is  just 
Sixpence."  Dublin  Carman  :  "  Shure,  me  Lord,  we  take  some  chape- 
Jacks  at  that — but  its  meself  wouldn't  dishgrace  a  gintleman  a'  your 
Lordship's  quality  by  dhrivin'  'm  at  a  mane  pace  through  the  public 
shtreets,  so  I  tuk  it  upon  myself  to  give  your  lordshii)  a  shillin's  worth 
both  of  shtyle  and  whip  cord." 
Minion. — Vermont  Tombstone  Agent  to  Smith,  in  the  backicoods  : — 

"  Good  morning'.  Mister;  I  was  told  over  tew  that  you  had  lost 

your  wife,  andl  have  jest  cum  ten  miles  over  meowntains,  woods,  an' 
swamps  to  get  an  order  for  a  tewmstun'  for  her.  Was  awful  sorry  to 
hear  of  your  great  loss,  but  I  can  sell  you  the  cheapest  an'  best  tcAvmstun' 
in  the  hull  creation."  Smith.  "  Waal,  stranger,  I  reckon  I  can  stand  my 
loss  if  she  can  stand  her'n;  i)ut  you  see  as  how  the  critter  isn't  ready  for 
a  tombstone  yet,  she's  only  scooted  with  another  man." 

'No'SP AUVAU—Eufilish  Rustics.  Sam:  I  zay,  Jack,  be  you  a  politiciaiier ? 
^7ac^•.--"  E'as  I  be."  /Sam.— "Wall  I  zay,  Jack,  what  be  a  politicianer ? 
Jack.-~'^  Zounds,  Sam  !  doant'ee  kiiaw  iiothink  about  un  ?  "  /Sam.— Naw  I 
doan't."  Jack.— Wall,  I  doan't  kiiaw  as  I  can  tell'ee,  Sam,  fur  I  doaii't 
exackerly  kiiaw  mysel'  !  " 

Pea  ki,.— English  Showman.  Walk  in  to  the  show  my  hearties,  walk  in  and  see  the  great 
Hafrican  hons,  rh^noc-sros  and  helephants  as  was  caught  in  the  desert  about  15  miles  from 
either  sea  or  land,  ir.d  the  great  'ippopotamus  and  catte'rwallapus  as  lives  in  the  hocean.  Them 
as  don't  go  in  c&!  I't  win,  and  them  as  stays  out  there  harn'tin  here,  and  can't  see  the  great 
Hmdian  tiger,  leopard,  the  hanacondas  from  Brazil,  the  grizzly  bear,  the  buffalo  that  swings 
his  vast  preposterous  over  the  Rocky  Mountings  and  Western  prarers,  and  the  great  dens  of 
performing  hanimals  from  hall  hover  the  world  ! 

Do  yees  raily  think.  Squire,  that  there  is  anny  chancce  of  war  wid  this  country  an'  Roosha? 
bquire.  Well  things  did  look  a  little  queer  lately  ;  but  why  do  vou  ask  ?  Well,  me  raison  fot 
axin'  is,  d'ye  moind  now,  wan  o"  these  days  I'll  have  to  be  afther  sellin'  me  pig,  and  if  there's 
goin  to  be  ann/  war,  bacon  'ill  roisc  to  a  foine  price  as  thrue's  me  name's  Tim  O'Farrell  1 


752 


TYPOGRArniCAL  MARKS 


'   /    Though  fi'  v^^riety  of  opinions  exist,  as  to 

tlie  Indlviduallby  wwom"  the.art.of  priiating' w  ^ 
first  .tliscoverecl ;  yet'  sl\  authorilies  concur  'in 
admitiin2:  J?eter,  ScKoeffer-  to  "be  the  person's  (Tf-p  , 
^        who  iirventecl  cast  metal  types,  jx^-^vag  .learned  ' 
^     the  of  cutiingWxQ.  letters  from  the  Gut- 

temhergsy  he  JS  iilso  supposed  to  have  jbeeri 
ihe  first  "who^ngraved  on  copjoei^plates.  They-y' 
following  testimony  js  prese;^ed  in  the  family,  8 
lby^Jo.,JFred.^FAustus>^bt';^Ascheff^^ 
>-*.Petei'!  Schoelfer^  of  Gernslieimy' perceiving  f/n  ^ 
his  -master  JFausts;  des'igri>  and  Ibeing  himself 
(^desirou3\ardentlv)  to  'improve  the  art,  found 
out  [hy^  'the  'good  providence  of  God)  the 
met^iod  of  cutting  {tnei^ndi)  the  charactera^^^/^/^ 
In  [01  maMxj  thai  the  letters'  might  easily  he 
gingly  cast' I  jnsiead -of  hieng  cut'  '.  P""%^'^ 
^*JL     valel/  ,cui  matrices \  for  ^ the:  whole'  .alpliah'et:  ai5 
DFausfc  was  Ed  pleased  mth,  the  contrivanp^ 
JXla^^y^Q  promised  J'^eter  io  giv.e  him  Hs'^nly  '^^^ 
Id  yfdaFS^^^^'  '  Christina^  .  jnil'jn'arriagd^p^ 
/^]iich  h0  sooniafter'pertoTmed^/^  jg 
"^^y^(^ut.  there  ■W-er^^^nian;^'  dijSacultiea  at  nrst  IF 

•witH'ihe^a  /g^fergy  M  1^6611  before. 

a>  4-  7^^^^  wooden^  ones»' pt^metal  ibdng  fod  soffc^^^^^ 
to  support  the'f^j^  of  >th.e  jmipre^sloiif.tiaCs^^ 
ihis  defect^'was  Booil  rejmediedi  by  mixing  ^ 
asubsian^ with  thg  metal -which  sumciently 


EXEMPLIFIED 


753 


The  designated  errors  being  corrected,  the  foregoing  matter  will  read 
as  follows : 

Though  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to  tlio  individual  by  whom 
lirintiug  was  first  discovered ;  j'et  all  authorities  concur  in  admitting 
PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the  person  who  invented  cast  metal  types, 
having  learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Guttembergs;  he  is 
also  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family,  by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of 
Ascheff  enburg : 

'Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiving  his  master  Faust's  de- 
sign, and  being  himself  ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found  out 
(by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the  method  of  cutting  {incidendi) 
characters  in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly  cast,  in- 
stead of  being  ci«^.  He  privately  cii^  ma<?' ices  for  the  Avhole  alphabet: 
and  when  he  showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these  matrices, 
Faust  was  so  i^leased  with  the  contrivance,  that  he  promised  Peter  to  give 
him  his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a  promise  which  he  soon 
after  performed.  But  there  Avere  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with  these 
letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with  loooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too 
soft  to  support  the  force  of  the  impression ;  but  this  defect  was  soon 
remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with  -a  substance  which  sufficiently  har- 
dened it.' 

EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

The  following  rules,  fl'om  Mackellar's  American  Printer  (a  most  re- 
liable work),  will  be  found  of  inestimable  value  to  typographical  men  imd 
all  who  write  for  the  press : 

A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drav/ing  a  short  perpendicular 
line  through  it,  and  making  anotlier  short  line  in  the  margin,  before 
which  the  right  letter  is  placed,  (^ee  No.  1.)  In  this  manner  whole 
words  are  corrected,  by  drawing  a  line  across  the  wrong  word  and  mak- 
ing the  right  one  in  the  margin  opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,  and  v/riting  the 
mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  from  one  character  to  another, 
a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be  made  underneath  the  word  or  letter, — 
viz,  for  capitals,  three  Hues;  small  capitals,  two  lines  ;  and  Italic,  cue 
31# 


ON  COIIIIECTING  PROOFS. 


line;  and,  in  tlio  margin  opposite  the  line  wlioro'the  alteration  occurs, 
Caps,  Small  Caps,  ov  Hal.  must  be  written.    (Sec  No.  ,'{.) 

When  letters  or  words  arc;  s(!t  donble,  or  are  reqiured  to  be  taken  out, 
a  line  is  drawn  tlir()u,i;h  the  superfluous  word  or  letter,  and  the  mark  No. 
4  placed  oi)i)Osite  in  tlie  margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  to  bo  altered,  the  correct  point,  mark- 
ed in  the  margin,  should  be  encircled.    (See  No.  5.) 

When  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  Avords  or  letters  which  should  bo 
separated,  a  caret  must  be  made  where  the  separation  ought  to  be,  and 
the  sign  No.  G  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

No.  7  describes  the  mamier  in  which  the  hyphen  aiad  ellipsis  line  are 
marked. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place  of  omis- 
sion, and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  letters  that  should  be  joined  are  separated,  or  where  a  line  is 
too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9 must  be  placed  under  them,  and  the 
correction  denoted  by  the  marks  in  the  margin. 

'  Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn  in  the 
margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  (See  No.  10.) 

No.  11  shows  the  way  in  Avhich  the  apostrophe,  inverted  commas,  the 
star  and  other  references,  and  superior  letters  and  figures,  are  marked. 

Where  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over  one  Avord  and 
below  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the  margin ;  but  where 
several  words  require  to  be  transposed,  their  right  order  is  signified  by  a 
figure  placed  over  each  word,  and  the  mark  No.  12  in  the  margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out  that  have  afterward  been  approved 
of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  them,  and  Stet  written  in  the  margin. 
(See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal  line  is  drawn 
under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed  opposite,  in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are  transcribed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  draAvn  from  the  i^lace  of  omission  to  the 
written  words  (see  No.  15)  ;  but  if  the  omitted  matter  be  too  extensive  to 
be  copied  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  Out,  see  copy,  is  written  in  the  margin, 
and  the  missing  lines  are  enclosed  between  brackets,  and  the  word  Out 
is  inserted  in  the  margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line  (see  No.  16); 
but,  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn  across  the  entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  improperly  in- 
troduced into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the  mark  No.  17,  which  signifies 
wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  be  improperly  made,  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  broken- 
off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  No  t[  written  in  the  margin.  (See 
No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a  caret  must  be 
made  in  the  place  where  it  should  come  in,  and  the  w^ord  written  in  the 
margin.    (See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  marked  by  making  a  cross 
under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  one,  in  the  margin  (see  No.  20);  though 
some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular^line  through  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
wrong  letter. 

Paper  Varnish. — All  varnished  gums  composing  the  same,  and  dis- 
solved in  turpentine,  have  a  greasy  nature.  Paper  must  be  first  sized,  or 
if  dissolved  by  any  other  spirit,  8  oz.  of  gum  sandarach,  2  oz.  of  Venice 
turpentine,  32  oz,  of  alcohol.  Dissolve  by  gentle  heat.  Or  a  harder  var- 
nish, reddish  cast,  5  oz.  of  shellac,  and  1  oa,  of  turpentine,  32  oz.  of  alco- 
hol, or  Canada  balsam  dissolved  in  turps. 


rEllFOKMANCE  OF  PliESSKS,  ETC. 


7oo 


Average  Daily  Performance  of  Presses. —  The  estimates  of 
the  followiug  Tables  arc  for  miscellaneous  work,  clone  in  the  usual  mau- 
Jier,  with  little  making  ready  and  under  the  favorable  conditions  of  a 
busy  season.  It  is  supposed  that  the  presses  are  at  work  full  10  hours ;  that 
feeders  and  pressmen  are  expert  and  diligent  ;  that  i^aper,  rollers,  steam 
power,  ink,  etc.,  are  in  perfect  order,  and  that  there  are  no  detentions  or 
accidents. 


Ready- 
Time. 

Style  of  Press.— No.  of  Forms. 

'X'ilTlG  of 

Press 
Work. 

Rate  per 
Hour. 

Daily 
Perform- 
ance. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Impr. 

Card  Press- 

1 

1  form  of  7,500  impressions. 

9 

833 

7.500 

4 

4                1,000  '< 

G 

GG'J 

4;ooo 

Q 

8     "             250  " 

4 

500 

2  000 

Small  Machine  Press- 

1 

1  form  of  6,000  impressions. 

9 

66G 

6,000 

5 

5     "            500  " 

5 

500 

2,.500 

g 

8     "             100  *' 

2 

400 

800 

Hand  Press. 

1 

1  form  of  1,500  impressions. 

9 

15G 

1,500 

4 

"             250  " 

G 

IGG 

1,000 

Medium  Cylinder. 

1 

1  form  of  7,500  impressions. 

9 

833 

7,.500 

5 

5     "  750 

5 

750 

3,750 

7 

8     "             250  " 

G6G 

2,000 

Double  Medixim  Cylinder. 

2 

1  form  of  5,000  impressions. 

8 

CG6 

5,000 

5 

3     "  1,000 

5 

COO 

3,000 

7 

G     "            250  " 

3 

500 

1,500 

Mammoth  Cylinder- 

3 

1  form  of  4,000  impressions. 

7 

570 

4,000 

f) 

2     "          1,250  " 

5 

500 

2,500 

7 

4     "             250  " 

3 

333 

1.000 

— De  Vinne's  Price  List. 


THE  BULLOCK  SELF -FEEDING  PERFECTING  PRESS. 

The  press  represented  by  the  cut  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  inven- 
tions of  modern  times  in  the  department  of  printing  machinery.  The 
space  occupied  by  the  Bullock  Perfecting  Press  is  about  12  feet  long  5J 
ft.  high.  As  indicated  by  the  name,  it  is  a  self-feeder,  drawing  its  sup- 
plies from  a  large  cylindrical  roll,  or  web  of  paper,  placed  either  on  the 
press  itself,  or  near  it,  drawn  in  by  tension,  passing  in,  first,  between  an 
impression  and  a  type  cylinder,  where  it  is  printed  on  its  first  side  ;  and, 
then,  secondly,  passing  immediately  to  a  secoud  set  of  type  and  impres- 


jonr.iN(j  riiKSSKS. 


Bion  cylinder!!,  where  it  is  i)i'iiile(l  on  tlu;  oilier  side.  P<'issin,i^  oinv.irdrt 
the  [);iper  is  severed  l)y  a  knife  into  slKiets  of  the  desired  size,  and  deliv- 
ered in  perfect  condition  (with  the  most  astonishing^  rapidity)  by  means 
of  n,  (ly,  upon  the  )-ecciving  board,  with  no  other  aid  than  that  furnished 
by  t,hc  machine  itself. 


ayeilee's  rRmxi^TG  pkess. 


Gordon's  improved  franklin  press. 
Concentrated  Ink  Pastes  to  Write  with  Water.  —  1.  Black 
Inlc.  Take  4  parts  of  bichromate  of  potash,  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  25 
parts  of  acetic  acid,  50  parts  of  liquid  extract  of  logwood,  |  part  of  picric 


\ 


ESTIMATZS,  ZTC,  FOR  PKINTEKS. 


757 


acid,  10  parts  of  pulverized  sal  sorrel,  10  parts  of  mucilage,  and  i  ]mrt  of 
citrate  of  iron,  and  mix  well.  The  liquid  extract  of  logwood  is  prepared 
by  mixing  3  parts  of  an  extract  of  common  commercial  qzality  with  two 
parts  of  water.  2.  Bed  Ink.  Take  1  part  of  red  aniline  mixed  with  10 
parts  of  acetic  acid,  5  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  25  parts  of  mucilage,  all 
well  mixed.  For  use,  mix  1  part  of  the  paste  with  18  parts  of  water.  3. 
Bhie  Ink.  Take  2  parts  of  aniline  blue  mixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic 
acid,  5  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  40  parts  of  mucilage,  all  Avell  mixed.  For 
use,  mix  1  part  of  the  paste  with  8  parts  of  water.  4.  Violet  Ink.  Uso 
the  same  ingredients  in  the  same  proportions,  as  blue,  with  the  differ- 
ence, that  violet  aniline  is  used  instead  of  blue  aniline.  5.  Green  Ink. 
Take  1  part  of  aniline  blue,  3  parts  of  picric  acid  mixed  with  10  parts  of 
acetic  acid,  3  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  80  parts  of  mucilage.  For  use,  1 
part  of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  8  parts  of  water,  6.  Copijinfi  Ink.  Take 
6  parts  of  pulverized  bichromate  of  potash,  mixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic 
acid,  and  240  parts  of  liquid  extract  of  logwood,  and  add  a  pulverized 
mixture  of  35  parts  of  alum,  20  parts  of  sal  sorrel,  and  20  parts  of  muci- 
lage. Mix  well.  For  use,  1  part  of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  4  parts  of 
hot  water. 

These  inks  are  described  as  leaving  no  sediment,  as  drying  quicker  cn 
I)aper  than  the  ordinary  inks,  and  as  being  non-corrosive. 

Colored  Ixks  for  Rubber  and  other  Stamps. — Red.  Dissolve 
J  oz.  of  carmine  in  2  ozs.  strong  water  of  ammonia,  and  add  1  dr.  of 
glycerine  and  f  oz.  dextrin.  Blue.  Rub  1  oz.  Prussian  blue  with 
enough  water  to  make  a  perfectly  smooth  paste  ;  then  add  1  oz.  dextrin, 
incorporate  it  well  and  finally  add  sufficient  water  to  bring  it  to  the 
proper  consistence.  Violet.  Alcohol  15  ozs.,  glycerine  15  ozs.,  aniline 
violet  2  to  4  drs. ;  mix,  dissolve,  pour  the  solution  on  the  cushion  and  dab 
on  with  a  brush, 

Tlie  following  estimates  relating  to  the  consumption  of  ink,  &c.,  are  se- 
lected from  7)3  Vinne's  Price  List,  a  work  of  incomparable  utility  to 
printers,  published  by  Francis  Hart  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Black  Inks. — On  common  news  and  rough  book  work,  the  value  of 
black  ink  at  40  cents,  tised  and  wasted  in  printing  a  wet-down  sheet  of 
size  24  X  38  inches,  or  thereabouts,  is  a  little  less  than  17  cents  per  ICCO 
impressions,  or  about  4  cents  *  a  token  of  250  impressions.  If  the  sheet 
is  over-colored,  it  Avill  cost  6  cents;  if  it  is  under-colored,  or  if  printed  on 
damp  calendered  paper  (an  unusual  quality  of  this  class  of  work),  it  will 
not  cost  3  cents  per  token. 

For  ordinary  book  work,  using  ink  at  60  cents,  on  smootli  paper  of 
size  24  X  38  inches,  the  average  cost  of  ink  used  and  wasted  will  be 
about  6  cents  per  token ;  on  dry  and  rough  paper,  it  will  reach  10  or  13 
cents. 

Fine  book  or  pamphlet  Presswork  on  damp  sheets  of  calendered  paper, 
of  size  24  X  38,  using  ink  at  ^1.00,  should  have  its  average  value  rated  at 
10  cents  per  token  for  an  ordinary  edition.  Upon  a  short  edition,  for 
which  ink  is  specially  put  in  the  fountain,  and  of  which  much  is  wasted, 
the  cost  will  be  from  15  to  25  cents  per  token.  If  the  paper  is  a  soft  and 
spongy  Book,  cost  for  either  quantity  will  be  still  higher. 

Illustrated  Catalogues,  printed  on  medium  sheets,  19  x  24  inches, 
on  dry  calendered  paper,  with  cuts  of  large  size  and  blackness,  will  use 


*  It  is  a  popular  belief  that  the  ink  used  for  this  class  of  work,  on  this  size 
does  not  exceed  3  cents  per  token.  This  is  the  ordinary  reckoning,  which  is 
for  use  only.  But  the  waste  of  this  qiiaiity  of  ink  is  rarely  ever  less  than 
one-fifth,  and  it  often  approximates  more  closely  to  one-third  of  the  amount 
purchased. 


758 


ESriMATKS,    ETC.,   FOK  IMUNTKUS. 


ol  v/ood-cut  ink  at  S2.5v;  ])cr  pound,  on  an  edition  of  1030,  at  the  rat(i  ol 
(50  cents  to  .tfi.OO  per  token.  11'  tlio  edition  is  of  5000  impressions,  tlio 
value  of  ink  used  will  ran.'^e  from  40  cents  to  70  cents  i)er  token.  If  cuts, 
are  very  large  or  black,  they  may  consume  ink.  on  an  edition  of  1000 
copies,  at  the  rate  of  $1.60  per  toiceu.  If  ink  at  f[f>'^A)0  or  -ipa.OO  is  used,  in 
place  of  ink  at  .1t;2.50,  the  price  will  increase,  but  not  in  true  proportion— 
tlie  more  expensive  color  is  liner,  and  has  more  extending  capacity. 
Tliese  are  prices  for  cuts  of  machinery.  The  amount  of  color  on  tliis 
work  is  largely  under  tiie  control  of  the  pressman.  He  can  use  it  freely 
or  sparingly,  at  will,  but  with  a  corresponding  effect  of  strength  or  weak- 
Jicss  in  the  work. 

Book  Illustrations.— The  ordinary  illustrations  of  books  and  news- 
papers, when  not  too  frequent,  or  too  black,  do  not  sensibly  increase  the 
consumption  of  ink.  It  is  not  usual  to  make  account  of  the  value  of 
ordinary  ink  on  this  class  of  Avork.  But  Avhen  the  cuts  are  numerous 
and  are 'black,  and  fine  inks  are  used,  the  value  of  color  used  cannot  be 
overlooked.  On  a  large  edition  of  work  of  this  class,  the  average  value 
of  ink  at  $2.00,  on  a  sheet  24  x  38  inches,  will  be  50  cents  per  token. 
'Upon  an  edition  of  1000,  the  cost  of  the  same  ink  would  be  more  than 
$1.00  per  token.  A  Double  Royal  sheet  29  X  43  inches,  on  an  edition  of 
20,000,  with  ink  at  $3.00,  with  many  cuts,  has  been  worked  at  a  cost  of 
53  cents  per  token  for  ink  ;  but  this  is  a  rare  result,  the  economy  being 
due  as  much  to  the  skill  of  the  pressman  as  to  the  length  of  the  edition. 
If  the  edition  had  been  1000,  the  value  of  the  black  ink  used  and  wasted 
would  have  been  at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  token. 

Posters. — An  ordinary  poster,  12  x  19  inches,  will  consume  of  black 
ink  at  25  cents  per  pound,  at  the  rate  of  30  and  40  cents  per  1000  impres- 
sions, the  quantity  used  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  type  and  the 
quality  of  t!ie  paper.  Under  the  same  conditions,  a  i^oster  19  x  24  inches, 
Avill  consume  hlack  ink  of  same  quality  at  the  rate  of  75  cents  and  $1.00 
per  1000  impressions  ;  a  poster  24  X  38  inches,  from  $1.25  to  $2,00  per  1000 
impressions.  The  value  of  the  color  used  increases  with  the  size  of  the 
sheet,  and  for  this  work,  in  greater  proportion.  The  larger  form  has 
larger  type,  and  the  larger  i)ress  wastes  more  color. 

Tint  Blocks. — A  solid  tint  Block  cut  on  pine,  for  a  sheet  24  x  38 
inches,  with  a  few  white  lines,  will  use  of  25  cent  ink,  at  the  rate  of  $3.09 
per  1000  impressions.  If  finer  inks  are  used,  the  advance  in  price  will  be 
nearly  in  strict  proportion.  For  a  sheet  24  x  38,  of  smooth,  thick  paper, 
dry,  i)rinted  on  a  metal  tint-plate,  with  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  the  cost  of 
ink  will  be  $10.00  per  1000  impressions.  For  this  class  of  work,  a  pound 
of  fine  ink  Avill  do  more  Avork  than  a  pound  of  cheap  ink.  On  common 
flat  work,  a  good  black  ink  will  permit  a  liberal  reduction  of  body  with 
varnish. 

Blub  Inks. — Many  qualities  of  this  color  are  used.  The  leading 
varieties  are  best  kiioAvn  to  printers  as  light,  dark,  ultramarine  and 
bronze  blues.  The  light  has  a  limited  use  for  flat  surfaces  and  tints ;  the 
ultramarine,  for  flat  surfaces,  tints,  posters,  and  to  some  extent,  in  its 
finer  qualities,  on  fine  type;  the  dark  and  bronze  blues  are  most  u.sed  for 
fine  and  light  work,  for  which  they  are  Aveli  adapted,  having  strong  body, 
and  in  extending  property  being  nearly  equal  to  fine  black  ink. 

Ultramarine  is  the  favoring  color  for  bright  showy  work.  It  is  very 
bulky  for  its  weight,  and  Avorks  Avell  upon  all  flat  surfaces.  It  is  not  a 
finely-ground  color.  The  best  colors  only  are  used  for  type,  but  they  do 
not  Avork  Avith  the  freedom  and  smoothness  of  dark  or  bronze  blues. 
The  prices  range  from  50  to  $3.00  per  pound. 

Flat  Surfaces.— A  flat-faced  label,  9  x  14  inches,  will  consume  of 
pure  ultramarine  blue  at  $1.00  per  pound  at  the  rate  of  $3,00  per  1000 


ESTIMxiTES.  ETC..  FOR  PRINTERS. 


759 


impressions.  A  flat  tint  block,  18  X  22  incnes,  on  fair  paper,  will  use  of 
!this  color,  when  somewhat  reduced  with  varnish,  at  the  rate  of  $9.00  per 
llOOO  impressions.  A  flat  tint  block  of  pine  wood,  made  for  paper  24  x  38 
(inches,  will  use  of  ultramarine  at  75  cents,  largely  reduced  with  varnish, 
at  the  rate  of  $15.00  per  1000  impressions. 

Posters. — For  a  i^oster,  12  x  19  inches,  on  ordinary  News,  the  value 
used  of  ultramarine  ink  at  $1.00  will  he  at  the  rate  of  $2.00  per  1000  im- 
pressions ;  for  a  poster,  19  X  24  inches,  on  ultramarine  blue  at  75  cents,  $3.05 
per  1000  impressions  ;  for  a  poster,  24  x  38  inches,  on  ultramarine  blue 
at  75  cents,  at  the  rate  of  $6.00  to  $8.00  per  1000  impressions.  Ink  at  50 
cents  per  pound  would  diminish  the  value  of  the  color  used,  but  not  in 
ratio  with  the  reduced  price.  The  cheaper  color  is  thinner,  not  so  well 
ground,  and  is  consumed  more  freely.  If  it  is  used  on  any  but  the  largest 
type,  it  will  not  prove  of  marked  economy. 

Dark  blue  and  bronze  blue  are  little  used  for  jwsters  or  flat  tints.  If 
used  in  buUc,  without  reducing,  they  will  be  much  more  expensive  than 
ultramarine.  When  used  on  this  kind  of  work,  they  are  usually  thinned 
with  white  ink,  varnish,  turpentine,  benzine,  etc.,  and  sometimes  with 
magnesia.  .  When  used  on  light,  open  and  fine  work,  tlie  value  of  dark 
or  bronze  blues,  may  be  rated  as  about  double  that  of  the  same  quality 
as  black  ink. 

Red  Inks. — Under  this  heading  m.ay  be  classified  many  qualities  of 
scarlet  and  crimson  color.  The  leading  qualities  are  vermilion,  lake 
and  carmine. 

Vermilion  red,  a  pure  scarlet,  is  the  basis  of  the  better  qualities  of 
the  cheap  reds  in  greatest  use.  Commoner  qualities,  such  as  are  sold  at 
75  cents  and  $1.00  per  pound,  are  largely  mixed  witli  cheaper  colors.  In 
its  pure  state,  vermilion  is  the  densest,  and,  in  extending  i)ro])erty,  the 
weakest  of  all  colors.  A  pound  of  vermilion  red  at  $3.00  per  pound  is 
about  half  the  bulk  of  fine  black  at  $1.00  per  pound.  Wliere  the  black 
will  yield  color  for  1000  impressions,  the  vermilion  red  will  be  used  up 
with  about  350  impressions.  The  value  of  the  red  color,  extending 
capacity  considered,  is  about  ten  times  as  great  as  that  of  fine  black. 

Lake  red,  a  deep  crimson,  is  inferior  to  black  in  extension,  but  will 
give  treble  the  service  of  ordinary  vermilion.  It  is  too  expensive  for 
most  bold  work,  or  for  flat  surfaces,  nor  does  it  produce  as  good  an 
effect  as  pure  vermillion.  It  is  largely  used  for  fine  work,  for  which  it  is 
well  fitted. 

Carmine,  an  intense  and  glowing  crimson,  is  but  little  inferior  to  the 
finest  black  in  extending  properties.  It  is  one  of  the  most  expensive 
colors,  and  can  be  used  to  profit  and  with  effect  only  on  light  and  open 
work.  For  flat  and  solid  work,  the  effect  produced  is  Dut  little  superior 
to  that  of  the  finer  lakes,  and  is  seldom  worth  the  extra  cost. 

Posters. — The  value  of  red  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  that  will  be  used 
and  wasted  in  printing  1000  posters,  12  X  19  inches,  may  be  rated  at 
$3.00  ;  on  1000  posters,  19  x  24  inches,  the  value  of  color  may  be  esti- 
mated at  $5.00  and  $6.00  per  1000  ;  on  a  poster.  24  X  38  inches,  at  $9.00 
and  $12.00  per  1000.  The  color  is  weak,  and  the  use  of  light  or  bold- 
faced type  will  majce  serious  differences  in  the  consumption  of  color.  On 
double-medium  posters,  the  value  of  the  color  may  be  averaged  at  $1.00 
per  100  impressions. 

Flat  Surfaces.— A  flat  label  9  x  14  inches,  Avitli  ordinary  amount 
and  size  of  lettering  cut  for  white,  such  as  is  used  for  soap  boxes,  etc., 
will  consume  of  pure  red  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  at  the  rate  of  $4.50  and 
$5.00  per  lOCO  impressions.  If  the  plate  is  flat,  without  lettering,  at  the 
rate  of  $6.00  per  1000  impressions.  A  flat  tint  poster  for  paper  19  x  24 
inches,  with  letters  cut  in  whits  as  above,  will  use  of  red  ink  at  $1.00  pel 


700 


PATENT  OKFICK  HULKS,  KTO. 


pound,  that  lian  hooii  somewhat  tliiniied  with  varnish,  at  the  rate  of  .IpO.OO 
and -lillO.OO  i)or  lOOU  impressions.  It  1)M1'C  color  is  used,  it  will  consuino 
eolor  to  the  amount  ol'  .H;i4.()()  or  $ir)Ml  A  Hat  tint  jKJster  for  paper  24  X 
,■58  inches,  cut  on  pine,  with  lctterin<^  as  above,  will  consume  of  red  ink  at 
Si. 00  per  pound,  thinned  with  varnisli,  at  the  rate  of  .1i;i8,00  and  .'^25.00 
per  1000  inii)ressions.  If  dry  paper  is  used,  as  is  necessary  for  i-egistered 
work  it  could  not  be  rated  at  less  than  $20.00  ;  lor  damp  paper,  carefully 
managed,  it  may  be  less  than  ^^18.00,  but  this  is  unusual. 

CoLOiiiNG  OF  r.vi'KR. — Gniy  is  usually  obtained  by  mixing  mineral 
or  vegetable  black  with  the  bleached  pulp,  but  the  tones  produced  by 
these  primitive  means  are  generally  dull.  Vegetable  black  made  from 
the  chestnut  tree  gives  the  best  result.  Chestnut  black  can  be  made 
from  the  bark  of  the  young  sprouts  of  this  tree,  generally  cultivated  to 
make  hoops  for  casks  ;  after  taking  off  the  bark  it  is  dried,  ground,  and 
made  into  a  decoction  for  coloring  paper,  and  which  can  be  made  either 
gray  or  black.  Logwood  also  may  be  used.  Iron  Gray  is  jnade  with 
chestnut  or  logwood.  For  two  cwt.  of  paper,  4  lbs.  of  ext.  of  chestnut, 
4 lbs.  sulphate  of  iron,  dissolved  in  9  gals,  of  boiling  water,  then  stirred 
and  mixed  with  the  pulp,  adding  a  small  quantity  of  red  lake  and  ultra- 
marine. The  size  is  mixed  with  8  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  aluminum, 
this  may  be  much  varied.  With  small  quanities  of  ext.  of  logwood  and 
sulphate  of  iron  a  light  gray  is  obtained;  by  adding  yellow  and  Prussian 
blue,  a  greenish  slate  color  ;  by  adding  white,  suppressing  the  blue,  and 
keeping  the  lake,  a  chamois  tone  ;  by  adding  to  this  last  formula  a  little 
umber,  bistre.  Logwood  is  used  with  all  colors  when  it  is  wished  to 
darken  the  shades.  With  fine  pulp  il  is  best  to  rei)lace  the  ext.  of  log- 
wood by  the  product  obtained  from  the  tree  noted  at  the  beginning  of 
this  notice. 

Solvents  for  Rubber. — These  are  bisulphide  of  carbon,  coal  nap- 
tha,  rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  chloroform,  and  ether,  Avhicli  must  be 
free  from  alcohol, 

INFORMATION  CONCERNING  PATENTS. 

United  States  Patents  and  Fees. — No  patent  will  be  granted  if 
the  whole  or  any  part  of  what  is  claimed  has  been  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or  a  foreign  country,  or  been  invented 
or  discovered  in  this  country. 

Prior  Invention  abroad  will  not  prevent  issue  of  a  patent,  nnless  the  in- 
vention has  been  there  patented  or  described  in  some  printed  publication. 

To  prevent  a  subsequent  inventor  from  obtaining  a  patent,  an  inven- 
tion must  have  been  reduced  to  ax)ractical  form,  either  by  construction  of 
a  model  or  machine,  or  drawing,  by  which  a  mechanic  could  make  the 
same. 

Merely  conceiving  an  idea  of  an  invention  is  not  a  discovery,  and  patent- 
able. 

Foreign  Patents. — The  taking  out  of  a  patent  in  a  foreign  countrj''  does 
not  prejudice  a  patent  previously  granted  here ;  nor  does  it  prevent  obtain- 
ing a  patent  here  subsequently.  When  a  patent  is  granted  here  it  will 
extend  only  seventeen  years  from  date  of  foreign  patent. 
•  Every  foreign  inventor  must  liave  in  use,  or  for  sale  in  the  United 
States,  a  copy  of  their  patentable  article,  within  eighteen  months  from 
date  of  patent. 

Duration  of  Patent  is  seventeen  years.  Extensions  are  prohibited  on 
all  patents  granted  since  1861,  Applications  for  extension  must  be  filed, 
and  requisite  fee  paid,  ninety  days  before  expiration  of  the  patent. 

Granting  of  Patents. — Patents,  on  payment  of  same  official  fee,  are 
granted  to  all  persons,  including  Avomeu  and  minors,  unless  inhabitants 


PATENT  OFFICE  RULES,  ETC 


761 


of  countries  which  discriminate  against  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States. 

Application  for  a  patent  must  be  made  in  the  name  of  the  inventor,  who 
can  alone  sign  the  papers  ;  an  attorney  for  inventor  can  not  do  so. 

Heirs  of  an  Inventor  can  obtain  a  patent,  papers  to  be  signed  hy  execu- 
tor or  administrator  of  inventor. 

Joint  Inventors  are  entitled  to  a  joint  patent. 

An  Inventor  can  assign  his  entire  right,  before  a  patent  is  obtained,  so  as 
to  enable  the  assignee  to  take  out  a  patent  iu  his  own  name ;  but  the  assign- 
ment must  be  first  recorded,  and  specification  sAvorn  to  by  the  inventor. 

Oaths  may  be  taken,  in  this  country,  before  any  one  autliorized  by  law 
to  administer  oaths  ;  in  a  foreign  country  before  any  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary, charge  d' affairs,  consul,  commercial  agent  or  notary  public  of  the 
country  in  which  oath  is  taken,  being  in  all  cases  properly  attested  by  of- 
ficial seal  of  such  notary. 

Stamps. — A  stamp  of  value  of  fifty  cents  is  required  for  each  poAver  of 
attorney,'  each  sheet  of  an  assignment  to  be  stamped  Jive  cents,  eacii  cer- 
tificate of  magistrate  five  cents. 

Drawings  to  be  in  duplicate,  one  on  stiff  paper,  one  on  tracing  cloth,  to 
be  20  inches  top  to  bottom,  15  inches  wide  ;  tracing  tj  have  1  inch  margin 
on  right  hand  side,  for  binding. 

Models  to  be  of  hard  wood,  or  metal,  not  more  than  12  inches  in  any 
dimension  ;  name  of  the  inventor  to  be  engraved  or  painted  conspicu- 
ously on  it. 

For  an  Improvement,  only  model  of  part  to  be  j)atented  is  required,  to 
show  nature  and  operation  of  invention. 

Designs,  no  models  required  ;  either  draAvings  or  photographs,  both  in 
dui)licate,  with  negative  of  photograph. 

New  Articles  of  manufacture,  sample  of  article  ;  medicines,  ormedicaV 
compounds,  sample  of  same,  and  minute  statement  of  exact  i^roportions 
and  ingredients. 

Caveats. — The  filing  of  a  caveat  prevents,  during  its  existence,  the 
issue  of  a  patent,  witliout  the  knowledge  of  the  caveator,  to  any  person 
for  a  similar  device.  The  caveator  is  entitled  to  receive  official  notice 
during  one  year,  for  any  j)etition  for  similar  or  interfering  invention  filed 
during  that  time.  The  caveator,  when  so  notified,  must  complete  his 
own  application  within  three  months  from  date  of  notice, 
t  A  caveat  runs  one  year  :  can  be  extended  by  paying  .$10  a  year. 

Caveats  can  only  be  filed  by  cicizens  of  the  United  States,  or  aliens  who 
liave  resided  here  one  year  and  declared  their  intention  of  becoming 
citizens. 

UNITED  STATES  PATENT  FEES. 


On  filing  each  caveat  $10  00 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  a  patent,  except  for  a  design.  15  00 

On  issuing  each  original  patent   20  00 

On  every  appeal  from  Examiners-in-Chief   20  00 

On  application  for  a  reissue   30  00 

On  application  for  extension   50  00 

Granting  an  extension   50  00 

Filing  each  disclaimer   10  00 

Certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  10  cents  per  100  words. 
Recording  every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of  attorney,  and 

other  papers,  of  300  words  or  under   1  00 

If  over  300  and  under  1,000  words  ,   2  00 

If  over  1,000  words   3  00 

Drawings,  cost  of  making  same 

Patents  for  designs— for  three  and  one-half  years   10  00 

"  "  for  seven  years   15  00 

"  *•  for  fourteen  years  ,   30  00 


762 


FACTS  ABOUT  HUMAN  LIFE. 


In  addition  to  the  above,  Messrs.  Mitnn  &  Co.,  Patent  Solicitors,  N.Y., 
charge  for  written  report  of  special  examination  at  I'atent  o(Iice,if  inven- 
tion has  been  patented  in  this  country,  $r)  ;  for  general  information  of 
infringements,  reissues,  claims,  assignincnts,  joint  ownership,  contracts, 
licences,  name  in  which  patent  is  recorded,  abstracts  of  deeds  of  transfer, 
sketch  of  a  drawing  of  patent,  license  made  out,  ti-ansfer  of  do.,  recording 
do.,  $r)  for  each  case  ;  for  procuring  a  patent,  .ii^25  to  $35,  or  more  ;  for 
procuring  a  caveat,  $10  to  $15  ;  for  copies  of  patents  or  assignments,  or 
drawings  of  any  existing  patents,  $5  to  $10  ;  copy  of  any  claim,  $1. 

Foreign  Patents. — Great  Britain. — Duration,  fourteen  years,  to  first 
inventor  or  importer,  cost,  $350,  of  which  $100  due  at  time  of  making 
application,  balance  in  four  months  ;  three  years  from  date  of  patent,  a 
f  urtlier  sum  of  £50  must  be  paid  ;  end  of  seven  years,  £100  additional. 
For  designs  to  protect  shape  of  article,  three  years,  $100. 

France. — Term  of  patent,  fifteen  years,  annual  fee,  $20. 

Belgium. — Term  of  patent,  twenty  years  ;  small  annual  fees. 


EXPENSE  OF  FOREIGN  PATENTS,  INCLUSIVE  OF  ALL  FEES. 


Austria   $250  |  Netherlands. 

Bavaria   150 

Belgium  150 

Cuba   450 

France   150 

Great  Britain  350 

India   400 

Italy   250 


.fl.50 


Portugal   250 

Prussia   200 

Russia   ,550 

Saxony  250 

Spain  400 

Sweden  and  Norway  600 


FACTS  RELATING  TO  HUMAN  LIFE. 
Tlie  following  table  exhibits  the  recent  mortality  statistics,  showin 


g  the 


average  duration  of  life  among  persons  of  various  classes  in  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  : 


Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


Men  unemployed  68  Blacksmiths  51 

Judges  65  Merchants  51 

Farmers   ,  ..64  Calico  Printers  51 

Bank  Officers  64  Physicians  51 


Coopers  58 

Public  Officers  57 

Clergymen  56 

Shipwrights  55 

Hatters  54 

Lawyers  54 

Rope  Makers  54 


Butchers  50 

Carpenters  49 

Masons  48 

Traders  46 

Tailors  44 

Jewellers  44 

Manufacturers  43 


Bakers  43 

Painters  43 

Shoemakers  43 

Mechanics  43 

Editors  40 

Musicians  39 

Printers   38 

Machinists  36 

Teachers  34 

Clerks  34 

Operatives....  .32 


The  average  death  rate  in  Europe  is  1  out  of  every  42  inhabitants,  or 
2.38  per  cent.  The  principal  European  countries  exhibit  the  following 
annual  bills  of  mortality  : — 


Austria  1  death  to  every  40 

Prussia  1     "  "  o3 

France  1     "  "  32 


England  1  death  to  every  46 

Denmark  1    "  '*  45 

Belgium  1    "  "  43 

Norway  and  Sweden  1    "  "  41 

The  death  rate  in  the  United  States  varies  much  from  the  above,  from 
the  highest,  Arkansas,  Avhere  the  annual  mortality  is  one  death  to  every 
49  inhabitants,  a  trifle  over  2  per  cent  of  the  population,  to  the  lowest, 
Oregon,  where  the  death  rate  is  less  than  half  of  one  per  cent.,  or  one 


FACTS  ABOUT  HUMAN  LIFE. 


763 


to  everj  200  inhabitants.  The  average  yearly  mortality  in  i^roportion  to 
population  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table  : — 

New  England  States  1  in  68  Pacific  States...  1  in  115 

Middle  States  1  "  88  Atlantic  States  1  "  80 

Southern  States  1  "  70  Gulf  States    1  "  63 

Western  States  1     81  Mississippi  Valley  States  ..1  "  SO 

North- Western  States  i  "120| 

According  to  the  Carlisle  table  of  mortalitj^  largely  used  as  an  author- 
ity in  life  insurance  calculations  in  America  and  Europe,  of  10,000  chil- 
dren born — 

3.540  die  in  10  years.  5,603  die  in  50  vears.  9,818  die  in  DO  years. 
3,910     "  20       "      6,357     "  60       "      9,991     "  100  " 

4,358     "  30      "      7,599     "  70       "      9,999     "  104  " 

4,915     "  40       "      9,047     "  80  .  " 

Leaving  only  one  living  at  the  age  of  104  years. 

The  tables  of  the  British  Government  annuities  are  constructed  on  the 
principle  that  women  live  longer  than  men.  Thus,  a  male  of  15  can  pur- 
chase an  annuity  of  £15  per  animm  for  £411  5s.  lOd.,  but  a  female  of 
the  same  age  must  pay  £438  lis.  4d.  And,  at  50,  a  man  would  pay  £272 
17s.  Id.  ;  but  a  woman  £312  14s.  lOd. 

Long  life,  as  a  general  rule,  awaits  the  man  who  is  gifted  with  pru- 
dence, a  good  constitution,  and  the  mental  potency  to  banish  corroding 
anxiety.  These  are  inestimable  gifts.  Dr.  Helierden,  an  illustrious 
London  physician  of  the  last  century,  whose  practise  lay  chiefly  among 
the  wealthy  classes,  asserted  that  nine  out  of  ten  of  his  patients  died  of 
a  broken  heart.  Cornaro,  the  noted  dietist,  who  by  prudent  care  of  him- 
tjelf,  lived  to  104,  wrote,  "  lam  likewise  greatly  indebted  for  the  excel- 
lent health  I  enjoy  to  that  calm  and  temperate  state  in  which  I  have  been 
careful  to  keep  my  passions.  The  influence  of  the  passions  on  the 
nerves  and  health  of  our  bodies  is  so  great  tliat  none  can  be  ignorant 
of  it.  Tie,  therefore,  who  seriously  wishes  to  enjoy  good  health,  must 
learn  to  keep  his  passions  in  subjection  to  reason.  Otherwise,  all  tem- 
.  perance  will  go  for  little."  The  man  endowed  by  nature  with  the  best 
l^rospect  for  long  life  is  thus  described  by  the  famous  Hufeland,  in  his 
■  work  on  longevity,  published  during  the  last  century  :  "  He  has  a  well- 
proportioned  stature,  without,  however,  being  too  tall.  He  is  rather  of 
the  middle  size,  and  somewhat  thickset.  His  complexion  is  not  too  florid  ; 
at  any  rate,  too  much  ruddiness  in  youth  is  seldom  a  sign  ot  longevity. 
Hair  approaciies  rather  to  the  fair  than  to  the  black.  His  skin  is 
strong,  but  not  rough-  His  head  is  not  too  big.  He  has  large  veins  at  tlie 
extremities,  and  his  shoulders  are  rather  round  than  flat.  His  neck  is 
not  too  long.  His  belly  does  not  project,  and  his  hands  are  large,  but 
not  too  deeply  cleft.  His  foot  is  rather  thick  than  long,  and  his  legs  are 
firm  and  round.  He  has  also  a  broad  chest  and  strong  voice,  and  the 
faculty  of  retaining  his  breath  a  long  time  without  difficulty.  In  general 
there  is  complete  harmony  in  all  his  parts.  His  senses  are  good,  but  not 
too  delicate.  His  pulse  is  slow  and  regular.  His  appetite  is  good,  and 
his  digestion  easy.  He  has  not  too  much  thirst,  which  is  always  a  sign 
of  rapid  self-consumption.  His  passions  never  become  too  violent  or 
destructive.  If  he  gives  way  to  anger  he  experiences  a  glow  of  warmth, 
without  an  overflowing  of  the  gall.  He  likes  employment,  particularly 
calm  meditation  and  agreeable  speculations ;  is  an  optimist,  a  friend  to 
nature  and  domestic  felicity — has  no  thirst  after  either  honors  or  riches, 
and  banishes  all  thought  of  to-morrow." 

Mr,  John  Q.  Adams  was  in  excellent  health,  when,  in  his  ninetieth 
year,  he  was  visited  by  Charles  Mackay,  who  thus  explains  the  cause  ; 


7G1 


I'ACTS   AnOUT   HUMAN  LIFi:. 


"  Men  vuiJ  women,"  lie  says,  "  scarcely  ever  allow  the  fresh  air  of  hea- 
ven to  touch  any  ]):ir<;  of  llicir  bodies,  ex(!ei)t  tiieir  liauds  and  face,  and 
even  to  these  tlio  ladies  are  systematically  unjust  hy  woarinj,^  gloves  and 
veils.  Tlic  suriaco  of  the  beautiful  human  form  requires  to  be  for  a 
certain  ])criod  of  every  day  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosijhcre.  I 
take  my  air  bath  rcij^ularly  every  morning,  and  wallc  in  my  bed-room  in 
pvris  jiatinrdibu.'i,  Avith  all  the  windows  open,  for  half  an  hour.  I  also 
talce  a  water  bath  daily.  I  read  and  write  for  eif^ht  hours  a  day.  I  sleep 
eiffht  hours,  and  devote  another  eight  to  exercise,  conversation,  and 
meals.  I  feel  within  myself  a  reserve  of  bodily  strength,  which,  I  think, 
Avili  carry  me  to  a  hundred  years,  unless  I  die  by  accident,  or  am  shot  or 
hanged." 

Between  1840  and  1871  the  annual  mortality  on  the  Cheviot  Hills,  in 
Scotland,  was  at  an  average  of  15  per  1,000.  In  the  hamlet  of  Ilarbottle, 
with  120  inhabitants  there  has  been  no  death  of  a  child  for  20  years.  A 
farmer  and  his  three  shepherds,  Avho  have  occupied  their  present  situa- 
tion nearly  30  years,  have  among  them  47  children,  and  not  a  single 
death  has  occurred  in  these  families.  In  Alwinton,  a  parish  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  of  the  hills,  the  birth-rate  in  1871,  when  it  contained  a  popu- 
lation of  1,205,  was  32.4 per  cent.,  and  the  death-rate  only  7.5.  An  abun- 
dance of  good  food,  good  water,  good  houses,  and  regular  but  not  severe 
work,  have  brought  about  this  orderly  state  of  existence. 

Of  a  man  who  died  near  London  at  the  advanced  age  of  110  years,  it  is 
reported  tliat  he  had  never  been  ill,  and  that  he  had  maintained  through 
life  a  cheerful  happy  temperament.  He  was  uniformly  kind  and  obliging 
to  everybody  ;  he  quarrelled  with  no  one  ;  he  ate  and  drank  merely  that 
he  might  not  suffer  from  liunger  and  thirst,  and  never  beyond  what  ne- 
cessity required.  From  his  earliest  youth  lie  never  allowed  himself  to  be 
unemployed.   These  were  the  onlj^  means  he  ever  used. 

Of  a  woman  who  died  near  Stockholm  at  the  advanced  age  of  115 
years,  it  is  on  record  that  she  passed  lier  long  life  free  from  illness,  always 
contented  and  happy,  a  devoted  lover  of  cleanliness,  had  a  daily  habit 
of  Avashing  her  face,  hands,  and  feet  in  cold  Avater,  and  as  often  as  op- 
portunity afforded,  bathed  in  the  same  ;  she  never  ate  or  drank  any  deli- 
cacies or  sweet-meats  ;  seldom  tea  or  coffee,  and  never  wine. 

Another  noted  instance  of  long  life  was  that  of  a  man  who  died  near 
St  Petersburg,  and  had  enjoyed  good  health  until  he  Avas  120  years  old. 
He  was  an  early  riser,  and  never  slept  more  than  seven  hours  at  a  time  ; 
he  was  never  idle  ;  he  worked  and  employed  himself  chiefly  in  the  open 
air,  and  particularly  in  his  garden.  Whether  he  Avalked  or  sat  in  his 
chair  he  always  maintained  an  erect  j)osition,  never  tolerating  a  stooping, 
leaning,  or  distorted  attitude. 

Unquestionably,  a  properly  selected  vegetable  diet  is  the  best  fitted  for 
the  maintenance  of  health.  A  great  percentage  of  the  diseases  which 
afflict  humanity  are  generated  by  the  use  of  poVk,  veal,  and  other  meats 
in  immoderate  quantities,  and  prepared  in  i)reposterous  forms  Avith  lard, 
rich  sauces,  seasoning,  &c.  Of  all  animal  food  in  common  use  pork  is  de- 
cidedly the  worst.  Its  use  as  food  frequently  engenders  an  extremely 
painful  disease,  by  many  pronounced  incurable,  caused  by  a  filthy  para- 
site which  exists  naturally  in  the  muscles  of  swine.  See  Trichina,  page 
149.  A  farmer  writing  from  Freeport  to  the  Chicago  Inter-Ocean  de- 
nounces pork  in  the  most  trenchant  style.  He  says  "Pork  grease  will 
ruin  a  wagon  axle,  much  more  the  human  stomach,  and  the  farmer  who 
uses  pork  alone  as  a  meat  diet  and  pork  grease  as  shortenincf.  ruins  not 
only  his  own  constitution  but  that  of  his  family  as  well.  This  is  the 
experience  of  a  farmer  Avho  has  tried  the  use  of  pork  for  over  fifteen 
years,  with  as  many  years  of  sickness  in  his  family,  and  two  years  on 


FA-CTS   CONCERNING  FOOD. 


7G5 


beef  diet  and  i)erfect  healtli."  "  Vegetable  aliment,  as  neither  aisteuding 
the  vessels,  nor  loading  the  system,  never  interrupts  the  stronger  action  of 
the  mind  ;  while  the  heat,  fulness  and  weight  of  animal  food  is  adverse 
to  its  efforts." — Cidlen. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  grains  of  warmth  and 
strength  evolved  per  lb.,  from  -various  articles  of  food.  The  carbon  and 
nitrogen  taken  into  the  sj'Stem  form  fat  and  flesh,  the  fat  being  con- 
sumed makes  thebodj^  stout,  while  the  flesh  represents  strength  or  the 
muscles  which  yield  it. 


Grains  of  Strength  yielded  by  one 
pound  of  7000' grains. 

GRAINS. 

Beer  or  Porter   1 

Parsnips   12 

Turnips   12 

Whey   13 

Groens   14 

Potatoes   24 

Skimmed  Milk   M 

New  Milk   35 

Buttermilk     35 

Barley   70 

Bice   70 

Bacon   78 

Bye  Bread   89 

Baker's  Bread   00 

Pearl  Bailey   01 

Fresh  Pork   108 

Seconds  Flour   120 

Corn  Meal   125 

Fresh  Fish   329 

Cocoa.   130 

Oatmeal  140 

Mutton  140 

Fresh  Beef  172 

Beef  Liver  200 

Split  Peas  250 

Cheddar  Cheese  310 

Skim.  Milk  Cheese  ,  360 


Grains  of  Warmth  yielded  by  one 
pound  of  7000  grains. 


GRAINS. 

Whey   150 

Turnips   238 

Beer  and  Porter   315 

Buttermilk   335 

Skimmed  Milk   351 

New  Milk   378 

Carrots    390 

Parsnips   425 

Potatoes   770 

Fresh  Fish  •.   080 

Beef  Liver   ..  1,220 

Red  Herrings  1,455 

Baker's  Bread  1,990 

Fresh  Beef  2,300 

Molasses  2,300 

Skim.  Milk  Cheese  2,350 

Cheddar  Cheese  2,550 

Seconds  Flour  2,700 

Rye  Bread    2,700 

Rice  2,750 

Barley  Meal  2,780 

Indian  Meal  2,800 

Sugar  2,900 

Fresh  Pork  3,100 

Bacon  4,200 

Butter  4,700 

Lard  4,800 

Drippings  5,500 

In  cookery  4  lbs.  of  beef  lose  1  lb.  by  boiling,  1  lb.  5  ozs.  by  roasting, 
and  1  lb.  3  ozs.  by  baking  ;  4  lbs.  of  mutton  lose  14  ozs.  by  boiling,  1  lb. 
G  ozs.  by  roasting,  and  1  lb.  4  ozs.  by  baking.  As  to  the  drinking  cus- 
toms of  society,  statistics  prove  that  every  year  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
70,000,  and  in  the  United  States,  about  75,000  deaths  result  directly  and 
indirectly  from  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors.  The  benefits  derived  from 
their  use  are  in  a  great  measure  merely  imaginary,  and  their  persistent 
use  can  only  have  one  result,  viz.,  premature  death.  An  intemperate 
person  of  twenty  years  has  a  probability  of  life  extending  15.6  ;  one  of 
30  to  11  "6  years,  while  temperate  persons  would  have  a  like  probability 
of  living  42  and  35  respectively.  Conmient  is  useless,  if  you  wish  health 
and  long  life,  abstain.  Liebig,  the  celebrated  chemist,  recommends  the 
persistent  use  of  a  purely  vegetable  diet  as  a  cure  for  this  abominable 
vice,  especially  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  Charles  Napier,  the  noted  Eng- 
lish scientist,  has  reported,  as  the  result  of  experiments,  27  cases,  in 
which  the  exclusive  use  of  vegetables  as  food,  had  created  repugnance 
for  alcoholic  stimulants.  Another  remedy  highly  commended  is  to  steep 
equal  parts  of  the  herbs  valerian  and  wormwood  together,  and  drink  the 
liquid  three  times  a  day  when  the  desire  is  felt.  Still  another  remedy  is 
tincture  of  cinchona  (Peruvian  bark)  taken  in  1  drachm  (teaspoonfult 


7GG 


roruLATioN  OK  THE  Gi.oni:. 


doses  every  two  hours.  Tho  dose  may  ha  increased  to  six  tcaspoonfula 
and  talicn  ill  that  inopovtion  4  to  10  times  per  day.  It  will  not  destroy 
appetite  for  food,  but  in  a  few  days  tlic  anti-poriodic  properties  of  th(t  cin- 
cliona  ho^iii  to  Icll,  and  tlic  patient  not  only  loses  all  taste  for  the  tinc- 
ture, but  also  all  desire  for  everything  in  the  shape  of  alcohol. 

THK  I.ATF.ST  CENSUS  OF  ALL  TIIK  COUNTUIKS  OF  THK  WORLD. 
Bclim  and  Wagner  cstimato  the  total  number  of  all  men  1,423,919,000.  They 
are  distributed  over  the  live  parts  of  the  world  as  followsi , 

Number  of  iidiabitants  per  square  mile, 

Africa  199,921,000  13  1 

America   85,519,800   G  | 

Asia  824,548,300  49     \-    Average  all  over  the 

Australia   4,748,(i00   1%  i  earth,  28. 

Europe  .^09,178,500  82  j 

Reliable  ligurea  are  exhibited  for  Europe,  save  Turkey.    They  show  : 

Andorra   12,000      Montenegro   190,000 

Austria,  187G  37,700,000      Netherlands,  1875   3,^09,527 


Belgium,  187 i   5,336,034 

Denmark,  1870   1,903,000 

France,  1873  36,102,921 

Germanv,  1875  42,723,242 

Great  Britain,  1876  33,450,000 

Greece,  1870....   1,457,349 

Italy,  1875  27,432,174 

Luxemburgh,  1875   205,158 

Monaco,  1873   5,741 


Norway,  1875   1,802, 

Portugal,  1874   4,298,831 

Iloumania,  1873   5,073,000 

Russia,  (Europe)  1870  71,730,980 

Servia,  1875   1,377,068 

Spain,  1870  16,551,647 

Sweden,  1875   4,383,291 

Switzerland,  1870   2,669,147 

Turkey  (Europe)   3,500,000 


Another  estimate  of  the  population  and  area  of  the  Globe  is  as  follows 


Divisions. 

Area. 

Population. 

Pop.  to  Sq.  M. 

3,800,000 

296,713,500 

80 

15,000,000 

699.863,000 

46 

Africa  

10,800,000 

67,414,000 

5 

14,709,000 

88,061,148 

G 

1,500,000 

25,924,000 

5 

Total  

48,800.000 

1,177,975,688 

24 

It  is  estimated  that  this  aggregate  of  humanity  speak  3,0G4  languages, 
and  profess  to  believe  in  1,000  various  forms  of  religion. 

Of  this  vast  multitude,  33,333,333  are  estimated  to  pass  into  eternity 
every  year,  91,954  every  day,  3,730  every  hour,  60  every  minute,  and  1 
every  second.    The  number  of  births  is  larger  than  the  number  of  deaths. 

Still  another  estimate  of  the  earth's  population,  classified  according  to 
race  and  religion,  is  as  follows  : 


Races. 


Religions. 


Whites  550,000,000 

Mongolians  550,000,000 

Blacks  173,000,000 

Copper-Colored.   12,000,000 

The  Christians  are  classified  as  follows  : 
Church  of  Rome.  Protestants 
170,000,000.  90,0,00,000. 

AKEA  OF  OCEANS  AND  SEAS — APPROXIMATE  ESTIMATES. 


Pagans   676,000,000 

Christians  320.000,000 

Mohammedans  140,000,000 

Jews   14,000,000 


Greek  and  East  Church. 
60,000,000. 


Oceans. 


Sq.  miles. 


Pacific  about  78.000,000 

Atlantic   "   25,000,000 

Indian      '•'   14,000,000 

Southern  Ocean  to  30°  about. 25,000,000 
Northern  about   5,000,000l 


Seas 


Sq.  miles. 


Mediterranean  1,000,000 

Black  Sea   170,000 

Baltic   175,000 

North  Sea   160,000 


AREA  OF  SEAS,  LAKES,  ETC. 


767 


In  the  British  expedition  under  Capt.  Nares,  with  the  two  steamers 
Alert  and  Discovery,  to  the  Polar  Sea,  it  was  determined  that  the  depth 
of  that  sea,  at  one  point,  was  about  70  fathoms,  that  the  ice  was  from  80 
to  120,  and  in  many  places  200,  feet  thick,  and  probably  a  century  old  ; 
that  a  powerful  tide  sets  in  from  the  Pacific  under  this  ice  and  extends 
down  the  long  channel  as  far  as  the  northern  part  of  Smith's  Sound.  A 
sledge  party  advanced  over  the  ice  to  lat.  83°  20'  2&'  N. ,  the  most  north- 
erly point  as  yet  ever  trod  by  man.  No  traces  of  human  life  exists  north 
of  lat.  81°  52',  where  the  Esquimaux  appear  to  have  crossed  the  water, 
here  only  15  miles  wide,  into  Greenland,  from  the  large  islands  which 
fringe  the  North  American  continent  on  the  north.  On  the  Alert,  mer- 
oi.iry  was  frozen  47  days  in  all,  and,  in  still  weather,  the  minimum  temp. 
Avas  more  than  70°  below  zero  and  the  auroras  were  neither  brilliant  nor 
of  frequent  occurrence  during  the  long  Arctic  winter,  with  its  unparalleled 
intensity  and  duration  of  darkness  i^roduced  by  the  absence  of  sunlight 
for  142  days.  Birds  do  not  migrate  beyond  Cape  Joseph  Henry,  on  the 
American  coast  of  the  Polar  Sea,  in  lat.  82°  52'  north,  and  the  northern 
limits  of  the  haunts  of  wild  animals  is  about  82°.  Dwarf  oaks,  sorrel, 
poppies,  saxifrage,  and  between  20  and  30  species  of  flowering  plants 
were  found  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  lat.  82°  north,  together  with  fossil 
corals,  a  workable  seam  of  good  coal,  and  evidences  of  the  former  ex- 
istence of  an  evergreen  forest  in  lat.  82^  44'. 

Between  the  Tropics  the  temperature  of  the  Ocean  is  from  77°  to  84°, 
it  diminishes  to  45  5°  at  1,000  fathoms  depth.  In  the  Arctic  Sea  the  tem- 
perature rises  from  8"  to  10*  at  700  fathoms,  and  ^°  at  200  fathoms. 
Divers  report  an  entire  absence  of  motion  in  the  Ocean  at  a  depth  of  30 
ft.,  and  the  Solar  rays  penetrate  200  or  200  ft.  Sea  water  is  salt  and  bit- 
ter at  the  surface,  but  salt  only  at  profound  depths.  The  component 
parts,  with  slight  variations,  are  water,  muriatic  acid,  sulphuric  acid, 
mineral  alkali,  lime,  and  magnesia.  The  deepest  soundings  on  record  is 
9  miles.  Young  estimates  the  Atlantic  at  3  miles,  and  the  Pacific  at  4 
deep.  Copper  globes  are  compressed  at  800  fathoms.  Parry  sounded  in 
lat.  57°  N.  long.  24°  W.  but  found  no  bottom  at  1,020  fathoms. 


Seas. 


ESTIMATED  I.ENGTH  OF  SEAS,  &C. 

Milea     Seas.  Miles.  Seas. 


Mediterranean  2,000 

Carribean  1,800 

China  1,700 

Ked  

Japan  


Black  930 

Caspian  640 

Baltic  600 

1,400  Otliotsk  600 

l,000iWhite  450 


Miles. 


Aral   250 

Hudson's  Bay  1,200 

Baffin's  Bay   600 

Chesapeake  Bay ....  250 


Lakes. 


ESTIMATED  SIZE  OF  NOTED  LAKES. 
Length,  Width        Lakes.  ^^H^^^ 


Miles. 


Superior   380 

Baikal    360 

Michigan   330 

Great  Slave   300 

Huron   250 

Winnipeg   240 

Erie   270 

Ontario   180 

Arthabaska   200 


Miles. 

120 
35 
60 
45 
90 
40 
50 
40 
20 


I  Maracaybo 


Miles. 


150 


I  Great  Bear. 

j  .Nicaragua  

j  Champlain  

!  L.  of  the  Woods 

i  Geneva  

i  Constance  

Cayuga. 


150 
120 
123 
70 
50 
45 
36 


Width 
Miles. 


60 


Ladoga   125    75 


Many  of  the  above  lakes  are  very  deep,  and  it  is  owing  to  this  cause 
that  they  never  freeze. 


NOTED  KIVEllS  AND  MOUNTAINS. 


Rivers. 


LKNGTn  OF  NOTED  KIVERS  ON  THE  GLOBE. 

I     Ijocalily.   |     Miles.       liivers.     |     Looallly.   |  Miles. 


Amazon  

La  Plata.... 

Aronoco  

Mississippi  . . 

IMispouri  

Arkansas  — 

lied  River  

/Columbia  

Ohio  

Colorado  

Snsqnehanna 

James  

Potomac  


....Brazil   3200 

 S.  America  2215 

"    1500 

 N.  America   3200 

"   4500 

  2500 

"    2500 

"   1090 

"    1000 

"    1000 

"    400 

"    500 

"    400 

"    325 


St.  LawrcnceCanada   1960 

St- John  N.  lirnnswick....  450 

Murray  Australia   .tOOO 

Mackenzie  . . . Brit.  Ter   2500 

Obi  Siberia   2800 

]Janube   Austria  &  Turkey  1790 

Don  Russia   1000 

Dneiper   "   ,1000 

Euphrates...  .from  Ararat   2020 

Rhine   Germany   800 

AVolga  from  the  Waldais  2100 

Lena  Siberia   2500 

Maykiang  Siam   1700 

Hoang-Iio .  . .  China   3000 

Yang-tse-kia    2500 

Ganges  India   1650 

Brahmapootra  "    1600 

Indus   "    1770 


Hudson   " 

Nile  Egypt  and  Nubia  2G90 

Niger  Africa   2300 

Jumna  llindostan   680 

Qogra   "   500 

The  Ganges,  in  India,  derives  its  origin  from  a  Himalayan  glacier,  it 
has  a  fall  of  4  inches  to  the  mile,  and  rises  from  April  till  August  32  ft. 
creating  a  flood  100  miles  wide.  The  Delta  of  the  Ganges  is  200  miles  long, 
consisting  of  woods  called  Sunderbunds.  It  pours  down  from  80  to  400- 
000  cubic  ft.  in  a  second.  The  force  of  the  tides,  which  rise  from  13  to  16 
ft.  high,  with  the  floods,  frequently  form  and  destroy  islands  25  miles  in 
diam.  The  Nile  has  advanced  16  ft.  per  annum  since  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  and  raises  the  soil  of  Egypt  4  ins.  in  a  century.  The  prodi- 
gious quantities  of  miid  brought  down  by  large  rivers  enlarges  continents 
at  their  estuaries,  and  form  deltas  of  alluvial  land  which  eventually  form 
plains  of  immense  fertility.  The  Mississippi,  the  Amazon,  the  Nile,  the 
Danube,  the  Po,  the  Gauges,  and  the  Niger  are  striking  examples  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement.  The  Yellow  River,  in  China,  is  said  to  carry 
down  2,000,000  cubic  ft.  of  alluvium  every  day.  The  Euphrates  covers  the 
Babylonian  plains  to  a  depth  of  12  ft.  between  March  and  June. 

THE  HIGHEST  MOUNTAINS   ON   THE  GLOBE. 


Kunchainyunga,  Himalayas  -  - 
Sorata,  Andes,  highest  in  America 

Illimani,  Bolivia   

Chimborazo,  Ecuador  -  -  .  .  - 
Hindoo-Koosh,  Afghanistan  •  - 

Cotopaxi,  Ecuador  

Antisana,  " 

St.  Elias,  British  America  -  - 


Feet.  Miles 
28,178  5X 


25,380 
21,780 
21,444 
20,000 
19,408 
19,1.50 
18,000 
17,735 
10,000 
15,000 
15,770 
15  700 
15,5,50 


Mt.  Brown,  highest  Rocky  Mt.  pk 
Mont  Blanc,  highest  in  Europe  ■ 
Mowna  Roas,  Owhyhee  -  .  .  • 
Mount  Rosa,  Alps,  Sardinia  •  • 
Pinchinca,  Ecuador-  -  -  -  .  -  15,200 
Mount  Whitney,  Cal  .  .  -  ,■  -15,000 
Mount  Fairweathcr  Russ.  Poss.  •  14,790 
Mount  Shasta,  California-  -  -  -  14,450 
Pikes  Peak,  California  14  320 

Mount  Ophir,  Summatra  -  -  .  -  13,800 
I  reniont's  Peak,  R.  M.  Wyoming  13,570 
Long's  Peak,  R.  M.  California  -  -  13,400 
Mount  lianier,  Washington  Ter.  -  13,000 
Mount  Ararat,  Armenia  ...  -  -  12,700 
Peak  of  TenerifEe,  Canaries  -  -  -  12,230 


Tlie  raountains  subtract  no  more 
than  the  roughness  ou  the  coat  of  an 


Feet.  MilM. 

Miltsin,  Morocco    -   12,000  2% 

Mount  Hood,  Oregon   11,570  2V 

Simplon,   Alps    -  -   11,542  2^ 

Mount  Lebanon,  Syria  -   -  -   -  11,000  2X 

Mount  Perdu,  France    .   -  -  -  10,950  2 

Mount  St.  Helen'?,  Oregon-  -  -10,1.58  1^^ 

Mount  Etna,  Sicily   10,050  1J4 

Olympus,  Greece  9,754  1% 

St  Gothard,  Alps   9,080  1% 

Pilate,  Alps   9,050  1?| 

Mount  Sinai,  Arabia   8.000 

Pindus   Greece  -  7,077  IJ4 

Black  Mountain,  New  Caledonia    6,470  1^ 

MountWashington,  N.  Hampshire  0,234  IX 

Mount  Marcy,  New  York  -   ■  -    5.4'>7  1 

Mount  Heclii,  Iceland-   -  -   -  -    5,000  1 

Ben  Nevis,  Scotland   4,400  % 

Mansfield,  Vt.   4,280  % 

Peaks  ot  Otter,  Va.   4,200  % 

Ben  Lawers,  Scotland  -  -  -  -    4,0.'W  % 

Parnassus,  Greece  ------   3,950  % 

Vesuvius,  Naples    ------   3,932  % 

Snowdon,  England   3,500  %. 

Strom  boll   3,850  % 

Ben  Lomond   3,280  % 

Mounc  Carmel  2,000 

Gibraltar  1,470 

from  the  globular  form  of  the  earth 
orange.   The  highest  elevations  are 


NOTED  MOUNTAINS,  TOWERS,  ETC. 


7G9 


within  the  tropics,  the  next  in  the  temperate  zones,  the  next  in  the  frigid, 
and  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  varies  with  the  heat  of  the  surface;  sec 
page  119:  The  Andes  chain  extends  4600  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Daricn 
to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  same  chain  is  continued  northward 
through  Mexico,  the'United  States,  and  the  British  Possessions  by  the 
liocky  Mountains  and  other  immense  elevations  which  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  continent.  These  enormous  mountain  masses  exert  a 
genial  action  on  the  climfite,  form  the  source  of  rivers,  and  determine  the 
water  shed  of  streams.  The  mountains  of  America  afford  incontestable 
proof  that  the  New  World,  geologically  considered,  is  really  the  oldest 
formation  of  the  present  distribution  of  land  on  the  globe.  Irresistible 
subterranean  forces  are  still  active  on  the  Andes ;  from  Cotopaxi  south- 
vrard,  over  40  volcanoes  are  continually  at  work,  causing  havoc,  and 
belching  out  lava,  sulphur,  &c.  In  many  cases  volcanic  action  impels 
mountainous  waves  from  the  sea,  carrying  vessels  several  leagues  inland 
over  cities,  towns,  &c.  In  174G  an  official  account  reported  all  the  in- 
habitants of  Callao,  4000,  destroyed,  19  vessels  sunk,  and  4,  including  a 
frigate,  were  carried  far  inland  over  the  city.  Wafer  saw  3  vessels 
Avhich  had  been  carried  5  or  G  leagues  overland.  A  similar  irruption 
took  place  on  this  coast  only  a  few  months  ago,  attended  by  fearful 
suffering  and  awful  loss  of  life  and  property.  The  Andes  contain  no 
granite  at  a  higher  elevation  than  8  to  10,000  ft.,  the  tops  beiug  crowned 
with  whinstone,  and  the  crevices  and  fissures,  many  of  them  descending 
below  the  sea  level,  are  even  more  astonishing  than  their  heights. 

In  Asia,  the  Himalayian  ranges  extend  about  1400  miles,  the  mountain 
ridges  being  from  50  to  60  miles  wide,  extending  from  N.  W,  to  S.  E. 
They  form  the  source  of  all  the  rivers  of  the  Eastern  seas,  and  have 
furnished  the  materials  which  compose  the  soil.  There  are  5  j^asses  over 
them,  some  as  high  as  15,000  f'  •,  at  15,500  ft.,  beds  of  fossil  shells  exist. 
The  European  and  Asiatic  mountains  are  topped  with  granite.  Regard- 
ing the  Alps,  and  the  various  snow  levels  over  the  globe,  see  pp.  118-19. 

In  Scotland,  the  Grampian  range  includes  Cairngorm,  4095  ft. ;  Macdui, 
4,327  ;  Shehalliou,  3,550;  Benmore,  3,870  ;  Ben  LaAvers,  4,030;  Cairn toul, 
4,225;  Ben  Avon,  3,967 ;  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest,  4,400  ft,  has  a  precipice 
of  1,500  ft.,  and  is  always  capped  Avith  ice  and  snow;  north  of  the  Cale- 
donian canal  is  anotlier  range  of  great  altitude,  all  vast  masses  of  barren 
granite.  In  all  there  are  about  45  elevations  north  of  the  Tweed,  exceed- 
ing 2,000  ft. 

HEIGHT  OF  NOTED  MOmiMENTS,    TOWERS,  &C. 

Feet. 


Feet- 

Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Munich  34^ 

Dome  of  the  Invalides,  Paris  347 

Magdeburg  Cathedral  337 

St.  Mark's  Cliiircli,  Venice  328 

Assinelli  Tower,  Bologna  3l4 

Trinity  Church,  New  York  283 

Column  at  Delhi,  India  202 

Porcelain  Tower,  China  242 

Canterbury  Tower,  England  2'iB 

Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Paris  232 

Bunker  Hill,  Monument  220 

Leaning  Tower,  Pisa,  Italy  202 

Monument,  London  202 

Monument,  PI.  Vendome,  Paris. .  153 
Trajan's  Pillar,  Rome  151 

Nearly  70  round  towers,  with  cromlechs,  exist  in  different  parts  of 
reland,  from  30  to  135  ft.  high. 

For  other  interesting  items  on  this  subject,  see  page  125. 

33 


Pyramid  of  Cheops,  Egypt  543 

Antwerp  Cathedral,  Belgium  47C 

Strasburg  Cathedral,  France  474 

Tower  of  Utrecht,  Holland  ,  464 

Steeple  of  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna...  460 

Pyramid  of  Cephenes,  Egypt  456 

St.  Martin's  Church,  Bavaria  456 

St.  Peter's,  Rome  448 

Salisbury  Spire,  Englajid  410 

St.  Paul's,  London,  England  404 

St.  Peter's,  at  Hambro'  395 

Cathedral  at  Florence,  Italy  384 

Cremona  Cathedral,  Italy  372 

Seville  Cathedral,  Spain  360 

Pyramid  of  Sakkarah,  Egypt. . . .  356 


770  AREA,  &C.,  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Population,  growth,  &c.,  of  the  united  states  and  TERuiTORiEa 


1819 
183G 
1850 
Sett 
Sett 
1845 
Sett 
1818 
1816 
1846 
3,859 
1792 
1812 
1820 
Sett 
Sett 
1837 
1859 
1817 
1821 
1866 
1864 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1802 
1859 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1796 
1848 
1791 
Sett 
1862 
1848 


144,317 
52,240 
107,000 
led  1636 
led  1627 
54,477 
led  1682 
34,620 
63,867 
81,929 
107,206 
73,077 
76,556 
208,335 
led  1635 
led  1620 
200,000 
150,042 
75,532 
60,580 
60,000 
40,000 
led  1623 
led  1624 
led  1614 
led  1650 
41,915 
52.465 
led  1685 
led  1637 
led  1670 
77,262 
250,000 
85,539 
led  1607 
376,688 
210,596 


Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Connecticut, 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Masacliuo'3 

Michigan, 

Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Nebraska, 

Nevada, 

N.  Hamps'e, 

New  Jersey, 

New  York, 

N.  Carolina, 

Ohio, 

Oregon, 

Pennsylv'na, 

R.  Island, 

S.  Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

W.  Virginia, 

Wisconsin, 


Total  States, 

TERRITORIES. 

Arizona, 
Colorado; 
Dakota, 

District  of  Columbia, 
Idaho, 

Montana,  " 
New  Mexico, 
Utah, 

W  ashington, 
Wyoming, 

Total  Territories, 

Total  U.S.  andTer., 


^2 


50,722 
52,398 
188,981 
4,750 
2,120 
59,248 
58,000 
55,410 
33,809 
55,041 
81,318 
37,630 
41,346 
35,000 
11,124 
7,800 
56,451 
83,531 
47,156 
65,350 
75,995 
81,539 
9,280 
8,320 
47,000 
50,704 
39,964 
95-274 
46,000 
1,306 
34,000 
45,660 
274,356 
10,212 
38,352 
23,000 
53,924 


1,950,171 


113,916 
104,500 
147,490 
60 
90,930 
113,776 
121,201 
80,056 
69,i^l4 
93,107 


.a . 


996,992 
484,471 
560,247 
537,454 
125,015 
187,748 
1,184,109 
2,539,891 
1,680,637 
1,194,020 
364,399 
1,321,011 
726,915 
626,915 
780,894 
1,457,351 
1,184,059 
439,706 
827,922 
1,721,295 
122,993 
42,491 
318,300 
906,096 
4,382,759 

I,  071,361 
2,665,260 

90,923 
3,521,951 
217,353 
705,600 

II,  250,520 
818,579 
330,551 

1,225,163 
442,014 
1,054,670 


965,032 


38,115,641 


9,658 
39,864 
14,181 
131,700 
14,999 
20,595 
91,874 
86,786 
23,955 

9,118 


442,730 


2,915,203  38,558.641 


1,550,544 
528,349 


857,039 


1,651,912 
1.331,031 

598,429 


246,280 
52,540 


1,026,502 
4,705,208 


258,239 
925,145 


1,236,729 


805 
38 
2:3 
C30 
127 
402 
3 ,020 
2,998 
2,175 
731 


567 
35; 
505 
408 
1,285 

823 
862 
838 


661 
633 

2,728 
937 

3,100 
4 

3,006 
.  108 
'973 
1,253 
451 
562 
1,379 
361 
►  961 


32,120  59,587 


32,120 


POPULATION,  &C.,  OF  VARIOUS  COUNTPaES. 


771 


POPULATION,  AREA,  &c..  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL   COUNTRIES  OF 
THE  WORLD. 


Countries. 


China  

British  Empire  

Russia  

United  States  and  Alaska. 

France   

Austria  and  Hungary  

Japan   

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

German  Empire  

Italy  

Spain  

Brazil  

Afghanistan  

Turkey  

Arabia  

Mexico  

Turkestan  

Sweden  and  Norway  

Aram  

Persia  

Belgium  

Birmah  

Bavaria  

Siam  

Portugal  

Holland  

New  Grenada  

Chili  

Laos  , 

Switzerland  , 

Peru  , 

Bolivia  

Argentine  Republic  

Wurtemburg  

Deimiark  

"Venezuela  

Baden  

Greece,  

Guatemala  

Ecuador  

Paraguay  

Hesse  

Liberia  

.San  Salvador  

Hayti  , 

Boloochistan  

Nicaragua  

Malaya,  etc  

Uraguay  

Honduras  , 

San  Domingo  , 

Cost  a  Rico  

Hawaii  '.  


Populati'u. 


440,500,000 
22(!,817,108 
81,925,400 
38,925,600 
36,469,800 
35,904,400 
34,785,300 
31,817,100 
29,906,092 
27,439,921 
16,642,000 
10,000,000 
6,000,000 
10,463,000 
8,500,000 
9,173,000 
4,800,000 
5,921,300 
6,000,000 
5,000,000 
5,021,300 
7,000,000 
4,861,400 
5,500,000 
3,995,200 
3,688,300 
3,000,000 
2,000,000 
2,000,000 
2,629,100 
2,500,000 
2,000,000 
1,812,000 
1,818,000 
1,784,000 
1,500,000 
1,461,300 
1,457,900 
1,180,300 
1,300,000 
1,000,000 
823,138 
718,000 
600,000 
572,000 
500,000 
350,000 
500,000 
300,000 
350,000 
130,000 
165,000 
62,950 


Area  in 
sq.  miles. 


3,741,846 
4,677,432 
8,003,788 
2,603,884 
204,091 
240,348 
149,399 
121,315 
100,207 
118,847 
195,755 
3,253,029 
226,000 
672,624 
1,200,000 
761,526 
414,000 
292,871 
150,000 
635,964 
11,373 
205,000 
29,292 
189,000 
34,434 
12,680 
357,157 
132,616 
130,000 
15,992 
471,838 
497,321 
871,848 
7,533 
14,753 
368,238 
5,912 
19,353 
40,879 
218,928 
63,787 
2,969 
9,.576 
7,335 
10,205 
162,000 
58,171 
60,000 
66,722 
47,092 
17,827 
21,505 
7,633 


Capitals. 


Pekin  

London  

St.  Petersburg. 
Wa.shington, . . 

Paris  

Vienna  

Yeddo  

London  

Berlin  

Rome  

Madrid  .... 

Rio  Janeiro. . . 

Cabool  

Constantinople 

Mecca  

Mexico  

Bokhara  

Stockholm  

Hue  

Teheran  

Brussels  

Moncliovo  

Munich  

Bankok   

Lisbon  

Hague  

Bogota  

Santiago  

Changmai  

Berne.  

Lima  

Chuquisaca  

Buenos  Ayres. 

Stuttgart  

Copenhagen.. . 

Ciiraccas  

Carlsruhe  

Athens  

Guatemala  

Quito  

Asuncion  

Darmstadt  

Monrovia  

San  Salvador.. 
Portau  Prince. 

Kelat  

Managua  

Singapore  

Monte  Video.. 

Camayagua  

San  Domingo.. 

San  Jose  

Honolulu  


In  the  foregoing  table  the  figures  relating  to  population,  give,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  the  census  of  1870-71. 

lu  Europe  the  five  Great  Powers  are  the  Empire  and  Monarchy  of  Gr 


772 


AliKA,  &C.,  OV  BRITISH  AMKRICA. 


Britain  and  Ireland,  llio  Empiro  of  r.crinany,  tlio  Empire  of  Jlussia,  the  Em» 
piro  ol'  Austria,  and  tht;  Kepublic  of  i'Vancc. 

Tlio  H(!('()nd-rat(i  Powers  .-uc  the  I<  i  ii^'<louis  of  Italy,  R))ain,  Norway  and  Swe- 
den,nnd  Uw.  I'iiiipiro  ofrurkcy  in  K\\vi>[)(:.  Kcgarding  Dh;  latter  it  may  Itesaid 
that  groat  cliangoa  are  impcJuUnif,  owin^  to  the  adverse  issue  of  tlie  war  with 
Knssia,  and  th(!  present  threatening  attitude  of  the  llussiau  ariniee  and  the 
Britisli  lleet  near  Constantinople. 

The  third-rate  Powers  are  the  Kingdoms  of  Belgium,  Portugal,  Bavaria, 
Denmark,  Saxony,  (Jreeee,  Holland,  or  Netherlands,  tlie  Kepublic  of  Switzer- 
land a.nd  the  Duchies  or  lesser  States. 

AREA,  POPULATION,  &C.,   OP  BRITISH  AMERICA. 


Name. 


I  Area  in  Eng.  j 
I     Bq.  miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Capital. 


|Poi)ula- 
tion. 


Hudson  Bay  Ter.  ) 

Red  River,  | 
Brit.  Columbia,  &c. 
Vancouver  Island, 
Newfoundland, 
Prince  Edw.  Island, 
Nova  Scotia  &  Cape  B , 
New  Brunswick, 
Quebec, 
Ontario, 


1,800,000 

314,500 
13,250 
57,000 
:^,173 
19,050 
27,710 
210,000 
125,000 


2,599,283 


;  175,000 
I  10,000 
50,000 
18,000 
12-1,288 
80,857 
330,857 
252,047 
1,111,500 


York  Factory, 
Fort  Garry, 
New  Westminst'r 
Victoria,  • 
St.  Johns, 
Charlottetown, 
Halifax ) 

Fred'n  )  j 
Quebec  )  Ottawa  i 
15,000 


4,000 

3,000 
25,000 

6,70G 
20,000 

7,000 
52,140 
44,821 


CAPACITY  OF  NOTED  CHURCHES. 
Will  Contain 


No.  persons. 

St,  Peter's,  Eome  51,000 

Milan  Cathedral   37,000 

St.  Paul's,  Rome   32,000 

St.  Paul's,  London  25,000 

St.  Petronio,  Bologna   24,400 

Florence  Cathedral   24,300 

Antwerp  Cathedral   24,000 

St.  Sophia's,  Constantinople....  23,000 


Will  Contain 
No.  Persons. 

St.  John's,  Lateran   22,900 

Notre  Dame,  Paris...  21,000 

Cathedral,  Pisa  13,000 

St.  Stephen's,  Vienna   12.400 

St.  Dominic's,  Bologna  12,000 

St.  Peter's,  Bologna   11,400 

Cathedral,  Vienna  11,000 

St.  Mark's,  Venice   7,500 


CAPACITY  OF  THEATRES,  OPERA  HOUSES,   HALLS,  &C. 


Will  Contain 
No.  Persons, 

Gilmore's  Garden,  New  York  8,443 

Stadt  Theatre,  «'   3,000 

Academy  of  Music,       "   2.526 

Academy  of  Music,  Philadelphia.  2,865 

Carlo  Felice,  Genoa..  2,560 

Opera  House,  Munich  2,307 

Alexander,  St.  Petersburg  2,332 

San  Carlos,  Naples  2,240 

Adel phi  Theatre,  Chicago   2,238 

Music  Hall,  Boston  2,585 

Academy  of  Paris  2,092 

Imperial,  St.  Petersburg.   2,160 

La  Scala,  Milan  2,113 

Covent  Garden,  London  2,684 

Boston  Theatre,  Boston  2,972 

Grand  Ofiera  H^l,  New  Orleans,  2,052 


Will  Contain 
No.  Persons. 

St.  Charles,  Th.,  N.  Orleans.  2,178 

Grand  Opera  House,  New  York  1,883 
Booth's  Theatre,  "  1.807 

Opera  House,  Detroit  1,790 

Mc Vicar  Theatre,  Chicago  1,786 

Grand  Opera  House,     "   1,786 

Ford's  Opera  House,  Baltimore. .  1,720 

Nat.  -Theatre,  Washington  1,709 

De  Bar's  Opera  House,  St.  Louis  1,696 

Cal.  Theatre,  San  Fran  1,651 

Euclid  Av.,  Op.  H..  Cleveland. . . .  1,650 

Opera  House,  Berlin  1,6.36 

Opera  House,  Albany  1,404 

Hooley's  Theatre,  Chicago  1,373 

Coulter  Op.  H.,  Aurora,  111  1,004 

Opera  House,  Montreal   928 


MEASUREMENT  OF  TIME. 


773 


Measurement  of  time,  table. 

60  seconds   1  minute. 

60  minutes  1  hour. 

24  hours  1  day. 

7  days  1  week. 

25  days  ;  1  lunar  month. 

28,  29,  30,  or  31  days  1  calendar  month. 

12  calendar  months.  I  year, 

365  days  1  com.  year. 

366  days  1  leap  year. 

365V4  days  1  Julian  year. 

365  d.,  Ph.,  48m.,  49s  1  solar  or  tropical  yeS4'. 

365  d.,  6  h.,  9  m.,  1"^  s  1  siderial  year. 

365  d.,  C.13  m.,  49.3  s  1  anomalistic  year. 

10  years  1  decade. 

10  decades,  or  100  years  1  century. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Yr.  Da.  Hr.  Min.  Sec. 

1          =:         3651/4         =         8766         =         U25960        =  3155760C 
1  =  24         =  1440        -=  86400 

1          =  60        =  3600 

1        =  CO 

Scale  of  units :— 60,  00,  24,  3651/4. 

The  tropica'l  (or  solar  year)  and  the  sidereal  years  are  the  same,  and 
the  tropic  is  only  an  anticipated  solar  mark  before  the  sidereal  year  is 
completed.  The  anomalistic  year  is  an  advance  of  tlie  orbit  as  part  of 
he  solar  system  in  space,  and  its  excess  over  the  sidereal  year  is  the 
stellar  measure  of  the  annual  advance  of  the  whole  system;  the  mean 
velocities  are  uniform,  and  the  times  as  the  spaces. 
The  diurnal  revolution  of  the  earth  causes  the  difference  iu  time,  etc., 
illustrated  in  the  following 

LONGITUDE  AND  TEME  TABLE. 
For  every  hour  of  fime  there  is  a  difference  of  15°  in  longitude. 
"         minute  "         "  "         15/         "  • 

"         second  "         "  "         15'/  " 

"         degree  of  longitude  "  "  4m.  in  time. 

"         minute  "         "  "  4  sec.  " 

"        second  "         "  "  ^\  sec.  " 

360°  =  1  revolution  of  the  earth,  or  1  day. 
1440^/ =1        "         "  "  " 

1440     360  =  4  minutes,  or  1  degree. 

Add  difference  of  time  for  places  east,  and  subtract  it  for  places 
■WEST  of  any  given  locality.  The  greatest  circumference  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  24,930  miles.  i°  of  that  circumference  is  l-360th  of  that  num- 
ber, or  691  miles.  Hence  a  geogrnphical  or  nautical  mile  is  equal  to  1' 
of  the  earth's  greatest  circumference,  or  a  trifle  more,  the  1st  mile  and 


774 


DIVISIONS  OF  THE  CIRCLK,  &C. 


49  rods.  The  following  table  cxliibits  the  divisions  of  ttik  circle, 
as  used  by  geographers,  aiitroiiomers,  surveyors,  navigators,  &c.  : — 


CO  seconds  CO  inako 
CO  minutes  " 
30  degrees  " 

90  degrees  " 

4  quadrants  or 
12  signs  " 

C.  i. 
1.       =  1 


1  minute, 

1  degree, 

1  sign, 
(  1  quadrant, 
(  1  right  angle, 
)  -,  (  circumference 


marked 


6,g 

quad. 


(     or  circle 


EQUIVALENTS. 


=        3G0  = 


// 

=  129C000 
=  108000 

=  3eoo 

=  60 
I  circle  is  90,  ^  circle  is 


21600 

1       =         60        =  ISOO 
1         =  60 
1 

Note.— A  full  circle  is  360°,  \  circle  is  180°,  _ 
60°.   The  distance  around  a  circle  is  called  its  circumference.     The  dis- 
tance across  its  diameter,  and  any  section  of  its  chrcumfereuce  is  called 
an  arc. 


^  The  above  figure  displays  the  various  imaginary  lines,  consisting  of 
the  great  and  less  circles,  axis,  and  poles  of  the  earth.  The  next  ligure 
exhibits  the  geographical  division  into  zones,  tropics,  and  circles. 

Leap  year,  called  Bissextile,  comes  every  4tli  year  and  contains  36G 
days,  by  the  addition  of  one  day  to  February.  Three  leap  years  are 
omitted  in  400  years,  but  109  leap  years  in  450  years  v^ould  be  exact.  In 
common  business  affairs,  30  days  compose  a  month,  and  52  weeks  a  year. 
The  Lunar  Cycle,  or  Golden  Number,  is  a  term  of  19  years,  after  which 
the  changes  of  the  moon  return  on  the  same  days  of  the  month.  The 
Solar  Cycle  Is  a  period  of  28  years,  when  the  days  of  the  week  again 
return  to  the  same  days  of  the  month.  Owing  to  an  error  in  the  Julian 
calendar  it  was  decreed  by  the  British  Government  that  the  day  follow- 
ing the  2nd  of  September,  1752,  should  be  called  the  14th  day  of  Septem- 
ber, or  that  11  days  should  be  stricken  from  the  calendar;  hence,  time, 
previous  to  this  decree,  is  called  Old  Style  (0.  S.),  and  since,  New  Style 
(N.  S).  In  Russia,  time  is  still  reckoned  by  the  Old  Style,  hence  their 
dates  are  12  days  behind  ours.   The  legal  or  civil  day  begins  and  ends  at 


VARIOUS  EPOCHS. 


775 


12  p.m.  The  astronomical  day  begins  and  ends  at  12  m.  As  to  Epochs, 
the  Christian  Era  was  first  invented  and  introduced  at  Rome  by  Dionysius, 
a  monk,  in  527,  adopted  in  France,  in  750;  in  Spain,  in  1340;  and  in  Portu- 
gal, in  1410.  It  was  first  used  in  books  in  748.  The  birth  of  Christ,  was, 
however,  four  years  earlier,  that  is  in  1878,  really  1882  since  his  birth;  the 
chronology  was  not  inquired  into  until  the  reign  of  Justinian.  The  46 
years  of  tho  Julian  calendar  was  the  first  of  our  era.  The  Hegira,  or 
Flight,  took  place  July  1G,622,  and  is  the  Mohammedan  era.  Their  year  is 
12  funar  months,  or  354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes ;  and  eleven  days  being 
lost  a  year  must  be  allowed  every  33,  to  reconcile  their  dates  with  ours. 
Greek  Olympiads  of  4  years  began  776  B.  C,  and  were  continued  until 
the  5th  century.    The  era  of  the  Selucida?  311  B.  C,  of  Alexander  323 

B.  C,  of  the  siege  of  Troy  1209  B.  C,  of  the  founding  of  Rome  754  B.  C, 
of  the  battle  of  Actium  31  B.  C,  of  the  Ca?sars  38  B.  C,  of  Tyre  125  B. 

C,  of  Abraham  2016,  of  Moses  1582,  of  Antiocli  49,  were  also  used  by 
various  early  writers.  The  early  Christians  dated  from  the  accession  of 
Diocletian  in  A.  D.  284. 


The  Vulgate  fixes  the  Epoch  of  Adam  at  4004  B.  C,  which  is  adopted 
by  the  Romish  Church.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  makes  it  4700;  the 
Talmud,  5344;  Hales,  5411;  the  Greek  Church,  5508;  the  Septuagint, 
5872;  Pezron,  5872;  Alphonso,  King  of  Castile,  6934;  the  earlv  Fathers, 
6502  and  5592;  200  other  authorities  estimate  it  from  6984  to  3268  B.  C. 
The  controversy  is  a  hopeless  one,  owing  to  the  prevalent  ignorance  regard- 
ing the  true  meaning  of  the  first  12  chapters  of  Genesis,  which  are  grossly 
misunderstood,  owing  to  the  prevalent  opinion  that  they  form  a  mere 
literal  historical  narrative  concerning  natural  events,  when  the  truth  is 
really  far  otherwise.  Roliin,  the  historian,  traces  np  the  history  of 
several  ancient  peoples  to  Avithin  100  years  of  the  alleged  time  of  the 
flood,  and  is  much  perplexed  to  account  for  the  existence  of  mighty 
nations  possessing  well  organized  armies,  embracing  thousands  of  fight* 
ing  men,  at  that  early  period. 

In  India,  the  priests  claim  a  duration  of  about  2,000  millions  of  years 
vsince  the  beginning,  and  allege  that  Brahma  was  17  millions  of  years 
creating.  They  mention  also  those  deluges  and  periodical  submersions 
required  by  the  claims  of  geology.  Sir  Wm.  Jones  computes  the  first 
book  of  Vedas  to  be  written  about  2,800  B.C.  In  the  year  1,000  A.  C. 
the  Arabs  used  the  pendulum  as  a  measure  of  time.  A  second  calculated 
by  the  movement  of  a  39-inch  pendulum  is  one  with  that  motion,  and 
tlie  movement  itself  is  a  simple  deflection  of  the  combined  motions  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  from  east  to  west,  and  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east. 


776 


ON  TKLKGKArHr. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TELEGRAril  AND  HINTS  TO  LEARNERS. 

The  cut  represents  a  series  of  Grove's  Battery,  such  as  are  generally 
used  in  telegraphs.  When  a  plate  of  platina  and  one  of  zinc  ai-c  placed 
in  an  acid  solution  a  current  tends  to  flow  from  the  platina  to  the  zinc, 
through  any  >  nductor  which  may  he  so  disposed  as  to  connect  the  two. 
In  the  figure  the  galvanic  series  is  represented,  consistmg  of  twelve  pairs  ; 
the  zinc  of  each  of  which  is  connected  Avith  the  platina  of  the  next.  It 
may  he  considered  that  a  current  is  produced  hy  each  of  these  pairs, 
-which  has,  however,  to  flow  in  the  same  direction,  and  fall  in  with  all  the 
others.  Hence  their  intensity  is  multiplied  twelve  times.  It  is  hy  this 
means  that  the  resistance  to  the  j^assage  of  the  current  through  very  long 
conductors  is  overcome.  Each  pair  of  the  hattery  consists  of  a  pint  glass 
tumbler,  a  cylinder  of  zinc,  a  small  porous  cylindrical  earthernware  cell 
within  the  zinc,  and  a  platinum  strip  suspended  within  the  cell  from  an 
arm  belonging  to  the  zinc  of  the  next  pair.  ,A  solution  of  diluted  sulphuric 
acid  is  used  with  the  zinc  outside  the  porous  cell,  and  the  cell  itself  is 
filled  with  nitric  acid.  The  two  acids  are  used  on  account  of  an  increase 
of  power  depending  on  a  chemical  reaction.  The  znic  cylinder  is  amal- 
gamated with  mercury  to  prevent  its  being  acted  upon  by  the  acid  when 
the  battery  is  not  m  use.  A  solution  of  suli^hate  of  soda  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  sulphuric  acid  to  assist  in  accomplishing  the  same  object. 
Two  screw  cups  rise  from  the  hattery,  one  of  which  is  the  positive  pole, 
or  extremity  of  the  series,  the  other  the  negative  ;  to  these  the  wires  are 
attached  which  convey  the  current. 

The  signal  key  is  showed  in  the  cut.  When  the  hand  depresses  the 
key  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  knob  and  metallic  strip  below,  making 
connection  between  the  screw  cups,  and  completing  the  battery  circuit. 

While  the  key  is  depressed  a  continuous  current  passes,  but  if  it  he 
depressed,  and  allowed  to  spring  immediately  up.  only  an  instantaneous 
wave  or  impulse  is  communicated.  ♦ 


The  annexed  cut  sliows  the  registering  apparatus  of  Morse's  Telegraph. 
Two  screw  cups  are  seen  on  the  board  for  the  insertion  of  the  wires 
from  the  distant  battery.  Next  the  screw  cup  is  seen  a  U  shaped  electro- 
magnet, with  coils  of  wire  upon  it,  the  ends  of  which,  "massing  down 
through  the  board,  are  connected  with  the  screw  cups  •  over  the  poles 


ON  TELEGRAPHY. 


777 


of  the  magnet  is  a  little  armature,  or  bar  of  soft  iron,  attached  to  the 
ahort  arm  of  a  lever,  whose  long  arm  carries  a  point  or  style  nearly  in 
contact  with  the  grooved  roller  above.  The  action  which  takes  place  on 
depressing  the  signal  key  at  the  distant  station  is,  a  wave  of  electricity 
is  transmitted  through  the  wire  of  the  telegraph,  arrives  at  the  electro- 
magnet, and  circulates  through  the  coils  of  wire  surrounding  it.  The 
U  shaped  piece  of  soft  iron  inunediately  becomes  a  magnet,  and  attracts 
the  little  armature  down  to  it,  the  long  arm  of  the  lever  is  thrown  up, 
and  marks  the  strip  of  paper,  passing  between  it  and  the  roller.  When 
the  distant  operator  lets  the  signal  key  fly  back  and  the  current  ceases, 
the  iron  of  the  electro-magnet  loses  all  its  magnetism,  and  the  armature, 
with  the  lever,  is  carried  back  by  the  action  of  a  little  spring,  being  a  dot 
impressed  on  a  piece  of  paper.  Should  the  distant  operator  hold  down 
the  key  a  continuous,  current  will  pass,  and  a  line  be  marked  in  place  of  a 
dot  (-)  on  the  paper  which  moves  nnder  the  roller. 

When  a  long  circuit  is  nsed,  the  resistance  to  conduction,  measured 
by  the  amount  of  electricity  which  passes,  is  great,  and  would  not  give 
sufficient  force  to  work  the  Morse  instruments.  To  overcome  this.  Pro- 
fessor Morse  uses  one  instrument  called  a  Relay,  which  is  similar  in  most 
respects  to  the  main  instrument,  but  of  a  more  delicate  electrical  organiz- 
ation ;  it  has  no  work  to  do— simply  to  act  as  a  contact  maker,  enabling 
a  weak  or  exhausted  current  to  bring  into  action  and  substitute  for  itself 
a  fresh  and  powerful  one  from  the  local  battery  which  is  placed  in  the 
office  with  the  printing  instrument,  and  which  supplies  the  electricity 
which  moves  the  instrument. 

The  greatest  recorded  velocity  of  a  signal  through  a  suspended  copper 
wire  is  1,752,800  miles  per  second,  by  Mr.  Hipp.  The  lowest  velocity 
through  a  buried  copper  wire,  750  miles  per  second,  by  Faraday. 

Morse's  Alphabet,  Numerals  and  Pauses. 

A  O-  -  1'  Period   

B   P   o"  

C  -  -  -  Q   Comma   


D  —   R 


  4   Semicolon   

Q "       _^   ^  Interrogation  

1^  ^  7   Exclamation  

J.  •  X   8   Parenthesis  

L   9  Italics   ^- 

M  2  

N  &-  ,  0— '   Paragraph  

HINTS  TO  LEARNERS. 

Compiled  from  Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph,  hy  Frank 
Pope.  * 

The  characters  of  the  American  Morse  Alphabet  are  formed  of  three 
elementary  signals — 
The  dot,  whose  duration  is  the  unit  of  length  in  this  alphabet  ; 
The  short  dash,  which  is  equal  to  three  dots  ;  and 
The  long  dasA,  which  is  equal  to  six  dots. 

The  above  are  separated  by  variable  intervals  or  spaces,  four  in  num- 
ber  : 

*  D.  Van  Nostrand,  Publisher,  23  Murray  street,  New  York. 

33* 


778 


ON  TELEGRAPHY. 


1st— Tho  ordinary  space  between  tlic  olcnientg  of  a  letter,  equal  to  one 
ilot. 

2d— The  apace  employed  in  the  spaced  letters,  equal  to  tioo  dots. 

3(1— The  space  between  the  letters  of  a  word,  equal  to  t/wee  dots. 

4th— The  spac-e  between  two  words,  equnl  to  six  dots. 

Tiie  dot  signilies  a  point  or  a  current  of  infinitely  short  duration,  and 
involves  time,  which  varies  according  to  circumstances,  the  length  of  tho 
dot  increasing  "vvitli  the  length  of  the  circuit. 

In  long  submarine  lines  tho  dot  has  to  be  made  longer  than  the  dasli 
itself  on  short  open  air  lines,  and  the  same  thing  occurs  in  working 
through  repeaters. 

In  commencing  to  learn  telegraphing,  the  beginner  should  acquire  the 
Aabit  of  making  short,  firm  dashes,  instead  of  light,  quick  dots. 

In  the  valuable  Manual  of  Prof.  Smith,  published  by  L.  C.  Tillotsoii  & 
Co.,  New  York,  six  elementary  principles  are  laid  down  as  the  basis  for 
practicing  the  alphabet,  viz  : 

1st  Principle. — Dots  close  together: 

I  SUP  6 


2d  Principle. — Dashes  close  together: 
M  5  % 


3d Prikciple. — Lone  dots: 

E 

4th  Prikciple. — Long  dashes: 

T  L  or  cipher. 


5tii — Principle. — A  dot  followed  by  a  dash: 
A 

6th  Principle. — A  dash  followed  by  a  dot: 

To  send  messages,  place  the  first  two  fingers  upon  the  top  of  the  button 
of  the  key,  with  the  thumb  partly  beneath  it,  the  wrist  being  entirely  free 
from  the  table;  the  motion  being  made  by  the  hand  and  wrist,  the  thumb 
and  fingers  being  employed  merely  to  grasp  the  key.  The  motion  up  and 
down  must  be  free  and  firm.  Tapping  ou  the  key  must  be  strenuously 
avoided. 

The  doionvmrd  movement  of  the  key  produces  dots  and  dashes;  the 
upward  movement,  spaces. 

The  beginner  should  first  practice  the  1st  principle,  making  dots  at 
regular  intervals,  of  definite  and  uniform  dimensions. 

'2d  Principle. — Ma,ke  dashes,  first  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second,  and 
slowly  increase  to  three,  the  space  between  the  dashes  to  be  as  short  as 
possible. 

od  Principle. — Letter  E,  formed  by  a  quick,  but  firm,  downward  move- 
ment of  the  key, 

4th— The  usual  tendency  is  to  make  T  too  long  and  L  too  short.  The 
game  character  is  used  for  L  and  the  cipher,  or  0;  occurring  by  itself,  or 
among  letters,  it  is  translated  as  L  ;  when  found  among  figures  it  be- 
comes 0. 

5th — The  Letter  A  may  be  timed  by  the  pronunciation  of  the  word 
ttf/ra'u. -strongly  accenting  the  second  syllable. 
0th — The  dash  followed  by  a  dot ;  usually  the  student  separates  the  prac* 


PHOTOGRAPHY  MADE  EASY. 


779 


tice,  Tlie  lever  of  the  Morse  instrument  makes  a  sound  at  each  movement, 
the  downward  motion  producing  the  heavier  one,  or  that  representing  dots 
and  dashes  ;  i.  e.,  the  heavy  stroke  indicates  the  commencement  of  a  dot 
or  dash,  and  the  lighter  one  its  cessation.  A  dot  makes  as  much  noise  as 
a  dash,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  length  of  time  between  the  two 
sounds. 

TechniCxVx.  Terms  Used  in  the  TeleCxRAph  Service. 

Li7ie. — The  wire  or  wires  comiecting  one  station  with  another. 

Circuit. — The  wires,  instruments,  etc.,  through  which  the  circuit  passes 
from  one  pole  of  the  battery  to  the  other. 

Metallic  Circuit. — A  circuit  in  Vv'hich  a  return  wire  is  used  in  x)lace  of 
the  earth. 

Local  Circuit. — One  which  includes  only  the  apparatus  in  an  office,  and 
is  closed  by  a  relay. 
Local.  — The  battery  of  a  local  circuit . 

Loop. — A  wire  going  out  and  returning  to  the  same  point,  as  to  a  branch 
office,  and  forming  part  of  a  main  circuit. 

Binding  Screios  or  Term/na^s.— Screws  attached  to  instruments  holding 
the  connecting  wires. 

To  Cross  Connect  Wires. — To  interchange  them  at  an  intermediate  ' 
station. 

To  Put  Wires  Straight. — To  restore  the  usual  arrangement  of  wires  and 
instruments. 

To  Ground  a  Wire,  or  Put  on  Ground. — To  make  a  connection  between 
the  line  wire  and  the  earth. 

To  Open  a  Wire. — To  disconnect  it  so  that  no  current  can  pass. 

Reversed  Batteries. — Two  batteries  in  the  same  circuit,  witli  like  poles 
towards  each  other. 

To  Reverse  a  Battery. — To  place  its  opposite  pole  to  the  line  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  interchange  the  ground  and  line  wires  at  the  poles  of  the 
battery. 

Escape. — The  leakage  of  current  from  the  line  to  the  ground,  caused  by 
defective  insulation  and  contact  with  partial  conductors. 

Cross. — A  metallic  connection  between  two  wires,  arising  from  their 
coming  in  contact  with  each  other,  or  from  other  causes. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  PORTRAITURE  MADE  EASY 
By  C.  J.  P.  Handev. 
Author  of  "  Puzzle  Writing,"  fee,  &c. 
Instructions. 

Pictures  produced  by  the  agency  of  light  are  called  photographs,  whether 
taken  on  glass  or  paper  ^  These  are  divided  into  two  classes — negatives 
and  positives  ;  negatives  being  pictures  with  the  lights  and  shades  of  tlie 
object  reversed,  while  positives  represent  the  lights  and  shades  as  in 
nature. 

Pictures  taken  on  glass  are  called  positives,  which  are  complete  in  them- 
selves. The  negative  process  is  that  pursued  when  the  intention  is  to  pro- 
duce a  paper  proof.  Paper  i^ortraits  are  not  obtained  like  positives  by  one 
operation  in  the  camera,  but  a  negative  is  taken  from  which  the  copies 
are  procured  by  photographic  printing.  To  take  a  portrait  on  glass — 
either  a  negative  or  positive — requires  five  operations.  First,  giving  the 
glass  plate  a  collodion  coating  ;  second,  exciting  the  glass  plate  ;  third, 
'exposure  in  the  camera  -  fourth,  developing  the  latent  image;  fifth,  fixing 
the  picture. 


780 


I'llOTOGIlArilY  MADE  EAhY, 


ArrARATUS. 

A  camera  is  the  first  rcqnisito.  Tlio  most  convenient  form  consists  of 
two  portions  of  boxes,  one  slidinc:  within  tlie  other. 

The  double-combination  lens  is  used  for  portraiture.  It  consists  of  a 
set  of  three  glasses,  mounted  in  a  brass  tube,  with  a  raclc  and  pinion  ad- 
justment. 

A  camera  stand  is  requisite,  which  should  1)0  from  four  to  five  feet 
high.    A  tripod  stand,  with  a  screw  to  fix  the  camera  with,  is  the  best. 

A  porcelain  l)ath  is  required  to  hold  the  silver  solutioii  for  exciting  the 
collodionized  plate. 

One  or  two  graduated  glass  measures,  to  measure  the  solutions,  esti- 
mated by  fluid  measure. 

A  set  of  scales  and  weights  for  weighing  the  chemicals. 

Two  or  three  porcelain  dishes,  for  liolding  solutions  of  silver,  toning 
bath,  &c. ;  &c. 

A  printing  frame  will  be  required,  after  taking  a  negative  picture,  to 
produce  the  paper  copies. 

,  A  few  packets  of  different-sized  glass,  a  piece  of  wash-leather,  and  a 
linen  cloth,  will  complete  the  requisites. 

DARK  ROOM. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
operations  in  producing  a  collodion  picture,  that  they  should  be  per- 
formed in  a  dark  room.  The  best  and  easiest  way  will  be  to  obtain  a 
small  room  or  closet  Avith  a  window,  and  to  cover  the  window  with  several 
sheets  of  yellow  paper,  which  will  exclude  the  chemical  rays.  A  table  or 
shelf  should  be  fixed  under  the  window,  and  a  pail  kept  at  the  side,  con- 
taining water  for  washing  the  pictures. 

If  a  glass  room  cannot  be  had,  the  photographer  must  arrange  an  apart- 
ment according  to  his  means.  In  selecting  a  room,  he  must  bear  in  mind 
that  it  should  not  only  have  a  good  side  light,  but  a  sky-light,  if  possible. 

In  taking  a  portrait,  the  sitter  should  not  be  opposite  the  window,  but 
a  little  behind  it — a  more  even  focus  is  thus  secured. 

A  proper  background  is  of  some  importance.  A  white  wall  will  do 
very  well,  but  something  a  shade  darker  will  be  better. 

In  focussing  the  lens  have  the  stand  and  camera  placed  seven  or  eight  ft. 
from  the  sitter.  The  better  to  observe  the  image,  a  dark  cloth  is  thrown 
over  the  camera  and  head  of  the  operator.  The  proper  attitude  of  the 
person  sitting  for  the  portrait  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of  the  operator 
Allow  the  sitter  time  to  get  seated,  and  accustomed  to  the  light,  before 
removing  the  cap  off  the  lens.  And  now,  having  concluded' these  pre- 
liminary remarks,  we  will  proceed  to  take  a  picture . 

POSITIVE  PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — The  most  important  chemical  used  in  photography  is  col- 
lodion. As  it  is  extremely  volatile,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  stoppered 
bottle. 

Exciting  Bath. — Nitrate  of  silver,  2  drachms ;  distilled  water,  4  ounces ; 
iodized  collodion,  6  minims.   Filter  before  using. 

Developing  Solution. — Protosulphate  of  iron,  2  drachms  ;  acetic  acid,  2 
drachms  ;  methylated  alcohol,  2  drachms  ;  Avater  10  ounces. 

Fixing  Solution. — Cyanide  of  potassium,  2  drachms  ;  water,  G  ounces. 
This  solution  will  keep  for  months  without  losing  its  strength. 

MANIPULATION. 

TJie  Collodion  Coating. — Having  selected  a  piece  of  glass,  entirely  free 
from  blemishes,  and  quite  clean,  hold  it  as  level  as  possible  by  the  left- 
hand  corner,  then,  in  the  centre,  form  a  good  pool  of  collodion.  Slant  the 
glass  so  that  the  collodion  may  cover  all  portions,  taking  care  that  it  does 


\ 


PHOTOGRAPHY  MADE  EASY. 


781 


not  touch  the  handa.  Pour  the  superfluous  quantity  back  into  the  bottle. 
The  glass  is  now  ready  for  immersion  in  the  silver  bath,  which  is  called 

Exciting  the  Plate, — The  manipulation  may  be  conducted  in  daylight  U]) 
to  this  point ;  but  as  the  immersion  of  the  collodionized  plate  renders  it 
sensitive  to  light,  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  dark  room.  Having  the 
silver  solution  ready,  place  the  prepared  glass  on  the  dipper,  and  im- 
merse in  the  solution.  When  the  plate  has  remained  in  the  bath  about  a 
minute  it  should  be  withdrawn,  then  immersed  for  half  a  minute  longer, 
then  drain  the  glass  plate,  place  it  in  the  dark  slide  of  the  camera,  and 
proceed  with  the  third  operation — 

Exposure  in  the  Camera.  —  Assuming  that  the  camera  has  been  prepared,  ' 
and  the  image  properly  focussed,  remove  the  ground  glass  screen,  and 
insert  the  slide  containing  the  plate.  Desire  the  sitter  to  keep  perfectly 
still,  and  look  at  some  dark  object  ;  then  take  the  cap  off  tlie  lens  and 
allow  the  plate  to  be  exposed  for  twenty  or  thirty  seconds,  then  close  the 
shutters  of  the  dark-slide,  and  return  to  the  dark  room  to 

Develop  the  Picture. — Having  excluded  all  wliite  light  from  the  dark 
room,  remove  the  glass  plate  from  the  slide.  Holding  it  by  the  left-hand 
corner,  proceed  to  pour  on  the  developing  solution.  Begin  by  pouring 
on  at  one  edge,  inclining  the  plate  so  as  to  enable  the  liquid  to  flow  uni- 
formly over  the  surface.  The  first  effect  will  be  the  appearance  of  white 
lights,  then  the  half  tones,  and,  finally,  the  darker  shades.  When  this 
is  obtained,  the  plate  must  be  thoroughly  washed.  It  can  then  be  passed 
on  to  the  next  and  last  operation — 

Fixing  the  Picture.— R?<Mu\g  well  washed  the  picture,  the  door  of  the 
dark  room  may  be  opened  to  observe  the  action  of  the  fixing  agent. 
Pour  this  mixture  over  the  plate  until  the  creamy  appearance  is  dissolved. 
When  this  is  the  case,  it  must  be  again  washed  and  set  on  edge  to 
dry.  As  the  picture  is  now  finished,  it  should  be  varnished  Avith  jet 
varnish,  which  should  be  poured  on  the  plain  side  of  the  glass.  In 
mounting  the  picture,  put  it  into  a  gilt  mat  and  preserver  ;  and  when 
finished,  the  lights  and  shades  Avill  be  shown  to  perfection. 

NEGATIVE  PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — Negative  collodion  differs  slightly  from  positive  in  the 
preparation  of  the  iodized  solution. 

Exciting  Bath. — Nitrate  of  silver,  2  drachms;  distilled  water,  Si^  ounces; 
iodized  collodion,  3  minims. 

Developitig  Solution. — No.  1.  Protosulphate  of  iron,  1  drachm  ;  acetic 
acid,  2  drachms  ;  methylated  alcohol,  2drac]ims  ;  water,  4  ounces.  No. 
2.  Pyrogallic  acid,  13  grains  ;  citric  acid,  15  grains  ;  distilled  water,  4 
ounces. 

Fixing  Solution. — Cyanide  of  potassium,  2  drachms  ;  water,  5  ounces. 

,  MANIPULATION. 

The  Collodion  Coating  is  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  for  positives, 
and  then 

Sensitized,  which  is  accomplished  by  immersion  in  the  nitrate  bath. 
The  plate  should  remain  in  the  bath  from  two  to  three  minutes.  When 
the  collodion  surface  presents  a  nice  even  film,  drain  off  the  excess  of 
silver,  and  lay  the  glass  plate  carefully  in  the  dark  slide,  taking  care  not 
to  allow  any  specks  of  dust  or  dirt  to  get  near  it.    It  is  then  ready  for 

Exposure. — After  exposing  the  plate  for  the  necessary  time,  which  will 
be  double  that  required  for  a  positive,  proceed  to 

Develop. — Having  removed  the  dark  slides  in  the  dark  room,  pour  the 
developer,  No.  1,  evenly  over  the  plate.  As  the  picture  will  appear  sud- 
denly, it  must  be  watched.  Continue  the  action  of  the  iron  developer 
until  there  is  fear  of  the  dark  shadows  becoming  veiled.    When  the  glass 


782 


PIIOTOGRAPUr  MADE  EASY. 


plate  has  been  washed,  pour  into  a  measure — which  must  be  perfectly 
clean — sufflcient  of  the  developer  No.  2  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  plate, 
to  tliis  add  ten  minims  of  the  silver  bath.  This  mixture  must  be  used 
immediately  by  pouring  it  over  the  i)lato.  When  sufficiently  intense,  the 
surface  must  be  again  vrashed.    It  is  now  ready  to  be 

Fixed,  using  the  cyanide  solution.  This  is  to  be  poured  over  the  plate 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  developer,  and  the  surplus  rebottled.  It 
should  now  be  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all  traces  of  chemicals, 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  eventually  spoil  the  picture.  The  nega- 
tive will  now  require  to  be 

Variiished. — The  most  convenient  varnish  for  a  tyro  to  use  is  amber  or 
crystal  varnish  ;  it  is  simply  poured  on  the  i)late,  and  then  drained  off  at 
the  lower  end. 

PRINTING  PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — Exciting  bath;  nitrate  of  silver,  120 grains;  distilled  water, 
2  ounces. 

Toning  Bath. — Acetate  of  soda,  30 grains;  carbonate  of  soda,  10  grains; 
chloride  of  gold,  1  grain ;  distilled  water,  4  ounces.  This  solution  will  keep 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  may  be  used  over  and  over  again 
until  the  gold  is  thoroughly  exhausted,  when  more  must  be  added,  if 
again  required. 

Fixing  Bath. — Hyposulphate  of  soda,  1  ounce  ;  distilled  water,  10 
ounces.  This  solution  may  be  made  up  for  a  fortnight  before  using,  as 
it  is  much  better  for  keeping.  It  must  not,  however,  be  used  a  second 
time,  but  a  fresh  one  made  for  every  batch  of  prints. 

MANIPULATION. 

Sensitizing. — Filter  the  silver  solution  into  a  shallow  dish,  then  take  a 
piece  of  albumenized  paper,  cut  .to  the  size,  and,  holding  the  two  ends,  let 
the  centre  drop  until  the  albumenized  face  touches  the  solution;  then 
lower  the  ends,  and  leave  the  paper  floating.  When  it  lies  flat,  and 
ceases  to  curl  up,  it  should  be  removed,  and,  when  perfectly  dry,  it 
may  be  passed  on  to  the  next  operation. 

Printing  the  Positive. — Take  a  printing  frame  and  remove  the  back 
board;  then  lay  the  negative  in  the  rabbits  of  the  frame  with  the  collodion 
side  upwards,  and  cover  the  face  with  a  sheet  of  sensitized  paper,  re- 
place the  back  board,  turn  up  to  the  frame,  and  expose  to  the  light. 
When  the  desired  strength  of  picture  is  obtained,  remove  the  paper,  and 
proceed  with  the 

Toning  Process. — Having  removed  the  prints  into  a  dark  corner  of  the 
room,  wash  them  in  several  changes  of  water  to  remove  the  nitrate  of 
silver.  They  are  now  ready  for  the  toning  bath,  therefore  immerse 
them  in  a  porcelain  dish,  filled  with .  the  solution.  When  the  color  of 
the  prints  change  'from  a  brown  to  a  purple  black,  remove  them  to  the 
last  operation,  the 

Fixing  Process. — The  pictures  are  immersed  in  the  hyposulphate  solu- 
tion for  about  five  minutes,  then  washed  in  running  water  for  at  least  ten 
minutes.  As  the  fixing  solution  will  greatly  reduce  the  depth  of  the  print, 
it  should  be  over-printed,  to  allow  of  the  reduction,  else  the  detail  of  the 
picture  will  be  entirely  lost. 

Mounting  Prints. — Starch  is  the  most  suitable  adhesive  substance.  It 
is  prepared  by  mixing  a  small  quantity  with  sufficient  boiling  water  to 
work  into  a  stiff  paste. 

Apply  the  starch  to  the  back  of  the  picture  by  means  of  a  brush,  then 
carefully  lower  the  prints  on  to  the  card,  lay  a  piece  of  blotting  paper 
over  it,  and  rub  to  expel  the  air  bubbles.  When  nearly  dry,  place 
under  pressure  for  a  few  hours.   The  picture  is  now  finished. 


PHOTOGRAPHY  MADE  EASY. 


783 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

In  purchasing  apparatus,  it  is  advisable  tliat  the  tyro  should  be  accGtn- 
panied  by  one  who  is  experienced  in  such  matters  ;  any  mistakes  as  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  articles  required  is  thus  prevented. 

The  camera  may  be  made  either  square,  oblong,  or  bellows  body,  ac- 
cording to  taste.  'The  former  is  considered  the  most  serviceable  and  the 
cheapest. 

The  lens  may  be  had  without  a  rack  and  pinion  if  desired.  A  better 
focus,  however,  is  obtained  by  having  the  rack  adjustment ;  it  is  also 
much  easier  to  work,  and  it  is  not  liable  to  shift  when  the  cap  is  removed. 
Some  lenses  are  provided  with  diaphragms  or  stops,  but  as  these  are 
rather  expensive,  I  should  advise  the  young  tyro  to  make  his  own,  which 
he  can  easily  do  by  cutting  different  sized  holes  in  several  pieces  of  stifi 
cardboard,  and  then  makhig  them  to  fit  the  interior  of  the  lens  tube. 
These  diaphragms,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are  only  to  be  used  on  cer- 
tain occasions,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  sun  is  shining,  the  light  of 
course  is  much  too  powerful  for  the  open  aperture  of  a  lens.  It  is,  there- 
fore, requisite  that  it  should  have  a  stop  inserted  in  order  to  retard  the 
rapid  action.  A  diaphragm  with  an  opening  of  about  one  inch  diameter 
will  be  sufficiently  large  for  a  quarter-plate  iens. 

Camera  stands  are  made  of  various  shapes  and  material ;  the  one  most 
recommended  is  the  plain  ash  triijod,  that  being  both  light  and  useful, 
and  the  most  portable. 

The  sensitizing  bath  should  not  measure  less  than  seven  by  five  inches, 
as  that  is  the  proper  size  for  quarter  })lates. 

The  graduated  measures  should  hold  at  least  five  and  ten  ounces  re- 
spectively. 

The  funnel  may  be  either  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  long, 
narrow  neck. 

The  toning  and  fixing  dishes  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  in  order  to 
allow  the  prints  plenty  of  room,  and  preventing  them  adhering  to  each 
other. 

Chemicals  may  be  purchased  in  small  quantities,  but  it  is  not  advisable 
to  buy  collodion  in  less  quantities  than  five  ounces,  as  it  is  extremely 
volatile,  and  soon  loses  its  power  of  action. 

Nitrate  of  silver  may  be  bought  either  in  crystals  or  blocks  ;  the  former 
is  preferable,  as  it  can  be  obtained  in  smaller  quantities  than  the  latter, 
which  is  only  sold  in  one  ounce  boxes. 

Hyposulphate  of  soda,  protosulphate  of  iron,  and  methylated  alcohol  are 
exceedingly  cheap,  as  are  also  most  of  the  other  chemicals. 

The  tyro  must  be  very  careful,  when  using  cyanide  of  potassium,  not 
to  allow  the  least  drop  to  enter  any  cuts  in  the  fiesh,  for,  being  a  most 
deadly  poison,  it  is  likely  to  cause  death,  if  the  part  is  not  immediately 
washed  in  warm  water  and  the  poison  thereby  removed.  As  cyanide 
possesses  an  odor  something  like  peppermint,  it  is  advisable  not  to  place 
it  within  the  reach  of  children. 

The  silver  bath  should  be  filtered  at  least  three  tirnes  before  using  ; 
this  will  ensure  the  removal  of  every  particle  of  collodion. 

The  toning  and  fixing  baths,  after  being  made  up,  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  at  least  four-and-twenty  hours  before  being  used.  The  longer 
these  solutions  are  kept  the  better  they  work. 

If  the  tyro  wishes  to  become  a  first-class  portrait  taker,  he  must  study 
the  following  rules,  and  strictly  adhere  to  them  : — 

RULES. 

1.  Never  allow  any  one  but  the  sitter  to  be  present  when  taking  a  por* 
tmit 


784  CHEMICAL  NOMKNCLATURE. 

2.  Always  make  it  a  rule  to  have  a \)hutc  for  every  tiling,  and  everything 
in  its  i)lacc. 

3.  Never  open  the  door  o£  the  dark  room  Avhen  exciting  or  developing 
a  plate. 

4.  Tlie  camera  and  dark  slide  should  he  dusted  out  every  morning  pre- 
vious to  being  used. 

5.  Never  allow  any  one  to  meddle  with  your  apparatus,  as  it  is  very 
easily  put  out  of  order. 

().  Do  not  handle  your  sitter  more  than  you  can  help,  but  tell  him  in 
what  position  you  wish  him  to  stand,  and  he  will  pose  himself  much 
better  than  you  can. 

niOTOGRArHIC  REQUISITES. 

The  following  is  a  correct  list  of  all  articles  required  in  photographic 
portraiture  :  Square  mahogany  camera,  double  combhiation  lejis,  tripod 
stand,  screw  stand,  scrcAv  top,  porcelain  bath  and  dipper,  two  graduated 
glass  measures,  set  of  scales  and  Aveights,  a  glass  or  porcelain  fumiel,  one 
deep  and  two  shallow  dishes,  a  tent,  printing  frame,  a  packet  of  quarter-size 
glass,  some  filtering  paper,  a  wash-leather,  and  a  linen  cloth,  negative 
and  positive  collodion,  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver,  jirotosulphate  of  iron 
glacial  acetic  acid,  methylated  alcohol,  chloride  of  gold,  hyposulphate 
carbonate,  and  acetate  of  soda,  cyanide  of  potassium,  distilled  water,  &c. 
See  also  page  552. 

CHEMICAL  NOMENCLATURE. 

For  an  intelligent  apprehension  of  the  meaning  of  chemical  terms  we 
will  define  several  relating  to  sulphur,  which,  combined  with  oxygen, 
produces  an  acid.  This  acid  exists  in  two  states  of  saturation,  possessing 
different  properties.  It  is  necessary  to  designate  all  the  saline  compo- 
nents of  these  two  acids  and  to  trace  sulphur  in  its  various  combinations 
Avith  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals.  The  five  following  terminations  de- 
scribe these  five  states  of  the  same  principle.  1.  Sulphurjc  acid  signifies 
sul])hur  in  the  greatest  degree  of  saturation  Avith  oxygen.  2.  Sulphuro?/s 
acid  signiifies  sulphur  combined  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  oxygen.  3. 
Sulphate  is  the  generic  name  of  the  salts  composed  by  the  sulphuric  acid. 
4.  Sulphite  is  the  name  of  the  salts  formed  by  the  sulphuroi(S  acid.  5. 
Sulphurei  a  the  name  of  the  various  combinations  of  sulphur  not  acidu- 
lous. 

In  union  with  oxygen,  carbon  is  carhonio  acid,  combined  with  gas,  it 
forms  carbonic  acid  gas.  Oxydized,  and  composing  salts  with  bases  of 
iron,  minerals,  or  alkali,  it  becomes  carbonate  of  lime,  iron,  or  potash. 
In  union  with  oxygen,  it  forms  with  iron  carburet  of  iron,  &c.  Salts  are 
discriminatea  by  two  .lames,  the  one  denotes  the  acid,  the  other  the  base. 
For  example  sulphate  of  iron  is  a  combination  of  sulphuric  acid  and  iron, 
sulphate  of  soda  is  a  union  of  sulphuric  acid  and  soda,  muriate  of  soda  is 
a  compound  of  muriatic  acid  and  soda.  Salts  composed  of  acids  ending 
in  ous,  have  the  termination  ite  instead  of-  ate.  See  the  following  exam- 
ples in  sulphur. 


sulphuric  acid,  a  strong  acid. 
Sulhpur/eacid,  a  Aveakacid. 
Sulphurei  of  iron,  Sulphur  and  iron. 
Prot-oxide  of  sulphur  is  the  first 
degree. 

Deut-oxide,  the  second  degree. 


Trit-oxido  the  third  degree. 
Pe/'-oxide  many  degrees. 
Sulphate  is  the  salt  of  sulphur ift 
acid. 

Sulphite  the  salt  of  sulphero?^s  acid. 
J5i  sulphate  the  salt  of  a  double 
dose. 

iTypo-sulphurous  acid, — less  oxygen  than  sulphurous  acid  (1  tc  2).  Hypo 
sulphuric  acid— less  than  sulphuric. 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPINGo 


785 


©N  HBJJVTffNG  AN©  TRAPFINO. 

To  Trap  the  Commok  Black  Bear — Select  a  suitable  spot  for  the 
trap  between  logs,  trees,  or  hills,  close  to  their  suspected  hauuts,  and 
secure  it  A\-ell  with  a  short,  stout  chain.  Bait  the  trap  with  a  piece  of 
pork,  mutton,  or  beef,  and  if  the  bait  is  scented  with  honey  it  will  prove 
a  powerful  attraction  ;  the  bear  will  push  himself  forward  where  there  is 
any  thing  to  eat,  being  dominated  more  by  greed  and  voracity,  than  by 
craft  and  cunning.  He  is  a  No.  1.  contractor  at  a  job  for  taking  a  fat 
porker  from  the  farmer's  pen  off  to  the  woods,  and  will  squeeze  himself 
into  a  deadfall  or  figure  4  trap,  intent  only  on  getting  at  the  bait,  but  is 
decidedly  dangerous  to  attack  single-handed  Avith  a  gun,  as  he  is  perfectly 
furious  'when  wounded.  On  one  occasion,  a  bear  emerged  from  the 
woods  and  destroyed  a  sheep  belonging  to  the  writer.  One  of  the  farm 
hands,  a  veteran  hunter  and  trapper,  took  the  remains  of  the  sheep  to 
the  woods  and  placed  them  in  such  a  position,  near  some  fallen  trees, 
that  the  bear  would  be  compelled  to  go  through  a  passage  way  between 
two  logs  in  order  to  reach  the  carcass.  At  right  angles  with  this  passage 
way,  but  back  from  it,  he  secured  a  Spencer  rifle  (loaded  with  slugs)  in  a 
firm  position,  so  as  to  sweep  the  passage,  and  arranged  a  small  cord  ex- 
tending across  the  narrow  avenue,  with  one  end  fastened  to  the  trigger 
of  the  rifle,  and  the  other  to  the  timbers  opposite  its  muzzle.  The  result 
was  a  loud  bang  from  the  rifle  in  the  evening,  a  lantern  hunt  in  the 
woods  at  night,  and  a  dead  bear  shot  through  the  heart  behind  the  fore- 
legs, within  a  few  feet  of  the  rifle.  The  black  bear  is  usually  less  than  G 
ft.  in  length,  domiciles  tinder  the  snow  and  in  hollow  logs  during  winter, 
and  produces  from  1  to  5  at  a  birth,  generally  in  January. 

The  Grizzly  Bear  is  a  huge  brut6  of  vast  size,  sometimes  as  much  as 
8  or  9  ft.  in  length,  and  of  prodigious  strength.  He  is  of  massive  build, 
has  a  thick  stout  neck,  shaggy  hair,  coarse  formidable  tusks,  and  power- 
ful claws  of  great  length  ;  is  altogether  an  ugly  customer  and  requires 
for  his  capture  the  largest  size  trap  that  is  made.  In  the  Northwestern 
(British)  Territory,  on  sighting  the  hunter  he  generally  makes  for  his 
enemy,  and  has  a  curious  habit  when  60  or  70  yards  distant  of  sitting  up 
erect  on  his  haunches  and  taking  a  survey  of  the  field,  as  if  calculating 
liis  chances  in  the  coming  fray,  and  will  repeat  the  examination  at  inter- 
vals of  nearly  20  yards  as  he  approaches.  The  hunter  will  do  well  to 
reserve  his  fire  until  the  bear  comes  within  a  few  yards'  distance,  when, 
if  he  suddenly  extends  his  arms  the  animal  will  come  to  a  full  stop  and 
erect  himself  again.  This  is  the  time  to  take  unerring  aim  at  close  quar- 
ters and  make  sure  work,  for  if  he  fails  he  will  never  hunt  another  bear. 
In  the  Sierras,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  California,  no  animal  roam- 
ing his  native  wilds  surpasses  the  grizzly  in  savageness  and  strength. 
His  Aveight  is  upon  the  average  from  1000  to  1200  lbs.,  and  one  bite  of 
his  jaws  or  one  stroke  of  his  paw  is  certain  death.    On  the  Pacific  coast 


786 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING. 


lie  is  often  luuitccl  by  mounted  Vaqtteros,  -who  usually  go  fn  c  in  a  com- 
pany ;  four  use  the  lasso,  which  they  throw  over  the  hoar  at  O])]xj8ito 
angles  from  ca(!h  other,  and  Avhile  ho  is  thus  held  tight  from  four  oj)po- 
sito  directions,  it  is  possible  for  the  fifth  man  to  approach  and  finish  him 
with  a  knife.  It  is  extremely  dangerous  work,  for  if  one  or  more  of  the 
ropes  should  slip,  unless  it  is  immediately  secured  by  another  successful 
throw,  there  is  danger  of  instant  death  to  the  nearest  man  if  his  horse  is 
not  smart  enough  to  carry  him  off  in  safety.  The  grizzly  makes  jumps 
of  10  feet,  and  when  ho  has  a  chance  to  charge  it  requires  immense  agil- 
ity to  dodge  or  escape  him.  All  of  the  vaqueros  have  a  number  of  lassos, 
and  in  case  of  a  slip  make  prompt  action  with  another  throw.  In  nearly 
every  case  the  grizxly  invites  attack,  he  will  run  from  men  at  an  extreme 
distance,  but  never  fails  to  make  a  savage  charge  if  he  comes  within  hail- 
ing distance. 

Baits  for  Trappers'  use.— 1.  FisJi  Oil,  is  made  by  mincing  eels,  bass, 
trout,  or  other  small  livsh,  and  allowing  the  pieces  to  remain  in  a  loosely 
corked  bottle  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  2  or  3  weeks  during  the 
heat  of  summer,  until  a  sort  of  oil  is  generated,  which  owing  to  its  very 
intense  odor,  is  perceived  by  wild  animals  at  an  immense  distance  and 
forms  a  most  attractive  scent.  2.  Oil  of  Anise.  3.  Oil  of  Ehodivm.  4. 
Assafaitida.  5.  Oil  of  Amber.  6.  Oil  of  sweet  femiel.  'The  last  noted 
articles  (live  in  number)  are  procured  in  drug-stores.  7.  MasTcrat-mnsTc, 
a  most  powerful  scent,  is  an  oil  obtained  from  that  animal,  and  is  con- 
tained in  glandular  sacs  situated  near  the  anus.  8.  Castoremn,  called 
Bark-stone  by  the  fur  traders,  is  a  fatty  substance  of  an  intensely  strong 
odor  contained  in  similar  sacs  in  the  back  parts  of  the  Beaver.  It  forms 
a  more  attractive  scent  for  that  animal  than  any  other.  9.  Otter  musk,  de- 
rived in  a  similar  way  from  the  otter,  is  very  successful  in  attracting  that 
animal,  10,  A  mixture  composed  of  equal  parts  of  fish-oil,  assafcBtida,  musk- 
rat-musk,  and  oil  of  anise,  is  said  by  old  trappers  to  be  the  most  attractive 
scent  obtainable  for  almost  any  animal.  The  odor  readies  far  and  wide, 
forming  what  a  Frenchman  would  call  "one  grand  stink"  of  the  first 
magnitude.  It  is  used  on  baits  for  traps,  and  for  scenting  trails  leading 
to  the  traps  by  sprinkling  it  in  successive  drops  on  the  ground.  11 .  A 
rank  codfish  drawn  along  on  the  earth  by  means  of  a  string,  in  a  direction 
leading  to  the  traps  will  also  answer  this  last  named  purpose  very  well, 
12  .  Musk-rat  musk  and  skunk  musk  mixed.  This  receipt  has  been  gold 
for  $75,  13.  Unslaked  lime  \  lb, ,  salammoniac  3  ozs, ,  or  muriate  of  ammo- 
nia, 3  ozs.  Mix  and  pulverize,  keep  in  a  corked  bottle  a  few  days  until  a 
thorough  admixture  takes  place.  For  mink,  sprinkle  on  the  bait  around 
the  trap.  Keep  in  a  closely  stoppered  bottle.  This  receipt  has  been  sold 
for  $50.  In  using  these  compounds  on  baits  for  trapping  foxes  and  other 
sly  game,  it  is  often  advisable  to  smear  a  little  on  the  trap  in  order  to 
overpower  the  human  scent  arising  from  handling  them  ;  it  would  be  a 
better  way  to  wear  gloves  when  handling  traps,  and  employ  a  slight 
smearing  of  beeswax  or  blood  to  overcome  the  odor  of  the  iron. 

To  protect  the  hen  roost  from  these  depredators,  saw  out  an  aperture 
large  enough  to  admit  the  fox  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  Inside  the 
roost  place  a  box  without  a  lid  and  open  at  one  end.  This  open  end  must 
be  placed  against  the  aperture  in  the  Avail,  on  the  ground,  so  that  the  fox 
will  pass  into  it  on  his  entrance  into  the  roost  and  the  side  without  the  lid 
will  be  uppermost.  Set  your  trap  in  the  box  just  opposite  the  entrance 
to  the  roost,  secure  it  with  a  chain  and  lightly  cover  with  dried  leaves, 
grass,  or  other  material  adapted  to  conceal  it.  Next,  place  a  chicken  in- 
side a  smaller  box  and  nail  slats  on  one  side  instead  of  a  cover,  and  place 
this  box  Mdth  the  slatted  side  downwards,  on  the  top  of  the  first  box,  im- 
mediately over  the  trap  and  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  fox.   The  temi> 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING. 


787 


tation  will  prove  too  much  even  for  a  fox  to  resist,  and  he  will  enter  only 
to  he  caught  in  the  trap.  Mink,  raccoons,  weasels,  skunks,  &c.,  may  he 
caught  in  the  same  manner.  Close  up  every  entrance  to  the  roost  except 
the  one  just  described. 

In  trapping  Mink  in  the  water,  the  trap  should  be  set  in  a  shallow  part, 
not  more  than  one  or  two  inchesj  deep,  Avith  the  bait  suspended  about  18 
inches  above  it ;  this  compels  the  animal  to  erect  itself  on  its  hind  legs,  or 
leap  upwards  to  get  the  bait,  aud  thus  to  tread  on  the  trap  and  get  caught. 
Traps  may  also  be  set  sunk  in  their  beaten  tracks,  or  at  the  mouths  of 
their  holes,  and  concealed  by  dried  grass,  leaves,  &c.,  with  excellent 
effect. 

In  trapping  Wolves  or  Foxes,  use  a  trap  well  cleaned  with  weak  lye ; 
after  drying^  oil  or  grease  it  well,  and  smoke  it  over  burning  hair  or  feath- 
ers. In  handling  it  use  clean  buckskin  gloves  to  avoid  imparting  the  least 
human  odor.  Make  the  bed  for  the  trap  about  3^  ft.  in  diam.  so  that  the 
jaws  when  set  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  Cover  with  fine  dried 
grass,  wheat,  oat,  or  buckwheat  chaff,  secure  it  well  with  a  chain,  level 
all  neatly  to  a  natural  appearance,  and  bait  with  fresh  meat  or  roasted 
cheese.  In  going  and  coming,  your  chances  will  be  increased  by  rubbing 
fish  oil,  or  some  other  powerful  odor  on  the  soles  of  your  boots,  to  scent 
the  way  leading  to  the  trap.  Wolves  and  foxes  are  easily  destroyed  by 
mixing  a  little  strychnine  with  grease  and  concealing  it  in  pieces  of  meat 
scattered  around  "in  places  Avhere  they  haunt.  It  destroys  animal  life  in 
a  very  few  minutes  after  it  is  taken,  but  it  is  injurious  to  the  fur. 

In  trapping  the  Otter,  take  a  large  sized  steel  trap,  set  it,  hang  it  over 
a  fire  2  or  3  hours,  then  take  a  stick  or  board,  and  get  into  your  boat  or 
canoe,  go  to  the  i^lace  most  frequented  by  them,  and  place  the  trap  about 
3  inches  under  water  and  carefully  cover  it  with  leaves,  light  trash  or 
grass  gathered  from  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  and  chain  it  securely.  Be 
very  careful  not  to  touch  the  bank  above  water,  if  you  do,  your  labor  is 
gone  for  nothing.  The  otter  will  leave  at  once  for  a  quieter  home  many 
miles  distant  from  the  scene.  In  visiting  your  trap  never  go  nearer  than 
the  opposite  side  of  the  stream,  or  go  by  means  of  a  boat.  When  caught, 
the  otter  will  point  directly  for  his  den  ;  if  the  trap  is  not  heavy  enough 
to  drown  him,  a  weight  can  be  attached  to  the  chain. 

Raccoons  may  be  caught  in  a  steel  trap  set  on  the  edge  of  a  swamp,  1^ 
ins.  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  secured  by  a  chain  to  a  stake. 
Suspend  the  bait— a  piece  of  a  chicken,  fish,  or  frog — 2  ft.  above  the  pan  of 
the  trap.  The  raccoon  will  leap  for  it,  and  when  he  comes  down,  up  goes 
the  trap  and  holds  him  a  prisoner.  Another  plan  is  to  set  the  trap  on  an 
old  log  in  or  near  the  swamp,  then  get  two  long  poles  or  old  limbs,  set 
one  on  each  side  of  the  log  over  the  trap,  crossing  it  like  the  letter  x,  so 
that  the  coon  will  have  to  go  under  them  and  over  the  trap.  Bait  the 
trap  if  you  wish,  but  the  coon  is  certain  to  run  the  old  log  if  he  comes  in 
the  neighborhood.  One  of  the  surest  Avays  to  catch  raccoons  is  with  a 
good  cur  dog,  one  that  will  not  give  tongue  on  track,  but  will  bark  at  the 
tree. 

MusKRATS  may  be  taken  in  large  numbers  by  sinking  an  old  barrel 
with  its  top  on  a  level  with  the  ground  on  the  edge  of  a  stream  near  their 
haunts.  Half  fill  it  Avith  water,  put  in  a  couple  of  shingles  or  light  strips 
of  board  to  float  on  the  Avater,  on  these  place  small  bits  of  sliced  apples, 
potatoes,  or  carrots,  and  place  some  more  in  the  runs  of  the  muskrats,  so 
as  to  lead  them  towards  the  barrel.  The  rats  will  leap  into  the  barrel 
after  their  food  and  cannot  get  out.  A  cheaper  and  more  effective  con- 
trivance could  not  be  imagined.  In  using  a  trap,  note  a  tree  or  old  log 
with  recent  droppings  on  it  leading  from  the  bank  into  the  stream.  On 
this  set  your  trap,  say,  2  ins.  under  water,  place  a  bait  on  a  projecting 


788 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TUAri'ING. 


stick  about  G  or  8  ins.  above  tlio  pan  of  tho  trap,  securing  tlio  latter  with 
a  cliain  sufiicicntly  long  to  i)crinit  access  to  dee])  water,  but  not  to  go 
asliore.  By  this  moans  tho  I'ur  is  preserved  in  good  order  and  tlio  animal 
is  safely  secured.  In  winter  it  is  quite  common  for  trai)pors  to  take  the 
rauskrata  by  a])])roaching  quietly  on  the  ice  and  driving  a  spear  into  their 
house.  Tlic}'^  must  be  approaclied  with  the  greatest  caution,  as  they  take 
to  tlic  water  at  tlie  slightest  noise.  Another  way  is  to  make  an  opening 
in  the  side  of  their  house,  set  the  trap  in  their  bed,  lightly  ci^vering  it  with 
moss,  &c. ;  allow  a  sufficient  length  of  chain  to  permit  the  animal  to  leap 
into  the  water,  secure  the  chain  by  a  fastening  outside  the  house,  plaster 
up  tho  aperture  with  mud,  retire,  and  await  results. 

SciUiKKELS  may  be  taken  by  setting  a  steel  trap  on  the  upper  rail  of  a 
fence  where  they  frequent  ;  set  a  pole  with  an  ear  of  corn  fastened  to  it 
so  that  the  bait  may  be  suspended  6  or  8  ins.  over  the  pan  of  the  trap, 
and  in  reaching  for  the  bait  the  squirrel  will  get  caught. 

Badgers  may  be  caught  by  setting  the  traps,  carefully  covered,  at  the 
mouth  of  their  holes,  or  in  their  tracks  or  resorts  about  cultivated  fields. 
They  may  also  be  taken  in  deadfalls,  using  a  piece  of  meat  for  a  bait, 
and  if  the  ground  is  hard  frozen  during  early  spring,  they  may  be  ex- 
pelled by  filling  their  holes  with  water.  In  summer  the  water  would 
soak  away  through  the  earth,  during  hard  frost  it  cannot  do  so,  and  the 
animal  is  compelled  to  come  out  of  its  hole  or  drown. 

In  trapping  Beavers,  the  best  place  to  set  the  trap  is  right  at  the 
entrance  to  their  holes  in  the  banks,  a  few  inches  under  water.  Get  a 
small  stick,  and  batter  or  bruise  the  thickest  end  soft,  smear  it  with  bait 
No.  8,  and  stick  the  small  end  in  the  bank  so  that  the  baited  end  will  pro- 
ject a  few  inches  above  the  water  right  over  the  i^an  of  the  trap  ;  the 
beaver,  in  raising  himself  to  get  the  bait,  will  get  caught.  Another  way 
is  to  break  an  aperture  in  the  dam  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  set  the  trap  on  the  upper  side  of  the  break,  and  the  beaver  wall 
get  caught  Avhen  he  comes  to  investigate  and  repair  the  damage.  The 
trapper  will  usually  secure  his  prize  by  placing  his  trap  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  at  tiiose  places  where  they  make  their  landings 
by  springing  from  the  stream  onto  the  bank. 

The  Pine-Majrten  or  American  Sable  lives  in  the  trees  and  preys 
on  partridges,  mice,  squirrels,  hares,  &c,  A  piece  of  either  of  these  may 
be  used  as  bait,  or  the  head  of  a  fish,  pheasant,  or  a  piece  of  meat,  and 
the  trap  may  be  placed  in  a  hollow  tree,  in  any  natural  or  artificial  en- 
closure, or  in  the  track  of  a  deer  ;  in  each  case  let  it  be  well  covered  with 
light  grass,  decayed  moss,  or  rotten  wood,  so  as  to  present  a  natural  ap- 
pearance. 

The  Fisher-Marten  is  attached  to  low,  swampy  ground,  is  partially 
web-footed,  and  subsists  on  fish,  mice,  rabbits,  &c.  It  may  be  caught  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  last-named  animal.  Be  careful  to  scent  the  traj) 
and  conceal  it  properly,  also  attach  it  to  a  spring  pole  or  twitch-up  con- 
trivance, so  that  when  caught  it  be  elevated  out  of  the  way  of  becoming 
a  prey  to  larger  animals,  and  prevented  from  dismembering  itself  to  get 
clear  of  the  trap.  The  Pine-Marten  and  the  Fisher  both  live  and  breed  in 
hollow  trees ;  they  are  by  no  means  very  cunning  or  difficult  to  trap,  but 
are  absolutely  furious  when  caught. 

The  Wood'chuck;,  or  Grotnid  Hoc/,  as  it  is  styled  in  Canada,  constructs 
burrows  in  the  ground,  extending  20  or  30  feet,  usually  entering  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  at  the  root  of  a  tree  or  stump,  under  a  fence,  or  in  crevices  be- 
tween rocks.  They  are  very  destructive  to  crops  in  cultivated  fields. 
Sometimes  they  are  drow^ied  or  flooded  out  of  their  holes  by  means  of 
water,  at  other  times  they  are  shot,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
^>ey  are  caught  by  traps  set  without  bait  (although  they  will  take  toots, 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING. 


789 


corn^or  breaci),  and  carefully  covered  with  paper,  sand,  &c.,  at  the  mouths 
of  their  holes. 

Gophers  may  be  caught  by  making  a  slight  excavation  at  the  mouth 
of  their  hole  and  placing,  a  trap  so  that  the  pau  and  jaws  will  be  on  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  covered  as  above  described. 

HUNTERS'    AND   TRAPPERS'  TABLE, 

SHOWING  THE  VARIOUS  SIZES  OF  IfEWHOUSE  TRAPS  ADAPTED  TO  THE 
CAPTURE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  GAME. 


Kind  of  Animal.       No.  of  Trap 


Sqixrrel, 

Gopher, 

Muskrat, 

"Woodchuck, 

Mink, 

Fislier-Marten, 

Skunk, 

Fox, 

Opossum, 

Kaccoon, 

Badger, 

Otter, 

Marten, 

Beaver, 

Wolf, 

Common  Black  Bear, 
Grizzly  Bear, 


0 
I 
1 

1  or  IVa 
IVa 

IVa 

IV2  or  2 
2 

2  or  3 
2  or  3 
3 

3 


Bait  required. 


Grain,  nuts,  or  ear  of  corn, 
do.      do.  do. 
Carrots,  potatoes,  apples,  &c. 
Roots,  fruit,  corn,  or  bread. 
Fowl,  flesh,  or  roasted  lisli. 
Meat,  muskrat  or  deer  flesh,  fish. 
Mice,  meat,  piece  of  a  fowl. 
Fowl,  flesh,  fish,  toasted  cheese. 
Nuts,  corn,  mice,  piece  of  fowl. 
Chicken,  fish,  or  frog. 
Mice,  or  flesh  of  any  kind. 
Fish,  piece  of  a  bird,  or  otter  musk. 
Head  of  a  fit^h,  piece  of  meat,  or  fowl. 
Fresh  roots,  castoreum  on  the  end  of 
a  stick. 

Waste  parts  of  tame  or  wild  fow?. 
Pork,  beef,  ear  of K;orn,  honey, 
do.     do.         do.  do. 


Note. — The  numbers  0,  1,  and  1^^,  respectively,  are  single  spring  traps  ; 
No.  0  is  the  smallest  size  ;  all  the  others  are  double  spring  traps.  No.  6  being 
the  largest  trap  made.  The  above  baits  should  be  scented,  where  necessary, 
by  a  proper  selection  from  the  preparations  previously  described.  Wildcats, 
foxes,  wolves,  and  all  the  weasel  tribe  Avill  take  flesh  and  fish  of  all  kinds, 
with  this  exception,  that  foxes,  wolves  and  dogs  will  not  eat  their  own  kind  ; 
weasels  of  every  kind  will. 

All  furs  are  best  in  winter,  but  trapping  may  be  done  with  profit  from 
the  first  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  April.  All  fur-bearing  animals 
lose  the  best  part  of  their  fur  as  the  warm  weather  approaches,  and 
reo-ain  it  as  the  cold  weather  sets  in  during  the  fall,  so  that  from  the  first 
ofTviay  to  near  the  end  of  September  trapping  is  but  labor  lost.  This 
process  is  indicated  in  the  case  of  the  muskrat  and  some  other  animals, 
by  the  color  of  the  inside  part  of  the  skin.  Towards  summer  it  becomes 
browii  and  dark,  a  sign  that  the  best  fur  is  gone.  Afterward  it  grows 
light-colored,  and  in  winter,  when  the  fur  is  in  the  best  order,  it  is  alto- 
sether  white.  When  the  pelt  is  white  it  is  called  prime  by  the  fur  dealers. 
The  fur  is  then  glossy,  thick,  and  of  the  richest  color  and  the  tails  of  such 
animals  as  the  mink,  maxten,  and  fisher,  are  full  and  heavy  Beavers  and 
muskrats  are  not  thoroughly  prime  till  about  the  middle  of  winter;  other 
animals  are  prime  about  the  first  of  November.  The  skins  of  animals 
trapped  are  always  valued  higher  than  those  shot,  as  shot  not  only  makee 
holes,  but  frequently  plow  along  the  skin,  making  furrows  as  well  as 
shaving  off  the  fur.  '  Newhouse  gives  the  following  rules  to  trappers  as 
the  result  of  much  experience :  ,  ^        ,  •      -n  * 

1.  Be  careful  to  visit  your  traps  often  enough,  so  that  the  skin  will  not 
have  time  to  get  tainted.  2.  As  soon  as  possible  after  an  animal  is  dead 
and  dry,  attend  to  the  skinning  and  curing.  3.  Scrape  off  all  superfluoua 


790 


ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING. 


flesh  and  fat,  and  1)0  careful  not  to  go  so  deep  as  to  cut  the  fibre  of  ihe 
skin.  4.  Never  dry  a  skin  by  the  fire,  or  in  the  snn,  but  in  a  cool,  shady 
place,  sheltered  from  rain.  If  you  use  a  barn  door  for  a  stretcher,  as  boys 
sometimes  do,  nail  the  skin  on  the  inside  of  the  door.  5.  Never  use 
"preparations"  of  any  kind  in  curing  skins,  nor  even  wash  them  in 
water,  but  simply  stretch  and  dry  them  as  taken  from  the  animal. 

To  Dkodokize  Skunk  Skins,  ou  Soknted  Clothing.— Hold  them 
over  a  lire  of  red  cedar  boughs,  and  sprinkle  with  cliloride  of  lime  ;  or 
wrap  them  in  green  hemlock  boughs  when  they  are  to  be  had,  and  in  24 
lioiirs  they  will  be  cleaned. 

For  arsenical  soap  for  preserving  skins,  see  page  124.  Skulls  of  animals 
may  be  rapidly  prepared  by  boiling  in  water  for  a  few  hours  ;  a  little 
potash  or  lye  will  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  flesh.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  good  glycerine  and  water,  to  every  gallon  of  wliich  is  added  1  oz. 
of  the  crystals  of  carbolic  acid,  constitutes  a  good  preserving  liquid  for  all 
animal  substances.  The  use  of  pure  glycerine,  with  about  ^-  pt.  alcohol, 
and  ^  oz.  carbolic  acid,  added  to  each  gal.,  makes  an  excellent  mixture  for 
preserving  the  tissues  of  soft  animals,  where  it  is  desired  to  preserve  the 
color  as  well  as  the  tissues. 

According  to  M.  Devergie,  of  the  Paris  School  of  Practical  Anatomy,  a 
mixture  of  3  pts  of  glycerine,  and  one  of  carbolic  acid,  injected  into  dead 
bodies,  will  prevent  any  unpleasant  odors  emanating  from  them  for  sev- 
eral months.  Another  high  authority,  Dr.  Lowell,  of  Brooklyn,  recom- 
mends as  a  preservative  fluid,  the  use  of  zinc  chloride.  The  quantity 
used  for  a  human  subject  is  5  gals.  The  apparatus  required  consists  of  a 
porcelain  lined  vessel,  which  is  elevated  to  such  a  height  that  the  solu- 
tion is  injected  into  the  artery  by  the  simple  gravity  of  the  liquid,  as  it 
descends  through  glass  and  rubber  tubing.    Dr.  Lowell  writes  :  "  The 

injection  may  be  made  by  either  arterj^  or  vein  I  prefer  the  brachial 

artery  above  the  elbow  as  the  point  for  introduction  of  the  glass  tube,  for 
the  primary  incision  is  slighter,  and  consequently  divides  smaller  and 
fewer  veins  than  when  I  expose  the  femoral  artery.  I  use  the  gravity 
method,  and  introduce  about  five  gallons  of  the  antiseptic  fluid.  The 
effects  are  eminently  satisfactory.  The  color  of  the  integument  is  im- 
proved." 

To  Preserve  Insects, — After  killing  the  insect  with  chloroform,  paint 
it  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  alcohol — 4  grains  to  the  ounce — 
tlien  dry  in  the  sun.   This  will  keep  it  fresh  and  beautiful. 

To  Trap  Hawks  or  Owls,— Take  a  pole  20  feet  long.  Set  it  a  short 
distance  from  the  house  or  barn,  or  on  the  poultry  house.  Split  the  top 
so  as  to  admit  the  base  of  a  common  steel  trap,  which  should  be  secured. 
When  the  trap  is  set  the  depredators  will  be  pretty  certain  to  alight  on  it 
and  get  caught,  as  they  usually  select  a  lofty  perch  from  which  to  pounce 
upon  their  prey. 

The  Shooting  of  Birds. — The  wanton  shooting  of  harmless  birds, 
merely  for  sport,  is  a  most  heartless  and  cruel  recreation.  The  plea  of 
commercial  necessity  and  self-preservation  may  be  urged  in  behalf  of  the 
shooting  and  trapping  of  wild  animals,  but  no  such  excuse  can  be  alleged 
for  the  extermination  of  harmless  birds.  Let  them  sing  in  the  broad 
vault  of  heaven  to  their  heart's  content,  and  tenant  the  fields  and  their 
forest  homes  without  molestation,  A  hunter  narrates  that  he  once  fired 
at  a  bird  which  he  followed  up  as  it  fluttered  away.  He  said,  "  I  saAv  a 
sight  I  never  will  forget.  There  it  was,  with  its  Avings  broken,  and  all 
bespattered  with  blood,  at  the  nest  with  its  young.  I  felt  so  bad  that  I 
vowed  never  to  shoot  another  bird  ! "  Again  we  say,  spare  the  innocents. 

To  Select  Furs, — A  sure  test  of  what  dealers  call  prime  fur  is  the 
length  and  density  of  tiie  down  next  the  skin.   This  can  be  determined 


ON  BOOK-KEEPmo, 


791 


by  blowing  a  brisk  current  of  air  from  the  mouth  against  the  set  of  the 
fur.  If  the  fibres  open  readily,  exposing  the  skin  to  the  view,  reject  the 
article;  but  if  the  clown  is  so  dense  that  the  breath  cannot  penetrate  it,  or 
at  most  shows  but  a  small  portion  of  the  skin,  it  is  all  right. 

To  Clean  Furs. — Strip  the  furs  of  their  stuffing  and  binding,  place 
them,  if  possible,  in  a  fiat  position,  and  brush  them  brisldy  with  a  stiff 
clothes-brush.  Cut  out  all  moth-eaten  x)ortions,  and  replace  by  new  bits 
of  fur  to  match.  Sable,  chinchilla,  squirrel,  fitch,  &c.,  should  be  treated 
by  an  application  of  hot  bran  (warmed  in  a  pan),  well  rubbed  into  the  fur 
with  the  hand.  Repeat  this  two  or  three  times,  shake  the  fur,  and  give  it 
A  good  brushing,to  free  it  from  dust.  White  furs  may  be  cleaned  by  lay- 
ing the  furs  on  a  table,  and  rubbing  them  with  bran  made  moist  by  waini 
water.  Rub  until  quite  dry,  then  apply  dry  bran.  The  wet  bran  should 
be  put  on  with  flannel,  the  dry  Avith  book  muslin.  In  addition  to  the 
above,  light  furs  should  be  well  rubbed  with  magnesia,  or  a  piece  of  book 
muslin,  after  the  bran  process. 

ON  BOOK-KEEPING. 
In  Book-Keeping,  he  who  buys  what  he  does  not  pay  for  at  the  time,  is 
said  to  go  in  debt  for  it,  and  is  called  a  debtor,  and  he  who  sells  the  goods 
and  gives  credit  for  them  is  called  a  creditor.  In  entering  accounts  it  is 
usual  to  abridge  the  terms  and  write  Dr.  for  Debtor,  and  Cr.  for  Creditor. 
In  every  case  the  recauer  is  always  the  Debtor,  and  the  seller  is  always 
the  Creditor.  In  Book-Keeping,  the  thing  received  is  Dr.,  the  thing  de- 
livered is  Cr.  ;what  you  owe  is  Cr.,  what  owes  you  is  Dr.  The  whole 
system  of  Book-Keeping  rests  upon  charges  and  credits ;  when  you  sell 
to  your  neighbor,  it  is  a  charge  against  him,  and  you  must  charge  him 
with  it  on  the  debit  side  of  the  account  ;  when  you  receive  anything  from 
him,  it  is  a  credit,  and  you  must  credit  him  with  it  on  the  credit  side  of 
the  account. 

The  word  To,  in  keeping  accounts,  denotes  that  the  debtor  owes  for 
what  has  been  sold  to  him,  and  tlie  word  By,  is  an  indication  tliat  the 
debtor  has  made  a  payment  by  which  he  has  paid  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  debt  charged  to  him. 

There  are  two  methods  of  book-keeping,  Single  and  Double  Entry  ;  the 
last  is  employed  in  extensive  and  complicated  mercantile  business,  where 
a  check  is  required  upon  eacli  entry,  to  prove  that  it  has  been  properly 
recorded.  The  first  is  generally  used  by  persons  engaged  in  ordinary 
business,  as  it  is  more  simple  and  sufficiently  correct  for  such  purposes. 
It  requires  but  three  books — the  Day-Book,  Ledger,  and  Casli-Book  ;  to 
these  may  be  added,  a  Bill-Book,  in  which  all  notes,  received  or  given, 
are  recorded,  showing  when  draAvn,  by  whom,  in  whose  favor,  length  of 
time,  when  due,  amount  of  note,  and  any  explanatory  remarks  required  ; 
also,  a  Sales-Book,  in  which  orders  for  goods  or  the  details  of  sales  are 
entered,  and  a  Receipt-Bbok,  where  receipts  can  be  permanently  kept, 

DAY-BOOK. 

The  Day-book  should  contain  statements  of  every  business  transac- 
tion, which  gives  rise  to  persons  owing  us  or  to  our  owing  them,  projv 
erly  arranged  under  the  head  of  debtor  or  creditor.  The  accounts  should 
be  entered  in  this  book  at  the  time  they  were  created,  or  in  the  order  in 
which  they  occurred  in  business. 

The  bookshoxild  be  commenced  by  stating  the  name  of  the  owner  and 
his  residence.  The  day,  month,  and  year,  should  then  be  Avritten,  and 
repeated  at  the  head  of  each  page  corresponding  v/ith  the  date  of  the  first 
transaction  on  the  page,  the  sulDsequent  dates  on  the  page  may  stand 
above  the  transaction  to  which  they  belong.  In  making  an  entry  the 
name  of  the  person  with  whom  we  deal  is  written,  with  Dr.  or  Cr.  at  the 
right  of  the  name,  to  show  whether  he  becomes  debtor  or  creditor  by  the 


792  ON  BOOK-KEEPING. 

transfiction.  Tlion  a  statcmcnl;  nlionld  follow  of  tlio  biisiiiops  done, 
specifying-  tlio  artiolos  bou^lil.  or  sold,  ;iiid  the  ])ri(!C  of  cacli.  'i'lio  total 
amount  sliould  Ik;  added  up  and  entered  in  tlic  dollar  and  cent  colunms. 
Tlic  person  witli  wlioin  you  deal  is  debtor  for  whatever  lie  receives  of  you, 
and  creditor  for  \vl;atever  you  receive  of  hiin,  is  tlic  rule  for  determining 
how  an  entry  must  be  made.  The  entries  in  tlie  Day-book  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  Ledger,  where  all  the  transactions  relating  to  an  individual 
are  recorded  on  a  page  devoted  to  his  account.  The  figure  at  the  left  of 
an  entry  indicates  tlie  page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  it  has  been  carried. 

If  a  mistake  is  made  iu  an  account,  it  should  not  be  corrected  by 
altering  the  original  entry,  but  a  new  entry  made  debiting  or  crediting 
tlie  amount  of  the  error,  thus,  "  John  Smith,  Cr.  hy  [or  Dr.  to]  error  in 
account  of  Oct.  0,  $1.50."  This  will  enable  a  person  to  swear  before  a 
court  that  his  book  contains  his  original  entries  without  an  alteration. 

LEDGER. 

The  Ledger  is  employed  for  collecting  the  scattered  accounts  of  the 
Day-book.  The  accounts  A\hich  relate  to  the  same  individual  are  brought 
together  on  one  page,  shov/ing  all  the  debits  and  credits,  thus  enaljling 
the  owner  to  tell  at  a  glance  the  state  of  his  account  Avith  any  person. 
The  Dr.  accounts  are  placed  on  the  left  hand  of  the  page,  and  the  Cr.  on 
the  right.  Tlie  Ledger  may  be  ruled  according  to  the  example  on  page  794. 
Every  Ledger  should  have  an  index,  in  which  all  the  names  it  contains 
are  alphabetically  arranged,  Avith  the  page  of  the  Ledger  on  Avhich  the  ac- 
count can  be  found. 

Posting  Accounts. — Transferring  accounts  from  the  Day-book  to  the 
Ledger  is  called  posting.  Commence  Avith  the  first  name  in  the  Day-book, 
which  in  our  example  is  M.  Marshall  ;  begin  by  Avriting  his  name  in  a 
fair  hand  at  the  top  of  the  page,  with  his  residence,  if  different  from  your 
own,  placing  Dr.  on  the  left,  and  Cr.  on  the  right  of  the  name.  As  he  is 
debtor  to  us  we  commence  at  the  left  hand,  writhig  in  the  first  column  the 
year,  month,  and  day,  in  the  second  the  page  of  the  Day-book  on  Avhich 
the  original  entry  can  be  found,  in  the  third  the  name  of  the  article,  or 
if  several  articles  are  recorded  under  one  date,  they  may  be  entered  with 
the  general  designation  of  sundries  or  merchandise,  and  in  the  fourth 
column  the  total  amount  of  the  transaction.  Against  the  account  in  the 
Day-book  mark  the  page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  it  has  been  posted  ;  a 
mark  can  also  be  made  to  show  that  it  has  been  transferred  to  the 
Ledger.  Noav  take  the  second  transaction  in  the  Day-book,  and  if  it  is 
another  name  take  a  new  page  in  the  Ledger,  and  proceed  in  the  same 
niauner  as  the  first.  In  this  way  all  the  entries  in  the  Day-book  are 
posted  to  each  person's  account,  every  Aveek  or  month  as  oppoitunity 
may  occur.  By  subtracting  one  side  from  the  other  the  balance  Avhich  is 
due  will  be  found.  The  specimen  page  represents  three  pages  of  a 
Ledger,  to  correspond  Avith  three  persons  Avho  have  transactions  iu  tho 
Day-book. 

Balance  Sheet. — This  may  be  made  to  accomplish  a  double  purpose, 
as  it  will  exhibit  the  state  of  the  owner's  accounts,  by  determining  the 
amounts  OAving  him  and  that  he  may  owe,  and  also  prove  that  the  ac^ 
counts  have  been  correctly  posted  and  added.  The  method  is  as  follows  : 
rule  a  sheet  of  paper  similar  to  ledger  page,  for  debtor  and  creditor  ;  add 
up  all  the  items  of  credit  on  a  page  of  the  Day-book,  and  enter  the  amount 
on  the  sheet,  then  add  the  debits  in  the  same  manner,  and  proceed  in  this 
way  for  whatever  time  it  is  wished  the  proof  should  cover,  add  up  the 
two  columns  and  subtract  one  total  from  the  other,  and  the  difference 
Avill  be  the  balance  of  the  Day-book.  Turn  to  the  Ledger  and  obtain  the 
balance  of  each  person's  account,  and  place  it  under  its  proper  head  ;  add 
these  up,  and  the  difference  will  be  the  Ledger  balance.  If  the  two  bal- 
ances agree,  it  proves  the  entries  have  been  correctly  posted. 


FORM  OF  DAY-BOOK. 


793 


BOOK-KEEPIi^G. 
DAY-BOOK. 

BoBERT  Baker,  St.  Jonx,  N.  B.,  October  2,  1877- 


X  1 


X  2 


X  3 


X  1 

X  : 

X  1 

X  s 


X  3 

X  3 

K  2 

X  1 


M. 


Dr. 


Marshall 

To  8  yds.  of  muslin,  at  9  cts.  a  yd  ^  0.72 

To  4  yds.  of  cloth,  at  $3  a  yd   12.00 

To  1  scythe   1.10 


James  Brown 

Dr. 

To  1  lb.  of  tea  

David  Moore 

Cr, 

Dr. 


James  Brown 

To  14  lbs.  nails,  at  6  cts   §0.81 

To  5  galls,  molasses,  at  32  cts   1.60 

To  12  lbs.  cheese,  at  10  cts   1.20 

Cr. 

By  8  lbs,  wool,  at  36  cts  


M.  Marshall 
By  1  load  of  hay. 


Cr. 


  $G.O0 

By  12  lbs.  huttoV,  at  9  cts   1-08 

David  Moore 
To  Cash    


Dr. 


M.  Marshall  Dr 

To  1  stove   $14.00 

To  8  yds.  cloth,  at  §3   24.00 


To  1  horse . 


42.00 


David  Moore  Dr. 

To  1  set  of  harness   §20.00 

To  1  wagon   6 


James  Brown 
To  28  lbs.  sugar,  at  8  cts. 

To  1  barrel  of  flour  

To  3  brooms  at  14  cts.  . . 


?2.24 
7.00 
.42 


David  Moore      ,  Cr. 

By  20  bushels  corn,  at  62  cts  §12.40 

By  Cash   30.00 

By  order  on  Peter  AVilkius   21.00 

 7  


David  Moore 
To  check  to  balance  account . 


Dr. 


James  Brown 
By  Cash  to  balance  account. 


Cr. 


12 


M.  Marshall 
By  his  note  at  3  months  from  date 

34 


Cr. 


794 


FORM  OF  LEDGEB. 


nOOK-KEEPING. 


DR. 


LEDGER. 
M.  Marshall 


Cr. 


1877. 

To  Sundries  

82 

Oct.  3 

80 

00 

"  12 

93 

82 

11 

74 

1877. 
Oct,  2 
"  4 


By  hay  and  butter. 

"  note  at  3  mos  

"  Balance  


%  7 

08 

75 

00 

11 

74 

93 

82 

2 

De, 

James  Bbowj^. 

1877. 
Oct.  2 


To  Sundries 
"  Sundries 
'*  Sundries 


1877. 

S  2 

15 

Oct.  3 

ll 

3 
9 

64 
66 

"  10 

1 

15 

45 

*'  cash , 


15 


44 


Dk. 


David  Moore. 


Cr. 


1877. 

Oct.  3 
"  4 
*'  7 


To  Cash  

"  harness  &  wagon 
"  check  to  balance 


$50 
84 
44 


178 


1877. 
Oct  2 
5 


By  oxen  

"  sundries. 


$115 

C3 


Dr. 


Cash-Book. 
Cash. 


Cr. 


1877. 

Oct.  2 

$15C- 

"  5 

Received  of  M.  Marshall 

3C 

"  9 

21 

"  6 

106 

307 

Oct.  9 

$130 

"  10 

Received  of  J.  Brown.. 

12 

1877. 

30 

Oct.  2 

Paid  rent  of  store  6  mos. 

$  75 

00 

JO 

"  3 

50 

00 

00 

"  7 

"   David  Moore  

44 

40 

75 

"  9 

"   expenses  in  store. 

8 

20 

"  9 

130 

15 

r5 

1307 

75 

15 

57 

INTEREST  TABLES. 


795 


A  complete  balance-sheet  should  be  made  out  once  or  twice  a  year, 
wheu  au  inventory  of  stock  on  hand  is  taken  and  added  to  the  debtor  bal- 
ances of  accounts,  and  the  original  capital  is  added  to  the  credit  balances, 
(or  balances  we  owe,)  these  compared  will  give  the  amount  of  profit  or 
loss.  It  will  be  remembered  that  this  sheet  is  au  account  between  our- 
selves and  our  books. 

All  the  accounts  in  the  Ledger  ought  to  be  balanced  twice  a  year.  To 
do  this  add  up  each  column  and  find  the  difference,  and  make  an  entry 
of  tlus  balance  on  the  side  that  is  smallest  (this  should  be  made  witli  red 
ink  to  distinguish  it  from  other  entries)  ;  both  sides  now  being  equal, 
draw  a  line  under  them  to  show  the  fact.  Is'ow  place  the  balance  on  the 
opposite  side,  so  that  it  will  exhibit  the  true  state  of  the  account.  (See 
M.  Marshall's  account  of  the  Ledger  page. ) 

CASH-BOOK. 

The  Cash-book  records  the  payment  and  receipt  of  cash.  Cash  is  made 
debtor  to  the  cash  on  hand  and  cash  received,  and  credited  with  what  is 
paid  out.  At  the  dose  of  each  day  or  week,  the  cash  on  hand  is  counted, 
and  the  amount  entered  on  the  credit  side.  This  should  make  the  debits 
and  credits _equal ;  the  amount  of  cash  on  hand  is  then  entered  on  the 
debtor  side."  If  money  is  ])aid  to  or  received  from  a  person  who  has  au 
account  with  us  it  is  also  entered  in  the  Day-book  ;  the  total  receipts  and 
expenditures  are  carried  to  the  Day-book  as  often  as  the  Cash-book  is 
balanced.   (See  form  of  Cash-book.*^) 

As  a  help  to  compute  interest  we  append  the  following  Table  to  show 
the  time  required  for  a  given  number  of  dollars  to  draw  an  equal  number 
of  cents  at  various  rates  of  interest.  The  rule  is  to  strike  off  the  odd 
cents  from  the  principal  and  you  have  the  interest  at  the  following  rates : 


Interest 


Interest 


Interest 


per  cent. 

No.  Days. 

per  cent. 

No.  Daj's. 

per  cent. 

No.  Days. 

4 

4i 

5 

-5-20 
() 

90 
80 
72 
70 
GO 

7 

n 

7-30 

8 

9 

52 
48 
50 
45 
40 

10 

10-40 

35 
35 

The  next  Table  shows  the  various  sums  of  money  which  draw  1  cent 
interest  per  day,  calculated  at  different  per  cents,  so  that  the  number  of 
cents  will  always  be  found  equivalent  to  the  number  of  days  the  money 
has  been  drawing  interest. 

Per  cent. 


Amount. 

—  — o  ~  

Per  cent. 

Amount. 

$90 

4 

^52 

80 

44 

50 

72 

5 

48 

70 

5-20 

'  45 

GO 

6 

40 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 

$36 

10 

35 

10-40 

30 

12 

24 

15 

7 

7-20 

f 

9 

Valuable  Interest  Rules,  Basis  30  days  per  month  or  360 
DAYS  TO  THE  COMMERCIAL  YEAR.  Multiply  the  principal  by  the  re- 
quired number  of  days,  and  for  4  per  cent,  divide  by  9,  and  point  off  ; 
for  5  per  cent,  divide  by  72  ;  for  6  per  cent,  divide  by  6,  and  point  off 
three  figures  from  the  right ;  for  eight  per  cent,  divide  by  45 ;  for  9  per  cent 
divide  by  four,  and  point  off  three  figures  from  the  right ;  for  10  per  cent, 
divide  by  36  ;  for  12  per  cent,  divide  by  3,  and  point  off  three  figures 
from  the  right ;  for  15  per  cent,  divide  by  24 ;  for  eighteen  per  cent,  divide  by 
2,  and  point  off  three  figures  from  the  right,  for  20  per  cent,  divide  by  18. 

A  new  way,  called  "  a  rule  for  reckoning  interest  on  odd  days,  at  any 
rate  per  cent,  which  involves  uo  subdivision  whatever,"  is  as  follows: 


79G 


inteiip:st  tables,  &c. 


Multq)]}'-  tlic  principal  by  the  nnmbcr  of  d.'iys,  and  for  G  per  cent,  divide 
by  (JO  ;  for  7  per  cent,  by  51  ;  for  8  percent.,  by  45  ;  for  9  per  cent.  l)y 
40  ;  for  JO  per  cent,  by  30,  for  0  twice  over  ;  for  12  per  cent,  by  30. 
For  further  information  refer  to  interest  Tables, 


INTICrtEST  TABLE.     TEN  PER  CEN'l 


TIME. 

«1 

f2 

$3 

¥5 

$0 

91 

) 

9'J 

1 

*10 

— — 

$40 

$50 

.flOO 

$1000 

4  Days. 

0 

0 

0 

~ 

0 



1 

7~ 
1 

"~ 
1 

1 

7" 
1 

1 

T" 
4 



5 

11 



1  11 

8  <' 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

11 

22 

2  22 

12  " 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

12 

16 

33 

3  33 

16  " 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

16 

22 

41 

4  44 

20  " 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

24 

28 

.  56 

5  56 

21  " 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

28 

33 

67 

6  67 

28  " 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

8 

32 

39 

78 

7  78 

1  MON. 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

32 

42 

83 

8  33 

2  " 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

68 

83 

1  67 

16  67 

3  " 

3 

5 

8 

10 

12 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

1  00 

125 

2  50 

25  00 

4  " 

3 

7 

10 

13 

17 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

132 

1  65 

3  33 

33  33 

5  " 

4 

8 

13 

17 

21 

25 

20 

33 

38 

42 

1  68 

2  08 

4  17 

41  67 

6  " 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2  00 

2  50 

5  00 

50  00 

1  Yeak. 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

93 

fl 

4  00 

§5 

$10 

$100 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  DAYS  FROM  ANY  DAY  IN  ONE  MONTH 
TO  THE  SAME  DAY  IN  ANOTHER. 


Kiom 


To 


January  

Pebruai-y  

March  

April  

May  

Juiie  

July  

Aug  

Sept  

Oct  

Nov  

Dec  

Explanation.— To  find  the  number  of  days  from  January  20  to 
Dec.  20,  follow  the  horizoutalline  opposite  January  until  you  reach  the 
column  headed  by  December,  Avhen  you  will  find  334,  representing  the 
required  number  of  days,  and  so  on  with  the  other  months.  During 
leap  year,  if  February  enters  into  the  calculation,  add  one  day  to  the 
result. 

HOW  TO  CONDUCT  A  SUCCESSFUL  BUSINESS. 

That  short  credit  and  small  profits  forms  the  golden  rule  for  success  in 
trade  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  exhibiting  the  amounts  re- 
alized for  $100  at  various  percentages  during  various  periods. 


Jan. 

Feb. 

u 

03 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct.. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

365 

31 

59 

90 

120 

151 

181 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

334 

365 

28 

59 

89 

120 

150 

181 

212 

242 

273 

303 

306 

337 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

153 

184 

214 

245 

275 

275 

306 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

122 

153 

183 

214 

244 

215 

276 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

214 

245 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

61 

92 

122 

153 

183 

184 

215 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

31 

62 

92 

123 

153 

153 

184 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

122  153 

181 

212 

242 

273 

303 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

92  123 

151 

182 

212 

243 

273 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

61 

92 

120 

151 

181 

212 

242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

,30 

31 

62 

90 

121 

151 

182 

212 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

If  turned  over  every  3  months, 
"    6  " 

U  U       g  c< 

"       "      "    2  3^ears, 


Am't  at 
3  pr.  ct. 
$326.20 
180.61 
155.79 
134.39 
115.92 
106.09 


Am't  at 
5  per  ct. 
$703.99 
265.32 
207.89 
162.88 
127.62 
110.25 


Am't  at 
8  pr.  ct. 
$2172.45 
466.09 
317.21 
215.89 
146.93 
116.64 


Am't  at 
10  pr.  ct. 
.1ii4525.92 
672.75 
417.72 
259.37 
161.05 
®  121.00 


i 


MERCAKTILE  ITEMS. 


791 


I'ares  Allowed  by  the  Jobbers  of  New  York  City.  — It  is  under- 
stood that  if  a  retail  merchant  orders  less  than  an  original  i)ackage  on 
wliich  the  jobber  gets  tare  that  no  tare  is  allowed  by  the  jobber  to  the 
retailer. 


AuGOLS— Actual  tares. 

Barley,  &c.— Come  100  lbs.  in  keg 
— all  net. 

Bird  Seed— 2  per  ct. 

Butter— 1  lb.  on  tubs  as  soak  age  ;  2 
lbs.  on  tirkins  ;  pails  net  weight. 

California  Honey— cases— (weigh- 
ing 70  to  75  lbs.),  14  lbs. 

Caraway  Seed— 2  per  ct. 

Cheese— Always  net  or  mrkd  tares. 

Chicory— Casks,  marked  tares,  10 
per  ct.  additional. 

Citron,  and  all  Peels- 214  lbs.  per 
box. 

Coffees — 1  per  ct.  on  everything  ex- 
cept as  below. 

Jamaica  and  St.  Domingo,  2  per 
ct. ;  Savanilla,  in  double  bags,  and 
Laguayra,  in  heavy  bags,  2  per  ct. 
Costa  liica,  in  heavy  bags,  2  per  ct. 
Old  Government  Java,  in  mats,  1 
per  ct. 

Mexican  coffee— in  bales,  15  lbs. 
Mocha  Coffee— 1/2  bales,  6  lb.  ;  1/4,  4 
lb.  ;  i/g,  21/2  a.  3  lbs. 

Currants— B bis,  27  to  29  lbs.  aver- 
age ;  in  box,  41bs. 

Dates— In  frails,  9  per  ct. 

Figs— Drams,  10  per  ct.  ;  in  kegs,  10. 
Layer  figs,  Boxes,  12. 

HoMiNV-^200  lbs  net. 

Lentils— 2  perct. 

Molasses  and  Syrups— Always  al- 
low    g^h  out. 

Nutmegs— Cases  and  casks  marked 
tares. 


Prunes— German,  4  lbs.  per  box. 

French— Marked  tares.  Turkish, 

in  casks,  marked  tares. 
Raisins — Sultana,  in  boxes  10  per  ct. 
liiOE— 4  lbs.  per  bag ;  tierces  10  per 

ct. 

Rock  Candy— In  bxs  marked  tares. 
Sal  Soda— Casks,  7  per  ct. 
Soda— English,  mrkd  English  tares. 
Spices — 2  per  ct.,  except  Cinnamon 
and  Cloves. 

Cassia  —  9  per  ct.  on  bales  and 
mats  ;  and  lyg  lbs.  extra  for  bale  ; 
cases  17  lbs. 
Cloves— 9  lbs.  per  bale. 
Sugar— Hhds.,  12  per  ct.  ;  Refined 
Sugars  always  7iei  or  marked  ta7-es. 
Boxes — 15  per  ct.   Mats  and  Bags 
—1  per  ct.  Barrels— Demarara,  ex- 
cept where  marked  net,  12  per  ct. 
The  per  cent  for  bags  and  mats 
with  the  trade  applies  only  to  East 
India  sugars.    On  bags  and  mats  im- 
ported from  other  countries  the  tare 
is  according  to  agreement  between 
buyer  and  seller. 

Tapioca— 1  per  ct.  Sago— 2  per  ct. 
Tea — Invoice  weight  ascertained  as 
follows  :  three  to  four  pkgs  are  ta- 
ken out  of  each  .50  or  60  (usually 
those  numbered  the  same),  the  tea 
turned  out,  and  the  pkgs  weighed  ; 
the  average  of  the  three  or  four  is 
taken  as  the  tare  of  the  whole. 
Valencia  Raisins— 5  lbs.  per  box, 
usually. 


Nuts— 2  lbs.  per  bag. 

Items  Regarding  Fish. — Mackerel  conies  in  barrels,  half  and  quar- 
ter barrels,  and  kits,  containing  full  weight,  respectively,  200,  100,  50, 
and  20  lbs.  Xo  1  mackerel  should  not  be  less  tlian  13  inches  in  length, 
from  the  extremity  of  the  head  to  the  fork  of  the  tail,  fat,  free  from 
rust,  taint,  or  damage.  ISTo.  2  mackerel  should  not  be  less  than  11  ins. 
in  length,  fat,  and  free  from  rust,  &c.  No.  3  mackerel  should  not  be 
less  than  10  ins.  in  length.  No.  3,  large,  should  not  be  less  than  13  ins., 
and  in  quality  are  those  that  remain  after  the  selection  of  No.  1.  No.  4. 
mackerel  comprise  all  not  in  the  above,  and  should  be  free  from  taint  or 
damage. 

The  above  is  the  standard  established  by  law  in  Massacliusetts,  and  is 
generally  accepted  by  the  trade  elsewhere.  Mackerel  should  be  kept 
covered  with  brine  and  not  exposed  to  the  air  as  they  become  rancid  or 
"  rusty,"  after  a  few  daj'-s.  Mess  mackerel — the  finest  fish,  with  head 
and  tail  removed.  Extra  No.  I's  are  selected  fish.  Large  No.  2's — Fisli 
over  13  ins.  in  length,  and  not  good  enough  in  quality  for  No.  I's. 

Scaled  herrings  should  be  fat  fish,  free  from  scales,  and  when  smoked 
be  of  a  bright  golden  color.  No.  1  herring  are  generally  small  and  x)ooi 
fish.  The  complaints  of  short  weight  packages  of  fish  are  very  many, 
some  of  which  exceed  the  entire  profit. 

Hints  to  Grocers. — To  keep  ants  out  of  sugar,  take,  say,  3  ozs. 
gum  camphor,  wrap  it  in  one  thickness  of  tea-paper,  lay  it  on  the  sugar 
in  the  barrel  and  they  Avill  leave  at  once.    Keep  your  tea  ir,  a  close  chest 


798 


MERCANTILE  ITEMS. 


or  canister,  and  liocp  coffoo  by  itRclf,  a,a  its  odor  affocts  otlicr  articles. 
Look  after  the  mimbor  ()£  oraii^^os  and  lemons  in  a  box  and  see  if  they 
hold  out.  Jf  not,  claim.  Oranges  and  lemons  keep  best  wrapped  in 
.soft  paper,  and  if  i)<)ssil)lc  laid  in  a  drawer.  Keep  bread  or  cake  in  a  tin 
box  or  stone  jar.  Cranberries  will  keej)  all  winter  in  a  firkin  of  water 
in  a  cellar.    September  and  October  butter  is  the  best  for  winter  use. 

FlxWOkiin'O  Extuaots,  27  Kinds.— The  formulic  given  below  repre- 
sent the  average  standard  strength,  but  they  may  be  reduced  if  required. 
1.  Extract  of  Lemon,  oil  of  lemon,  2  ozs.,  freshly  grated  lemon  ])eel,  1  oz., 
alcohol,  2pts.  2.  Ext.  of  Orange,  oil  of  orange,  12  drs. ,  freshly  grated 
lemon  peel,  4  ozs.,  alcohol  2pts.  3.  Another,  Valencia  oranges,  1  doz., 
alcohol,  2  pts.  Carefully  detach  the  yellow  portion  of  the  rind,  and 
macerate  it  for  ten  days  in  the  alcohol.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing fresh  oil  of  orange,  this  formula  is  generally  preferred.  4.  Ext. 
of  Rose.  lied  rose  leaves,  2  ozs.,  oil  of  rose,  1  dr.,  alcohol,  2  pts.  5. 
Ext.  of  Celery,  celery  seed,  bruised,  2  ozs.,  alcohol,  1  pt.  G.  Ext.  of 
Ginger,  tincture  of  ginger,  1  pt,  alcohol,  from  ^  to  1  pt.  Some  use  the 
tincture  without  dilution.  7.  Ext.  of  Bitter  Almonds,  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds, 1  oz.  alcohol,  13  ozs.jAvater,  Gozs.  Some  color  it  Avith  ^oz.  tincture 
of  turmeric.  8.  Ext.  of  Cinnamon.  Oil  of  cinnamon,  2  drs., Ceylon  cinna- 
mon, bruised,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  2  pts.  9.  Ext.  of  Peppermint.  E.s- 
sence  of  peppermint,,  U.  S.  P.,  1  pt.,  alcohol,  from  ^  to  1  pt.  Some  pre- 
fer the  essence  without  dilution.  10.  Ext.  of  Coriander.  Powdered  co- 
riander, 4  ozs,,  oil  of  coriander,  1  dr.,  alcohol,  21  ozs.,  water,  8  ozs.  11. 
Ext.  of  Nutmeg.  Oil  of  nutmeg,  2  drs.,  powdered  mace,  1  oz. ,  alcohol, 
2  pts:  12.  Ext.  of  Vanilla.  Vanilla  bean,  1  oz.,  loaf  sugar,  1  oz.,  alco- 
hol, 70  per  cent.,  sufficient.  Triturate  the  vanilla  Avith  the  sugar  until  a 
No  20  powder  is  obtained.  Introduce  into  a  2  pt.  stone  jug  with  tv/o  ozs. 
of  the  menstruum,  cork  tightly,  and  digest  several  hours  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  150".  Allow  the  mixture  to  cool,  transfer  it  to  a  percolator, 
pack  it  firmly,  and  pour  enough  alcohol  on  it  to  make  the  percolate 
measure  1  pt.  13.  Ext.  of  Spearmint.  Essence  of  spearmint,  U.  S.  P., 
1  pt.,  alcohol,  from  ^  to  1  pt.  Some  use  the  essence  without  dilution. 
14.  Ext.  of  Anise.  Anise  seed,  2  ozs.,  oil  of  star  anise,  1  oz.,  alcohol,  2 
pts.  15.  Ext.  of  Pine  Apple,  Artificial.  Chloroform,  1  fi.  oz.,  aldehyde, 
1  do.,  butyric  ether,  5  fl.  ozs.,  buiyrate  of  amyl,  10  do.,  glycerine,  3  fl. 
ozs.,  alcohol,  100  do.  16.  Ext.  of  Sassafras.  Oil  of  sassafras,  1  oz.,  sas- 
safras in  coarse  powder,  2  ozs.,  alcohol,  2  pts.  17.  Ext.  of  Peach,  Arti' 
ficial.  Oil  of  bitter  almonds,  2  ozs. ,  acetic  ether,  1  oz.,  alcohol  3  i)ts, 
18.  Ext.  of  Nectarine.  Extract  of  vanilla,  1  pt.,  extract  of  lemon,  1  pt., 
extract  of  pine  apple,  8  ozs.  19.  Ext.  of  Wintergreen.  Oil  of  Avintergreen, 
1  oz.,  alcohol,  1  pt.,  cudbear,  or  cochineal,  10  ozs.  20.  Ext  of  Clove. 
Powdered  clove,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  1  pt.  21.  Ext.  of  Blackberry, 
Artificial.  Tinct.  of  orris  root,  (1-8)  1  pt.,  acetic  ether,  30  drops,  buty- 
ric ether,  60  drops.  22.  Ext.  of  Tonka  Bean.  Tonka  bean,  coarsely 
ground,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  1  pt.  23.  Ext.  of  Allspice.  Allspice, 
corsely  ground,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alchohol,  1  pt.  24.  Ext  of  Pear,  Artificial. 
Acetic  ether,  5  fi.  ozs.,  acetate  of  amyl,  10  do.,  glycerine,  10 fl.  ozs.,  alco- 
hol, 100  do.  25.  Ext.  of  Apple,  Artificial.  Chloroform,  1  fl.  oz.,  nitric  • 
ether  1  do.,  aldehyde,  2  fl.  ozs.,  acetic  ether,  1  do.,  valerianate  of  amyl,  10 
fl.  ozs.,  oxalic  acid,  2  drs.,  glycerine  2  fl.  ozs.,  alcohol,  100  do,  26.  Ext, 
of  Straioherry,  Artificial.  Nitric  ether,  1  fl.  oz,,  acetic  ether,  5  do.,  for- 
mic ether,  1  fl.  oz.,  butyric  ether,  5  do.,  salicylate  of  methyl,  1  fl.  oz., 
acetate  of  amyl,  3  do.,butyrateof  amjd,  2  fl.ozs.,  glycerine,  2  do.,  alcohol, 
100  do.  27.  Ext.  of  Raspberry,  Artificial  Nitric  ether  1  fl,  oz,,  alde- 
hyde, 1  do,,  acetic  ether,  5  fl,  ozs.,  formic  ether,  1  do.,  butyric  ether,  1 
fl.  oz,,  benzoic  ether,  1  do.,  oenanthylic  ether,  1  fl.  oz.,  sebasic  ether,  1 
do,,  salicylate  of  methyl,  1  fl.  oz,  acetate  of  amyl,  1  do,  butyrate  of  amyl, 
Ifl.  oz.,  tartaric  acid,  2  ozs.,  glycerine,  4  fl.  ozs.,  alcohol,  105  do.  For 
other  receipts,  consult  pp.  30,  159,  and  207, 


SUCCESS  IN  BUSINESS. 


799 


Tlie  credit  system  has  bankrupted  more  people  than  perhaps  aU  other 
causes  put  together.  The  most  rigid  scrutiny  should  therefore  take  place 
in  every  instance  where  credit  is  solicited.  A  good  way  is  to  make  the 
party  sign  a  statement  of  his  assets,  debts,  means  of  payment,  &c.,  and 
grant  a  limited  credit  on  that  basis.  If  the  result  proves  intentional 
fraud  then  you  have  your  remedy  at  law.  Cash  down  is  the  only  abso- 
lutely safe  rule.  Curtail  every  possible  expense.  Let  the  profits  accumu- 
late, hold  on  to  them,  and  avoid  uncertain  outside  speculations.  See 
table  of  daily  savings  on  page  587,  and  profit  by  its  suggestions .  Attend 
to  the  details  of  your  business,  see  that  the  store'is  opened  in  good  time, 
goods  dusted,  floor  swept,  paper,  twine,  nails,  &c.,  picked  up  and 
everything  kept  in  trim  order.  In  establishing  a  business  it  is  not  always 
the  best  plan  to  open  out  in  a  new  locality  where  rents  are  low  and  ex- 
penses light.  The  result  will  be  in  many  cases,  that  before  the  new  local- 
ity acquires  the  ability  to  render  adequate  support  to  a  respectable  busi- 
ness (after  an  unavaiUng  struggle)  the  funds  of  the  merchant  will  gradu- 
ally give  out,  and  he  will  be  obliged  to  close  his  doors  at  the  very  time 
when  he  should  have  opened  them.  If,  however,  he  succeeds,  the  dealer 
will  do  well  to  confine  his  attention  more  to  the  supply  of  the  necessaries 
than  the  luxuries  of  life,  until  a  more  general  demand  arises  for  the  hit- 
ter as  the  neighborhood  grows  older. 

Taking  everything  into  account,  the  best  locality  for  business  purposes 
is  in  a  city  or  town  in  a  prominent  tliroughfare  where  those  whose  trade 
you  desire  can  most  easily  find  you.  A  suitable  place  being  secured, 
mount  a  proper  sign  board  in  a  prominent  manner,  and  make  sure  to  pre- 
sent an  imposing  display  of  your  choicest  goods  in  your  store  windows. 
This,  of  itself,  is  a  powerful  attraction  to  passers  by,  who  will  frequently 
see  just  the  article  they  require  and  call  for  it  at  once.  This  accommoda- 
tion, coupled  with  civil  treatment  on  your  part,  will  often  secure  you  a 
permanent  customer,  for  people  are  bound  to  go  where  they  are  well  used. 
A  notable  and  most  successful  method  of  attracting  customers  Jind  build- 
ing up  a  lucrative  business,  is  to  sell  a  few  of  the  leading  staples  at  low 
figures,  and  obtain  a  fair  profit  on  the  rest.  The  most  sagacious  and 
far-seeing  merchants  do  this,  with  the  most  astonishing  financial  results. 
In  fact,  thousands  who  are  independently  rich  would  now  be  bankrupt 
but  for  this  system  of  transacting  business. 

The  following  directions  deserve  a  wide  circulation  : — 

"Enter  into  a  business  of  which  you  have  a  perfect  knowledge.  In  your 
own  right,  or  by  the  aid  of  friends  on  long  time,  have  a  cash  capital  suffi- 
cient to  do  at  least  a  cash  business.  Kever  venture  on  a  credit  business 
at  the  commencement.  Buy  all  your  goods  or  materials  for  cash;  you 
can  thus  take  every  advantage  of  the  market,  and  pick  and  chose  where 
and  when  you  will.  Be  careful  not  to  overstock  yourself.  Rise  and  fall 
Avith  the  market  on  short  shocks.  Always  stick  to  those  whom  you  prove 
to  be  strictly  just  in  their  transactions,  and  shun  all  others  even  at  a, 
temporary  disadvantage.  Never  take  advantage  of  a  customer's  ignor- 
ance, nor  equivocate  nor  misrepresent.  Have  but  one  price  and  a  small 
^  profit,  and  you  will  find  all  the  most  profitable  customers— the  cash  ones 
*  — or  they  will  find  you. 

"  If  ever  deceived  in  business  transactions,  never  attempt  to  save  your- 
self by  putting  the  deception  upon  others  ;  but  submit  to  the  loss,  and  be 
more  cautious  in  future.  According  to  the  character  or  success  of  your 
business,  set  aside  a  liberal  percentage  for  printing  and  advertising,  and 
do  not  hesitate.  Never  let  an  article,  parcel,  or  package,  go  out  from  you 
without  a  handsomely-printed  wrapper,  card,  or  circular,  and  dispense 
them  continually.  Keep  yourself  unceasingly  before  the  public  by  judi- 
ciously advertising  ;  and  it  matters  not  what  business  of  utility  you  mak« 


800 


SAI  F,  JiUSINESS  IIULES. 


clioicc  of,  I'oi'  ii  iiilcUigcntly  ;iiul  industriously  pursued,  a,  fortune  will  be 
tli(!  n^sult. 

"Learn  to  say  'No'  with  decision;  'yes'  with  caution— 'No' 
with  decision  whenever  it  resists  temptation  ;  'yes'  with  caution  wlien 
it  inii)iies  a  promise.  A  promise  once  given  is  a  bond  inviolable.  A  man 
is  already  of  consc(picnce  in  the  world  Avhen  it  is  known  that  we  can  ijn- 
l)licitly  rely  upon  him.  Such  a  one  is  often  preferred  to  a  long  list  of  ap- 
plicants, for  some  important  change  which  lifts  him  at  once  into  station 
and  fortune  merely  because  he  has  this  reputation,  that  when  he  says  he 
will  know  a  thing  he  knows  it,  and  when  he  vSays  he  will  do  a  thing  he  will 
do  it.  Keflect  over  these  maxims  ;  you  will  find  it  easy  enough  to  i)rac- 
tice  them." 

Rest  assured  industry  and  economy  will  be  sure  to  tell  in  the  end.  Waste 
not  want  not  go  hand  in  hand.  If  in  early  life  these  habits  become  con- 
firmed, no  doubt  can  exist  as  to  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  merchant  in 
attaining  a  competency. 

Be  self-reliant  and  punctual.  As  you  gain  experience  in  business 
you  can  form  your  own  judgment  and  act  on  it  with  more  safety  than  you 
could  on  outside  advice,  and  let  no  effort  be  considered  too  great  which  re- 
sults in  fulfilling  your  engagements  and  keeping  your  word.  A  good  char- 
cter  for  punctuality  is  in  itself  a  valuable  capital,  as  it  makes  one  in  a  large 
measure  the  master  of  another's  purse.  In  expressing  yourself,  be  frank, 
speak  to  the  point  ;  form  a  habit  of  thinking  vigorously  and  speaking 
correctly  ;  say  what  you  mean ;  and  do  what  you  say. 

In  buying  goods  never  take  advantage  of  another's  iiecessities  to  beat 
him  down  to  a  figure  which  leaves  him  little  or  no  profit,  perhaps  a  loss, 
because  he  mustliave  money.  There  is  no  manhood  in  such  transactiojis, 
it  may  enhance  your  immediate  profits,  but  will  be  disastrous  to  you  in 
the  end,  besides  being  most  unjust  to  the  immediate  sufferer.  Let  all 
your  actions  in  buying  and  selling  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the 
golden  rule. 

Be  always  alert  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  relating  to  your  busi- 
ness, this  may  be  gained  by  conversation  with  experienced  merchants,  by 
the  attentive  reading  of  practical  books  treating  on  mercantile  matters, 
and  by  taking  trade  papers,  which  in  these  stirring  times  have  attained 
great  perfection,  embracing  as  they  do  an  immense  range  of  subjects, 
treating,  each  in  its  respective  sphere,  subjects  of  immense  importance, 
relatuig  to  the  hardware,  grocery,  dry  goods,  drug,  and  other  mercantile 
trades,  besides  full  reports  of  the  markets  pertaining  to  each  business,  an 
item  which  in  itself  no  business  man  can  afford  to  lose  sight  of.  In  this 
place  the  advice  of  the  American  Grocer  to  its  subscribers  to  Count, 
Measure,  Weigh,  and  Gauge  Everything  You  Buy,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  urgued  upon  the  notice  of  business  men.  Profits  will  be  greatly 
enhanced  by  taking  advantage  of  the  discounts  which  nearly  all  business 
men  offer  for  cash  payments.  Keep  your  credit  good  and  use  it  sparingly 
and  discreetly. 

A  noted  merchant  amassed  an  immense  fortune  by  the  obser^^ance  of 
these  four  simple  rules  ;  1,  Obtain  the  earliest  and  fullest  information 
possible  in  regard  to  the  matter  inl  hand.    2.  Act  rapidly  and  promptly  • 
upon  it.    3.  Keep  your  intentions  and  means  secret.   4.  Secure  the  best 
employees  you  can  obtain,  and  reward  them  liberally.    See  pp,  590. 

Rothschild's  rules  were.  "  1.  I  combined  three  profits  I  made  the 
manufacturer  my  customer,  and  the  one  I  bought  of  my  customer  ;  that 
is,  I  supplied  the  manufacturer  with  the  raw  material  and  dyes  ;  on 
each  of  which  I  made  a  profit,  and  took  his  manufactured  goods,  which 
I  sold  at  a  profit,  and  thus  combined  three  profits.  2.  Make  a  bargain  at 
once,  be  an  off-handed  man.   3,  Never  have  anything  to  do  with  an 


SAFE  BUSINESS  RULES. 


801 


unlucky  man  or  place.  I  have  seen  many  clever  men  who  had  not 
shoes  to  their  feet.  I  never  act  with  them  ;  their  advice  sounds  very 
well,  but  fate  is  against  them  ;  they  do  not  get  on  themselves,  how 
can  they  do  good  to  me  ?  4.  Be  cautious  and  bold.  It  requires  a  great 
deal  of  caution  and  a  great  deal  of  boldness  to  make  a  great  fortune, 
and  when  you  have  got  it,  it  requires  ten  times  as  much  wit  to  keep  it." 

Kules  of  John  McDonough  the  millionaire  of  New  Orleans.  "  1 .  Ee- 
member  always  that  labor  is  one  of  the  conditions  of  our  existence.  2. 
Time  is  gold  throw  not  one  miuute  away  but  place  each  one  to  account 
3.  Do  unto  all  men  as  you  would  be  done  by.  4.  Never  put  off  till  to- 
morrow what  you  can  do  to-day.  5,  Never  bid  another  do  what  you  can 
do  yourself.  6 .  Never  covet  what  is  not  your  own.  7.  Never  think  any 
matter  so  trivial  as  not  to  deserve  notice.  8.  Never  give  out  that  which 
does  not  first  come  in.  9.  Never  spend  but  to  produce.  10.  Let  the 
greatest  order  regulate  all  the  actions  of  your  life.  11.  Study  in  your 
course  of  life  to  do  the  greatest  amount  of  good.  12.  Deprive  yourself  of 
nothing  necessary  to  your  comfort,  but  live  in  an  honorable  simplicity 
and  frugality.   Labor  then,  to  the  last  moment  of  your  existence." 

Render  yourself  familiar  with  your  business  and  books,  and  do  not  be 
unduly  anxious  to  extend  your  trade,  remembering  that  a  small  business 
on  cash  capital  yields  better  profits  than  a  large  business  conducted  on 
credit  ;  also  remember  that  the  goods  on  your  shelves  are  much  better 
than  having  them  charged  up  in  bad  debts.  If  it  happens  that  you  run 
an  account  with  a  doubtful  customer,  prudence  requires  that  you  should 
close  the  account  at  once  and  use  every  possible  means  to  collect  it  with- 
out delay.  It  frequently  happens  in  cases  of  this  kind  that  i^rompt  action 
will  result  in  the  recovery  of  the  whole  debt,  when  a  very  slight  delay 
will  entail  a  total  loss.  Every  populous  community  is  infested  by  sucifi 
a  vast  number  of  incorrigible  rascals  who  never  intend  to  pay  their  debts, 
that  dealers  are  justified  in  rejecting  every  application  for  credit  where 
tlie  financial  ability  of  the  applicant  is  in  the  slightest  degree  doubtful. 

Avoid  selfishness,  niggardliness  and  parsimoniousness  in  the  use  of 
money  or  means.  True  nobility  of  character  always  finds  its  greatest  pleas- 
ure in  assisting  and  uplifting  humanity.  Viewed  in  this  light  it  requires 
but  slight  exertion  to  solve  the  riddle  propounded  by  old  Mr.  Honest  in 
the  Pilgrim  : — 

"  There  was  a  man,  though  some  did  count  him  mad, 
The  more  he  threw  away  the  more  he  had." 
The  world  presents  many  notable  instances  of  a  generous  policy,  It  Is 
safe  to  say  that  Peter  Cooper,  by  his  generous  consecration  of  $2,000,000 
to  the  up-building  of  the  Cooper  Institute,  not  to  mention  his  other  bene- 
factions, has  conferred  more  substantial  benefits  on  humanity  than  whole 
dynasties  of  tyrants  who  misgovern  empires,  and  render  themselves  a 
terror  to  peaceable  nations. 

In  mercantile  matters  courage  is  indispenable,  slackness  is  absolute 
ruin.  It  requires  courage  to  tell  a  man  you  will  not  credit  him,  courage 
to  insist  on  prompt  payments  from  customers,  courage  to  speak  your 
mind  candidly  at  all  times,  courage  to  deny  yourself  the  possession  of 
many  things  you  want.  It  requires  courage  to  refuse  to  conform  to  the 
absurd  demands  of  fashion,  to  show  respect  for  real  worth  even  if  it 
appears  in  humble  garb,  and  to  discountenance  unprincipled  rascality  in 
fine  clothes.  It  requires  courage  to  act  justly  without  fear  or  favor,  to  live 
within  your  means,  to  pay  your  debts,  to  collect  your  accounts,  to  with- 
stand ridicule  while  acting  righteously  ;  in  one  wor<^  if  you  lack  courage 
never  go  into  business  at  all. 

In  mercantile  circles  the  commercial  traveller  occupies  a  most  import- 
ant position  and  in  many  cases  proves  himgeU"  a  rftp^t  valuable  auxiliary 
34* 


802 


ON  MAllKING  GOODS. 


to  the  incvcliant.  To  become  a  successful  traveller  it  requires  prolonj;ed 
service  on  the  road,  a  vast  amount  of  shrewdness,  and  a  profound  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature,  lie  must  possess  a  clear  head,  a  good  temper,  a 
ready,  easy,  and  natural  aptitude  for  making  profitable  bargains,  with 
a  good  gift  for  mental,  off-hand  calculations  in  all  possible  emei'gencies. 

la  a  work  treating  of  commercial  travellers  in  France,  we  find  the 
following  description  of  one  of  them  :  "  With  his  customers,  as  everv 
where  else,  he  is  polite  and  obliging  ;  he  kisses  the  baby,  pats  the  spaniel, 
pays  a  compliment  to  the  young  lady  behind  the  counter,  and  offers  a 
ijinch  of  snuff  to  the  master  of  the  shop.  He  inquires  respecting  the 
f.tate  of  the  vintage,  foretells  the  result  of  the  season,  speaks  at  some 
length  ou  the  state  of  the  grain  market,  obligingly  inquires  after  ma- 
dame's  health,  and  invites  her  husband  to  call  and  see  him  in  Paris 
'  We'll  dine  at  the  Rocher,'  laughs  the  traveller,  adding,  in  a  lower  key, 
'  and  discuss  a  bottle  of  A  1,  eh  ? '  Briefly,  he  obtains  an  order,  and 
often  a  very  extensive  one." 

In  marking  goods  it  is  usual  with  merchants  to  make  use  of  a  private 
mark,  phrase,  or  key-word  to  designate  the  cost  and  selling  price  of  their 
goods,  the  object  being  to  conceal  these  points  from  all  except  their  own 
salesmen.  The  following  words  and  phrases  present  a  choice  from  which 
to  make  a  selection. 

GAS  FIXTURE.      FISH  TACKLE.         BROWN  SUGAR. 

BLACK  HORSE.     CASH  PROFIT.         NOW  BE  SHARP. 

MISFORTUNE.       SO  FRIENDLY.  ELUCIDATOIl. 

IMPORTANCE.      GAINFUL  JOB.         OF  INDUSTRY. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  word  or  phrase  contains  ten  letters,  no 
two  alike,  the  object  being  to  use  letters  instead  of  figures  in  marking  the 
goods.   For  instance,  take  the  phrase 

GAS  FIXTURE. 
123  4567890 

In  marking  the  cost  and  selling  price  on  a  ticket,  we  assume  that  the 
cost  is  $3.25  and  the  selling  price  $4.37;  this  Avould  be  represented  by  the 
dumb  letters  s  a  i—f  st.  The  cost  price  is  generally  placed  uppermost  on 
tlie  tag,  the  selling  price  below  it,  thusj;^.  An  extra  letter,  styled 
a  repeater,  is  used  to  obviate  the  repetition  of  a  letter  or  figure  as  well  as 
to  prevent  the  disclosure  of  the  private  mark,  for  instance  instead  of  writ- 
ing 366  by  the  key- word,  which  would  be  5  XX,  use  as  a  repeater  the 
letter  o,  and  make  it  read  s  x  o.  Fractions  may  be  written  thus :  456 1=/ 1  x 
For  further  information  on  marking  goods  see  page  210. 

In  advertising,  let  your  announcements  be  short,  spicy,  attractive,  and 
prominently  displayed ;  study  brevity,  using  as  few  words  as  possible  to 
express  your  meaning.  A  long,  diffuse  advertisement  kills  its  object, 
people  will  not  read  it.  Let  an  advertisement  be  truthful,  free  from 
senseless  bombast,  circulate  them  widely,  and  when  your  new  customers 
come  in,  fulfil  to  the  letter,  the  promises  m.ade  in  your  announcements  ; 
you  will  thus  obtain  their  confidence,  retain  their  custom  and  their  efforts 
to  obtain  more  customers  for  you.  Remember,  judicious  advertising 
always  pays ;  but  it  requires  judgment  to  advertise  aright.  Select  the 
channels  which  circulate  most  widely  among  the  class  of  customers  you 
desire  to  reach,  and  advertise  persistently  and  liberally.  Every  dollar 
expended  will  laring  tenfold  profits.  In  advertising  on  printed  cards  or 
circulars,  it  is  an  important  ^object  to  connect  them  with  some  matter 
valuable  to  the  receiver,  such  as  a  calendar,  a  railway  time  table,  an  ele- 
gant picture,  or  any  other  matter  that  will  be  preserved  for  its  inherent 
value.  Lithographed  circulars,  in  imitation  of  the  handAvriting,  sent 
direct  to  parties,  are  a  first  class  advertising  media.    Never  quit  adver* 


i 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


803 


tlshig  until  you  quit  business.  The  most  successful  merchants  in  Ne-w 
York  are  the  ones  which  advertise  largely,  and  consider  their  outlay  in 
this  manner  just  as  necessary  as  the  payment  of  their  rent  or  clerk  hire. 

Next  to  prominence  in  announcing  your  business  is  civility,  politeness, 
and  honest  treatment  of  customers,  These  elements  of  character,  which 
can  never  be  ignored  without  serious  detriment  to  any  one  engaged  in  pub- 
lic business,  cost  nothing,  and  will  often  enable  the  small  dealer  to  outstiip 
his  rich  rival.  A  cheerful,  civil,  and  polite  manner  is  all-powerful  in 
obtaining  and  retaining  customers,  and  a  grand  mistake  is  often  made  by 
men  on  the  road  to  fortune,  in  forgetting  or  neglecting  to  exercise  this 
cheap  and  pleasant  means  of  its  ultimate  attainment. 

In  opening  an  account  with  a  bank  provide  yourself  with  a  proper  in- 
troduction. Never  draw  a  check  for  a  larger  sum  than  the  amount  at 
your  credit,  and  do  not  send  your  check  to  a  remote  person  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  depositing  funds  to  meet  it  before  it  gets  back  ;  the  telegraph 
may  explode  that  bubble.  Never  exchange  checks  with  any  one,  or  give 
a  ciieck  under  the  stipulation  that  it  is  not  to  be  used  until  a  given  time. 
Never  take  a  distant  check  from  a  neighbor  to  pass  it  free  through  your 
bank,  giving  him  your  check  for  it.  Never  give  your  check  to  a  stranger; 
it  is  liable  to  be  raised,  and  passed,  thus  entailing  a  heavj''  loss  on  the 
bank.  In  sending  a  check  to  a  distance,  with  the  name  and  residence  of 
the  payee,  thus  ;  John  Eamsden  &  Co.,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  This  will  give 
a  clue  to  the  bank  when  it  is  presented  for  payment.  In  presenting  an  ac- 
commodation note  for  discount,  tell  your  bank  the  real  nature  of  the  paper. 
It  is  much  better  to  act  in  this  candid,  unreserved  manner  than  otherwise. 
Never  consider  your  bank  arbitrary  if  it  declines  to  discount  an  accommo- 
dation note  ;  in  any  event  never  wrangle  or  contend  with  it,  but  act 
squarely  with  them  by  settling  in  full,  and  then  go  elsewhere  if  discourte- 
ously treated.  If  you  wish  to  get  a  customer's  note  discounted  to  obtain 
funds  to  take  up  a  prior  note  by  the  same  customer,  inform  your  bank 
fully  about  it.  Don't  waste  arguments  to  induce  your  bank  to  discount 
paper  which  it  has  already  declined,  it  may  have  the  best  of  reasons  for 
such  action.  In  your  dealings  with  bank  officers  never  exhibit  asperity  of 
temper,  but  study  politeness,  civility,  candor  and  courtesy  under  all  cir- 

CtimstHllCGS 

COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 

No.  1.  JSfegotiahle  Note. 
$400  Montreal  Jan.  1,  18—. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  Oliver  Cromwell,  or  order, 
Four  Hundred  Dollars,  for  value  received. 

Note.  John  Howard. 

For  an  interest-bearing  note,  add  "  with  interest"  after  "value  re- 
ceived." 

No.  2.  Joint  Note, 
^m^irs  St.  John,  KB.,  Jan.  4,  18— . 

Six  months  after  date  we  jointly,  but  not  severally,  promise  to  pay 
tiomas  Bruce,  or  order.  Four  Hundred  and  Thirty  ylfff  Dollars,  for  value 
ifceived,  with  interest.  John  Spencer, 

David  Thomson. 

No.  3.  Note  payable  at  a  Bank. 

f 1000     '  New  York,  Jan.  11, 18—. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Hiram 
Brown,  the  Sum  of  One  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received,  at  Park  Na- 
tional Bank,  New  York. 

Peter  Pringle, 


804 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


No.  4.  Note  payable  by  Instalments. 

$100  Toronto,  Feb.  10,  18—. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  John  Fleming,  or  order,  One 
Hundred  Dollars,  in  the  way  and  manner  following,  to  wit  :  Fifty  Dollars 
in  three  months  from  date,  and  Fifty  Dollars  in  four  mouths,  with  interest 
on  the  several  sums  as  they  become  due. 

Alex.  Armstrong. 

No.  5.  Note  not  Negotiable. 
$600  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  July,  15,  18—. 

Three  months  after  date,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Thomas 
Bonner,  Five  Hundred  Dollars. 

William  T.  Bell. 

No.  6.  Note  on  Demand. 
'f$300  Hamilton,  March  14,  18—. 

On  demand  I  promise  to  pay  John  Rose,  or  order,  Three  Hundred 
Dollars,  value  received,  with  interest. 

William  Wallace. 
No.  7.  Note  payable  in  Merchandise. 
$700  Fredericton,  N.B.,  June  1,  18—. 

For  value  received,  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  November  next,  I 
promise  to  pay  to  A.  Gibson,  or  Order,  Seven  Hundred  Dollars  in  good 
merchantable  Spruce  Logs,  at  his  Sawmill  near  this  city,  at  the  market 
value  on  the  maturity  of  this  note. 

John  Streamdriver. 
No.  8.  Due  Bill  for  money. 

London,  Ont,  June  20,  IS—. 
$140  iwa  Due  to  John  Baxter,  or  order,  oil  demand,  One  Hundred  and 
forty  /(?o  Dollars,  value  received. 

J.  B.  Perkins. 

No.  9.  Due  Bill  payable  in  Goods. 
|$200  Chicago,  111.,  July  14,  18—. 

Dae  on  demand,  to  R.  Wyllie,  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  in  merchandise 
from  our  store. 

T.  M.  Hunter  &  Co. 

No.  10.  Check  on  a  Bank . 
No,  16.  NewYork,  July  20.  18- 

NiNTH  National  Bank. 

Pay  to  Bradford  &  Parker  or  order,  Three  Thousand  1%  Dollars. 

$3,000  G.  BURNHAM. 

No.  11.  Form  of  a  Bank  Draft. 

$6  300  Bank  oe  the  Metropolis  No.  197. 

New  York,  Aug.  5,  18—. 
Pay  to  the  order  T.  M.  Banker  Six  Thousand  and  Three  'Hundred 

Dollars.  ^    -,.  ^ 

Duplicate  unpaid. 
G.  A.  CoPELAND,  Cashier. 

To  Eliot  Nat.  Bank,  Boston. 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


805 


No.  12.  Sight  Draft. 

$600  New  York,  Aug.  10,  18— . 

At  Sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  R.  Pitman  &  Co.,  Six  Huudred  doUaraj 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  our  account. 

George  Root  &  Co. 

To  James  Allison,  Chicago. 

No.  13.  Time  Draft. 

$200  Rochester,  N.Y.,  Aug.  11,  18—. 

Thirty  days  after  date,  pay  to  the  Order  of  John  Hall,  Two  Hundred 
and  .Yifty  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  to  our  account, 

T,  Banning  &  Co. 

No.  14  Set  of  Foreign  Bills  of  Exchange 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York,  Aug.  10,  18—. 

Ten  days  after  sight  of  this  First  of  Exchange  (our  Second  and  Third 
unpaid),  pay  to  the  Order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  without  further  advice,  to, 

Joseph  Seligman  «St  Co, 

To  Baring  Brothers. 

No.  220         London,  Eng. 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York,  Aug.  10, 18—. 

Ten  days  after  Sight  of  this  Second  of  Exchange  (First  and  Third  un- 
paid), pay  to  the  order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  Avithout  further  advice,  to 

Joseph  Seligman  &  Co, 

To  Baring  Brothers. 

No.  220.         London,  Eng. 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York.  Aug.  10,  18—. 

Ten  days  after  Sight  of  this  Third  of  Exchange  (First  and  Second  un- 
paid), pay  to  the  order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  without  further  advice,  to 

Joseph  Seligman  &  Co. 

To  Baring  Brothers. 
No.  220.         London,  Eng. 

No.  15.  Form  of  a  Protest. 

$2,000  '  New  York,  Aug.  15,  1877. 

jPlease  to  take  notice,  that  a  Promissory  Note  for  Two  Thousand  Dollars, 
made  by  Robert  Brown,  May  12,  1877,  and  endorsed  by  you,  having  been 
duly  presented  and  payment  thereof  demanded,  which  was  refused,  is 
therefore  protested  for  non-payment,  and  that  the  holders  look  to  you  for 
payment,  interest,  costs,  and  damages. 

To*^  U.   Look  out.  I .  L.  Ketchum. 

J^otary  Public, 

No.  16.  Receipt  for  Money  on  Account. 

Received,  New  York,  March  23,  1878,  of  Thomas  Paywell,  Seventy-five 
dollars  on  account. 

$75  R.  Thankful. 


80G 


BUSINESS  1'0K."\:S. 


No.  17.  Receipt  m  Full. 

Fredericton,  N.  B.,  March  12,  18—. 
Received  of  Jolm  Murray,  One  Hundred  Dollars,  in  full  of  all  demands 
to  date. 

^100.  Henry  Blackburn. 

No.  18.  Receipt  for  Money  advanced  on  a  Contract. 

^?1,000  Woodstock,  Ont.,  May  1,  18-. 

Received  of  A.  Campbell,  One  Thousand  Dollars  in  advance,  on  a  con- 
tract to  build  for  him  a  Frame  house  on  Dundas  street. 

R.  TURNBULL. 

No.  19.  Receipt  for  Rent. 

|200  Gait,  Ont.,  June  1,  18.— 

'  Received  of  A.  Thomson,  Two  Hundred  Dollars  in  full  for  one  year's 
rent  for  dwelling  on  Water  Street. 

Charles  Wilson. 

No .  20,  Receipt  for  a  Note. 

S400  New  York,  .Tune  2,  18—. 

Received  of  Hiram  Edson,  his  note  for  Four  Hundred  Dollars  at  three 
months,  in  full  of  account. 

Thomas  Harrison. 

No.  21.  Order  for  Money. 

Baltimore,  June  5,  18—. 

Mr.  Robert  Hill, 
Please  pay  Thomas  Jamison,  or  Bearer,  Fifty  dollars  on  my  account. 

David  Hillman. 

No.  22.  Order  for  Merchandise. 

Mr.  R.  T.  Bonner. 

Please  deliver  to  the  bearer,  Joseph  Fallett,  such  goods  as  he  may  de- 
sire from  your  store  to  the  amount  of  Sixty-five  dollars,  and  charge  the 
same  to  my  account. 

[  John  Gardiner 

No.  23,  Letter  of  Credit. 

"      I  ■  Toronto,  October  5,  18—. 
Gentlemen  : — Allow  me  to  introduce  to  your  firm  the  Bearer,  Mr..  J, 
S.  Harper  ;  should  he  make  a  selection  from  your  stock  to  the  amount  of 
One  Thousand  Dollars,  I  will  be  answerable  for  that  sum  in  case  of  his 
uou-payment. 

Yours,  truly, 

RUFUS  Bablow 

To  Lord  &  Taylor,  New  York, 

No.  24.  Landlord's  Agreement. 

This  certifies,  that  I  have  let  and  rented,  this  first  day  of  June,  1878, 
unto  Robert  Walker,  my  house  and  lot  No.  150,  Dundas  street,  London, 
Ont.,  and  its  appurtenances  ;  he  to  have  the  free  and  uninterrupted  oc- 
cupation thereof  for  one  year  from  this  date,  at  the  yearly  rental  of  On© 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


807 


Thousand  Dollars,  to  be  paid  monthly  in  advance;  rent  to  cease  if  do- 
Btroyed  by  fire,  or  otherwise  made  untenantable. 

Jas.  Kingman. 

No.  25.  Tenant's  agreement. 

This  certifies  that  I  have  hired  and  taken  from  Joseph  Kingman,  his 
house  and  lot  No.  150,  Dundas  street,  London,  Ont.,  with  appurtenances 
thereto  belonging,  for  one  year,  to  commence  this  day  at  a  yearly  rental 
of  One  Thousand  Dollars, "  to  be  paid  monthly  in  advance,  unless  said 
house  becomes  untenantable  from  fire  or  other  causes,  in  which  case 
rent  ceases  ;  and  I  further  agree  to  give  and  yield  said  premises  one  year 
from  this  first  day  of  JunQ,  1878,  in  as  good  condition  as  now ,  ordinary 
wear  and  damage  by  tlie  elements  excepted. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  day. 

Robert  Walker. 

No  26.  Notice  to  Quit. 

To  A.  B.  Palmer. 

Sir : — Please  observe  that  the  term  of  one  year,  for  which  the  house 
and  land,  situated  at  47  Pearl  street,  and  now  occupied  by  you,  were 
rented  to  you,  expired  on  the  first  day  of  June,  1878,  and  as  I  desire  to 
repossess  said  premises,  you  are  hereby  requested  and  required  to  vacate 
the  same. 

Yours  truly, 

T.  H.  Carter. 

No.  27.  Tenant's  Notice  of  leavincf. 

Dear  Sir:  The  premises  I  now  occupy  as  your  tenant,  at  No.  56,  Main 
street,  I  shall  vacate  on  the  first  day  of  May,  1878.    You  will  please  take 
notice  accordingly. 
Dated  this  26th  day  of  March,  1878. 
)f:  William  Gilbert. 

''.      To  John  Lawrence,  Esq. 

No.  28.  Common  Form  of  Bond. 

Know  alt.  Men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  David  Wilson,  of  Fredericton, 
York  County,  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto 
John  Scott  of  the  place  aforesaid,  in  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars,  to  be 
paid  to  the  said  John  Scott,  his  heirs  or  assigns  ;  for  which  payment  to  be 
well  and  truly  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs  and  assigns,  by  these  pres- 
ents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  and  dated  this  first  day  of  August,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such,  that  if  I,  David  Wilson,  my 
lieirs,  assigns,  or  executors,  shall  promptly  pay  to  the  said  John  Scott,  his 
lieirs  or  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  in  three  equal  annual  in- 
stalments from  the  date  hereof,  Avith  annual  interest,  then  the  above 
obligation  to  be  void  ;  otherwise  to  be  in  full  force  and  virtue, 

DAYID  WILSON,  (L.S). 

Sealed  and  delivered  in ) 
Presence  of  > 
Adam  Clark.  ) 


SOS 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


No.  29.  Form  of  Bill  of  Sale. 

Know  fill  men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  Peter  Denman,  of  the  city  of 
Boston,  in  the  County  of  Middlesex,  and  State  of  Massacliusetts,  of  tlia 
lir.st  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  tlie  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars, 
lawful  jnoney  of  the  United  States,  to  ine  in  hand  paid,  at  or  before  tiie 
ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents,  by  Robert  Ensign  of  the  same 
place,  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged, 
have  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant  and  convey,  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  one  six  year  old  dark-ha^j  horse  fjteen  hands  high,  one  black 
horse,  one  double  harness,  one  carriage,  two  coivs  and  five  pigs,  to  have 
AND  TO  HOLD  the  same  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs, 
administrators  and  assigns  for  ever. 

And  I  do  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  covenant 
and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  to  warrant  and 
,  defend  the  sale  of  the  said  goods  and  chattels  hereby  sold  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns, 
against  all  and  every  person  and  persons  whatsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 
Bixth  day  of  April  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

PETER  DENMAN,  (L.S). 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  presence  of ) 
Peter  Wilson,  > 

J.  GODDARD.  j 

No.  30.  Chattel  Mortgage. 

This  indenture,  made  this  fifteenth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  David  Allan  of  the  town  of  Gaelph, 
County  of  Wellington,  Province  of  Ontario,  party  of  the  first  part,  and 
Alfred  Baker  of  the  same  toAvn,  county  and  Province,  party  of  the  second 
part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  tho  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for,  and  in  consid- 
eration of  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  of 
"which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  does  hereby  grant,  sell,  convey  and  con- 
firm unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever, 
all  and  singular,  the  following  described  goods  and  chattels,  to  wit : 

1  Weber  piano,  4  black  walnut  bedsteads,  1  stove,  2  mahogany 
bureaus,  2  sofas,  1  dozen  chairs,  etc.,  now  in  possession  of  said  Allan,  in 

his  dwelling  at  No.  street,  Guelph.   To  have  and  to  hold 

all  and  singular  the  goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold,  or  in- 
tended so  to  be,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns  forever.  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
for  himself,  his  heirs,  assigns,  and  administrators,  all  and  singular  the 
gjods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold  unto  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part,  and  against  all  and  every  i)erson  whomsoever  shall,  and  will, 
warrant  and  forever  defend 

Upon  condition,  that  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  and  do 
well  and  truly  pay  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators,  or  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  lawful  money  of 
this  Province,  with  interest  thereon,  one  year  from  this  date,  thence  these 
presents  shall  be  void.  And  tho  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  himself, 
his  executors,  and  assigns,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said 
party  of  the  second  pait,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  that 
in  case  default  sliall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  above 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


809 


mentioned,  then  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for,  and  I,  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part,  do  hereby  authorize  and  empower,  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  with  the  aid  and 
assistance  of  any  person  or  persons,  to  enter  my  dwelling-house,  or  such 
other  place  or  places  as  the  said  goods  and  chattels  are  or  may  be  placed, 
and  take  and  convey  away  the  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  to  sell  or 
dispose  of  the  same  for  the  best  price  they  can  obtain,  and,  out  of  the  pro^ 
ceeds  thereof,  to  retain  and  pay  the  said  sum  above  mentioned,  and  all 
charges  touching  the  same,  rendering  the  overplus  (if  any)  unto  me,  or  to 
my  executors,  administrators  or  assigns. 

And,  until  default  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  of 
money,  I  am  to  remain  and  continue  in  the  quiet  possession  of  the  said 
goods  and  chattels,  and  in  the  full  and  free  enjoyment  of  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof,  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  have  here-, 
unto  set  my  hand  and  seal  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  sealed  and  deliv- 1 
ered  in  presence  of 
George  Roeson, 
Thomas  Neilson. 
Note. — The  law,  both  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  requires  that 
all  chattel  mortgages  should  be  filed  in  the  Clerk's,  Register's,  or  Re^ 
corder's  office  of  the  town,  city,  or  county  where  the  mortgagor  resides, 
and  the  property  is,  when  mortgaged.    Unless  the  same  is  renewed  at 
or  before  the  close  of  the  year,  its  virtue  expires,  and  every  creditor  will 
have  the  same  right  to  the  property  as  the  mortgagee. 

No.  31.  Claim  to  be  filed  by  Lien  Creditor's  in  Clerk's  Office. 

Henry  Wilson,  of  Buffalo,  in  the  County  of  Erie,  and  State  of  New 
York,  lumber  merchant,  files  his  claim  for  five  hundred  and  sixty  dollars 
against  a  certain  house  and  lot  of  ground,  belonging  to  John  Rodgers, 
situated  on  the  south  side  of  Clinton  street,  No.  27,  in  the  plan  of  said 
citj',  containing  in  front  on  Clinton  street,  forty  feet,  and  in  depth  one 
hundred  feet,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  said  Clinton  street,  on  the 
west  by  ground  of  John  Smith,  on  the  east  ground  of  Thomas  Nelson, 
and  on  the  south  by  ground  of  Thomas  Carter,  for  that  sum  due  him  for 
lumber  and  other  materials  furnished  by  him,  in  erecting  the  aforesaid 
house  in  October,  1877. 

J  HENRY  WILSON. 

November  4,  1877. 

Note. — The  above  form  is  applicable  for  any  claim  whatever  that  may 
be  due  to  lumber  merchants,  brick-makers,  carpenters,  painters,  masons, 
plumbers,  or  others  engaged  in  furnishing  materials  or  labor  in  erecting 
buildings. 

No.  32.  Form  of  Judgment-Note. 

For  value  received  I  promise  to  pay  to  Henry  Jordan  of  Lockport,  or 
Order,  four  hundred  dollars,  with  interest,  on  the  first  day  of  June  next  ; 
and  I  hereby  nominate,  constitute,  and  appoint,  any  attorney-at-law  of 
this  State,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable,  for  me  and  in  my 
name  to  appear  in  any  court  of  record  of  this  State,  at  any  time  after  the 
above  promissory  note  becomes  due,  and  to  waive  all  process  and  service 
thereof,  and  to  confess  judgment  in  favor  of  the  holder  hereof  for  the 
sum  that  may  be  due  and  owing  hereon,  with  interest  and  costs,  waiving 


DAVID  ALLAN,  (L.S.) 


810 


BUSINESS  FORMS 


all  errors,  etc.,  with  stay  of  execution  until  the  first  day  of  April  next. 

Witness  ray  hand  and  seal  at  Loclcpoi  t,  N.  Y.,  this  lirstday  of  Dcf  cm- 
ber,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven. 
Signed,  sealed,  and  deliv- 
ered in  presence  of 

JOSKPII  Inman, 
Robert  Kerr.  J 
Note.— The  above  note  enables  the  holder,  in  several  States,  to  enter 
up  judgment  thereon  Avithout  .suit,  if  not  paid  when  due. 

No.  33.  Form  of  Note  for  Indiana. 
$200.  Richmond,  Ind.,  April  1, 18—. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Charles  Marsh,  or 
Order,  tvfo  hundred  dollars,  with  interest,  payable  without  any  relief 
whatever  from  valuation  or  appraisement. 

ROBERT  MILLER. 

No.  34.  Form  of  Note  of  Pennsylvania. 
$600.  Philadelphia,  Pa.  ,  April  8,  18—. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Thomaa 
Maxwell,  five  hundred  dollars,  without  defalcation,  for  value  received. 

ALEXANDER  REID. 
No.  35.  Form  of  a  Bill  of  Lading  for  Timber,  &c. 
Shipped,  in  good  order  and  condition,  by  Robert  Godfrey  &  Co.,  on 
board  the  good  ship  "■Dominie  Sampson,"  whereof  P  M.  Marshall  is 
master  for  this  present  voyage,  now  lying  in  the  port  of  St.  John,  N.  B., 
^nd  bound  for  Liverpool,  England.   To  say  : — 

GO, 760  feet  Mer.  Spruce,  all  under  deck. 
100  M.  Spruce  laths,  all  under  deck. 
90  M.  ft.  Mer.  Pine,  all  on  deck, 
being  marked  and  numbered  in  the  margin  ;  and  are  to  be  delivered,  in 
like  good  order  and  condition,  at  the  aforesaid  port  of  Liverpool  (the 
danger  of  the  seas  and  fire  always  excepted),  unto  Thomas  Adams  & 
Co.,  or  to  assigns,  he  or  they  jDaying  freight  for  the  said  timber  at  the 
rate  of  ten  dollars  per  M.  feet,  and  one  dollar  per  M.  for  laths,  without 
primage  and  average  accustomed. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  master  of  the  said  vessel  hath  afRnned  to  three 
bills  of  lading,  all  of  this  tenor  and  date  ;  one  of  which  being  accom- 
plished, the  others  to  stand  void. 

P.  M.  MARSHALL. 

Dated  at  St.  John,  N.  B.,  ? 
June  the  5th,  A.D.  1878.  j 

No.  36.  Form  of  a  Survey  Bill  of  Lumber,  &c. 
Surveyed  from  Alex.  Gibson  of   Nashwaak,  New  Brunswick,  ta 
Schooner  "  Inflexible  "  Captain  Duncan.   To  say  : — 

43,600  ft.  2x8,  from  12  ft.  long  up  (Mch. )  Spruce. 
37,300  "  No.  1  Pine  boards. 
19,400  "  10  X  12  Mer.  Pine  timber. 
24,500  "  Hemlock  boards  (Mch  ). 
159  M.  No.  1  Pine  Shingles. 
Nashwaak,  N.  B.,  )  DAVID  MORRISON, 

June  5,  Anno  Domini  1878.  (  Surveyor 


THOMAS  WEBSTER,  (L.S.) 


BUSINESS  rOU3IS. 


811 


No.  37.  Form  of  Agreement  and  Warrant  for  the  Sale  of  Horse. 

This  agreement,  made  this  eighth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight, 'between  Robert  Pringle  of  the  village  of 
Stanley,  county  of  York  and  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  of  the  first 
part,  and  David  Brown  of  said  place,  of  the  second  part, 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Robert  Pringle  hereby  agrees  to  sell  to  the 
said  David  Brown  his  dark-hay  horse,  with  a  white  star  in  the  forehead, 
and  black  mane  and  tail,  and  to  warrant  the  said  horse  to  be  well  broken, 
to  be  kind  and  gentle,  both  under  the  saddle  and  in  single  and  double 
harness,  to  be  sound  in  every  respect  and  free  from  vice,  for  the  sum  of 
one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  by  the  said  David  Brown,  on  the  seventh 
day  of  June  next. 

In  consideration  whereof,  the  said  David  Brown  agrees  to  purchase 
the  said  horse,  and  to  pay  therefor  to  the  said  Robert  Pringle  the  sum  of 
le  hundred  dollars  on  the  seventh  day  of  June  next. 
In  'WITNESS  WHEREOF,  &c.  (as  in  No.  29). 

No.  38.  Agreement  to  Cultivate  Land  on  Shares 

This  agreement,  &c.  (as  in  No.  30). 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Robert  Pringle  agrees  with  the  said  David 
Brown,  that  he  will  properly  plough,  harrow,  till,  fit,  and  prepare  fo 
sowing,  all  that  certain  field  of  ground  belonging  to  the  said  Brown, 
which  field  lies,  etc.  {here  insert  description  of  field)  containing  about 
ten  acres,  and  to  sow  the  same  with  good  fall  wheat,  finding  one-half  the 
seed  -wheat  necessary  therefor,  on  or  before  the  fifteenth  day  of 
September  next  :  and  that  he  will,  at  the  proper  time,  cut,  harvest, 
and  thresh,  the  said  wheat,  and  winnow  and  clean  the  same,  and 
deliver  the  one-half  part  of  the  said  wheat  to  the  said  David  Brown, 
at  his  bam,  on  his  premises,  in  the  village  of  Stanley,  aforesaid, 
near  his  dwelling  house,  within  ten  days  after  the  same  shall  have  been 
cleaned  ;  and  will  carefully  stack  the  one-half  of  the  straw  on  the  prem- 
ises of  the  said  David  Brown,  near  to  his  barn  aforesaid. 

And  the  said  David  Brown,  in  consideration  of  the  foregoing  agree- 
ment, promises  and  agrees,  to  and  with  the  said  Pringle,  that  he  may 
enter  in  upon  said  field  for  the  purpose  of  tilling  and  sowing  the  same, 
and  of  harvesting  the  crop  ;  and  free  ingress  and  egress  have  and  enjoy 
for  the  purpose  aforesaid  ;  and  that  he  will  furnish  to  the  said  Pringle 
one-half  of  the  seed  wheat  necessary  to  sow  the  same,  on  or  before  the 
fifteenth  day  of  September  next,  and  permit  the  said  Pringle  to  thrash 
and  clean  the  wheat  upon  the  premises  of  the  said  David  Brown. 

In  witness  whereof,  &c.  (as  in  No.  29),  both  parties  will  sign. 

No.  39.  Lease  of  a  Farm. 

This  Indenture,  made  tiiis  first  day  of  March,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Peter  Marshall,  of  the  township  of 
Dumfries,  county  of  Waterloo,  and  Province  of  Ontario,  of  the  first  part, 
and  Robert  Walker  of  the  said  township  and  county  of  the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  for,  and  in  consideration 
of  the  yearly  rents  and  covenants  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  reserved  on 
the  part  and  behalf  of  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  his  heirs,  executors  and 
administrators,  to  be  paid,  kept,  and  performed,  hath  demised,  set,  and 
to  farm  let,  and  by  these  presents  doth  demise,  set,  and  to  farm  let,  unto 
the  said  Rob«(rt  Walker,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  that  certain  piece, 


812 


BUSINESS  FOUMS. 


]>an5el.  or  tnvct  oi  lana  situate,  lyinjj  and  being  in  the  township  of  Dum- 
fries aforesaitl,  known  as  lot  No.  {here  describe  land)  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  ,  containing  one  liundred  acres,  together  with  all  and  sin- 
gular the  buildings  and  improvements,  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same 
unto  the  said  Robert  Walker,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns,  from  the 

 day  of  next,  for,  and  during  the  term  of  five  years,  thence 

next  ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete,  and  ended,  yielding  and  paying 
for  the  same,  unto  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  the 

yearly  rent,  or  sum  dollars,  on  the  first  day  of  in  each' and 

every  year,  during  the  term  aforesaid,  and  at  tlie  exi)iration  of  said 
term,  or  sooner  if  determined  upon,  he  the  said  Robert  Walker,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  shall  and  will  quietly  and  peaceably  surrender  and  yield  up 
the  said  demised  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  Peter 
Marshall,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  as  good  order  and  repair,  as  the  same 
now  are,  reasonable  wear,  tear,  and  casualties,  which  may  happen  by 
fire,  or  otherwise,  only  excepted. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have,  etc.  (as  in  No.  29). 

No.  40.  Warranty  Deed  hy  Husband  and  Wife,  with  Covenants. 

This  Indenture,  made  this  eighteenth  day  of  June,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John 
Wilson,  of  Newton,  county  of  Sussex,  State  of  New  Jersey,  and  Charlotte, 
his  wife,  of  the  first  part,  and  Peter  Cunningham  of  the  same  place,  of 
the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH, 'that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars  in  hand,  well  and  truly  paid 
by  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  ac- 
knowledged, have  granted,  bargained,  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  bargain,  and  sell,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  all  the  following  described  lot,  piece,  parcel  or  tract  of  land 
situated  in  the  town  of  Newton,  county  of  Sussex,  and  State  of  Ngw 
Jersey,  to  wit:   {Here  describe  the  property.) 

Together  with  all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging  or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and 
reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof  ; 
and  all  the  estate,  right,  title,  interest,  claim  and  demand  whatsoever,  of 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  either  in  law  or  equity,  of,  in,  and  to,  the 
above-bargained  premises,  with  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances: 
To  HAVE  AND  TO  HOLD  the  said  premises  above  bargained  and  described, 
with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  for  ever.  And  the  said  John  Wilson,  and  Charlotte  Wilson, 
his  wife,  parties  of  the  first  part,  hereby  expressly  waive,  release,  and 
relinquish  unto  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  ad- 
ministrators and  assigns,  all  right,  title,  claim,  benefit,  and  interest  what- 
ever, in,  and  to  the  above-described  premises,  and  each  and  every  part 
thereof,  which  is  given  by  or  results  from,  all  laws  of  this  State  pertain- 
ing to  the  exemption  of  homesteads. 

And  the  said  John  Wilson  and  Charlotte  Wilson,  his  wife,  party  of  the 
first  part,  for  themselves  and  their  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
do  covenant,  grant,  bargain,  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  at  the  time  of  the  ensealing  and 
delivery  of  these  presents  they  were  well  seized  of  the  premises  above 
conveyed,  as  of  a  good,  sure,  perfect,  absolute  and  indefeasible  estate  of 
inheritance,  in  law  and  in  fee  simple,  and  have  good  right,  full  power, 
and  lawful  authority  to  grant,  bargain,  sell,  and  convey  the  same,  in  man- 
ner and  form  aforesaid,  and  that  the  same  are  free  and  clear  from  all 
former  and  other  grants,  bargains,  sales,  liens,  taxes,  judgments,  assess- 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


813 


ments,  and  incumbrances  of  what  kind  or  nature  soever;  and  the  above- 
bargained  premises  in  the  quiet  and  peaceable  possession  of  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  against  all  and  every  or  persons 
lawfully  claiming  or  to  claim  the  whole  or  any  part  thereof,  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  and  will  warrant  and  forever  defend. 

In  testimony  whereof ,  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part  have  hereunto 
set  their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

JOHN  WILSON,  (L.S.) 

CHARLOTTE  WILSON,  (L.S.) 

Signed,  sealed  and  deliv-  i 
ered  in  ijresence  of  I 
Henry  Nelson.  I 
Robert  Reid.  J 

No.  41.  AchnowUdgment  of  Deed. 
Sussex  County,  N.  J. 

On  the  eighteenth  day  of  June,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-eight,  personally  appeared  before  me  John  Wilson,  and  Charlotte, 
his  wife,  whom  I  know  to  be  the  persons  described  in,  and  who  executed 
the  within  instrument,  and  who  severally  acknowledged  that  they  execu. 
ted  the  same:  the  said  Charlotte  being  by  me  examined  separate  and  apart 
from  her  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely,  and 
without  fear  or  compulsion  from  him. 

„       •  PHILIP  HUNTER,  J.  P. 

Minute  ofHecord. 

Recorded  in  the  Clerk's  office  of 
the  County  of  Sussex,  in  Liber 
45,  p.  81,  of  Mortgages,  18th 
June,  1878,  at  30  minutes  past 
2  p.m. 

Robert  Watts,  Register. 

No.  42.  Mortgage  of  Land  to  secure  Payment  of  Money. 

This  Indenture,  made  the  tenth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John  Hunter,  of  Dorset,  county  of 
Bennington,  State  of  Vermont,  merchant,  and  Margaret,  his  wife,  of  the 
first  part,  and  William  West,  of  the  same  place,  agent,  of  the  second 
part:  Whereas,  the  said  John  Hunter  is  justly  indebted  to  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  in  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of 
the  United  States,  secured  to  be  paid  by  his  certain  bond  or  obligation, 
bearing  even  date  with  these  presents,  in  the  penal  sum  of  ten  thou- 
sand dollars,  lawful  money  as  aforesaid,  conditioned  for  the  payment  of 
the  first-mentioned  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  as  by  the  said  bond  or 
obligation,  and  the  condition  thereof,  reference  being  thereunto  had,  may 
more  fully  appear.  Now  this  Indenture  Witnesseth,  that  the  said ' 
parties  of  the  first  part,  for  the  better  securing  of  the  said  sum  of  money 
mentioned  in  the  condition  of  the  said  bond  or  obligation,  with  interest 
thereon,  according  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  thereof,  and  also  for  and 
in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  dollar  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  at,  or  before  the  ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  pres- 
ents, the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have  granted,  bargained, 
sold,  aliened,  released,  conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by  these  presents 
do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release,  convey,  and  confirm,  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  for  ever,  ^iaj  that 


814 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


certain  piece,  parcel,  or  lot  of  land,  sitnate,  lying,  and  being :  {Here  describe 
premises. )  To  jiave  and  to  liold  the  same,  togetlier  witli  all  and  singular 
the  tenements,  hereditaments,  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging, 
or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and  reversions,  remainder 
and  remainders,  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof;  And  also,  all  the  estate, 
right,  title,  interest,  dower,  property,  possession,  claim,  and  demand 
whatsoever,  as  well  in  law  as  in  equity,  of  the  .said  parties  of  the  first 
part,  of,  in,  and  to  the  same,  and  every  part  and  parcel  tliereof,  with  the 
ap[)urtenances.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  and  described 
premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  nnto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof  for- 
ever. Pbovided  always,  and  these  presents  are  upon  this  express  con- 
dition, that  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executoi'S  and 
assigns,  shall  well  and  truly  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  i)art,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the  said  sum 
of  money  mentioned  in  the  condition  of  the  said  bond  or  obligation,  and 
the  interest  thereon,  at  the  time,  and  in  the  manner  mentioned  in  the 
said  condition,  according  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  thereof,  that 
these  presents  and  the  estate  hereby  granted  shall  cease,  determine,  and 
become  null  and  void.  And  the  said  John  Hunter,  for  himself,  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  pay  unto  the 
said  -party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
the  said  sum  of  money  and  interest,  as  mentioned  above  and  expressed  in 
the  said  condition  of  the  said  bond.  And  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the 
payment  of  the  said  sum  of  money  above  mentioned,  or  the  interest  that 
may  grow  due  thereon,  or  of  any  part  thereof,  that  then,  and  from 
thenceforth,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  to  enter  into  and  upon  all  and 
singular  the  premises  hereby  granted,  or  intended  so  to  be,  and  to  sell 
and  dispose  of  the  same,  and  all  benefit  and  equity  of  redemption  of  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
therein,  at  public  auction,  according  to  the  act  in  such  case  made  and 
provided :  And  as  the  attorney  of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  that 
purpose  by  these  presents  duly  authorized,  constituted,  and  appointed, 
to  make  and  deliver  to  the  purchaser  or  purchasers  thereof,  a  good  and 
sufficient  deed  or  deeds  of  conveyance,  in  the  law  for  the  same  in  fee 
simple,  and,  out  of  the  money  arising  from  such  sale,  to  retain  the 
principal  and  interest  which  shall  then  be  due  on  the  said  bond  or  obliga- 
tion, together  with  the  costs  and  charges  of  advertisement  and  sale  of 
the  premises,  rendering  the  overplus  of  the  purchase  money  (if  any  there 
shall  be)  unto  the  said  John  Hunter,  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  or  assigns,  which  sale  so  to  be  made  shall  for- 
ever be  a  perpetual  bar,  both  in  law  and  In  equity,  against  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  or  to 
claim  the  premises,  or  any  part  thereof,  by,  from,  or  imder,  him,  them, 
or  either  of  them. 

In  witness  Avhereof,  the  parties  of  the  first  part  have  liereunto  set 
their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

JOHN  HUNTER,- (L.S.) 
MARGARET  HUNTER,  (L.S.) 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered] 
in  presence  of  ! 
Thomas  Bates,  j 
WiLLiAin  Bell.  J 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


815 


ISiO.  ^3.  Form  of  Satiitfaction  Piece.  -ff  .'"r  • 

I,  William  West,  of  Dorset,  Bennington  County,  Vermont,  do  hereby 
certify  that  a  certain  mortgage,  bearing  date  the  "tenth  day  of  April,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventj^-eight,  made  and  executed  by  John 
Hunter,  and  Margaret,  his  wife,  of  the  same  place,  and  recorded  in  tlie 
office  of  the  CleVk  of  the  county  of  Bennington,  in  Liber  45,  p.  76,  of 
Mortgages,  on  10th  day  of  April,  1878,  is  paid.   Dated  1st  May,  1878. 

WILLIAM  WEST,  (L.S.) 

Bennikgton  CouNTy,  Vermont,  SS. : 

On  the  first  day  of  May,  1878,  before  me  came  William  West,  to  me 
personally  known  to  be  the  individual  described  in,  and  who  executed 
the  above  certificate,  and  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  same. 

JOHN  HAMPDEN,  J.  P. 
No.  44.  Assignment  of  Mortgage. 

Know  all  men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  William  West,  of  Dor- 
set, county  of  Bennington,  State  of  Vermont,  agent,  of  the  first  part,  for 
and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money 
of  the  United  States,  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  John  Howard,  of  the  same 
place,  farmer,  of  the  second  part,  at  or  before  the  ensealing  and  delivery 
of  these  ipresents,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have 
granted,  bargained,  sold,  assigned,  transferred,  and  set  over,  and  by 
these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over,  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  a  cei-tain  inden- 
ture of  mortgage,  bearing  date  the  10th  day  of  Aprif,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  made  by  John  Hunter,  and  Margaret,  his 
wife,  and  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Register  of  the  county  of  Benning- 
ton, State  of  Vermont,  in  Liber  36,  of  Mortgages,  p.  50,  togetlier  with 
the  bond  or  obligation  thereto  belonging,  and  the  money  due,  and  to  be- 
come due  thereon,  with  the  interest,  To  have  and  to  hold  the  same 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  administrators  and 
assigns  for  ever,  subject  only  to  the  proviso  in  the  said  Indenture  of 
Mortgage  mentioned.  And  I  do  hereby  make,  constitute,  and  appoint 
the  said  jDarty  of  the  second  part,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney  irrevocable, 
in  my  name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  proper  costs  and  charges,  to  have, 
use  and  take,  all  lawful  ways  and  means  for  the  recovery  of  the  said 
money,  and  interest,  and,  in  case  of  payment,  to  discharge  the  same  as 
fully  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  these  presents  were  not  made. 

In  WITNESS  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 'seal,  the 
first  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

WILLIAM  WEST,  (L.S.) 

In  presence  of  V 

Duncan  Fokbes,  > 

John  Reid,  ) 
Note. — Deeds,  mortgages,  and  assignments  of  mortgages  should  be 
put  on  record  in  the  Register's  office  without  delay  after  being  executed. 
The  foregoing  forms  (as  well  as  the  following)  are  suitable  for  either 
the  United  States  or  Canada. 

No,  45.  Form  of  Will  for  Ileal  and  Personal  Property. 

I,  Joseph  Knight,  of  the  city  of  Toronto,  county  of  York,  and  Province 
of  Ontario,  grocer,  realizing  the  uncertainty  of  life,  and  being  of  feeble 


816  BUSINESS  FORMS. 

health,  but  of  sound  mind,  memory,  and  judgment,  do  make  and  declare 
this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testament  ui  manner  and  form  following,  to 
■wit: 

First,  I  Rive,  demise,  and  bequeath  unto  my  eldest  son,  Robert  Knight, 
the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars,  now  on  deposit  in  the  liank  of  Mon- 
treal, together  with  my  grocery  store  at  No.  street,  with  all  the 

tenements  and  improvements  thereto  belonging:  to  have  and  to  hold 
unto  my  said  son,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

Second,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife,  Charlotte,  abso- 
lutely, the  house  in  which  I  now  reside,  at  No.  street,  together 

with  all  the  furniture  therein,  including  piano,  organ,  linen,  china,  the 
plate,  wearing  apparel,  etc. ,  together  with  ten  thousand  dollars  in  Bank 
stock  and  Railway  bonds,  now  lodged  in  my  safe;  the  same  to  be  in  lieu 
of  her  dower  at  common  law. 

Third,  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  invalid  mother,  Ellen  Knight,  the 
income  and  rents  from  ray  farm  in  Scarboro  during  the  term  of  her  natu- 
ral life.  Said  farm  to  revert  to  my  sons  and  daughters  in  equal  propor- 
tion upon  the  demise  of  my  said  mother. 

Fourth,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  youngest  son,  Joseph  Knight, 

three  thousand  dollars,  also  my  tenement  house  on  street,  with  all 

the  improvements  thereto  belonging;  to  have  and  to  hold  unto  my  said 
son,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

Fifth,  I  give  and  bequeath  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  to  my 
executors,  to  be  equally  divided  between  them,  in  full,  for  all  services  in 
the  matter  of  the  execution  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

Sixth,  I  direct  that  my  debts  and  funeral  expenses  be  paid  from  moneys 
now  on  deposit  to  my  credit  in  Savings  Bank  of  Toronto,  the  bal- 
ance of  such  money,  together  with  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  estate, 
to  my  three  daughters,  Mary,  Ellen,  and  Isabella,  to  be  equally  divided 
between  them  for  their  use  forever. 

I  hereby  nominate  and  appoint  David  TVaterson,  Robert  Ford,  and 
James  Thomson,  the  executors  of  this  my  last  will  and  testanient,  and  re- 
voke all  other  and  former  wills  made  and  executed  by  me. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  tenth 
day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

JOSEPH  kNIGHT,  (L.S.) 

Signed,  sgaled,  published,  ^ 
declared  and  acknowl- 
edged, by  the  above- 
named  testator,  to  be  his 
last  will  and  testament, 
in  our  presence,  and  we 
each,  at  his  request,  and 
hi  his  presence,  and  in 
the  presence  of  each  . 
other,  subscribe  our 
names  as  witnesses. 

Alexander  Adam,  75 
King  St.,  Toronto. 

Thomas    Robson,  214 
Yonge  St.,  Toronto. 

Adam  Clark,95  Adelaide 
St.,  Toronto. 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


817 


Note.— The  provisions  of  <i  will  should,  in  every  case,  he  so  clearly 
defined  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  the  meaning.  Any  j)erson  of 
proper  age,  and  sound  judgment  may  convey  property  by  Avill.  All  lega- 
tees are  debarred  by  law  froin  witnessing  wills  in  which,  they  are  inter- 
ested ;  their  signature  would  nullify  the  whole  instrumcBt,  and  no  person 
can  serve  as  executor  if  he  be  under  21  years  of  age,  a  lunatic,  convict, 
imbecile,  or  an  alien  at  the  time  of  proving  the  will.  The  father  may  ap- 
l^oint  liis  wife,  son,  brother,  or  any  other  relative  as  executor,  and  each 
in  their  turn  may  do  likewise,  as  confidence  may  exist.  An  addition  to 
tlie  Avill,  called  a  codicil,  designed  to  modify,  add  to,  or  change  previous 
bequests,  may  be  executed  at  anytime,  but  in  every  case  it  must  be  ren- 
dered as  definite  and  precise  as  the  will  itself,  witnessing  included. 

No.  46.  Agreement  for  tlie  Sale  and  Purchase  of  Land, 

This  agreement,  made  and  executed  the  first  day  of  May,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Cliarles  Giles,  of 
Kingston,  Ulster  county.  State  of  New  York,  farmer,  of  the  first  part, 
and  Thomas  Kingman,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  milkman,  of  the  second 
part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars  (to  him  promised  to  be  paid), 
of  which  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  is  now  paid,  the  receipt  of 
which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  and  the  remaining  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  is  hereby  agreed  to  be  paid  at  the  time  the  deed  hereinafter  men- 
tioned is  given,  hath  contracted  and  agreed  to  sell  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  all  that  certain  piece,  parcel,  or  tract  of  land  situate  in  the 
town  of  Kingston,  county  of  Ulster,  and  State  of  New  York,  aforesaid, 
known  and  described  on  the  map  made  by  Thomas  Adams,  surveyor,  and 
filed  in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  said  county.  October  5,  1830,  [by  the 
number  (47)  forty-seven,]  and  bounded  and  described  as  follows  :  {Here 
describe  property).  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  agrees  to  execute 
and  deliver  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  a  warranty  deed,  with 
full  covenants,  for  the  said  described  lands  :  Pkovided,  and  upon  condi- 
tion nevertheless,  that  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  for  the 
said  land,  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  way  and  manner  following,  to  wit: 

{Here  specify  the  amount  and  dates  of  payments.) 
And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  himself,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  doth  covenant  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part  will  pay  the  said  several  sums  as  they  become  due,  without 
any  deduction  for  taxes  or  assessments  whatever:  And  ttis  further  agreed 
between  the  parties  to  these  presents,  that,  if  default  be  made  in  fulfilling 
this  agreement,  or  any  part  thereof,  on  the  part  of  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  then,  and  in  such  case,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his 
lieirs  and  assigns,  shall  be  at  liberty  to  consider  this  cancelled,  and  the 
money  already  paid  forfeited,  and  to  dispose  of  the  said  land  to  any  other 
person  in  the  same  manner  as  if  this  contract  had  never  been  made. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  tho 
day  and  year  first  above  written.  .  u 

CHARLES  GILES,  (L.S.) 
Signed,  sealed,  and  deUv-  )  THOMi^  S  ICINGMAN,  (L.  S. » 

ered  in  presence  of  > 
Stephen  Hamilton.  ) 


818 


r.USINKSS  FORMS. 


No.  47.  Pvtver  of  Allorncy,  General  Form. 

Know  all  men  p.y  these  presents,  that  I,  Robert  (J rant,  of  Brook- 
lyn,  in  the  county  of  Kings,  !ind  State  of  New  York,  nicrcliant,  have 
made,  constituted  and  appointed,  and  by  tlieso  presents  do  mal<e,  consti- 
tute and  ai)point,  Thomas  Ijaunerman,  of  the  city  of  Hamilton,  in  the 
county  of  Wentvvortli,  and  province  of  Ontario,  a  true  and  lawful  attor- 
ney for  me,  and  in  my  name,  ijlace  and  stead,  and  in  my  behalf,  to  (here 
insert  the  duties  to  be  performed),  liereby  giving  and  granting  imto  my 
said  attorney  full  power  and  authority  in  tlie  premises  to  use  all  lawful 
means  in  my  name  and  for  my  sole  benefit,  for  the  purposes  aforesaid. 
And  generally  to  do  and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever, 
requisite  and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  personally  present,  with 
full  power  of  substitution  and  revocation,  hereby  ratifying  and  confirm- 
ing all  that  my  said  attorney,  or  his  substitute,  shall  lawfully  do,  or  cause 
to  be  done,  by  virtue  hereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  first 
'  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  liuudred  and  seventy-eight. 

ROBERT  GRANT,  (L.S.) 

Signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of ) 
Davjd  Scott.  j 
Note. — In  cases  where  the  attorney  is  empow^ered  to  sell  land  and 
grant  deeds,  the  power  of  attorney  must  be  i:)laced  on  record  in  the 
County  Register's  office. 

No.  48.  Agreement  for  Building  a  House. 

Articles  of  Agreement,  made  the  first  day  of  June,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John  Hall,  of  Lockport,  in  the 
co\inty  of  Niagara,  and  State  of  New  York,  of  the  first  part,  and  George 
Hunter  of  the  said  town,  county  and  State,  of  the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  John  Hall,  party  of  the  first  part,  for  con- 
siderations hereinafter  noted,  contracts,  bargains,  and  agrees  with  the 
said  George  Hunter,  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  assigns,  and  ad- 
ministrators, that  he  the  said  Hall,  will  within  four  months,  next  follow- 
ing this  date,  in  a  good  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  according  to  his 
best  skill,  well  and  substantially  erect  and  finish  a  three-story  brick 

dwelling  house  on  lot  No.  street,  which  said  house  is  to  be  of 

the  following  dimensions,  with  brick,  stone,  lumber,  and  other  materials, 
as  described  in  the  plans  and  specifications  hereunto  annexed. 

(Here  describe  buildings,  material,  plan,  &c.,  in  full. 

In  consideration  of  which,  the  said  George  Hunter  does,  for  himself 
and  legal  representatives,  promise  to  pay  to  the  said  John  Hall,  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  thousand  dollars,  in  the  way  and 
manner  following,  to  wit:  One  thousand  dollars  at  tlie beginning  of  said 
work,  one  thousand  dollars  on  the  first  day  of  August  next,  one  thou- 
sand dollars  on  the  first  day  of  September  next,  and  the  remaining  three 
thousand  dollars  on  the  completion,  of  the  building. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  the  said  John  Hall,  or  his  legal  representatives, 
shall  furnish,  at  his  or  their  expense,  all  brick,  stone,  lime,  lumber,  doors, 
blinds,  glazed  sash,  window  frames,  nails,  paint,  and  other  materials  re- 
quired for  the  building  and  finishing  of  said  house. 

It  is  further  stipulated  that  in  order  to  be  entitled  to  said  payments, 
the  said  John  Hall,  or  his  legal  representatives,  shall,  according  to  the 
architect's  appraisement,  have  expended,  in  labor  and  material,  the 
value  of  said  payments,  on  the  house,  at  time  of  payment. 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


819 


And  for  the  true  and  faithful  performance  of  all  and  every  of  the 
covenants  and  agreements  above  mentioned,  the  parties  to  these  presents 
covenant  and  agree,  each  with  the  other,  that  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars,  as  fixed,  settled,  and  liquidated  damages,  shall  he  paid  to  the 
other  by  the  failing  party  within  one  month  from  the  time  of  so  failing. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  the  year  and 
day  first  above  written. 

JOHN  HALL, 
GEORGE  HUNTER. 
Note.— Agreements  should  be  executed  in  duplicate  so  that  each  party 
may  hold  a  copy.  If  erasures  or  interlineations  are  made  in  agreements, 
contracts,  deeds,  mortgages,  etc.,  the  fact  should  be  stated  on  the  paper 
that  they  were  so  done  before  the  parties  signed  it.  Amounts  and  dates 
should  always  be  written  out,  and  not  expressed  in  figures.  Fraud  viti- 
ates every  contract  into  which  it  enters.  See  legal  brevities  on  page 
587. 

No.  49.  Assignment  of  a  Patent-Bight. 

Whereas  T,  David  Ritchie,  of  the  city  of  Newark,  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  and  State  of  New  Jersey,  engineer,  did  obtain  letters-patent  of 
the  United  States  for  improvements  in  steam-engine  governors,  Avhicli 
letters-patent  bear  date  the  first  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight ;  and  whereas  Peter  Jackson,  of  the  city  of  To- 
ronto, in  the  county  of  York,  and  Province  of  Ontario,  is  desirous  of  pur- 
chasing from  me  all  the  right,  title,  and  interest,  which  I  have  in  and  to 
said  invention,  in  consequence  of  the  grant  of  letters-patent  therefor  : 

Now  THIS  Indenture  witnesseth,  that  for  and  in  consideration  of 
the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  to 
me  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I  have 
assigned,  sold,  and  set  over,  and  do  hereby  assign,  sell,  and  set  over  unto 
the  said  Peter  Jackson,  all  the  right,  title  and  interest  which  I  have  in  the 
said  invention,  as  secured  to  me  in  the  said  letters-patent  (for,  to,  and  in 
the  several  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  in  no  other  place, 
or  places. ) 

The  same  to  be  held  and  enjoyed  by  the  said  Peter  Jackson,  for  his 
own  use  and  behoof,  and  for  the  use  and  behoof  of  his  legal  representa- 
tives, to  the  full  end  of  the  term  for  which  the  said  letters-patent  are  or 
may  be  granted,  as  fully  and  entirely  as  the  same  would  have  been  held 
and  enjoyed  by  me  had  this  assignment  and  sale  not  been  made. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this 
first  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

DAVID  RITCHIE,  (L.S.) 

Signed,  sealed,  and  deliv- 1 
ered  in  presence  of  I 
Robert  Logan",  | 
John  A.  Bruce.  J 

No.  50.  Form  of  Affidavit. 

State  of  Vermont,  ) 
County  of  Rutland,  p^^^"- 

Robert  Dawson,  of  the  town  of  Whitehall,  in  the  county  aforesaid, 
being  duly  sworn,  says  {here  stats  the  facts),  and  further  says  not. 
Sworn  to  this  fifth  day  of       1  ROBERT  DAWSON. 

October,  A.D.,  1877,  before  | 
me.  } 
John  Walt^ace,  I 
Commissioner  of  Deeds.  J 


820 


BUSINESS  FORMS. 


No.  51.   rarinership  Agreement. 


Tins  Ar.uEKMKNT  mado  this  first  day  of  J.iiiua)-y,  1878,  between 
Thomas  Murray  of  Toronto,  York  county,  Province  of' Ontario,  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  of  the  first  part,  and  Jolm  Campbell,  of  tlic  same  place, 
of  the  second  part  :  witnesseth  :  That  the  said  parties  agree  to  associate 
themselves  as  co-partners,  for  a  period  of  seven  years  from  this  date,  in 
the  business  of  buying  and  selling  groceries  and  such  other  goods  and 
commodities  as  belong  in  that  line  of  business  ;  the  name  and  style  of 
the  firm  to  be  "  Murray  &  Campbell."  For  the  purpose  of  conducting 
the  business  of  the  above  named  partnership,  the  said  Murray  lias  at 
the  date  of  this  agreement,  invested  four  thousand  dollars  as  capital 
stock,  and  the  said  Campbell  has  paid  in  the  like  sum  of  four  tliousand 
dollars,  botli  of  which  amounts  are  to  be  expended  and  used  in  common, 
for  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  parties  hereto,  in  the  management  of 
their  business.  It  is  further  agreed  by  both  parties  hereto,  that  they 
will  not,  while  associated  as  co-partners,  follow  any  avocation  or  trade 
to  their  own  private  advantage  ;  but  will  throughout  tlie  entire  period 
pf  copartnership,  put  forth  their  utmost  and  best  efforts  for  their  mutual 
advantage,  and  the  increase  of  the  capital  stock. 

That  the  details  of  the  business  may  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
each  other,  it  is  agreed  that  during  the  aforesaid  period,  accurate  and 
full  book  accounts  shall  be  kept,  in  which  each  partner  shall  record,  or 
cause  to  be  entered  and  recorded,  full  mention  of  all  monies  received  and 
expended,  as  well  as  every  article  purchased  and  sold  belonging  to,  or 
in  any  wise  appertaining  to  said  partnership  ;  the  gains,  profits,  expen- 
ditures and  losses  being  equally  divided  between  them. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  once  every  year,  or  oftener,  should  either 
party  desire,  a  ^uU,  just,  and  accurate  exhibit  shall  be  made  to  each 
other,  or  to  their  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  of  the  losses,  re- 
ceipts, profits,  and  increase  made  by  reason  of,  or  arising  from,  such  co- 
partnership. And  after  such  exhibit  is  made,  the  surplus  profit,  if  such 
there  be,  resulting  from  the  business,  shall  be  divided  between  said  part- 
ners, share  and  share  alike.  Either  of  said  parties  shall  be  allowed  to 
draw  a  sum,  first  year,  not  exceeding  nine  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
from  the  capital  stock  of  the  firm,  in  monthly  instalments  of  seventy-five 
dollars  each,  which  amount  may  be  varied,  more  or  less,  by  subsequent 
agreement.  And  further,  should  either  partner  desire,  or  should  death 
of  either  of  the  parties,  or  other  reasons,  make  itnecessary,  they,  the  said 
copartners,  will  each  to  the  other,  or,  in  case  of  death  of  either,  the  sur- 
viving partner  to  the  executors  or  administrators  of  the  party  deceased, 
make  a  full,  accurate,  and  final  account  of  the  condition  of  the  partner- 
ship as  aforesaid,  and  will  fairly  and  accurately  adjust  the  same. 
And,  also,  upon  taking  an  inventory  of  the  said  capital  stock,  with  in- 
crease and  profit  thereon,  which  shall  appear  or  is  found  to  be  remaining 
all  such  remainder  slaall  be  equally  apportioned  and  divided  between 
them,  the  said  copartners,  their  executors,  or  administrators,  share  and 
share  alike. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  in  caseof  a  misunderstanding  arising  with  tlie  part- 
ners aforesaid,  which  cannot  be  settled  between  themselves,  such  differ- 
ence of  opinion  shall  be  settled  by  arbitrators  uiDon  the  following  condi- 
tions, viz.  :  Each  party  to  choose  oiie  arbitrator,  which  two  thus  elected 
shall  choose  a  third  ;  the  three  thus  chosen  to  determine  the  merits  of 
the  case,  and  adjust  the  basis  of  a  settlement. 

In  witness  whereof  the  parties  aforesaid  hereunto  set  their  hands  and 
seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 
Signed  in  the  presence  of 


John  Stewart, 
Geo.  Smith, 


BUSINESS  FOKMS. 


821 


No.  52.   Assignment  for  the  Benefit  of  Creditors. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  John  Carrie,  of  the  Town  of 
Ratland,  County  of  Rutland,  and  State  of  Vermont,  for  value  received, 
have  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  sell,  assign,  and  convey  unto 
John  Davidson,  of  tlie  same  place,  all  the  accounts,  debts,  dues,  notes, 
bills,  and  demands  enumerated  and  specified  in  the  schedule  hereunto 
annexed,  and  marked  "  Schedule  A.  ;"  {thi  schedule  should  state  the  as- 
signment to  lohich  they  belong,  andbe  dated  and  signed  by  the  parties  for 
the  purpose  of  identification),  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same,  unto  the  said 
John  Davidson,  his  heirs  and  assigns  :  In  trust  to  collect,  sue  for,  de- 
mand, receive,  and  recover  all  such  sums  of  money  as  may  be  due, 
owing,  and  payable  tliereon  ;  and  after  paying  all  reasonable  and 
proper  costs,  charges  and  expenses,  to  pay  to  each  and  all  of  my  credi- 
tors the  full  sum  that  may  be  due  and  owing  to  them  from  me,  of  whom 
the  said  John  Davidson  is  one,  and  a  full  and  complete  list  of  whom  with 
the  true  amount  due  to  each,  is  contained  in  the  schedule  hereto  annexed, 
marked  "  Schedule  B. ; "  and  if  the  proceeds  of  the  said  notes,  accounts, 
bonds,  and  so  forth,  be  not  sufflcient  fully  and  entirely  to  pay  off  and 
satisfy  each  and  all  of  my  creditors,  then  to  pay  them  pro  rata  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  due  and  owing  to  each.  And  if  the  proceeds  as 
aforesaid  shall  be  more  than  sufficient  to  pay  every  one  of  my  creditors, 
tlien  to  pay  and  return  to  me  the  balance  that  may  be  left,  if  any,  after 
paying  all  my  creditors  as  aforesaid. 

And  I  do  hereby  nominate,  constitute,  and  appoint,  the  said  John 
Davidson  my  true  Jind  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable,  in  my  name  or  other- 
wise, for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  to  ask,  demand,  sue  for,  collect,  receive, 
and  recover,  all  and  singular,  such  sum  or  sums  of  money  as  now  or 
hereafter  may  become  due,  upon,  for,  or  on  account  of  any  of  the  prop- 
erty, effects,  things  in  action,  or  demands  above  assigned  ;  giving  and 
granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full  power  and  authority  to  do  and  per- 
form every  act,  deed,  and  thing,  requisite  and  necessary  in  the  premises; 
as  fully,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  1  might  or  could  do  if  this  assign- 
ment had  not  been  made  ;  with  full  power  of  substitution  and  revoca- 
tion, hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his 
substitute  may  lawf  ully  do,  or  cause  to  be  done,  in  the  premises,  by 
virtue  hereof. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  tliis  fifth  day 
of  October,  1878. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  John  Curkie,  [L.  S.] 

In  the  presence  of 

EoiiERT  Palmer, 

Peter  Sheldon. 

No.  53,   Form  of  Composition  loith  Creditors. 

Note. — The  following  shows  the  form  of  a  contract  between  a  debtor 
who  is  only  able  to  pay  a  portion  of  his  debts,  with  his  creditors,  where- 
by they  agree  to  accept  a  certain  sum  less  than  the  original  claim  ;  and, 
upon  receipt  thereof,  not  to  prosecute  or  trouble  the  debtor  on  account 
of  his  debt. 

Know  All  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  whereas  John  Smashwell, 
is  justly  indebted  to  us,  Robert  Rogers,  xindrew  J.  Reid,  and  Henry  Mid- 
dleton,  creditors  of  the  said  John  Smashwell,  in  divers  sums  of  money, 
which  he  has  become  unable  fully  to  pay  and  discharge ;  therefore  we,  the 
said  creditors,  do  consent  and  agree  with  the  said  John  Smashwell,  to  de- 
mand less  than  the  full  amount  of  our  respective  claims,  and  to  accept 
of  ten  cents  for  every  dollar  owing  to  each  of  us  the  said  creditors  of 


liUSINESS  FORMS 


the  .said  Jolui  SnifiHliwell,  in  full  satisfaction  and  discharge  of  our  sev- 
eral claims  and  demands  ;  the  said  sum  of  ten  cents  on  a  dollar,  to  bo 
paid  to  eacli  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  witliin  the 
space  of  thirteen  months  from  the  date  hereof.  And  we,  tlie  creditors 
aforesaid,  do  further  severally  and  respectively  covenant  and  agree  with 
the  said  John  Smashwell,  that  he  may,  within  the  said  tcruj  of  thirteen 
months  from  tlie  date  hereof,  sell  and  dispose  of  his  goods  and  chattels, 
Avares  and  merchandise,  at  his  own  free  will  and  pleasure,  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  ten  cents  on  the  dollar  of  each  of  our  respective  debts,  and 
that  neither  of  us  Avill  at  any  time  hereafter  sue,  arrest  or  attach  the 
said  John  Smashwell,  or  his  goods  and  chattels,  for  any  debt  now  duo 
and  owing  to  us  or  any  of  us,  provided  the  said  John  Smashwell  does 
Avell  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  the  said  ten  cents  for  everj--  dol- 
lar of  each  of  our  several  and  respective  claims  against  him.  And  all 
and  each  of  the  covenants  and  agreements  herein  contained  shall  extend 
to  and  bind  our  several  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  this 
fifteenth  day  of  November,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  scventy- 
'  eight. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  Robert  Rogers,  [L.S.] 

In'the  presence  of  Andrew  J,  Reid,  [L.S.] 

Thomas  Barclay,  Henry  Middleton.  [L.S.] 

John  Thompson. 


No.  54.   Agreement  for  the  Ilirinf/  of  a  Cleric  or  Workman. 

This  agreement  made  the  first  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Andrew  Service  of  Niagara  Falls, 
in  the  county  of  Niagara  and  State  of  New  York,  of  the  first  part,  and 
Thomas  Merchant,  of  the  city  of  Buffalo,  in  the  county  of  Erie  and  State 
aforesaid,  of  the  second  part — 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Andrew  Service  lias  agreed  to  enter  the 
service  of  the  said  Thomas  Merchant  as  clerk  {journeyman,  mechanic  or 
laborer,  as  the  case  may  he)  in  the  store,  {or  factory,  &c.)  of  the  said 
Thomas  Merchant,  and  faithfully,  honestly,  carefully,  and  truly  obey, 
and  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  said 
Thomas  Merchant,  for  and  during  the  space  of  one  year  from  the  date  of 
this  agreement,  for  the  compensation  of  six  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
payable  quarterly. 

And  the  said  Thomas  Merchant  covenants  with  the  said  Andrew  Ser- 
vice, that  he  will  receive  him  as  his  clerk  {or  journeyman,  &c.)  for  the 
term  of  one  year  as  aforesaid,  and  will  pay  him  for  his  services  as  such 
Q\ev\^  {or  journeyman,  t&c.)  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  annually  in 
quarter  yearly  payments. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  the  day 
and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered, 

In  the  presence  of 
John  W.  Watson,  Andrew  Service,  [L.  S.] 

William  Strong,  Thomas  Merchant.  [L.  S.] 

Note. — To  prevent  troublesome  lawsuits  and  quarrels,  it  is  often  de- 
sirable to  fix  the  damages  for  the  violation  of  contracts.  This  may  be 
done  by  inserting  the  following,  just  before  the  witnessing  clause. 

And  it  is  further  agreed  between  the  parties  liereto,  that  tho 
party  that  shall  fail  to  perform  this  agreement  on  his  part  will  pay  to 
the  other  tho  full  sum  of  sixty  dollars,  as  liquidated,  fixed,  and  settled 
damages. 


EUSIXESS  FORMS. 


823' 


No.  55.  Appreniices'  Indentures, 

This  Indenture  Witnesseth,  that  Robert  Hill,  now  aged  sixteen 
years,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  his  father,  Thomas  Hill,  hatli  volun- 
tarily, and  by  his  own  free  will  and  accord,  put  and  bound  himself  ap- 
prentice imto  Moses  Goldsmith,  of  No.  —  Maiden  Lane,  New  York, 
jeweller,  to  learn  the  art,  trade,  and  mystery  of  the  business  of  working 
and  manufacturing  the  precious,  metals,  and  as  an  apjjrentice  to  serve 
from  this  date,  for  and  during,  and  until  tlie  full  end  and  term  of  six 
years  next  ensuing,  during  all  of  which  time  the  said  apprentice  his 
master  faithfully,  honestly,  and  industriously  shall  serve,  his  secrets 
keep,  alllaAvful  commands  obey,  and  at  all  times  protect  and  preserve  the 
goods  and  property  of  his  said  master,  and  not  suffer  or  allow  any  to  be 
injured  or  wasted  ;  he  shall  not  buy,  sell,  or  traffic  with  his  own  goods, 
or  the  goods  of  others,  and  not  be  absent  from  liis  master's  service  day 
nor  night  without  leave,  and  in  all  things  behave  himself  as  a  faithful 
apprentice  ought  to  do  during  the  said  term.  And  the  said  master  shall 
use  and  emploj'' the  utmost  of  his  endeavors  to  teach  or  cause  him,  the 
said  apprentice,  to  be  taught,  or  instructed  in  the  art,  trade,  and  mys- 
tery of  a  jeweller  as  aforesaid,  {here  insert  conditions  as  to  board  and- 
lodgings,  rate  of  loages,  time  of  payment,  &c.,  as  agreed  betiveen  the  par- 
ties.) 

And  for  the  true  performance  of  all  and  singular  the  covenants  and 
agreements  aforesaid,  the  said  parties  bind  themselves  firmly,  each  to  the 
other  firmly  by  these  presents. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  aforesaid  have  hereunto  set  their 
hands  and  seals  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered,  Robert  Hill,  [L.  S.] 

In  the  presence  of  Moses  Goldsmith.  [L.  S.] 

William  Gordon, 
Thomas  Workman. 

I  do  hereby  consent  to  and  approve  the  binding  of  my  son,  Robert 
Hill,  as  in  the  above  indenture  mentioned. 

Thomas  Hill. 

No.  50.   Agreement  of  Teacher  with  School  Trustees. 

This  agreement,  made  this  first  day  of  November,  one  tliousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Peter  Whackboy,  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Stanley,  county  of  York,  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  Dominion 
of  Canada,  school  teacher,  of  the  first  part,  and  David  Brown,  John  San- 
son!,  and  William  Currie,  of  the  village,  county,  province,  dominion 
^foresaid,  scliool  trustees,  of  the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Peter  Whackboy,  holding  a  certificate 
from  the  proper  authority  as  a  duly  qualified  "first  class  teacher,  has 
i:greed  to  enter  the  service  of  the  said  school  trustees  as  teacher  in  the 
common  school  in  said  village,  and  that  he  Avill  faithfully,  honestly,  and 
diligently  render  his  best  services  in  teaching  and  instructing  the  chil- 
dren, and  all  others  in  attendance  on  said  school,  imparting  to  them,  ac- 
Bording  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  reading. 
Writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  the  other  English  branches  usually 
taught  in  common  schools,  and  further,  that  he  will,  by  every  means  in 
Jiis  power,  maintain  good  morals,  order,  and  discipline,  and  discounte- 
nance immorality  among  the  attendants  at  said  school,  and  will  faithfully 
obey  all  reasonable  wishes  and  commands  of  the  said  trustees,  for  and 
during  the  space  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  December  next,  for  the 
compensation  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  per  annum,  payable  quarterly. 

And  the  said  David  Brown,  John  Sansom,  and  William  Currie,  covenant 


824 


liUSINKSS  POUMS. 


•with  the  said  Peter  Whaclcboy  tli.it  tlicy  will  enj?ago  him  as  teacher  in 
said  school  for  tlie  term  of  one  year  uh  aforesaid,  and  will  pay  him  for 
his  services  as  siicli  teacher  tlie  sum  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  per  au- 
luim,  in  quarter  yearly  i^ayments. 

In  witness  aviikiucof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  the 
day  :nul  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  scaled,  and  delivered,  Pktkk  Whack  boy,  [L.  S.] 

In' the  ))resence  of  .     David  Brown,  [L.  S.] 

David  R.  Moore,  John  Sansom,  [L.  S.] 

David  Potteu.  William  Cukkib,  [L.  S.] 

No.  57.   Form  of  Marriage. 

In  conformity  to  an  orderly  and  long  established  custom  tlie  ceremonji 
of  marriage  is  usually  ])erformed  either  by  a  clergyman  or  civil  magis- 
trate ;  the  latter  may  be  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  justice  of  the  supreme 
court,  a  judge  of  an  inferior  court, the  mayor  of  a  city,  or  a  police  justice, 
as  the  law  of  the  land  may  empower  and  authorize  them  to  solemnize  mar- 
riage. In  Canada  and  some  of  the  States,  a  license  to  marry  must  first 
be  procured  of  the  city,  town,  or  county  clerk,  or  other  agent  appointed 
for  that  purpose,  duly  authorizing  the  clergyman  or  magistrate  to  marry 
the  afflanced  parties.  Marriage  is  a  civil  contract,  and  may  be  entered 
into  by  parties  capable  of  consenting  thereto.  It  cannot  be  entered  into 
by  idiots  or  lunatics.  When  brought  about  by  force  or  fraud,  it  is  also 
void.  Marriage  is  likewise  prohibited  between  near  relations.  The  par- 
ties must  be  of  the  age  of  consent,  which  is  generally  fourteen  in  males, 
and  twelve  in  females.  No  particular  ceremonies  are  enjoined  by  the 
common  law  to  the  valid  celebration  of  the  marriage  rite,  but  the  follow- 
ing form  is  in  common  use  by  magistrates  in  the  United  States. 

Form  of  Marriage. 
{The  man  and  woman  standing,  the  justice  loill  say  to  the  man :) 

"  Will  you  have  this  woman  to  be  your  wedded  wife,  to  live  together 
after  God's  ordinance,  in  tlie  holy  estate  of  Matrimony,  to  love  her,  com- 
fort her,  honor  and  keep  her,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  and  forsaking 
all  others,  keep  thee  only  unto  her,  so  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ?  " 
{Next,  addressing  the  ivoman,  the  justice  will  say :) 

"Will  you  have  this  man  to  be  joxxv  wedded  husband,  to  live  together 
after  God's  ordinance,  in  the  holy  estate  of  matrimony,  to  love,  honor, 
and  keep  him,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  and  forsaking  all  others,  keep 
thee  only  to  him  so  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ?  " 

{Each party  responding  in  the  affirmative,  the  justice  loill  then  direct 
them  to  join  hands  and  say :) 

"  By  the  act  of  joining  hands  you  take  upon  yourselves  the  relation 
of  husband  and  wife,  and  solemnly  promise  and  engage  in  the  presence 
of  these  witnesses,  to  love,  honor,  comfort,  and  cherish  each  other  as 
such,  so  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ;  therefore  in  accordance  with  the 

laws  of  the  State  of  ,  I  do  hereby  pronounce  ycd  husband  and 

wife." 

No.  58.    Short  Form  of  Marriage. 

{On  the  contracting  parties  rising  and  joining  hands  the  justice  will 
say ;) 

"  By  this  act  of  joining  hands  you  do  take  upon  yourselves  the  relation 
of  husband  and  wife,  and  solemnly  promise  and  engage,  in  the  presence 
of  these  witnesses,  to  love,  honor,  comfort,  and  cherish  each  other  as 


FORM  OF  MAREIAGE  CERTIFICATE,  ETC. 


825 


such,  as  loiiff  as  3^ou  both  shall  live  ;  therefore  in  accordance  with  the 

laws  of  the  State  of  ,  I  do  hereby  pronounce  you  husband  and 

wife." 

The  form  used  by  clergymen  varies  but  very  slightly  from  the  fore- 
going ;  to  all  intents  and  purposes  it  is  the  same,  although  the  wording 
may  be  modified  according  to  the  mode  prescribed  by  the  denomination 
to  which  the  clergyman  may  belong.  The  marriage  license  must  be  re- 
turned by  the  clergyman  or  magistrate  to  the  issuing  clerk  for  record, 
who  should  also  at  the  time  of  issue,  furnish  a  blank  marriage  certificate  to 
be  filled  by  the  magistrate  or  clergyman  at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremo- 
ny. The  certificate,  Avhich  should,  for  obvious  reasons,  be  always  most 
carefully  preserved  by  both  husband  and  wife,  may  be  in  the  following 
form 

No.  59.    Marriarje  Certificate. 

MARRIAGE  CERTIFICATE. 

State  of  Michigan,  -         Wayne  County. 

This  certifies 

That  John  Goodfellow,  of  Chicago,  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  and  Sarah 
Lovejoy  of  Detroit,  Wayne  county,  State  of  Michigan,  Avere  at  the  house 
of  John  Splicewell,  in  the  said  city  and  county  by  me  joined  together  in 

HOLY  MATRIMONY, 

On  the  tenth  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven. 

In  the  presence  of  Gamaetel  Bangtext, 

Timothy  Courtwele,  Pastor  of  the  First  Church, 

Thomas  Hopegood.  Detroit. 

On  Legal  Advice.— Lord  Mansfield  considered  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  duties  of  men  in  society  as  the  true  basis  of  legal  science.  He 
says  :  "I  may  cite  one  of  the  ablest  lawyers  of  this  century,  who,  to 
strong  natural  sense,  united  to  largest  experience,  for  a  similar  opinion — 
my  honored  master,  the  late  Mr.  Tidd.  I  well  remember  the  advice  he 
gave  to  a  pupil  who  was  about  to  commence  practice  :  '  When  you  are 
called  upon  for  your  opinion,  make  yourself  perfectly  familiar  with  all 
the  facts,  and  then  consider  Avhat  is  right.  You  may  be  pretty  sure  that 
is  the  law,  without  looking  mucli  into  cases.  When  once  the  facts  are 
well  ascertained,  few  persons  differ  in  opinion  as  to  the  result  of  a  civil 
action.' " 

Prayer  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  when  he  was  about  to  commence  the 
study  of  Laio,  September  1765. 

Almighty  God,  the  Giver  of  Wisdom,  without  whose  help 
resolutions  are  vaiu,  without  whose  blessing  study  is  ineffectual, 
enable  me,  if  it  be  Thy  will,  to  attain  such  knowledge  as  may 
qualify  me  to  direct  the  doubtful  and  instruct  the  ignorant,  to 
prevent  wrong  and  terminate  contention ;  and  grant  that  I  may 
use  that  knowledge  which  I  shall  attain  to  Thy  glory  and  my 
own  salvation,  for  Thy  blessed  Name's  sake.  .  Ameu. 


82G 


VALUE  OF  CU 


IIKKNT  COINS. 


CUKRENT  COINS   OF  THE   PniNCIPAL  COSiyiRCIAI,  COUNTRIES,  AVITH  TriEin  VALUU  IW 
U.S.    BOLLAltS,  CENTS  AND  MILLS. 


Austria,  Gold,  Quadruple  Ducat,  9 

"  "  Ducat,  2 
"        "  Sovcreij'ii  (forLombardy),(> 

"  Silver,  Rix  Dollar,  0 

"     "      Florin,  0 

"     "      20  Kreutzcrs,  0 

"     "      Lira  (for  Loiubardy)  0 

Baden,  Gold,  5  Gulden,  2 

"     Silver,  Crown,  1 

"        "     Gulden,  or  Florin,  0 

Bavnna,  Gold,  Ducat,  2 

"      Silver,  Crown,  1 

"      "      Florin,  0 

"      "      CKreutzers,  0 

Belgium,  Gold,  20  Franc  piece,  R 

"         "      2.5  Franc  piece,  4 

Silver,  5  Francs,  0 

"         "      2>^  Francs,  0 

"         "      2  Francs,  0 

'    "         "      1  Franc,  0 

Bolivia,  Gold,  Doubloon,  l.'J 

Silver,  Dollar,  1 
"        "     )4  Dollar  (debased  im),  0 
"    X  Dollar  (debased  1800),  0 

Brazil,  Gold.  Piece  of  C,400  Keis,  8 

"     Silver,  1,200  Reis,  0 

"      "      800  Reis,  0 

"      "      400  Reis,  0 

Bremen  Silver,  30  Grote,  0 

Britain,  Gold,  Sovereign,  ;  4 

Sliver,  Half  Crown,  0 

"         "     Shilling,  0 

Brunswick  Gold,  Ten  Thaler,  7 

Silver  Thaler,  0 

Central  America,  Gold,  Doubloon,  14 

"                      "   Escudo,  1 

"  Silver,  Dollar,  0 
Costa  Rica,  Gold,  Half  Doubloon,  1850,  7 

"          Silver,  New  Real,  0 

Chili,  Gold,  Doubloon  (before  1&35),  15 

"      "  Doubloon  (since  1835),  15 

"  Silver,  Dollar,  1 

'  Dollar,  0 
Dollar  or  Real , 


Denmark 


,'goI,' 


Doub  Fred,  or  10  Thai.  7 


"  Silver,  Rigsbank  Daler,  ^0 

"      "     Specie  Daler,  1 

"     32  Skillings,  0 

Ecuador,  Gold,  ^  Doubloon,  7 

Silver,  14  Dollar,  0 

Egypt,  Gold,  100  Piasters,  4 

"     Silver,  20  Piasters,  0 

France,  Gold,  20  Francs,  ?, 

"     Silver,  5  Francs,  0 

"        "          Franc,  0 

Frankfort,  Silver,  Florin,  0 

Greece,  Gold,  20  Drachms,  3 

Silver,  Drachm,  0 

Guiana,  Br.,  Silver,  Guilder,  0 

Hanover,  Gold,  10  Thaler,  7 
"        Silver,  Thaler  (iine  silver),  0 

"     Thaler  (750  fine).  0 
llayti.  Silver,  Dollar  (100  centimes),  0 

Hesse  Cassel,  Silver  Thaler,  0 

"     I  Thaler,  0 


12  0 

27  5 

75  0 

97  0 

48  5 

If)  0 

1(5  0 

04  0 

07  0 

31)  5 

27  0 

00  5 

30  5 

03  0 

83  2 

72  0 

»3  0 

40  5 

37  0 

18  5 

58  0 

00  6 


90  0 
GO  0 
33  0 
35  0 

84  5 
54  0 

21  7 
80  0 
08  0 

96  0 
07  0 

67  0 
62  0 
05  8 
57  0 

66  0 
01  0 

22  4 
U  2 

88  0 
52  3 
04  7 

17  0 
60  0 

18  7 

97  0 
96  0 

85  0 
93  0 
18  5 
39  5 
45  0 

10  5 
26  2 

89  0 
69  2 

68  0 
25  7 

67  5 

11  0 


1). 

Hesse  Darmstadt,  Silver,  Florin,  C 
llindoostan.  Gold,  Moluir  (E.  I.  Co.),  7 
"  Silver,  Rupee,  0 

Mecklenberg,  Gold,  10  Thaler,  7 
Mexico,  Gold,  Doubloon,  av.  15 
"      Silver,  Dollar,  av.  1 
Naples,  Silver,  Scudo,  0 
Nctherland,  Gold,  Ducat,  2 
"  10  Guilders,  4 
"  Silver,  3  Guilders,  1 

"  "         Guilder,  0 

"  "  Twenty-five  cents,  0 

',  "  2>^  Guilders,  0 

New  Granada,  Gold,  Doubloon, 21  car.  15 
"  "  including  the  silver,  15 

"  9-lOths  the  stand.,  15 
"  "  including  the  silver,  15 

"  Silver,  Dollar,  U.  S.  weight,  1 
"  "      Dollar,  or  10  Reals,  0 

Norway  Silver,  Rigsdaler,  1 
Persia,  Gold,  Soman n,  2 
"     Silver,  Sahib  Koran,  0 
Peru,  Gold,  Doubloon,  Lima,  to  iSSS,  15 
Cuzco,  tol833,  15 
"      "      Cuzco  to  1&37,  15 
"      Silver,  Dollar,  Lima  mint,  1 
"  "         "  Cuzco,  1 

"  "  J^Dol.,  Cuzco,  debased,  0 

"  "  X  Hoi.,  Arequipa   "  0 

"  "  ^  Dollar  Pasco,  0 

Poland,  Silver,  Zfoty,  0 
Portugal,  Gold,  Half  Joe  (full  weight),  8 


Crown, 
"  Silver,  Ouzado, 
"       "    Crown  of  1000  Reis. 
"    Half  Crown, 
Prussia,  Gold,  Double  Frederick, 
"      Silver,  Thaler,  average, 
"  "   i-  Thaler,  averasrc 


average,  u 
"           "  D"ble  Thai.  3X  Gulden,  1 

Rome,  Gold,  Ten  Scudi,  10 

"    Silver,  Scudo,  1 

"      "  Seston  (3-10  Scudi),  0 

Russia,  Gold,  5  Roubles,  3 

"    Silver,  Rouble,  0 

"      "      Ten  Zloty,  1 

"      "      30  Copecs,  0 

Sardinia,  Gold,  20  Lire,  3 

Silver,  5  Lire,  0 

Saxony,  Gold,  10  Thaler,  7 

"        "      Ducat,  2 

"  Silver  Species  Thaler,  0 

"    Thaler  (XIV  E.  M.)  0 

Siam,  Silver,  Tical,  0 

Spain ,  Gold  (Qr.  Doubloon).  3 
,"  Silver,  Pistarcen  (4  Reals  Vella),  0 

Sweden,  Silver,  Species  Tlialer,  1 

"         "      >^  Daler.  0 

Turkey,  Gold,  10f>  Piasters,  4 

"        "   20  Piasters  (new),  0 

"     Silver,  20  Piasters,  "  0 

Tuscany,  Gold,  Sequin,  2 

"        Silver,  Lepoldone,  1 

"            "      Florin,  0 

Wurtemburg,  Silver,  Guidon,  1834,  0 


C.  M. 

39  5 

10  0 
4-1  H 

89  0 
53  0 
00  7 
94  0 
26  5 
00  7 

20  0 

40  0 
09  0 
98  2 

61  0 
66  0 
31  0 
36  0 
02  0 
93  0 
05  0 
23  0 

21  0 

5.5  0 

62  0 
53  6 
0  5 
0  8 

3 

36  0 
49  r. 

11  2 
65  0 

81  Q 

55  2 

12  0 

56  0 
0  0 

68  0 
11  0 
39  0 

37  0 
0  5 

30  0 
96  7 
75  0 

13  5 

22  0 
84  5 

93  2 

94  0 
20  0 
96  0 
68  0 
58  5 

90  5 
19  5 

04  0 
52-  0 

37  4 

82  0 

30  0 

05  0 
26  2 

38  0 


The  quarter  of  wlieat  is  equal  to  the  quarter  of  a  ton  of  2240  lbs,  or  560  lbs. ; 
70  lbs.  in  weight  are  an  English  bushel  of  wheat,  while  60  lbs.  of  wheat  make 
our  bushel ;  so  that  the  U.  S-  wheat  bushel  is  just  6-7ths  of  the  English  or 
imperial,  and  a  quarter  of  wheat  in  England  is  equal  to  bushels  in  the 
United  States,  though  in  capacity  to  only  81/4  bushels. 

The  barrel  of  flour  contains  5  Winchester  bushels,  and  weighs,  net  196  lbs. 
Tlie  barrel  of  Indian  corn  contains  3  1-8  bushels.  The  weight  of  a  gallon  of 
molasses  is  usually  11  lbs.  but  sometimes  10  or  12. 


STATE  AND  PROVINCIAL  LAWS. 


827 


State   and  PROvixciAr,  laws  kegatiding   legal,   axd  special 

INTEREST,  THE  LIMIT  OF  TIME  IN  ACTIONS  FOR  DEBT,  &C., 
TOGETHER  WITH  THE  LARGEST  SUMS  OBTAINABLE  BY  LEGAL  PRO- 
CESS BEFORE  A  JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEACE  IN  VARIOUS  STATES,  TER- 
RITORIES AND  PROVINCES. 


States  and  Territories. 

imit  in 
istice  Ct. 
car. 

onds  ;  | 
ears.  1 

ccounts.  1 
ears.  1 

■2  a 

O  V 

ssault  &  1 
ander.  1 
ears.  i 

egal  Int.  [ 
!r  cent.  1 

pecial 
on  tracts, 
er  cent. 

Fcnalty  lor  Lsury, 





OJO  p. 



■ 

Alabama, 

i$100 

10 

3 

6 

20 

I 

g 

8 

Forfeit  all  Int. 

Arkansas, 

500 

10 

3 

5 

10 

1 

6 

10 

For.  prin.  and  int. 

Arizona, 

10 

None. 

California, 

300 

5 

2 

4 

5 

1 

10 

None. 

Colorado, 

.300 

3 

6 

6 

3 

1 

10 

None. 

Connecticut, 

IOC 

17 

6 

6 

20 

3 

7 

7 

For.  excess  of  int. 

Dakota  Ter., 

IOC 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

12 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Delaware, 

100 

20 

3 

6 

20 

1 

G 

G 

Forfeit  prin. 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

12 

3 

3 

12 

1 

G 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Florida, 
Georgia, 

50 

20 

4 

5 

20 

2 

g 

None. 

100 

20 

4 

6 

7 

1 

12 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Idabo  Ter., 

100 

5 

2 

4 

5 

2 

lo 

24 

Fine  andimpris't 

Illinois, 

200 

10 

5 

1  A 

10 

20 

1 

G 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Indiana, 

200 

20 

6 

20 

20 

2 

G 

10 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Iowa, 

300 

10 

5 

10 

20 

2 

G 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Kansas, 

300 

15 

3 

5 

5 

1 

g 

12 

For.  all  int.  over  12, 

Kentucky, 

50 

15 

2 

15 

15 

1 

G 

8 

Forfeit  all  int . 

Louisiana, 

100 

20 

3 

5 

10 

1 

8 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Maine, 

20 

20 

c 

20 

20 

2 

6 

None. 

Maryland, 

100 

12 

3 

3 

12 

1 

G 

6 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Massachusetts, 

300 

20 

6 

20 

20 

2 

6 

None. 

Michigan , 

300 

10 

6 

G 

6 

2 

7 

10 

For.  ex.  over  7  p.  c. 

Minnesota, 

100 

6 

G 

6 

10 

2 

7 

12 

None. 

Mississippi, 
Missouri, 

150 

7 

3 

6 

7 

1 

G 

10 

For.  excess  of  int. 

300 

10 

5 

10 

20 

2 

G 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Montana  Ter., 

10 

5 

lO 

10 

2 

10 

None. 

Nebraska, 

100 

10 

4 

5 

5 

1 

10 

12 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Nevada, 

300 

4 

2 

4 

5 

2 

10 

None. 

New  Brunswick 

20 

6 

6 

3 

1/2 

G 

None. 

New  HanipBhire, 

13.33 

20 

6 

C 

20 

2 

6 

G 

For  3t  the  ex  &  costs 

New  Jersey, 

100 

16 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

7 

Forfeit  of  all  int. 

New  Mexico, 

100 

10 

6 

10 

10 

1 

6 

None. 

New  York, 

200 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

7 

For,  of  contract. 

North  Carolina. 

200 

10 

3 

3 

10 

3 

G 

8 

Forfeit  of  all  int. 

Ohio, 

300 

15 

G 

15 

15 

1 

6 

8 

For.  ex.  over  G  p.  c. 

Ontario,  Can., 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

6 

None. 

Oregon, 
Pennsylvania, 

250 

20 

6 

6 

10 

2 

10 

12 

For.  prin.  and  int. 

.  100 

20 

G 

6 

20 

1 

6 

G 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Quebec,  Can., 
Rhode  Island, 

30 

5 

5 

30 

1.2 

6 

None. 

100 

20 

G 

6 

20 

1 

6 

None. 

South  Carolina, 

100 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

None. 

Tennessee, 

500 

6 

6 

6 

10 

1 

G 

10 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Texas, 
Utah  Ter. 

100 

5 

2 

4 

10 

1 

8 

12 

H            <(  « 

300 

7 

2 

4 

5 

1 

10 

None. 

Vermont, 

200 

8 

6 

14 

8 

2 

6 

6 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Virginia, 

50 

20 

5 

5 

10 

1 

G 

6 

Forfeit  of  all  int. 

Wash.  Ter.. 

100 

6 

3 

6 

6 

2 

10 

None. 

West  Virginia, 

100 

10 

5 

10 

10 

1 

G 

6 

Forfeit  ex,  of  int. 

Wisconsin, 
Wyoming  Ter.. 

300 

20 

6 

3 

20 

2 

7 

10 

Forfeit  of  all  int. 

100 

15 

6 

15 

15 

1 

12 

None. 

828 


SPECIAL  T;AW.S  OF  ALABAMA. 


Condensed  synopsis  ov  the  i.aws  pkutaininc.  to  the 
COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS, 

TnROUOIIOUT  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  DOMINION  OF  CANADA, 

Prosciitins  :i  digest  of  the  laws  of  eacli  State,  Territory  and  Province,  relat- 
ing to  Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale,  Mechanics  Lien,  Arrest  and  Attach- 
ment for  Debt,  Assignments,  Garnishment,  Bills  and  Notes,  Jurisdiction  of 
Courts,  Judgments,  Executions,  Chattel  Mortgages,  Deeds,  Kiglits  of  Married 
Women,  Wills,  &c. 

The  immense  utility  of  the  following  compilation  will  he  self  evident  to 
every  Mechanic,  Farmer,  Trader,  Merchant,  Business  Man,  Professional 
Gentleman  and  Householder,  whose  interests  are  in  the  slightest  degree 
identified  with,  or  dependent  upon,  the  supreme  rule  of  law  and  order 
tliroughout  the  community.  The  enormous  losses  resulting  from  ignorance 
of  the  law  on  the  aforesaid  subjects  are  absolutely  incalculable,  and  the 
diffusion  of  information  bearing  upon  them  cannot  become  too  general.  The 
coercive  appliances  of  the  Law  are  regarded  with  much  disfavor  by  schem- 
ing  and  dishonest  debtors,  for  it  is  well  settled  upon  sound  principles  and 
the  highest  authority,  that  every  bargain  to  do  anything  which  the  law  for- 
bids, or  the  omission  to  do  anything  which  the"  law  enjoins,  is  null  and 
void.  No  contract  can  be  enforced  which  contravenes  the  principles  of  the 
common  law,  the  provisions  of  a  statute,  or  the  general  or  public  policy  of  the 
law.  In  Nellis  vs.  Clark  (4  Hill's  Rep.  424),  it  was  held  that  the  vendor  of 
real  estate  sold  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors,  could  not  re- 
cover the  price. 

Business  men,  and  all  others  having  outlying  debts  to  collect,  are  referred 
to  an  invaluable  work  entitled.  The  Collection  Compendium,  ijublished  by 
E.  A,  Smith,  516  Pine  st.,  St.  Louis.  The  work  presents  a  new  and  original 
system  for  the  collection  of  claims  by  means  of  local  agents  at  all  points  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  upon  very  low  stipulated  rates  of  percentages, 
without  the  intervention  of  third  parties.  With  this  work  at  liand  no  man 
need  be  at  a  loss  to  collect  a  debt  in  any  part  of  the  country  (provided  the 
debtor  is  responsible),  ou  the  most  reasonable  terms,  and  with  very  slight 
loss  of  time. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ALABAMA. 

Exemptions.— ZTome  worth  ^2,000  and  Personal  Property.— By  the  Constitu- 
tion of  Alabama  (1868),  The  personal  property  of  any  resident  of  this  State  to 
the  value  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  selected  by  such  i-esident,  shall  be  exempt 
from  sale  or  execution,  or  other  final  processof  any  court  issued  for  the  collection 
of  any  debt  contracted  since  the  adoption  of  the  present  Constitution  (1868).  Every 
homestead,  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  of  land,  the  dwelling  and  appurtenances 
thereon,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner,  and  not  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  or  in 
lieu  thereof,  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with 
the  dwelling  and  appurtenances  thereon,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of 
the  State,  and  not  exceeding  the  value  of  $2,000,  shall  be  exempt  from  sale  on 
execution  or  any  other  final  process  from  a  court  for  a  debt  contracted  since  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution.  Such  exemption  does  not  extend  to  any  mortgage 
lawfully  obtained ;  but  such  mortgage  or  other  alienation  of  such  homestead, 
by  the  owner  thereof ,  if  a  married  man,  shall  not  be  valid  without  the  voluntary 
signature  and  assent  of  the  wife  of  the  same.  The  homestead  of  a  family,  after 
the  death  of  the  owner,  is  exempt  from  the  payment  of  debts  contracted  since 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  in  all  cases  during  the  minority  of  the  children  ; 
or  if  the  owner  dies  leaving  a  widow  and  no  children,  the  same  shall  be  exempt 
for  her  benefit,  and  the  rents  and  profits  thereof  shall  enure  to  her  benefit. 
This  exemption  does  not  extend  to  cases  of  laborers'  liens  for  work  done  and 
performed  for  the  person  claiming  such  exemption  or  the  mechanics'  lien  for 
work  done  on  the  premises,   (Constitution  of  1868.) 


i 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ALABAMA. 


829 


In  addition  to  the  above,  the  Legislature  passed  an  Act  (approved  April  23d, 
1873),  exempting  by  statue  the  personal  property  of  any  resident  of  this  State 
to  the  value  of  itf  1,000,  to  be  selected  by  the  resident.  The  homestead  of  every 
resident  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  land,  and  appurtenances 
thereon,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  thereof,  or  in  lieu  thereof,  at  the  option  of 
the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with  the  dwelling  and  appurten- 
ances thereon,  said  lot  not  to  exceed  $2,000  in  value. 

LiEX  OF  MechAjStics  akd  Laboreks.— By  act,  approved  March  19th,  1773,  a 
lien  is  given  to  laborers  and  employees  (except  officers)  of  railroads  in  this  State, 
for  Avork  and  labor  done  by  them  as  such.  Such  extends  to  all  the  property, 
rights,  effects  and  credits  of  eveiy  description  of  such  railroad  companies.  A 
lien  is  also  given  to  all  contractors,  mechanics,  builders,  bricklayers,  plasterers, 
painters,  and  every  other  person  whatever  in  the  State  of  Alabama,  for  work  and 
labor  done  by  them  as  such,  and  for  materials  furnished  ;  and  such  lien  extends 
to  all  the  rights,  title  and  interest  of  the  person  or  persons  for  whom  the  work  is 
done,  or  the  materials  furnished,  in  the  property  upon  which  such  work  is  done 
and  for  which  such  materials  are  furnished,  including  the  land  upon  which  such 
property  may  be  situated.  Provided,  that  all  the  liens  given  under  this  act  shall 
all  be  held  to  be  waived,  unless  proceedings  are  commenced  -within  six  months  . 
after  the  completion  of  such  work,  to  enforce  same.  Such  liens  are  enforced  by 
process  of  attachment.   (Act,  approved  19th  March,  1875.) 

CoLLECTiox  OF  DEBTS. — ^Attachment  may  issue  for  the  collection  of  a  debt, 
"Whether  due  or  not  for  any  money  demand,  the  amount  of  which  can  be  certainly 
ascertained,  to  recover  damages  for  the  breach  of  a  contract  where  the  damages 
are  not  certain  or  liquidated  ;  and  where  the  action  sounds  in  damages  merely, 
upon  an  affidavit  made  by  the  creditor,  or  his  agent  or  attorney,  that  the  debtor 
absconds,  secretes  himself,  or  resides  out  of  this  State,  so  that  process  cannot  be 
served  upon  him,  or  is  about  to  remove'his  property  out  of  this  State,  whereby 
the  plaintiff  may  lose  his  debt  or  be  compelled  to  sue  for  it  in  another  State  ;  or 
that  the  debtor  has  fraudulently  disposed  of,  or  is  about  fraudulently  to  dispose 
of  his  property  ;  or  that  he  has  money,  property  or  effects  liable  to  satisfy  his 
debts,  which  he  fraudulently  withholds ;  and  stating  the  amount  due,  and  that 
the  attachment  is  not  sued  out  for  the  purpose  of  vexing  or  harrassing  the  debtor, 
upon  the  plaintiffs  executing  bond  payable  to  the  defendant  in  double  the 
amount  sworn  to  be  due,  or  when  ho  is  unable  to  give  bond  with  sufficient  surety, 
upon  making  affidavit  to  that  fact,  an  attachment  :nay  issue  against  the 
estate  of  the  defendant,  real  and  personal.  Attachments  auxiliary  to  suits  pend- 
ing may  be  issued  on  the  same  grounds  as  in  original  attachments,  in  which  case 
the  suit  proceeds  as  if  commenced  by  original  attachment. 

Every  action  founded  upon  a  contract,  express  or  implied,  must  be  prosecuted 
in  the  name  of  the  party  really  interested,  whether  he  have  the  legal  title  or  not, 
subject  to  any  defense  the  debtor  may  have  against  the  payee  or  creditor  previous 
to  notice  of  transfer ;  but  this  does  not  apply  to  bills  of  exchange,  or  instru-  . 
ments  payable  in  bank  or  at  a  designated  place  of  payment,  and  commercial 
instruments. 

Arrest  in  civil  action  or  imprisonment  for  debt  is  prohibited  in  this  State. 
Estates  of  deceased  persons  are  subject  to  the  payment  of  all  debts  except  cer- 
tain exemptions  in  favor  of  the  widow  and  children  of  the  deceased. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  Rights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  etc.— Acknowl- 
edgments, and  proof  of  convejances  m.aybe  taken  by  judges  of  the  supreme  and 
circuit  courts  and  their  clerks,  chancellors  and  registers  in  chancery,  judges  of 
probate,  justices  of  the  peace  and  notaries  public.  If  taken  in  other  States  of 
the  United  States,  they  may  be  taken  by  the  judges  and  clerks  of  the  federal 
courts,  judges  of  any  court  of  record  in  any  State,  notary  public  or  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Alabama.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
such  acknowledgements  and  proof  may  be  "taken  by  the  judge  of  any  court  of 
record,  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  any  city,  town,  borough  or  county,  notary 
public,  or  any  diplomatic,  consular  or  commercial  agent  of  the  United  States. 
No,  other  proof  or  authentication  of  such  acknowledgement  is  necessary  than  the 
certificate  of  such  officer,  unless  such  officer  be  a  justice  of  the  peace,  when  it 
must  be  certified  that  such  officer  was  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  that  his  attesta- 
tion is  genuine,  by  some  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  a  commissioner  of  that 
State. 

All  conveyances  of  land  must  be  written  or  printed  on  parchment  or  paper, 
and  signed  by  the  vendor,  or  by  his  agent,  legally  authorized  in  writing,  and 
when  the  party  cannot  write,  his  name  must  be  written  for  him,  with  a  cross  and 
the  words  as  follows  :  "  his  mark  ;  "  and  when  so  executed  must  be  attested  by 
tvro  witnesses  who  can  write,  who  must  write  their  names  witnesses  thereto. 


8H0 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ALABAMA. 


Tho  wife  may  relinquish  hor  right  to  dower  hy  joining  with  her  husband  in  a  con- 
veyance of  land,  and  acknowledging  same  as  above  i)rovided.  Husband's  must 
join  in  conveyance  of  wife's  separate  properly. 

If  the  grantor  is  unknown,  his  identity  may  be  established  by  witnoBScs  suffi- 
cient to  satisfy  the  odiccr  before  whom  the  acknowledgment  ifj  made. 

[Acknowledgment  of  Husband  and  Wife.] 
[Form.] 


The  State  of  Alabama, 
Butler  County, 


I  (name  and  style  of  officer)  hereby  certify  that  Thomas  Clark  and  Sarah 
Clark,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  foregoing  conveyance,  and  who 
are  known  to  me,  acknowledged  before  me  on  this  day,  that  being  informed  of 
the  contents  of  the  conveyance,  they  executed  the  same  voluntarily,  ou  the 
day  the  same  bears  date. 
Given  under  my  hand  this  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 
The  real  and  personal  property  of  any  female  in  this  State,  acquired  before 
marriage,  and  all  property  to  which  she  may  be  entitled  by  gift,  grant,  inher- 
itance or  devise,  shall  not  be  liable  for  any  debts,  obligations  and  engagements 
Of  her  husband,  and  may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  by  her  as  she  were  a  femme 
sole.  (Const,  of  18G8).  A  conveyance  of  the  wife's  separate  estate  may  be  made 
by  the  husband  and  wife  jointly,  signed  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  or  ac- 
knowledged before  any  officer  authorized  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds. 
The  husband  is  not  liable  for  the  wife's  debts  contracted  before  marriage  ;  but 
she  may  be  sued  alone  and  her  separate  property  is  liable  for  the  satisfaction 
thereof. 

When  no  officer  is  convenient  for  taking  acknowledgments,  a  deed  may  be 
attested  by  two  witnesses,  and  afterward  proved  in  the  following  form  : 
[Form.] 

The  State  of  Alabama,  ) 
Benton  County.  ) 

I  (name  and  style  of  officer)  hereby  certify  that  ,  a  subscribing  witness 

to  the  foregoing  conveyance,  known  to  me,  appeared  before  me  this  day,  and  being 
sworn,  stated  that  ,  the  grantor  in  the  conveyance,  voluntarily  ex- 

ecuted the  same  in  his  presence,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  other  subscribing 
witness,  on  the  day  the  same  bears  date  ;  that  he  attested  the  same  in  the  presence 
of  the  grantor  and  of  the  other  witness,  and  that  such  other  witness  subscribed 
his  name  as  a  witness  in  his  presence. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  examination  of  the  wife  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband  is  neces- 
sary to  convey  the  title  to  any  homestead  exempt  by  the  laws  of  this  State. 
(See  Exemptions).  This  exam'ination  may  be  had  before  a  circuit  or  supreme 
judge,  chancellor,  or  judge  of  probate  or  justice  of  the  peace,  who  must  endorse 
thereon  a  certificate  in  writing  in  the  following  form  : 

[Form.] 

State  of  Alabama,  ) 
County  of  Morgan,  j 

I,  ,  judge,  (chancellor,  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  as  the  case 

may  be),  hereby  certify  that  on  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  18    ,  came 

before  me  the  within  named  ,  known  (or  made  known)  to  me  to  be  the 

wife  of  the  within  named  ,  who,  being  by  me  examined  separate  and 

apart  from  her  husband,  touching  the  signature  of  the  within  ,  acknowl- 

edged that  she  signed  the  same  of  her  own  free  will  and  accord,  and  without  fear, 
constraint  or  persuasion  of  her  husband. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  this  the  day  of  , 

187   .  A.  B.  (judge,  chancellor,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be). 

The  widow,  (if  no  provision  is  made  for  her  by  will),  is  entitled  to  one-third 
part  of  the  real  estate  of  which  her  husband  died  seized,  and  to  which  she  has 
not  relinquished  the  right  of  dower,  and  one-half  of  the  personal  property  if 
there  be  no  children  or  if  there  be  but  one  child ;  if  there  be  more  than  one 
child,  and  less  than  five,  she  is  entitled  to  a  child's  part ;  if  there  be  five  children 
or  more,  she  is  entitled  to  one-fifth  part  in  absolute  right.  She  shall  be  endowed 
of  one-half  of  her  husband's  absolute  estate  when  he  dies  leaving  no  lineal  des- 
cendants, unless  the  estate  is  insolvent.  The  widow  may  dissent  from  or  waive 
provision  in  a  will,  and  claim  her  dower,  at  any  time  within  one  year  after  the 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ARKxY]!^SAS. 


831 


probate  of  the  wiil.  The  widow  may  retain  the  dwelling-place,  house,  plantation, 
&c. ,  free  from  rent,  tmtil  her  dower  is  assigned  her. 

Chattel  mortgages,  are  legal  in  this  State  but  are  null  and  void  as  to  creditors 
and  purchasers  without  notice  until  recorded,  unless  the  property  is  brought 
into  this  State  subject  to  such  incumbrance,  in  which  case  they  must  be  regis- 
tered within  four  months,  and  if  such  property  be  removed  to  a  different  county 
from  that  in  which  the  grantor  resides,  the  conveyance  must  be  recorded  within 
six  months  from  the  removal,  or  it  ceases  to  have  effect  as  to  creditors  and  pur- 
chasers from  the  grantee  without  notice.  All  such  mortgages  must  be  recorded 
in  the  county  where  the  grantor  resides,  and  also  where  the  property  is. 

Wills.— iEvery  person  21  years  of  age,  and  of  sound  mind,  may  dispose  of 
lands  by  will.  Wills  must  be  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  pres- 
ence and  at  his  request,  and  attested  by  three  or  more  witnesses.  Noncupative 
wills  may  be  established  Avhen  the  testator  in  his  last  illness  calls  on  persons  to 
take  notice  that  such  is  his  will. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ARKANSAS. 

EXEMPTTOXS.— ^o?ne  worth  ^5,000,  and  jiersonal  property  §2,000, 160  acres  of 
land,  or  1  town  or  city  lot  being  the  residence  of  a  householder  or  the  head  of  a 
family,  the  appurtenances  and  improvements  thereto  belonging,  to  the  value  of 
55.000,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $2,000. 

Mechanics'  Liek. — Mechanics,  material  men  and  laborers  have  a  lien  on 
land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  labor.  The  original  contractor  must 
lile  his  lien  within  three  months  after  all  the  things  shall  have  been  done  or  fur- 
nished. Sub-contractors  must  give  Jiotice  to  owner,  proprietor,  agent  or  trustee, 
before  or  at  the  time  he  furnishes  any  of  the  things  or  performs  services.  These 
have  precedence  over  all  other  subsequent  incumbrances. 

Collection  op  Debts.— Attachments  may  issue  against  a  defendant's  prop- 
erty upon  the  following  grounds  ;  In  actions  for  recovery  of  money  where  the 
action  is  against  a  non-resident ;  one  absent  four  months  ;  has  left  the  county 
of  his  residence  to  avoid  the  service  of  summons  ;  about  to  remove,  or 
has  removed  his  property,  not  leaving  enough  to  satisfy  plaintiff's  claim  ;  con- 
ceals himself  ;  has  sold  liis  property  with  fraudulent  intent  to  cheat,  hinder  or 
delay  his  creditors,  or  is  about  to  do  so.  Bond  in  double  the  amount  claimed, 
with  good  securities,  residents  of  county. 

Boats  running  on  the  navigable  water  of  Ihe  state  may  be  attached  for  debts 
contracted  by  the  owner,  &c.,  on  account  of  work  or  supplies  furnished  the 
boat. 

No  arrest  is  allowable  for  debt  in  any  civil  action  or  mesne,  or  final  process, 
unless  in  cases  of  fraud. 

In  suits  on  open  claims,  the  affidavit  of  plaintiff,  legally  taken  and  certified, 
will  be  deemed  sufficient  proof  unless  the  defendant  shall,  under  oath,  deny  the 
correctness  of  the  account,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  which  event  the 
plaintiff  must  prove  the  disputed  portion  of  his  account  by  other  evidence. 

Affidavits  may  be  made  out  of  the  state  before  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
Governor  of  Arkansas  for  that  purpose,  or  before  a  mayor  of  a  city,  a  judge  of  a 
court,  notary  public,  or  justice  of  the  peace,  whose  certificate  shall  be  deemed 
proof  of  its  execution.  The  affidavit  must  be  signed  by  the  afiiant,  the  certi- 
ficate of  the  officer  shall  be  written  separately,  following  the  signature  of  tho 
affinut,  and  all  verifications  must  be  attached  to  the  instrument  verified. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  upon  judgments  or  attachments  against  any  per- 
son owing  the  debtor,  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

Assignments  of  bonds,  bills,  notes,  agreements,  and  contracts  in  writing,  for 
tho  payment  of  money  or  property,  are  permissable  here.  Assignments  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors  are  held  good.  Every  assignment  of  every  instrument  of 
writing  must  bear  date  of  the  true  day  on  which  it  was  executed. 

Every  protested  draft  or  bill  of  exchange  draws  10  per  cent,  interest  from 
date  of  protest.  If  drawn  upon  any  person  in  the  state,  it  is  in  addition  subject 
to  2  per  cent,  damages,  if  on  any  person  and  payable  in  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  "Illinois,  and  Missouri,  or  any 
point  on  the  Ohio  river,  4  per  cent,  damages,  if  upon  any  person  and  payable 
at  any  other  place  in  the  United  States,  10  per  cent,  damages  on  amount  specified 
ijr  the  bill.  If  owned  by  any  person  within  this  state,  2  per  centum  ;  if  without 
this  state,  but  in  the  U.  S.,  6  per  centum,  if  without  the  limits  of  the  U.  S.,  10 


832 


SPECIAL  LAWS   0¥  ARKANSAS. 


per  oeiitum.  Tho  holder  eliaU  liavo  liis  action  acaljist  the  owner,  ciulorscr,  or 
ftcooptor,  or  citlior  ot  them,  and  the  protest  ia  held  to  be  evidence  of  demand 
and  refusal  of  payment. 

.ludKinents  in  circuit  courts  are  a  lien  npon  real  estate  in  county  for  3  ycarH, 
and  may  be  revived  so  as  to  continue  lien  to  10,  after  which  no  execution  can  is- 
sue. Judj^ments  injustice  courts  can  forui  a  lien  by  filing  transcript  in  circuit 
clerk's  olhco. 

Executions  cannot  issue  for  10  days  after  judgment  unless  ordered  by  the  court 
and  when  issued  to  the  jiroper  oflicer  are  liens  upon  property  liable  to  seizure. 
If  no  goods  be  found  the  debtor  and  any  one  supposed  to  owe  him,  or  have  hifi 
property  in  possession  can  be  made  amenable  to  answer  under  oath  what  prop- 
erty or  interest  he  has  subject  to  execution. 

Jurisdiction  of  justice  of  the  peace  in  matter  of  contract  is  $100  exclusive  of 
interest,  for  damages  $100  ;  in  replevin  $300 :  and  in  suits  concurrent  with 
tJie  circuit  court  when  amount  does  not  exceed  $300.  Circuit  courts  have  juris- 
diction of  all  sums  over  $100,  both  at  common  law,  and  in  equity. 

Deeds,  Moktgages,  akb  Chattel.  Mortgages,  IIights  op  Married 
Women,  Wills,  &c. — Deeds  must  be  under  seal— a  scrawl  is  a  seal.  Acknow- 
ledgement, if  made  in  this  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of 
the  county  where  the  land  lies,  judge  of  supreme  or  circuit  court,  or  clerk  of  any 
'  court  of  record,  or  notary  public  ;  if  out  of  the  United  States,  before  the  court 
of  any  State,  Kingdom  or  Empire  having  a  seal,  or  any  mayor  or  chief  oflicer 
of  any  city  or  town  having  an  official  seal,  or  before  any  officer  of  any  foreign 
country,  who,  by  the  laws  of  such  country,  is  authorized  to  take  probate  of  tho 
conveyance  of  real  estate  of  his  own  country,  if  such  officer  has,  by  law,  an  offi- 
cial seal.  AVhen  taken  out  of  this  State,  but  within  the  United  States  or  their 
territories,  before  any  court  of  the  United  States,  or  any  State  or  territory  having 
a  seal,  or  the  clerk  of  any  such  court,  or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city  or  town, 
or  chief  of  any  city  or  town  having  a  seal  of  office,  or  before  any  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  when  there 
is  one,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  Avhen  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed,  the  latter 
releasing  dower.  It  is  necessary  for  husband  and  wife  to  join  in,  whether  hia 
own  or  her  property  : 

[Form  I.] 

State  of  ,  )  . 

County  of  ,  | 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  ,  one  thousand  eight 

hundred  and  seventy  ,  before  me,  the  undersigned,  ,  came  , 

who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  persons  whose  names  are  sub- 
scribed to  the  foregoing  instrument  of  writing,  as  parties  thereto,  and  severally 
acknowledged  the  same  to  be  act  and  deed  for  the  purposes  and  consider- 

ation therein  mentioned. 

And  at  the  same  time  the  said  wife  of  the  said  having  been 

by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrument,  on  an  exam- 
ination separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  exe- 
cuted the  same  and  relinquished  dower  in  all  the  property  therein  mentioned, 
freely  and  without  compulsion,  or  undue  influence  of  her  said  husband. 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  of  office,  the  day 
and  year  first  above  written.  (Signature.) 

Married  women  can  hold  property,  both  real  and  personal,  free  from  the  debts 
of  her  husband,  but  a  schedule,  under  oath,  and  verified  by  the  oath  of  some 
other  reputable  person  must  be  made  by  the  husband  and  wife,  and  filed  in  the 
recorder's  office  of  the  County  where  the  property  is,  and  of  the  County  where 
they  reside.  A  widow  shall  be  endowed  of  the  third  part  of  the  property  where- 
of her  husband  was  seized  of  an  estate  of  inheritance  at  any  time  during  the 
marriage,  unless  the  same  was  relinquished  in  legal  form. 

A  Chattel  mortgage  is  of  no  avail  as  a  lien  unless  recorded  in  the  County 
where  the  property  is. 

Wills  should  be  executed  as  shown  in  Business  Form  No.  45,  on  pp.  815-816, 
and  established  by  the  disinterested  evidence  of  at  least  three  unimpeachable 
witnesses  to  the  handwriting  and  signature  of  the  testator- 


J 


1SPECIAL    LAWS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


833 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


EXEMPTIOKS  From  Forced  Salk— toorth  $5,000  and  personal  property.  , 
Necessary  household  and  kitchen  furniture,  one  sewing  machine  and  one  piaiuj  j 
in  actual  use ;  wearing  apparel  and  one  month's  provisions  for  the  family. 
Farming  utensils  ;  also  2  oxen,  or  2  horses,  or  2  mules,  and  their  harness,  ono 
cart  or  wagon,  and  food  for  such  oxen,  horses  or  mules  for  one  month;  also 
seed  to  $200  in  value.  Tools  or  implements  of  an  artisan  necessary  to  carry  on  hia 
trade;  the  seal  of  a  notary  ;  the  instruments  of  a  physician,  dentist  and  surveyor 
necessary  to  the  exercise  of  their  profession,  v/ith  their  professional  libraries,, 
and  the  professional  libraries  and  furniture  of  lawyers,  judges  and  ministers  of 
the  gospel.  The  cabin  of  a  m.iner,  not  exceeding  in  value  the  sum  of  $500,  also 
his  appliances  for  mining,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  the  sum  of  $500,  and  2 
horses,  mules  or  oxen,  with  their  harness,  and  food  for  such  oxen,  horses  or  mules 
for  one  month.  Four  cows  with  their  sucking  calves,  and  4  hogs  with  their  suck- 
ing pigs  ;  poultry  not  exceeding  in  value  $50.  The  earnings  of  tho  judgment 
debtor  for  his  personal  services  rendered  at  any  time  within  30  days  next  preced- 
ing the  levy.  The  shares  held  by  a  member  of  a  homestead  association,  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $1,000,  if  the  person  holding  the  shares  is  not  the  owner  of  a 
homestead  under  the  laws  of  this  State.  All  moneys,  benefits  or  annuities  grow- 
ing out  of  any  life  insurance  on  the  life  of  the  debtor,  in  any  company  corporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  State,  if  the  annual  premiums  paid  do  not  exceed  §500. 
Homestead  for  the  head  of  a  family,  not  to  exceed  $5,000  in  value. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Mechanics  and  material  men  have  a  lien  for  labor  and 
materials  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  orig- 
inal contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  GO  days,  and  the  laborers  within  30 
days,  after  the  debt  accrued.  This  lien  attaches  from  the  commencement  of  tho 
work,  and  has  precedure  over  any  subsequent  or  previous  unrecorded  encum- 
brance. 

Collection  of  Debts.— Attachment  may  issue  on  affidavit  and  undertaking 
with  two  sureties,  in  a  sum  not  less  than  $300,  or  greater  than  the  amount 
claimed,  in  action  upon  a  contract,  expi'essor  implied,  for  tho  direct  payment  of 
money,  where  the  contract  is  made  or  is  payable  in  this  State  and  is  not  secured, 
or  the  security  becomes  valueless  ;  and  in  an  action  upon  a  contract,  express  or 
implied,  against  a  defendant  not  residing  in  this  State.  Every  species  of  property 
not  exempt  is  subject  to  attachment. 

Arrests  in  civil  actions  arc  not  allowable  in  this  State  except  as  follows  :— 1. 
In  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  money  or  damages  on  a  cause  of  action  arising 
tipon  a  contract,  express  or  implied,  when  the  defendant  is  about  to  depart  from 
the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  2.  In  an  action  for  a  fine  or  pen- 
alty, or  for  money  or  property  embezzled,  or  fraudulently  misapplied,  or  con- 
verted to  his  own  use  by  a  public  officer,  or  an  officer  of  a  corporation,  or  an  at- 
torney, or  factor,  broker,  agent  or  clerk,  in  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such, 
or  by  any  other  person  in  a  fiduciary  capacity,  or  for  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
office  or  in  a  professional  employment,  or  for  a  willful  violation  of  duty.  3.  In 
an  action  to  recover  possession  of  personal  property  unjustly  detained,  when  tho 
property  or  any  part  thereof  has  been  concealed,  removed  or  disposed  of,  to  pre- 
vent its  being  found  or  taken  by  the  sheriff.  4.  When  defendant  has  been  guilty 
of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  the  obligation  for  which  the  action 
is  brought,  or  in  concealing  or  "disposing  of  the  property,  for  the  taking,  conceal- 
ing or  conversion  of  which  the  action  is  brought.  6.  When  the  defendant  has  re- 
moved or  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  4efraudjii3 
ereditors.   No  female  can  be  arrested  in  any  action. 

Garnishment  maybe  made  under  execution  or  attachment  against  any  bailee  of 
the  debtor,  and  when  the  debtor's  interest  or  right  is  acknowledged  in  a  specified 
sum  or  article,  the  said  sum  or  article  may  be  paid  over  to  the  Sheriff  under 
order  of  court. 

Judgments  in  all  courts  of  record  and  in  the  justices'  court,  when  filed  in  tho 
county  court,  are  liens  from  the  time  they  are  docketed,  which  must  be  within  24 
hours  after  their  rendition,  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant  not  exempt 
and  situated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  was  rendered,  for  a  period  of  S 
years,  unless  the  defendant  stay  execution  by  an  appeal  bond,  in  which  case  tha 
lien  ceases.  By  recording  a  transcript  of  the  docket  in  any  other  county  tlie  lien, 
attaches  to  all  defendant's  real  estate  situated  therein  not  exempt.  No  lien  ia 
credited  by  judgment  on  personal  property. 

Executions  may  be  issued  at  aiiy  time  within  5  years  after  entry  of  judgmejit, 
and  do  iiot  affect  property  until  there  is  a  levy.   Out  of  justices'  courts,  as  c^?\lfts 

53 


834 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CALIFOKNTA. 


of  rccorcT,  Ihcy  may  1)0  levied  on  personal  or  real  properly.  TiCal  estate  rold 
nndor  execution  is  subject  to  redemption  -within  six  months.  Judj,'ment  d(!l)torB 
or  their  bailees,  after  the  return  of  execution  not  satisfied,  may  be  examined 
under  oath  concerning;  their  property. 

Assifjiiments  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  arc  null,  nri  against  any  credi- 
tor not  assenting  thereto.  The  deed  of  assignnuint  must  bo  in  wi  lting,  acknowl- 
edged and  recorded  like  a  conveyance  of  real  estate.  Made  to  secui'c  indorserf) 
or  sureties  are  valid.  Notes,  bills,  bonds,  accounts  and  almost  every  specica  of 
contract,  is  assignable.    The  party  in  intei-est  must  sue  on  an  assigned  contract. 

Bolts  and  vessels  navigating  the  waters  of  this  State,  are  liable  for  debts  con- 
tracted by  the  master,  owner,  agent,  or  consignee  thereof,  for  work  done  or  eup- 
plicr;  fm-nishcd,  or  for  fitting  out,  repairing,  or  cquii)piug  sucli  boats  or  vessels, 
or  for  all  sums  due  for  anchorage  or  wharfage,  or  for  all  injuries  done  to  persons 
or  property  by  such  boat  or  vessel,  provided  the  wages  of  mariners,  boatmen,  and 
othcra  employed  in  the  service  of  such  boats  or  vessels,  shall  have  the  preference, 
and  bo  first  paid.  Vessels  are  also  liable  for  damages  accruing  from  the  non- 
performance or  mal-performance  of  contract  touching  the  transportation  of  per- 
sons or  property.  All  actions  against  boat;;  or  vessels  must  be  commenced  within 
15  days  after  cause  of  action  accrues.  < 

Damages  are  allowed  on  bills  of  exchange  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non- 
payment in  favor  of  holders  for  value  only,  as  follows  :  1.  If  drawn  npon  any 
person  in  this  State,  §2  on  each  §plOO  of  the  principal  sum  specified  in  the  bill.  2. 
If  drawn  upon  any  person  out  of  this  State,  but  in  any  of  the  other  States  or  ter- 
ritory west  of  the  liocky  Mountains,  $'5  on  each  $100  of  the  principal  sum  speci- 
fied in  the  bill.  3.  If  drawn  upon  any  person  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
llocky  Mountains,  f  10  on  each  ^100  specified  in  the  bill.  4.  If  drawn  upoii  any 
person  in  any  place  in  a  foreign  country,  ^?15  on  each  3100  of  the  principal  sum 
specified  in  the  bill,  and  from  the  time  "of  notice  of  dishonor  and  demand  of  pay- 
ment, lawful  interest  must  be  allowed  ripon  the  aggregate  amount  of  -the  princi- 
pal sum  and  damages.  Notarial  protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  of 
payment  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  stated  in  the  protest. 

Deeds.  Mortgages,  and  Chattel  Mortgages,  Rights  of  Married 
"Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  are  not  required  to  be  under  seal,  as  all  private 
seals  are  abolished  in  this  State.  Must  be  acknowledged  within  the  State,  before 
a  justice  or  clerk  of  the  supreme  court ;  or  a  judge  or  a  clerk  of  a  court  of  record ; 
or  a  mayor  or  recorder  of  a  city  ;  or  a  court  commissioner  ;  or  a  county  recorder ; 
or  a  notary  public  ;  or  a  justice  of  the  peace.  Without  this  State  and  in  the  United 
States,  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  of  the  United 
States  ;  or  a  justice,  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  of  any  State ; 
or  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  or  a  notary  public  or  any  other  officer  of  the  State  where  the  acknowledg- 
ment is  made,  authorized  by  its  laws  to  take  such,  acknowledgment.  Without  tho 
United  States,  before  a  minister,  commissioner  or  charge  d'affaires  of  the  United 
States,  resident  and  accredited  in  the  country  where  such  acknowledgment  is 
made  ;  or  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  the  country  where  the  acknowledgment 
is  made,  or  a  commission  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  Governor  of  tho 
State  pursuant  to  special  statutes  ;  or  a  notary  public.  The  husband  or  wife, 
can  each,  without  the  consent  or  assistance  of  the  other,  convey  his  or  her  separ- 
ate property.   They  must  join  in  a  conveyance  of  their  community  property. 

The  following  is  the  general  form  of  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment : 

State  of  California,  \ 
County  of  Amador.  ) 

•On  this  day  of  ,  in  the  year  of  ,  before  me,  John 

Simpson,  notary  public,  personally  appeared,  ,  known  to  me  (or 

proved  to  me  on  the  oath  of  ,     ')  to  be  the  person  whose  name  is  sub- 

Ecribed  to  the  within  instrument,  and  acknowledged  to  me  that  he  (or  they)  exe- 
cuted the  same. 

,  John  Simpson,  Notary  Public. 

The  form  of  certifi.cate  when  grantor  is  a  married  woman  must  be  substantially 
as  follows  : 

State  of  California,  ) 
County  of  Nevada,  j 
On  this  day  of  ,  in  the  year  of  ,  before  me,  John 

Johnston,  notary  public,  personally  appeared  ,  known  to  me  (or 

proved  to  be  on  the  oath  of  )  to  be  the  person  whose  name  is  subscrib- 

ed to  the  within  instrument,  described  as  a  married  woman,  and  upon  an  examin- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  COLOKADO. 


8S5 


ation,  ratliOTii;  Uio  hearing  of  hci  Tuisband,  I  made  her  acquainted  with  the  con- 
tonta  of  the  instruments,  and  tliereupon  she  acknowledged  to  nio  that  ehe  exe- 
cuted the  same,  and  that  ehe  does  not  wish  to  retract  such  execution. 

John  Johnston,  Notary  public. 

Property  of  everi/  description  acquired  by  the  wife  before  marriage,  and  that 
acquired  afterward  by  gift,  bequest,  devise,  or  descent,  shall  be  her  separata 
property,  and  will  in  no  case  be  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  The  hus' 
band's  property  of  every  kind  similarly  acquired,  will  be  his  separate  property, 
and  not  liable  for  debts  due  by  his  wife  previous  to  marriage.  The  property  of 
each  shall  be  liable  only  for  the  debts  of  the  owner.  All  property  acquired  sub- 
sequent to  marriage,  aside  from  that  acquired  by  gift,  bequest,  devise,  or  descent, 
shall  be  common  property,  but  under  the  husband's  entire  control.  Such  com- 
mon property  cannot  be  sold  unless  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  signed  by  both 
husband  and  wife,  and  acknowledged  by  her  upon  an  examination  separate  and 
apart  from  her  husband,  before  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  judge  of  the  dio- 
trict  court,  county  judge  or  notary  public,  or  if  Avithout  the  State,  there  to  ac- 
knowledge before  some  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  a  commissioiier  appointed  by 
authority  of  the  State  to  take  acknowledgement  of  deeds. 

A  full  and  complete  inventory  of  the  wife's  separate  property  shall  be  made 
out  and  signed  by  the  wife,  and  proved  in  the  manner  required  by  law  for  proof 
of  a  conveyance  of  land  ;  the  filing  of  this  inventory  in  the  recorder's  office  in  the 
county  where  such  property  is  situated,  shall  be  notice  of  the  wife's  title,  and  ali 
said  property  shall  be  exempt  from  seizure  for  her  husbands  debts. 

Upon  the  death  of  either  husband  or  wife,  one-half  of  the  common  property 
j:hall  go  to  the  survivor,  and  the  other  half  to  the  descendants,  of  the  deceased 
liusband  or  wife,  subject  to  the  payments  of  the  debts  of  the  deceased.  If  there 
be  no  descendants  of  the  deceased'husband  or  wife,  the  whole  shall  go  to  the  sur- 
vivor, subject  to  such  payment. 

As  to  dower,  no  estate  shall  be  allowed  to  the  husband  as  tenant  by  courtesy 
xv^on  the  decease  of  his  v/ife,  nor  any  estate  in  dower  be  allowed  to  the  wife  upon 
the  death  of  her  husband. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  void  as  to  third  parties,  unless  possession  of  chattels 
passes  from  mortgagor,  albeit  the  mortgage  may  be  recorded. 

Any  married  v/oman  may  dispose  of  all  her  estate  by  will,  and  may  alter  and 
revoke  such  will,  but  the  consent  of  thehnsband,  in  writing,  must  be  annexed  to 
every  such  instrument,  and  it  must  be  subscribed,  attested,  proven,  and  recorded 
in  like  manner  as  a  will  is  required  to  bo  witnessed,  proven,  and  recorded,  unles,j 
the  wife  has  power  to  make  a  v/ill,  conferred  by  marriage  contract,  signed  by  her 
husband  before  marriage. 

No  wills,  except  noncupative  wills,  shall  be  valid,  unless  in  writing,  and 
signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  person  in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express 
direction,  and  attested  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses  subscribing  their 
i:ames  to  the  will,  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 

No  noncupative  will  bequeathing  an  estate  over  $500,  shall  be  valid,  unless 
proved  by  two  v/itnesses,  who  were  present  at  the  making  thereof  ;  nor  unless  it 
be  proved  that  the  testator,  at  the  time  of  pronouncing  the  same,  did  bid  some 
one  present  to  bear  witness  that  such  was  his  will,  or  to  that  eifect ;  nor  unless 
Buch  noncupative  will  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  last  sickness,  and  at  the  dwell- 
ing-house of  the  deceased,  or  where  he  or  she  had  been  residing  for  the  space  of 
10  days  or  more,  except  v/hen  such  person,  was  taken  sick  from  home,  and  died 
before  his  or  her  return. 


SPECIAL,  LAWS  OF  COLORADO. 

ExEMPTTOlTS  FROM  FORCED  SALE— Worth  S2000  and  Personal  Proprriy. 
Every  person  being  a  householder  and  liead  of  a  family,  is  entitled  to  a  home- 
stead not  exceeding  in  value  $2000.  To  entitle  such  person  to  this  exemption, 
he  must  enter  the  word  "  Homestead"  on  the  margin  of  his  recorded  title.  The 
following  property,  v.'hen  owned  by  any  person  being  head  of  a  family,  shall  bo 
exempt :  Family  pictures,  school  books  and  library,  pew  in  church,  burial  sites, 
all  wearing  apparel  of  family,  all  beds,  bedsteads,  stoves  and  cooking  uten- 
sils, kept  for  use  of  debtor  and  family,  and  other  household  furniture  not  ex- 
ceeding 55100  in  value,  provision  and  fuel  necessary  to  the  family  for  6  months, 
tools,  etc.,  of  any  mechanic  not  exceeding  $!.30O  in  value,  library  and  implements 
of  any  professional  man  not  exceeding  §300,  draft  animals  to  the  value  of  $200, 1 
cow  and  calf.  10  sheep  and  the  necessary  food  for  them  for  (5  months,  1  farm 
wagon,  cart,  etc.,  1  plough,  1  harrow  and  other  farming  implements  not  exceeding 


880 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  COLORADO. 


550,  111  rahie.  Persons  not  at  tlio  head  of  a  family,  only  entitled  to  wearing 
apparel  and  property  to  the  value  of  $300. 

Mkchanics'  Lif.n. — rcrsons  who  perform  work  or  furnish  materials  to  the 
nniount  of  more  tliau  ^25  lor  tlio  construction  or  repairing  of  any  buildinp;,  may 
have  a  lien  IJicreou.  Principal  contractors  must  lilc  their  liei'i  in  40  and  isub- 
contractora  within  20  days  after  last  work  done  or  material  furnished.  Action 
thereof  must  be  commenced  witliin  G  months  from  date  of  llling  lien. 

Collection  OF  Deists.— Plaintiff  must  llle  a  bond,  with  security,  payable  to 
tlefendant,  in  double  the  amount  swore  to  be  due,  with  the  customary,  condi- 
tions, and  then  liie  an  affidavit,  alleging  positively  one  or  more  of  tlie  f'ollowinj:^ 
causes  before  attachment  can  be  issued:  1.  That  the  debtor  has  departed,  or  is 
about  to  depart  from  the  State  with  intent  to  conceal  his  effects.  2.  That  he  is 
a  non-resident,  oris  a  foreign  corporation,  or  conceals  himself.  3.  That  he  is 
about  to  remove  or  dispose  of  his  property  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors,  or  that 
he  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  has  removed  away  any  of  his  property 
with  intent  to  "hinder  or  defraud  his  creditors. 

In  attachment,  replevin  or  meritorious  defence  may  be  made,  when  necessary, 
by  the  affidavit  of  the  attorney  or  agent  for  the  plaintiff. 

In  assignments  a  debtor  has  the  right  to  prefer  one  or  more  creditors  to  the' 
e?:clusion  of  others,  except  when  the  assignment  is  fraudulent,  or  where  bank- 
ruptcy interposes. 

Bills,  notes,  bonds,  or  other  written  instruments  acknowledging  indebtedness, 
r.nd  made  payable  to  any  person  or  persons,  are  assignable  by  endorsement,  and 
the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name.  Assignments  are  ruled  by  the  common  law. 

Jurisdiction  of  justices  courts  extends  to  $300  for  recovery  of  money  or  per- 
Bonal  property,  probate  courts  to  5?20OO,  over  all  cases,  both  at  law  and  in  equity, 
district  courts  are  without  limit  as  to  amount  or  character  of  claim. 

Summons  to  justice  court  must  ba  issued  5  days,  and  served  at  least  3  daya 
before  trial ;  in  probate  and  district  courts  they  must  be  issued  and  served  at 
least  10  days  before  the  return  day. 

A  judgment  of  a  court  of  record  is  a  lien  on  an  estate,  real  or  personal,  of  the 
judgment  debtor,  owned  or  afterwards  acquired  by  him,  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  such  court,  for  a  period  of  Bcven  years  after  the  last  day  of  the  term  of  court 
at  which  such  judgment  was  rendered;  provided,  execution  be  issued  thereon 
Avithin  one  year  from  the  time  such  judgment  lien  accrued  ;  judgment  before 
justices  of  the  peace  may  become  a  lien  on  real  estate  by  filing  a  transcript  of 
such  judgment  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  the  county  in. 
which  such  judgment  was  rendered. 

Execution  from  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  issued  immediately  after  judgment 
and  is  a  lien  on  personal  estate  of  the  debtor  from  the  time  of  the  delivery  to 
the  constable,  and  can  bo  levied  only  on  personal  property.  Execution  from 
courts  of  record,  bind  the  property  of  debtor  from  time  of  delivery  to  sheriff. 
Every  species  of  property,  i-eal  and  personal,  and  every  interest  in  real  estate, 
legal  or  equitable,  is  subject  to  execution.  Lands  sold  on  execution  may,  within 
six  months  after  such  sale,  bo  redeemed  by  the  execution  debtor.  Execution 
creditor  shall  receive  from  sheriff  a  cerLificate  of  purchase,  which  should  be  re- 
corded. After  expiration  of  six,  and  at  any  time  before  the  expiration  of  nine 
months,  any  judgment  creditor  may  redeem  such  land  by  sueing  out  execution 
on  his  judgment  and  paying  to  the  officer  the  amount  (with  ten  per  cent,  per 
annum  thereto,  from  date  of  sale)  for  which  the  lands  were  sold. 

The  process  of  garnishment  may  be  exercised  either  on  execution  or  attach- 
ment. 

Arrest  and  imprisonment  on  civil  process  is  prohibited  in  this  State. 

In  suits  on  bills,  bonds,  notes,  and  similar  instruments,  the  defendant,  before 
lio  \till  be  permitted  to  plead,  demur,  &c.,  must  file  an  affidavit  of  merit  that  he 
has  as  he  believes,  a  good  and  sufficient  defence  to  .  said  suit  or  some  part 
thereof. 

Affidavits  of  persons  without  the  State  may  be  made  before  any  notary  publie 
or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  under  their  respective  seals. 

Bills  of  exchange  exi'jressing  "  Value  received,"  duly  presented  and  proteste»fl 
for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  entitle  holder  to  recover  from  drawer  ol' 
endorser  thereof,  upon  due  notice  of  such  protest,  the  amount  of  such  bill,  with 
legal  interest  from  time  when  same  should  have  been  paid,  and  ten  per  centum 
damages  in  addition  thereto,  and  costs  and  charges  of  protest.  Parties  to_ such 
instruments  as  endorsers,  makers,  acceptors,  may  be  sued  separately  or  jointlj', 
Eecord  required  to  be  kept  by  notaries  public,  competent  evidence  to  prove  tlma 
and  manner  of  service  of  notice  of  protest,  names  of  parties,  and  descriptio.'^  and 
amount  of  instrument. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  COLORADO. 


837 


Sheriffs  are  ameTiable  in  treble  damages  to  aggrieved  party,  and  fine  not  less 
than  $25  nor  more  than  $250  for  any  malfeasance  in  office. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  Chattel  Mortgages,  Rights  of  Married  "Womekt,. 
"Wills.  &c.— Conveyances  must  be  nnder  seal ;  a  scrawl  is  sufficient.  A  con- 
Teyance  made  in  compliance  with  all  requisites  carries  with  it  right  to  immediate 
possession.  All  covenants  in  the  deed  run  with  the  land  conveyed.  A  power 
of  attorney  to  convey  should  be  under  seal  and  recorded  with  the  deed  made 
thereunder. 

Acknowledgments  of  deeds  wi'itten  in  the  State  may  be  made  before  any  jus- 
tice or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  district  courts,  or  before  any  clerk  or  deputy 
clerk  of  such  courts  under  the  seal  thereof,  or  before  any  probate  judge  under 
the  seal  of  his  court,  or  before  the  clerk  and  recorder  of  any  county  or  his  de- 
puty under  the  county  seal,  or  before  any  notary  public  under  his  notarial  seal, 
or  before  any  justice  of  the  peace. 

Without  the  State  and  within  the  United  States,  before  the  secretary  of  any 
State  or  territory,  the  clerk  of  any  court  of  record,  or  commissioner  of  deeds 
for  this  State,  or  before  any  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  the  State  were 
taken  to  take  acknowledgments.  The  seal  of  any  of  the  above  officers  must 
accompany  the  certificate,  and  when  not  taken  before  the  secretary  of  a 
State  or  territory,  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  the  certificate  of  the  clerk  of 
some  court  of  Record  where  the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgement  resides 
must  accompany  such  acknowledgement  that  such  officer  is  the  person  tha 
assumes  to  be. 

Without  the  United  States  before  any  United  States  consul,  mayor  of  any 
city  under  his  official  seal,  any  court  of  record  of  any  foreign  state,  under  tho 
certificate  of  the  judge  thereof  and  the  seal  of  such  court. 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment  by  Unmarried  Grantor.] 
State  of  Colorado,  ) 
County  of  Boulder,  j  *  ' 
I,  (name  and  style  of  office)  in  and  for  said  county,  in  tho  State  aforesaid,  do 
hereby  certify  that  A.  B.,  who  is  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  person 
whose  name  is  subscribed  to  the  annexed  deed,  appeared  before  me  this  day  in 
person,  and  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  said  instru- 
ment of  writing  as  his  free  dnd  voluntary  act  for  tho  uses  and  purposes  therein 
set  forth. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  (style  of  seal)  this  day  of  ,  A. 

D.  18         .  (Signature.) 

[Official  seal.]  (Stylo  of  office.) 

Form  of  certificate  where  the  husband  and  wife  join  in  a  conveyance  is  tho 
same  as  the  foregoing  form,  except  that  after  the  name  of  the  husband  or  wife, 
A.  B,,  is  inserted,  "  and  C.  !).,  his  wife  "  (or  her  husband,  as  tho  case  may  be), 
who  are  personally  known,  etc.,"  down  to  tho  teste,  before  which  is  inserted 
the  following  : 

"And  the  said  CD.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  having  been  first  examined  by 
me  separate  and  apart  from  and  out  of  the  hearing  and  presence  of  her  said  hus- 
band, and  the  contents,  meaning  and  elfect  of  the  within  deed  having  been  by 
me  fully  explained  to  her,  acknowledged  to  me  that  she  executed  the  same  freely 
and  voluntarily,  and  without  any  coercion  or  compulsion  on  the  part  of  her  said 
husband,  and  that  she  does  not  Avish  to  retract  the  same." 

Teste  as  in  forerjoing  form.  AVitnesses  to  deeds  are  not  necessary,  but  arc  de- 
sirable. 

Any  married  women  may  bargain,  sell  and  convey  her  estate,  real  and  per- 
sonal, and  make  any  contract  with  reference  thereto,  as  though  a  fenime  sole. 
She  may  also  sue  and  be  sued,  contract  debts  in  her  own  jiame  and  upon  her  own 
credit,  execute  any  instrument  of  writing,  and  judgmeiits  may  be  pronounced 
and  enforced  against  her  as  though  a  femme  sole. 

A  chattel  mortgage  shall  not  be  valid  as  against  third  parties,  unless  there  be  a 
delivery  to  the  mortgagee  of  such  property,  in  whose  possession  it  shall  remain 
until  the  lien  expires  ;  or  unless  the  mortgagor  shall  acknowledge  such  mort- 
gage before  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  the  justice's  district  where  such  mortgagor 
resides,  who  shall  keep  a  memorandum  of  the  same. 

If  the  mortgagor  retain  possession  of  the  property  mortgaged,  the  mortgage 
must  expressly  provide  for  such  possession  ;  otherwise  it  is  void.  A  mortgage  of 
a  stock  of  goods  wherein  the  mortgagor  has  the  right  to  sell  the  same  is  void. 
Chattel  mortgages  may  be  acknowledged  in  any  township  in  which  is  situated 
the  county  seat.  Where  the  mortgagor  resides  in  such  township,  before  any  jus' 
tice  of  tho  peace,  notary  public,  or  county  clerk. 


838 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT, 


T^XKMrTTOTs'S  FROM  FoKOKT)  SALIC— A^o  Jlomc  exempted— Yo.rmnhl  property 
•Rs  follows,  viz.  Of  the  property  of  a,ny  one  person,  liiri  necessary  apparel  and 
bedding  and  household  furniture  iieccssary  for  supporting  life  ;  arms,  niililary 
equipments,  uniforms  or  musical  instruments  owned  by  any  member  of  the  mili- 
tia for  military  purposes  ;  any  pension  moneys  received  from  the  United  Slates 
■while  in  the  hands  of  the  pensioier  ;  implements  of  the  debtor's  trade,  his  li- 
brary, not  exceeding  $500  in  value  ;  1  cow,  not  exceeding  5?]5f)  in  value  ;  any 
number  of  sheep  not  exceeding  10,  nor  exceeding  in  all  §fl50  in  value  ;  2  swine  and 
the  pork  produced  from  2  swine,  or  2  swine  and  200  lbs.  of  pork  ;  of  the  property  of 
any  one  person  having  -wife  or  a  family,  25  bushels  of  charcoal,  2  tons  of  other 
coal,  200  lbs.  of  wheat  flour,  2  cords  of  Avood,  2  tons  of  hay,  200  lbs.  each  of  beef 
and  lish,  5  bushels  each  of  potatoes  and  turnips,  10  bushels  eacli  of  Indian  corn 
and  rye,  and  the  meal  or  flour  manufactured  therefrom,  20  lbs.  each  of  wool  and 
flax,  or  the  yarn  or  cloth  made  therefrom,  and  1  stove  and  the  pipe  belonging 
thereto  ;  the  horse  of  any  practicing  physician  or  surgeon  of  a  value  not  exceeding 
§200,  and  his  saddle,  bridle,  harness  and  buggy  ;  1  boat  owned  by  one  person  and 
used  by  him  in  the  business  of  planting  or  taking  oysters  or  clams,  or  taking 
Bhad,  together  with  the  sails,  tackle,  rigging  and  implements  used  in  said  busi- 
ness, not  exceeding  in  value  .'g200  ;  1  sewing  machine,  being  the  property  of  any 
one  pei'son  using  it  or  having  a  family  ;  one  pew,  being  the  property  of  any  person, 
liaving  a  family  ordinarily  occupying  it,  and  lots,  in  any  b.ii-ying  ground  appro- 
priated by  its  proprietor  for  the  burial  place  of  any  person  or  family.  The  hut!- 
band's  interest  in  the  wife's  estate  cannot  be  taken  for  his  debts  during  the  lifo 
of  the  wife  or  any  issue  of  their  marriage,  except  for  debts  contracted  for  the 
support  of  such  wife  or  issue.  Any-xiebt  that  has  accrued  for  personal  service  not 
exceeding  $10,  or  if  the  debtor  have  a  wife  or  family  not  exceeding  $25,  and  all 
benefits  allowed  by  any  association  in  this  State  on  account  of  sickness,  are  ex- 
empt ;  provided,  that  in  suits  brought  for  a  debt  accruing  for  house  rent, 
provisions,  wearing  apijarel  or  fuel,  furnished  to  the  debtor  or  for  the  use  of  his 
family,  only  §10  are  exempt,  and  no  exemption  is  allowed  for  personal  board  of 
the  debtor  or  his  family. 

Mechaxics'  Liex.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  a  lien  on  land  and 
buildings  for  the  amount  of  tbeir  claim,  provided  the  same  exceeds  $25.  To 
render  the  lien  valid,  the  claimant  must  fllo  a  certificate  of  the  claim,  verified 
by  oath,  with  the  town  clerk  within  CO  days  from  the  time  when  he  commenced 
to  furnish  materials  or  render  services.  Where  the  claimant  is  a  sub-contractor 
he  must,  unless  his  contract  with  the  original  contractor  is  in  writing,  assented 
to  by  the  proprietor,  give  nooice  in  writing  to  the  proprietor  within  60  days  of 
the  time  he  commences  to  furnish  materials  or  render  services  that  he  intend^ 
to  claim  a  lien,  otherwise  he  can  have  none.  This  lien  takes  precedence  of  all 
subsequent  incumbrances.  ,      .  .  - 

Collection  of  Dkbts.— Attachment  in  civil  actions,  may  be  issued  and 
levied  upon  any  property  of  the  debtor  that  is  hot  by  statute  exempt  from  attach- 
ment and  execution.  An  attachment  may  be  dissolved  by  the  substitution  of  a 
bond.  No  action  lies  for  damages  arising  from  an  attachment,  unless  the  suit  was 
malicious.  Where  the  amount  attached  is  so  great  as  to  be  vexatious  or  oppres- 
sive, the  court  will  order  a  release  of  a  portion  of  the  property.  An  attachnaent 
remains  a  lien  for  sixty  days  after  the  rendition  of  judgment  in  the  case  of  per- 
sonal propei'ty,  and  four  months  in  the  case  of  real  estate. 

The  debtor  is  exempt  from  arrest  in  all  actions  founded  on  contract,  express 
or  implied.  In  actions  sounding  in  tort  and  for  fraud  the  debtor  may  be  im- 
prisoned, but  can  obtain  a  discharge  on  taking  the  "  poor  debtor's  oath," 

Assignments  in  insolvency  are  made  to  a  trustee  and  in  use  to  the  benefit  of 
all  the  creditors.  A  transfer  of  property  made  60  days  before  the  assignment  is 
good.  Conveyances  made  in  the  regular  covirse  of  business,  or  for  a  present  con- 
sideration, are  valid  in  the  absence  of  fraud.  Jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  ex- 
tends to  .$100,  and  either  party  has  the  right  of  appeal  in  all  cases. 

Courts  of  common  pleas  and  th6  district  court  have  original  jurisdiction  of  all 
causes  in  equity  where  the  matter  in  demand  does  not  exceed  $500  and  causes  in 
law  where  the  demand  exceeds  $100  and  does  not  exceed  $500,  and  appellate  jur- 
isdiction in  cases  brought  by  appeal  from  justices. 

The  superior  court  has  originally  jurisdiction  in  law  and  equity  of  all  cases 
where  the  demand  exceeds  $500,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  where  there  is  no 
common  pleas  or  district  court  in  the  county.   The  supreme  court  of  errors  has 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT. 


839 


final  and  conclnsive  jurisdiction  in  all  matters.  In  determining  the  amount  oL 
the  demand,  interest  to  the  commencement  of  the  suit  is  included,  bat  not  costs. 

Any  debt  owing  to  the  defendant,  or  any  goods  or  estate  in  the  hands  of  a 
third  party  may  be  taken  by  process  of  garnishment. 

Execution  maybe  taken  out  any  time  during  the  lives  of  the  parties.  If 
either  be  dead,  scire  facias  on  the  judgment  must  be  brought.  A  judgment  that 
has  lain  dormant  for  20  years  is  presumed  to  be  satisfied.  The  judgment  itself 
creates  no  lien,  but  any  property  that  has  been  attached  in  the  suit  in  held  to 
respond  to  the  judgment. 

A  negotiable  note  must  be  for  the  payment  of  money  only,  payable  to  some 
person  or  his  order  or  bearer.  A  negotiable  promissory  note  on  demand  is  con- 
sidered over-due  and  dishonored  after  four  months.  Days  of  grace  arc  not  al- 
lowed on  sight  or  demand  notes,  or  on  bank  checks.  Protests  of  inland  bills  ot 
exchange  and  promissory  notes,  protested  without  this  State,  are  prima  facia 
evidence  of  the  facts  therein  stated.  "When  a  bill  of  exchange,  drawn  or  liego- 
tiated  in  this  State  upon  any  person  in  any  other,  State,  territory  or  district  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  returned  unpaid  and  duly  protested,  the  person  to 
"Whom  the  same  is  payable  is  entitled  to  recover  the  damages,  according  to  tho 
place  where  payable,  over  and  above  the  principal  sum,  together  with  the  law- 
ful interest  on  the  aggregate  amount  of  such  principal  sum  and  damages  from 
the  time  at  which  notice  of  such  protest  shall  have  been  given,  and  pajment  of 
t5aid  principal  sum  and  damages  demanded. 

sheriffs  refusing  to  pay  over  money  collected,  v/hen  demanded,  are  liable  to- 
pay  ivfo  per  cent,  a  month  on  the  amount  received  from  time  of  demand  ;  fail- 
ing to  execute  process  or  making  false  or  illegal  returns,  are  liable  to  pay  all 
damages.  Any  oflicer,  indorsing,  demanding  or  receiving  more  than  legal 'fees 
on  any  civil  process,  is  liable  to  pay  to  the  person  against  whom  the  charge  was 
made  threefold  the  amount  charged. 

No  person  is  disqualified  as  a  witness  in  a  civil  action  by  reason  of  any  inter- 
est in  the  case  or  conviction  of  any  crime,  but  the  fact  may  be  shown  to  discredit 
his  testimony. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  CnATTEii  Mortgages,  Eights  of  married  women,  &c. 
Conveyances  of  real  estate  must  be  in  writing,  sealed  by  the  grantor  and  sub- 
scribed by  him  or  his  attorney  duly  authorized,  attested  by  two  witnesses,  with 
their  own  hands,  and  acknowledged  by  the  grantor  as  his  free  act  and  deed.  A 
Ecrawl  enclosing  the  letters  L.  S.  (L.  S.)  is  equivalent  to  a  seal.  The  acknowl- 
edgment, if  in  this  State,  is  made  before  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  this  State 
or  of  the  United  States,  justice  of  the  peace,  commissioner  of  the  school  fund, 
commissioner  of  the  superior  court,  notary  public,  town  clerk  or  assistant  town 
clerk  ;  if  in  any  other  State  or  territory  of  the  United  States,  before  a  commis- 
sioner appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  and  residing  therein,  or  any  offi- 
cer authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  deeds  in  such  State  or  territory  ; 
and  if  in  a  foreign  country,  before  any  consul  of  the  United  States,  or  notary 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace  in  such  foreign  country. 

Conveyances  of  real  estate  situated  in  this  State  and  powers  of  attorney 
therefor,  executed  and  acknowledged  in  any  other  State  or  territory  in  conform- 
ity to  its  laws  relative  to  the  conveyance  of  lands  therein  situated,  are  valid.  The 
wife  need  not  be  privately  examined  apart  from  her  husband. 

The  husband  joins  with  the  wife  in  the  conveyance  of  her  real  estate,  but  con- 
veys his  own  without  her  signature.  Dower  attaches  only  to  the  real  estate  be- 
longing to  the  husband  at  his  decease. 

The  following  form  of  acknowledgment  is  used  in  all  cases  : 


ment,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed  before  mef 


Married  woman  may  hold  real  estate  to  their  separate  use  in  their  own  name. 
Ill  all  conveyances  of  the  same  the  husband  must  join.  The  husband  is  trustee 
of  the  wife's  personal  estate,  and  accountable  to  her  for  the  avails.  He  may  be 
removed  for  cause,  and  another  trustee  appointed.  She  may  be  sued  for  her 
contracts  and  acts  ;  her  husband  is  not  liable  upon  any  of  such  causes  of  action. 
She  may  also  enter  into  a  contract  jointly  with  her  husband  for  the  benefit  of  her 
Bolc  estate,  or  their  joint  estate,  and  be  sued  on  the  same.  She  may  also  carry  on 
business,  and  if  any  right  of  action  accrues  to  her  therefrom,  may  sue  upon  the 
same  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Tho  widow  shall  have  the  right  of  dower  in  one 
third  of  tho  real  estate  of  which  her  husband  died  possessed  in  his  own  right,  to 
be  to  her  during  her  natural  life. 


State  of  Connecticut. 
County  op  , 
Personally  appeared  ' 


ss. 


840 


SPECIAL  LAWH  OF  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMDIA. 


A  challol  morigajto  of  j)Topcrty  not  porifihablc  in  ilanaturo  is  Rood,  although 
tho  grantor  rotaiiirt  possession,  but  tlie  docd  niuBt  be  (ixecuted  with  all  the  form- 
alities required  in  town  reeords,  as  in  tho  case  of  real  estate.  Property  exempt 
from  exncutioii  is  also  a  jiroper  subject  for  a  chattel  mortgage.  Conveyances  of 
otluir  spe<-i('S  of  personal  property,  unaccompanied  by  possession,  are  void  aa 
ngai)iat  creditors.  Wills  must  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  at« 
tested  by  the  witiicssus,  all  oi"  them  subscribijig  in  his  i)rescucc. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  DISTRICT  OF  COLUM- 
BIA. 


Exemptions  from  Forcet)  Sale.— iV'o  JTome  cxem,pfecL  Personal  Property 
cf  the  following  value  is  exempt  from  distraint,  attachment,  or  sale  on  execution, 
except  for  servants  or  laborers  wages  due  :  Wearing  apparel,  household  furni- 
ture to  the  amount  of  $300  ;  provisions  and  fuel  for  3  months,  mechanics  tools 
or  implements  of  any  trade,  to  the  value  of  200,  with  stock  to  the  same  amount ; 
the  library  and  implements  of  a  professional  man  or  artist,  to  the  value  of  f 300 ; 
a  farmer's  team  and  other  utensils,  to  the  value  of  $100,  family  pictures  aud 
library  to  value  of  $400. 

Mechanics'  Liens.— Any  person  who,  by  virtue  of  any  contract  with  owner 
of  any  building  or  his  agent,  performs  labor  or  furnishes  materials  for  construc- 
tion or  repair  of  such  building,  shall,  upon  tiling  in  otHce  of  clerk  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District,  at  any  time  after  commencement  of  the  building,  and  with- 
in three  months  after  completion  of  such  building  or  repairs,  a  notice  of  his  inten- 
tion to  liold  a  lien  upon  the  property  for  the  amount  due  or  to  become  due  to 
him,  specifically  setting  forth  the  amount  claimed,  have  a  lien  upon  such  build- 
ing and  lot  of  ground  upon  which  the  same  is  situated,  for  such  labor  done  or 
materials  furnished,  when  amount  exceeds  $20.  Any  sub-contractor,  journey- 
man or  laborer  employed  in  construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  or  in  furnish- 
ing any  materials  or  machinery  for  same,  may  give,  at  any  time,  owner  thereof 
notice  in  writing,  particularly  setting  forth  amount  of  h'is  claim  and  services 
rendered  for  which  liis  employer  is  indebted  to  him,  and  that  he  holds  the  owner 
responsible,  and  the  owner  of  the  building  shall  be  liable  for  the  claims  but  not 
to  exceed  tlie  amount  due  from  him  to  employer  at  time  of  notice,  or  subsequently, 
•which  may  De  recovered  in  an  action. 

Collection  of  Debts.  —  A  writ  of  attachment  and  garnishment  may  bo 
issued  whenever  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney  shall  file  in  clerk's  office,  at 
commencement  or  during  pendency  of  suit,  an  affidavit  (supported  by  testimony 
of  one  or  more  witnesses,)  showing  grounds  upon  which  he  bases  action,  and 
setting  fortli  plaintiff  has  just  right  to  recover  against  defendant ;  and  also 
stating  either  tliat  defendant  is  a  non-resident  of  district,  or  evades  service  of 
ordinary  process  by  concealing  himself  or  withdrawing  from  district  temporally, 
or  has  removed  or  is  about  to  remove  some  of  his  property  from  district  to  defeat 
just  demands.  Plaintiff  must  also  file  his'  undertaking,  with  sufficient  surely,  to 
■be  approved  by  clerk,  to  make  good  all  costs  and  damages  by  reason  of  wrongful 
Buing  out  of  attachment. 

Arrest  in  civil  actions  is  unknown  here. 

Assignments  are  regulated  by  the  principles  of  common  law. 

Justices  of  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  cases  where  amount  claimed 
to  be  due  for  debt  or  damages  arising  out  of  contracts,  express  or  implied,  or 
damages  for  wrongs,  or  injuries  to  persons  or  property,  does  not  exceed  $100,  ex- 
cept in  cases  involving  title  to  real  estate,  actions  to  recover  damages  for  assault, 
or  assault  and  battery,  or  for  malicious  prosecution  or  actions  against  justices  of 
peace  or  other  officers  for  misconduct  in  oflftce,  or  in  actions  for  slander,  verbal 
or  written.  Supreme  court  of  District  of  Columbia  possesses  same  powers  and 
exercises  same  jurisdiction  as  circuit  courts  of  United  States.  Any  one  of 
justices  of  said  court  may  hold  a  special  term  with  same  powers  and  jurisdiction 
possessed  by  United  States  district  courts.  Any  one  of  said  justices  may  hold  a 
criminal  court  for  trial  of  all  crimes  and  offences  arising  in  the  District.  Su- 
preme court  of  District  has  jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  under  copy-right  and 
patent  laws  ;  and  of  all  applications  for  divorce  ;  and  also  has  jurisdigtion  as  a 
probate  court- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 


841 


Judgments  arc  lien  on  real  estate  from  date  of  rendition  and  on  personal 
property  when  execution  is  issued  and  in  marshal's  hands.  Execution  may  Issue 
the  day  judgment  is  rendered.    There  is  no  redemption  after  execution  sale. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  Rights  of  Makried  Women,  etc. — Acknowledgments 
of  deeds  may  he  made  before  any  of  the  following  named  officers  of  State,  district, 
county  or  territory  within  United  States,  in  which  person  making  deed  may 
he  living,  namely  :  Before  any  judge  of  court  of  record  and  of  law  ;  any  chan- 
cellor of  State  ;  any  judge  of  suprem.e,  circuit,  district  or  territorial  courts  of  the 
United  States  ;  any  justice  of  the  peace  ;  any  notary  public  ;  any  commissioner 
of  circuit  court  of  district  appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  officer  taking  ac- 
Icnowledgment  must  annex  to  the  deed  a  certificate  under  his  hand  and  seal,  tc 
following  effect : 

cmTNTY^^        : }  ^'^«-)'  = 

I,  Joseph  Mercer,  a  notary  public,  (or  other  prescribed  officer,  giving  his 
title)  in  and  for  the  county  (or  city,  or  parish,  or  district)  aforesaid,  in  the  State 
(or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  hereby  certify  that  A.  B.,  a  party  (or  A.  B. 

and  C.  D.,  parties)  to  a  certain  deed  bearing  date  on  the  day  of  , 

and  hereto  annexed,  personally  appeared  before  me  in  the  county  (or  city,  etc.), 
aforesaid,  the  said  A.  B.  (or  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  etc.,)  being  personally  well  known 
to  me  as  (or  proved  by  the  oaths  of  credible  witnesses  before  me  to  be)  the  person 
(or  persons)  who  executed  the  said  deed,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  hia  - 
(her  or  their)  act  and  deed. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,  A.D,  18  . 

[Seal.]  JOSEPH  MERCER. 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed,  the  lattei 
relinquishing  dower,  or  when  she  is  a  party  with  her  husband  to  any  deed  : 

K?y''  :}  (Orcity,etc.),to-wit: 

I,  Joseph  Mercer,  a  notary  public  in  and  for  the  county  aforesaid,  do  hereby 
certify  that  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  parties  to  a  certain  deed  bearing  date  on  the 
day  of  ,  A,  D.  18   ,  and  hereto  annexed,  jjersonally  appeared 

before  me,  in  the  county  aforesaid;  the  said  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  being 
personally  well  known  to  me  as  (or  proved  by  the  oaths  of  credible  witnesses  be- 
fore me  to  be)  the  persons  who  executed  the  said  deed,- and  acknowleged  the  samo 
to  be  their  act  and  deed ;  and  the  said  C.  D.,  wife  of  said  A.  B.,  being  by  me  ex- 
amined privily  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  having  the  deed  aforesaid 
freely  explained  to  her,  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  her  act  and  deed,  and  de- 
clared that  she  had  willingly  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same,  and  that  she 
wished  not  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  •  day  of  ,  A.D.  18  . 

JOSEPH  MERCER. 

When  acknowledgments  are  made  beyond  limits  of  District,  within  United 
States,  the  certificate  of  the  same  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  the 
register  clerk  or  other  public  officer  having  cognizance  of  the  fact  under  his  offi- 
cial seal,  that,  at  the  date  of  the  acknowledgment,  the  officer  taking  the  same 
was,  in  fact,  the  officer  he  purported  to  be.  Deeds  made  in  a  foreign  country 
may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or  chancellor  of  any  court, 
master  or  master  extraordinary  in  chancery,  or  notary  public,  or  before  any 
secretary  of  legation  or  consular  officer  of  the  United  States. 

Chattel  Mortgages— Must  be  recorded  within  twenty  days  after  execution. 
No  bill  of  sale,  deed  of  trust  or  mortgage  for  property  exempt  by  law  from 
execution  is  binding,  unless  signed  by  wife  of  debtor.  The  right  of  any  married 
woman  to  property,  personal  or  real,  belonging  to  her  at  time  of  marriage  or  ac- 
quired during  marriage  in  any  other  way  than  by  gift  or  conveyance  from  her- 
husband,  are  as  absolute  as  if  she  were  unmarried  and  are  not  subject  to  disposal 
of  her  husband  nor  liable  for  his  debts.  Any  married  woman  may  convey,  devise 
and  bequeath  her  property  or  any  interest  therein  in  the  same  manner  and  with 
like  effect  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Any  married  woman  may  contract  and  sua 
and  be  sued  in  her  own  name,  in  all  matters  having  relation  to  her  sole  and 
separate  property,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Neither  the 
husband  nor  his  property  is  bound  by  any  such  contract  made  by  a  married 
woman,  nor  liable  for  any  recovery  against  her  in  any  such  suit,  but  judgment 
may  be  enforced  by  execution  against  her  gole  gepai'ate  estate  la  saiaQ  man- 
ner as  U  she  were  unmarried. 


842 


BPTCCTAL  LAWB  OF  DELAWARE. 


DAKOTA,  HOMESTEAD  LAW, 

EXEMPTIOX  VKOM  FoRCEi)  Salic— //oHic  o/'fiO  Acrf.s  wUh  huildinrj.'j,  or  L'oufse, 
and  one-half  acre  in  a  Villar/eor  City,  ami.  /'irsoiiu/  I'roju'j-I  if.  'Hio  iiousclioldcr 
is  entitled  to  a  homestead  coiisistiu.ij;  of  not  iiior*;  ( lin  n  so  urrt'-i  of  land  witli  build- 
jnj^H  and  a|)i)nrtenance3  thereon,  and  poirfona  l  properly  a,.;'j;r;  .','atijJ:g  in  value  not 
to  exceed  §1500,  v/hich  personal  property  is  delined  by'iJtaLute. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  DELAWARE. 

Exemptions  fkom  Fohckd  Sale.— iVo  Home  Exernjjted,  Personal  Propcrfy, 
$275.— Family  library,  school  books,  family  Bible,  family  pictures,  seat  or  pew 
in  church,  lot  in  burial  ground,  all  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and  family  ;  and 
in  addition  to  above,  tools,  iniijlements  and  tixtures  necessary  to  carry  on  trade 
t)r  business,  not  exceeding  $75.  Head  of  family,  in  addition  to  above,  or  other 
personal  property  not  exeee.ling  $200.  And  in  Newcastle  county,  wages  for  labor 
and  service  are  exempt  from  execution  attachment. 

Mecuanics  Lien— Mechanics,  builders,  artizans,  laborers  or  other  persons, 
having  performed  or  furnished  work  and  labor  or  materials  or  both,  to  an 
amount  exceeding  §25,  in  or  for  the  erection,  alteration  or  repair  of  any  house, 
building  or  structure,  in  persuance  of  any  contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the 
owner  or  agent  of  such  building  or  structure,  may  at  any  time  within  six  months 
from  tlie  completion  of  said  work  and  labor,  or  the  furnishing  of  such  materials, 
file  in  the  otiice  of  the  prothonotary  of  the  county  in  wliich  said  building  ia 
situate  a  bill  of  particulars  of  his  claim,  with  an  affidavit  setting  forth  that  the 
defendant  is  justly  indebted  to  the  plaintiff  in  a  sum  of  $25,  and  has  refused  or 
neglected  to  pay  or  secured  to  be  paid  to  the  said  plaintiff  the  amount  due  on  his 
claim.  The  atiidavit  must  identify  the  property  and  give  the  names  of  the  parties 
claimant,  and  the  owner  or  reputed  owner  of  said  building.  Judgment  obtained 
Bliall  be  a  lien  on  said  building  or  structure  and  the  real  estate  attaclied  thereto 
upon  which  the  same  is  er'ected,  and  shall  relate  back  to  the  day  upon  which  the 
worker  laborer  furnisliing  of  materials  was  commenced,  and  shall  take  priority 
according.  Where  several  contractors  are  employed,  in  pursuance  of  any  con- 
tract with  the  owner  or  agent,  there  shall  be  no  priority  of  lien,  but  all  be  paid  pro 
rata. 

Collection-  of  Debts.— What  is  known  as  a  "  domestic  attachment,"  may  be 
i:sued  against  any  inhabitant  of  this  State  after  a  return  to  a  summons  or  capias 
issued  and  delivered  to  the  sheriff  or  a  coroner  ten  days  before  the  return 
thereof,  showing  that  the  defendant  cannot  be  found,  and  proof  satisfactory  to 
the  court  of  the  cause  of  action  ;  or  upon  atiidavit  made  by  the  plaintiff  or  some 
other  credible  person,  and  tiled  with  the  prothonotary  "  that  the  defendant  is 
justly  indebted  to  the  plaintiff  in  a  sum  exceeding  $50,  and  has  absconded  from 
the  place  of  his  usual  abode,  or  gone  out  of  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors  or  to  elude  process,  as  is  believed."  All  creditors  share  in  proceeds  of 
Bale  of  property. 

A  foreign  attachment  may  be  issued  against  a  person  not  an  inhabitant  of  this 
State,  after  a  return  to  a  summons  or  capias,  issued  and  delivered  to  the  -  sheriff 
or  coroner  10  days  before  the  return  thereof,  showing  that  the  defendant 
cannot  be  found,  and  proof,  satisfactory  to  the  court,  of  the  cause  of  action  ;  or 
upon  atiidavit  made  by  the  plaintiff  or  some  other  credible  person,  and  tiled  with 
the  prothonotary,  "  that  the  defendant  resides  out  of  the  State,  and  is  justly  in- 
debted to  the  said  plaintiff  in  a  sum'exceeding  $50." 

Ko  capias  shall  be  issued  on  any  judgment  in  a  civil  action  (against  any  free 
white  person)  until  the  return  of  execution  determines  that  the  defendant  has 
not  sufficient  real  or  personal  property  within  the  county  to  satisfy  the  debt  or 
damage  therein  expressed ;  or  until  the  plaintiff  in  such  judgment,  or  some 
credible  person  for  him,  sh  11  make  a  written  atfidavit,  to  be  filed  in  prothonotary's 
ofifice  before  the  issuing  of  the  writ,  to  the  same  effect ;  nor  then  unless  the  plain- 
tiff in  said  judgment  (or  decree),  or  some  credible  person  for  him,  shall,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  above  requirement,  make  a  written  affidavit,  to  be  filed  in  the  protho- 
notary's  office  (  r  register  in  chancery)  before  the  issuing  of  the  process  stating 
"that  the  defendant  in  such  judgment  (or  decree)  is  justly  indebted  to  the  said 
plaintiff  in  a  sum  exceeding  $50,  and  that  he  verily  believes  the  said  defendant 
Iia.s  secreted,  conveyed  away,  assigned,  cettled  or  disposed  of  either  money, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OP  DELAAVAEE. 


843 


goods,  chattels,  stocks,  securities  for  money,  or  other  real  or  personal  estate  of 
the  value  of  more  than  §50,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  and  shall,  more- 
over, in  such  affidavit,  specify  and  set  forth  the  supposed  fraudulent  transac- 
tions." 

As  to  remedy,  the  party  arrested  may  have  a  hearing  before  any  judge,  upon 
the  specification  of  fraud,  upon  petition  and  reasonable  notice  to  the  other  side. 

As  to  assignments,  all  bonds,  specialties,  and  notes  in  writing,  payable  to 
any  person,  or  order,  or  assigns,  maybe  assigned,  and  the  assignees,  or  indorsees, 
or  their  executors  or  administrators,  may  in  their  own  name  sue  for  and  recover 
the  money  due  thereon  ;  provided,  that  all  such  assignments  of  bonds  and  special- 
ties shall  be  under  hand  and  seal,  and  before  at  least  two  credible  Avitnesses. 

In  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  the  assignee,  within  30  days  after 
iho  execution  of  said  assignment,  shall  file  in  office  of  the  register  of  chancery  of 
the  county  in  which  the  real  and  personal  estate  of  the  assignor  is  situate,  an  in- 
ventory or  schedule  of  the  estate  or  effects  so  assigned,  together  with  the  affidavit 
of  said  assignee  that  the  same  is  a  full  and  complete  inventory  of  all  such  estate 
and  effects,  so  far  as  the  same  has  come  to  his  knowledge.  The  chancellor  shall 
appoint  two  appraisers,  who  shall  appraise  the  same  and  make  return  thereof  under 
oath.  The  assignee  shall  give  bond,  with  at  least  two  sufficient  sureties,  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  chancellor,  in  double  the  amount  of  the  appraised  value  of  the  es- 
tate so  assigned.  The  assignee  to  render  annual  accounts  of  his  trusteeship  until 
his  final  account  is  rendered  and  approved.  Exceptions  may  be  filed  to  the  ac- 
count of  said  assignee,  and  a  hearing  be  had  npon  the  same  and  proceedings  ba 
had  upon  said  bonds  for  the  protection  of  interested  parties. 

As  to  garnishment,  in  writs  of  attachment,  domestic  or  foreign,  to  compel  ap- 
pearance of  defendant,  there  is  a  clause  commanding  the  sheriff,  That  he  sum*- 
mon  the  defendant's  garnishees  to  appear  at  tho  next  superior  court,  to  declare 
what  goods,  chattels,  rights,  credits,  money  or  effects  of  the  defendant  they  havo 
in  their  hands  respectively."  The  writ  is  dissolved  at  any  time  before  judgment, 
by  the  defendant  giving  special  bail  to  the  action,  and  the  garnishees  arc  dis- 
charged. If  a  garnishee,  duly  summoned,  does  not  appear  as  required,  he  may 
be  compelled  by  attachment  to  appear  and  answer  or  plead,  and  he  shall  be  so 
compelled  within  tv/o  terms,  or  the  attachment,  as  to  him,  shall  be  dissolved.  If 
he  appear,  and  at  the  request  of  the  plaintiff,  answers  under  oath  that  he  had  no 
money,  goods,  chattels,  rights,  credits  or  effects  of  the  defendant  liable  to  attach- 
ment, in  his  hands  or  possession,  at  the  time  ho  was  iiotified  of  the  attach- 
ment, or  at  any  time  after,  he  shall  bo  discharged.  But  if  the  plaintiff  shall  re- 
quire him  to  plead,  he  sball  plead  nulla  bona,  on  which  the  plaintiff  may  tako 
issue  and  go  to  trial ;  and  if  it  be  found  that  the  garnishee  had,  at  the  time  ho 
■was  notified  of  the  attachm.ent,  or  at  any  time  after  and  before  his  plea  pleaded, 
any  money,  goods,  chattels,  or  effects  of  the  defendant  in  his  hands  or  possession, 
the  jury  shall  render  a  verdict  for  the  plaintiff  and  assess  damages  to  the  value  of 
Buch  property,  and  judgment  shall  be  entered  against  such  garnishee  therefor, 
with  costs  ;  such  judgment  shall  be  pleadable  by  the  garnishee  in  bar  to  any 
action  at  tho  suit  of  the  defendant. 

Judgments  of  courts  are  liens  from  the  time  of  entering  upon  the  real  estate 
of  defendant  within  the  county  in  which  they  are  rendered  ;  after  the  lapse  of  20 
years  they  are  presumed  to  be  paid,  but  this  presumption  may  be  rebutted.  Upon 
a  return  of  nulla  bona,  on  execution  issued  by  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  when  the 
defendant  pleads  Ms  freehold,  a  transcript  of  said  judgment  may  be  filed  in  tho 
superior  court  of  the  county,  and  the  judgment  made  allien  upon  laud,  and  exe- 
cution then  issues  out  of  said  superior  court. 

Executions  may  issue  to  any  county  :  personal  property  must  be  first  ex- 
hausted before  real  estate  can  be  levied  upon.  Personal  property  is  bound  from 
the  time  the  writ  comes  into  the  hands  of  the  sheriff,  if  an  actual  levy  be  made 
within  60  days  thereafter.  The  lien  of  such  a  levy  remains  in  full  force  for  3 
years,  as  against  a  subsequent  execution  levied  upon  the  same  goods.  Sale  at 
expiration  of  30  days  after  levy.  Notice  by  advertisement,  posted  at  least  10  days 
in  five  or  more  public  places  in  the  county,  two  of  which  shall  be  in  the  hundred 
of  defendant's  residence.  Goods  and  chattels  of  a  tenant  are  liable  to  one  year's 
rent  inarrear  or  growing  due,  in  preference  to  execution. 

After  exhausting  personalty,  inquisition  is  held  on  lands,  upon  10  days'  no- 
tice. If  the  rents  and  profits  for  seven  years  are  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  debt  and 
costs,  a  writ  of  elegit  may  issue,  under  which  the  lands  are  delivered  to  the  plain- 
tiff, to  be  held  until  the  debt  is  satisfied.  If  not  sufficient,  a  writ  of  venditioni 
exponas  issues  and  the  land  is  sold,  upon  10  days'  notice  by  advertisements  and 
publication.  When  the  sale  is  confirmed  by  the  court  the  officer  makes  a  deed  to 
purchaser,  capias  ad  satisfaciendum. 


844 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  DELAWARE. 


Proporty  of  tlio  dohtor  in  llio  li.aiul;^  of  third  persons  can  bo  rc.ichod  f:il,licr  b» 
fore  or  after  lin;il  judgment,  .'iiul  under  attaclimcnt  by  process  of  garui«lniicnt, 
upon  an  allidavil,  being  made  by  the  plaintilF,  )ns  agent  or  attorney,  that  lio  doci 
not  believe  the  <lebtor  will  have  in  his  possession  visible  i)roperty  in  this  Stato 
of  sufficient  value  to  satisfy  liis  demand. 

Damages  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance  of  foreign  bills,  bills  of  cxchango 
fire  at  tlio  rate  of  5  per  cent,  on  the  hundred  of  the  principal  sum.  Notes  and 
bills  in  this  State  are  assignable  as  at  common  law. 

Jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  $50,  county  courts  to  §300,  besides 
probate  povi^ers,  and  linal  jurisdiction  where  amount  in  controversy  docs  not  cx' 
ceed  $100,  Circuit  courts  have  general  jurisdiction  in  both  law  an»i  equity  cases, 
Avith  appellate  jurisdiction  from  cases  arising  in  the  county  courts,  aiid  llnal 
jurisdiction  in  such  cases.  The  supreme  court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  in  all 
cases  in  equity,  and  all  cases  at  law  ■where  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds 
§300. 

Judgments  obtained  in  courts  of  record  are  liens  on  all  the  estate  of  the  def  end- 
fint  in  the  county  wliere  the  judgment  was  obtained,  from  its  date.  If  obtained 
in  any  other  county  in  the  State  than  where  the  land  lies,  becomes  a  lien  on  tho 
land  of  the  defendant  from  the  time  it  is  recorded  in  said  county.  Judgments 
obtained  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  made  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  tho 
defendant,  if  it  is  recorded  within  ten  days  after  it  is  obtained,  in  the  county 
clerk's  office.  Judgments  from  other  States  can  be  used  only  as  evidence  in  a 
emt  brought  on  them  in  this  State. 

All  the  lands,  goods  and  chattels  of  tho  defendant  may  bs  levied  on  and  sold 
■under  execution,  and  is  a  lien  on  the  personal  property  of  the  defendant  from 
the  time  it  comes  to  the  hands  of  the  sheriff.  There  is  no  stay  of  execution  and 
no  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  Kights  of  Married  Wojien,  «&c.— Deeds  must  be  in 
■writing,  sealed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of  not  less  than  two  v/itnesses — a 
Bcrawl,  with  the  v/ord  seal  written  in  it,  is  sufficient  seal.  If  a  deed  is  executed 
in  this  State  it  must  be  before  two  witnesses,  and  the  grantor  may  acknowledge 
the  execution  of  the  same  before  any  judge,  clerk  of  the  circuit  court,  notary 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State.  If  executed  out  of  the  State 
and  in  any  other  State  or  territory,  the  deed  may  be  executed  according  to  tho 
laws  of  the  State  or  territory  whe'ro  executed  and  the  execution  thereof  acknowl- 
edged before  any  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  tho 
peace  or  other  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  State  or  territory  to  take  tho 
acknowledgment  of  deeds,  or  before  any  commissioner  of  the  State  of  Florida. 
If  executed  in  any  foreign  country,  it  may  bo  executed  according  to  the  laws  of 
Buch  country,  and  acknowledged  before  any  notary  public,  or  any  minister  pleni- 
potentiary, extraordinary,  minister  resident,  charge  d'affaires,  commissioner  or 
consul  of  the  United  States— should  the  deed  be  acknowledged  in  any  other  State 
or  country,  before  any  otiicer  not  having  a  seal  of  office,  he  should  have  attached 
thereto  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  a  certificate  of  the  secretary 
of  state,  minister  plenipotentiary,  extraordinary,  minister  resident,  charge 
d'affaires,  commissioner  or  consul  (as  the  case  may  be),  that  the  person  whose 
name  is  subscribed  to  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  was,  at  the  date  thereof, 
euch  officer  as  he  is  therein  represented  to  be^  that  he  believes  the  signature  of 
euch  persons  subscribed  thereto  to  be  genuine,  and  that  the  deed  is  executed 
and  acknowledged  according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  territory  or  foreign 
country. 

The  following  is  the  form  used  where  the  acknowledgment  is  taken  out  of  the 
State : 

State  of  ,1 
County  of  .  j 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  '  day  of  187   ,  personally  ap- 

peared before  me,  a  notary  public,  duly  appointed  and  authorized  by  the  executive 
authority  of  the  State  of  ,  under  the  laws  of  said  State,  to  take  within 

said  State  proof  and  acknowledgments  of  deeds  (or  other  officer  as  the  case  may 
be),  to  be  used  and  recorded  in  such  State,  A.  B.,  to  me  well  known  to  be  the 
person  who  executed  the  foregoing  (and  annexed)  deed  by  him  sealed,  subscribed, 
and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowleged  the  execution  thereof  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed, 
for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal| 
the  day  and  year  first  aTbOYO  written. 

J.  Hill,  Notary  Public, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  FLORIDA. 


845 


They  take  priority  according  to  date  of  recording  in  proper  office,  and  are  liena 
only  from  such  date.  The  lien  of  a  purchase  money  mortgage  recorded  within 
sixty  days  after  it  is  made  has  preference  to  any  judgment  against  the  mortgagor, 
or  other  lieu  of  a  date  prior  to  the  mortgage  chattel,  unknown. 

The  real  and  personal  property  of  any  married  woman,  acquired  prior  to 
March  17,  1875,  or  which  she  then  held,  or  which  she  may  acquire  after  that  date, 
in  aiiy  manner  whatever,  from  any  person  other  than  her  husband,  shall  he  her 
sole  and  separate  property  ;  and  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof  shall  not  be 
subject  to  the  disposal  of  her  husband  nor  liable  for  his  debts.  Married  women, 
purchasers  of  real  estate,  may  secure  purchase  money,  or  part  of  it,  by  recogniz- 
ance, bond,  mortgage  or  otherwise,  as  single  women  may  ;  her  husband  need  not 
be  a  party  or  consent  to  such  act  of  giving  security,  and  is  n.ot  liable  unless  he  is 
a  party  thereto.  May  give  bond  with  or  without  warrant  of  attorney.  Married 
^yomen  may  receive  wages  for  her  personal  labor  and  maintain  an  action  therefor, 
may  deposit  same  or  other  moneys  belonging  to  her  in  bank,  etc.,  free  from  her 
husband's  control.  May  prosecute  and  defend  suits  at  law,  or  in  equity,  for  pres- 
ervation and  protection  of  her  property  ;  make  contracts  in  respect  to  her  prop- 
erty, upon  which  suits  may  be  brought  as  though  she  was/emme  sole,  whether 
the  contracts  were  made  before  or  after  marriage,  and  her  ijroperty  shall  bo 
charged  therewith. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  other  person 
BubBcribing  the  testator's  name,  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and 
attested  and  subscribed  by  two  competent  witnesses,  in  tho  presence  of  the  tes- 
tator. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  FLORIDA. 

ExEMrTioxs  From  Forced  Sale.— ITomc,  Farm,  or  Bouse  and  Lot,  and  Per- 
sonal Property.— A  homestead  to  the  extent  of  160  acres  of  land,  or  the  halt  of  one 
acre  within  the  limits  of  any  incorporated  city  or  town,  owned  by  the  head  of  a 
family  residing  in  this  State,  together  with  $1,000  worth  of  personal  property, 
and  the  improvements  on  the  real  estate,  shall  be  exempted  from  forced  sale 
under  any  process  of  law,  and  the  real  estate,  shall  not  be  alienable  without  the 
joint  consent  of  husband  and  wife,  when  that  relation  exists.  "  But  no  property 
shall  be  exempt  from  sale  for  taxes,  or  for  the  payment  of  obligations  contracted 
for  the  purchase  of  said  premises,  or  for  the  erection  of  improvements  thereon, 
or  for  house,  field  or  other  labor  performed  on  the  same.  The  exemption  herein 
provided  for,  in  a  city  or  town,  shall  not  extend  to  more  improvements  or  build- 
ings than  the  residence  or  business  house  of  the  owner." 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Mechanics  and  other  persons  performing  labor  or  furnish- 
ing materials  for  the  construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  or  who  may  have 
furnished  any  engine  or  other  machinery  for  any  mill,  distillery  or  manufactory, 
may  have  a  lien  on  such  building,  mill  or  distillery,  etc.,  for  the  same  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  interest  of  the  tenant  or  contractor.  Sub-contractors,  journeymen  and 
laborers  have  also  lien,  npon  their  giving  notice  in  writing  to  the  ov/nerthat  they 
hold  him  responsible  for  whatever  may  be  due  them. 

Collection  of  Debts.— There  is  no  imprisonment  for  debt  in  this  State. 
Attachment  may  bo  had  of  the  debtor's  property  upon  affidavit  made  by  the 
plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  or  attorney,  that  the  defendant  is  removing  his  property 
out  of  the  State,  or  about  to  remove  it,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  the  State,  or  is  re- 
moving or  about  to  remove  beyond  the  limits  of  the  State,  or  absconds  or  secretes 
himself,  or  is  fraudulently  disposing  of  his  property,  or  is  concealing  the  same, 
or  is  removing  same  out  of  the  judicial  district  where  defendant  resides.  Before 
the  attachment  can  issue  the  plaintiff  must  enter  into  a  bond  with  sufficient 
securities  in  an  amount  double  the  sum  claimed  by  him.  An  attachment  will 
also  be  issued  against  the  property  of  the  defendant  on  a  debt  that  is  not  due  ; 
pra  ided,  it  falls  due  in  nine  months  from  the  time  it  is  asked  for — upon  an  af- 
fid£,{"it  by  the  plaintiff  or  his  agent,  setting  forth  the  facta  of  the  case  ;  and,  also, 
that  the  defendajit  is  actually  removing  his  property  from  out  the  State,  or  is 
fraudulently  concealing  or  disposing  of  the  same  for  the  purpose  of  evading  his 
just  debts.  A  bond  shall  also  be  given,  as  in  the  case  v/here  the  debt  is  actually 
due. 

Assignments,  unless  fraudulent,  are  good  in  this  State,  though  preference  b© 
given  to  creditors  ;  and  even  assignments  made  in  another  State,  conveying  prop« 
erty  situated  in  this  State,  arc  held  good  against  an  attaching  creditor. 


846 


SPECIAi:  LAAVS   OF  I^LOIIIDA. 


Stay  of  exocntion  on  judgment,  for  want  of  nfTidavit  of  dcfc.nso  ;  G  months,  if 
Bccnrity  be  given  20  days  after  judgmoiil.  On  jiulfj;nients  before  .iustico  of  tlio 
peace  C  months'  stay  on  defendant  pleading  liis  freehold,  and  ^)  months'  stay  on  his 
giving  security. 

All  checks,  notes,  drafts  or  bills,  inland  or  foreicJi;  7<ayablo  without  lime  or  at 
Bight,  are  duo  and  i)ayablo  on  present  niont,  without  grace  ;  days  of  grace  i^hall  bo 
allowed  on  all  checks,  draf  is  or  bills.  £'!roign  or  inland,  i)ay';i);]o  at  a  future  or 
dilTcrent  time  from  that  in  which  th^y  arc  dated,  or  v/hich  arc  made  payable  on 
■Si  particular  day  after  date. 

The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  drawn  upon  any  person  beyond  the  Bcan, 
and  returned  with  legal  protest,  sliall  as  to  the  drawer,  indorscr  and  all  con- 
cerned, be  at  the  rate  of  20  per  centum  on  the  contents  of  such  bills  in  additi<jn 
ihorcto-  Notes,  checks  and  other  negotiable  instruments,  becoming  payable  on 
("hristmas  day,  fourth  day  of  July,  "iljanksgiving  day,  first  day  of  January,  and 
twenty-second  day  of  February,  shall  be  deemed  to  become  due  on  tho  secular  daj 
next  preceding  the  aforementioned  days  respectively. 

Summons  may  be  served  on  defendant  by  stating  the  substance  of  it  to  hini 
personally,  or  by  leaving  a  copy  at  his  usual  place  of  abode,  in  the  presence  of  a 
v/hite  adult  person,  C  days  before  the  return  thereof.  And  whenever  suit  is 
broiight  against  persons  not  residing  in  this  State  but  doing  business  here,  either  by 
bralich  establishment  or  agency,  it  shall  be  sufficient  service  of  writ  of  summons  to 
leave  a  copy  thereof  with  any  agent,  or  at  the  usual  place  of  business  of  suck 
person  or  persons,  or  his,  her  or  their  agent.  10  days  before  the  return  thereof.  \ 

Deeds,  Kights  of  Married  Wojien,  Wills,  &c.— Acknowledgments  may 
bo  taken  out  of  the  State  before  any  consul-general,  consul  or  commercial  agent 
of  the  United  States,  duly  appointed  in  any  foreign  country,  at  the  places  of  their 
respective  otlicial  residences,  or  before  any  judge  of  the  district  or  circuit  court 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  chancellor  or  any  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  tho 
mayor  or  chief  officer  of  any  city  or  borough,  and  certified  under  tho  hand  of  such 
chaiicellor,  judge,  mayor  or  officer  and  the  seal  of  his  office,  court,  city  or  borough; 
or  in  open  court,  certified  under  the  hand  of  the  clerk,  and  the  seal  of  the  court; 
or  before  a  commissioner  of  deeds,  appointed  by  the  Governor  (whose  seal  shall 
be  so  engraved  as  to  make  an  impression  that  will  show  distinctly  the  name, 
official  title,  date  of  appointment  and  term  of  office  of  such  commissioner).  Only 
one  witness  is  necessary  to  a  deed.   A  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal. 

The  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must  show  the  wife  relinquishes  her 
dower,  and  the  private  examination  should  be  certified  in  the  words  stated  in  the. 
following  form : 

[Form  by  Man  and.  Wife.] 

State  of  Delaware,  >  ,„ 
County  of  , ) 

Beit  remembered,  that  on  the  day  of  ,  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ,  personally  came  before  the 

(Subscriber  (name  and  title),  John  Wilson  and  Mary  Wilson,  his  wife,  parties  to 
this  indenture,  known  to  me  personally  (or  proved  on  oath  of  Eichard  Roe)  to  be 
such,  and  severally  acknowledged  said  indenture  to  be  their  act  and  deed  re- 
spectively, and  the  said  Mary  Wilson  being  at  the  same  time  privately  examined 
by  me,  apart  from  her  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  said  inden- 
ture v/illingly,  without  compulsion,  or  threats  or  fear  of  her  husband's  dis- 
pleasure. 

Given  under  mj^hand  and  official  seal  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

(Signature  and  title.) 
[Form  of  Certificate  where  Grantor  is  Unmarried.] 
State  of  Delaware,  ) 
County  of  . )  * 

Be  it  ren^embered,  that  on  the  day  of  ,  in  tho  year  of  our 

Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  •  ,  personally  came  before  the 

subscriber  (name  and  title),  John  "Wilson,  party  to  this  indenture,  knov/n  to  me 
personally  (or  proved  on  oath  of  Peter  Smith),  to  be  such,  and  acknowledged  said 
indenture  to  be  his  act  and  deed. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  oflicial  seal  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

(Signature  and  title.) 

There  is  no  statutory  provision  for  proof  of  deed  bv  subscribing  witness  out  of 
the  State.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  within  one  year  after  the  sealing  and  delivery 
of  the  instrument. 

Mortgages  are  executed  and  acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  deeds,  and  are 
foreclosed  by  proceedings  in  the  superior  court  by  writ  of  scire  facias,  and  after 
judgment,  salo  of  the  premises  is  made  by  writ  of  levari/acias. 


SPECIAL  LAWS    OF  GEORGIA. 


847 


The  wife  must  join  with  the  husband  in  the  execution  of  deeds  to  relinquish 
her  dower,  and  the  following  should  be  in  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment : 

"  Personally  came  C.  D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  to  me  well  known,  etc.,  and 
acknowledged  she  made  herself  a  party  to  and  executed  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  relinquishing  her  dower,  in  and  to  the  lands  and  tenements  therein  described  ; 
and  the  said  C.  1).,  on  a  private  examination  taken  and  made  before  me,  separately 
and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  acknowledges  and  says  that  the  said  relin- 
quishment and  renunciation  of  dower  was  and  is  made  freely  and  voluntarily,  and 
without  any  compulsion  or  constraint,  apprehension  or  fear  from  her  said  hus- 
band, the  said  A.  B.,  to  which  acknowledgment  the  said  C.  D.  has  in  my  presence 
and  this  day  set  her  handand  seal."  (Signature  and  title.) 

All  personal  and  real  property  owned  by  the  wife  before  her  marriage,  or  to 
which  she  shall  become  entitled  by  inheritance,  gift,  purchase  or  devise  during 
marriage,  shall  be  and  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property,  and  free  from  the 
debts  of  the  husband.  But,  in  order  that  it  shall  be  free  from  his  debts,  an  inven- 
tory of  the  same  must  be  made  out  in  six  months  after  marriage,  or  after  the  samo 
shall  be  acquired  by  her,  and  recorded  in  the  circuit  court  clerk's  office  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  situated.  A  married  woman  can  sell  and  convey  all  real 
estate  iiiherited  by  her  in  the  same  way  as  she  could  if  she  were  sole  ;  but  in  all 
conveyances  of  any.  of  her  real  estate  her  husband  must  join  in  the  execution  and 
acknowledgment.  She  is  also  entitled  to  dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  real  estate 
seized  by  her  husband  at  the  time  of  his  death,  or  at  any  time  during  his  life, 
unless  she  has  relinquished  the  same  ;  and  she  is  also  entitled  to  one-third  of  his 
personalty. 

No  mortgage  of  personal  property  shall  be  effectual  or  valid  to  any  purpose 
whatever,  unless  such  mortgage  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  record  for  the 
county  in  which  the  mortgaged  property  shall  be  at  the  time  of  the  execution  of 
the  mortgage,  and  unless  the  mortgaged  property  be  delivered  at  the  lime  of 
execution  of  the  mortgage,  or  within  twenty  days  thereafter,  to  the  mortgagee, 
and  shall  continue  to  remain  truly  and  bona  fide  in  his  possession.  Mortgages  of 
personal  property  shall  be  admitted  to  record  upon  the  same  proof  as  real  prop- 
erty, or  by  proof  being  made  upon  oath  by  at  least  one  credible  person,  before  the 
recording  officer,  of  the  hand-writing  of  the  mortgagor,  in  cases  in  which  there 
ehall  be  no  attesting  witnesses  to  the  mortgage. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in 
Jiis  presence,  and  by  liis  express  directions,  and  shall  be  attested  and  su'jscribed 
in  the  presence  of  the  testator  by  theeje  or  more  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  GEORGIA. 

Exemption's  from:  Forced  Sale.— ^  Home  worth  552000.  and  personal  Prop- 
erti/  worth  $1000.  Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian  or  trustee  of  a  family,  of 
minor  children,  shall  be  entitled  to  a  homes cead  or  realty  to  the  value  of  552,000 
in  specie,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of  f  1,000  in  specie,  both  to  be  valued 
at  the  time  they  are  set  apart.  And  no  court  or  ministerial  othcer  in  this  State 
shall  ever  have  jurisdiction  or  authority  to  enforce  any  judgment,  decree  or 
execution  against  said  property  so  set  apart— including  such  improvements  a3 
may  be  made  thereon  from  time  to  time — except  for  taxes,  money  borrowed  and 
expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  homestead,  or  for  the  purchase  money  of 
the  same,  and  for  labor  done  thereon,  or  material  furnished  therefor,  or  removal 
of  incumbrances  thereon.  And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  General  Assembly  as 
early  as  practicable,  to  provide,  by  law,  for  the  setting  apart  and  valuation  of  said 
property,  and  to  enact  laws  for  the  full  and  complete  protection  and  security  of 
the  same  to  the  sole  use  and  benefit  of  said  families  as  aforesaid. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Laborers  shall  have  a  general  lien  upon  the  property  of 
their  employers  liable  to  levy  and  sale  for  their  labor,  which  is  superior  to  all 
other  liens,  except  liens  for  taxes,  the  special  liens  of  landlords  on  yearly  crops, 
and  such  other  liens  as  are  declared  by  law  superior  to  them.  Laborers  shall 
also  have  a  special  lien  on  the  products"of  their  labor  superior  to  all  other  liens, 
except  liens  for  taxes,  and  special  liens  of  landlords  on  yearly  crops,  to  Vvdiich 
they  shall  be  inferior.  All  mechanics  of  every  sort,  who  have  taken  no  personal 
security  therefor,  shall,  for  work  done  and  material  furnished  in  building,  re- 
pairing or  improving  any  real  estate  of  their  employers,  all  contractors,  material 
men  and  persons  furnishing  material  for  the  improvement  of  real  estate,  all  con- 
tractors for  building  factories,  furnishing  material  for  the  samo  or  furnishing 


848 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  GEORGIA. 


machinery  for  tlio  same,  ami  all  maohiiusts  and  manufacturers  o£  machinery  in- 
cluding corporations  engaged  in  Buch  l)U8incss,  wlio  may  furnisher  i)ut  up  in  any 
county  of  tliis State  any  Htcani  mills  or  other  machinery,  or  wlio  may  repair  the 
same,  and  all  contractor.!  to  build  railroada  shall  each  have  a  Bi)ocial  lien  on  bucIi 
leal  estate,  factories  and  railroads. 

OoLLKCTioN  OF  ACCOUNTS.— Attachment  may  issue  where  the  debtor  residca 
out  of  the  State  ;  when  he  is  actually  removing  or  about  to  remove  without  tho 
limits  of  the  county ;  when  he  absconds;  when  he  conceals  himself;  when  ho 
resists  a  legal  arrest ;  when  he  is  causing  his  proi)erty  to  be  removed  beyond  tho 
limits  of  the  State  ;  when  the  debt  is  created  by  the  purchase  of  proi)erty,  upon 
such  debt  becoming  due  ;  when  the  debtor  who  created  such  debt  is  in  the  pos- 
Bession  of  the  property  for  the  purchase  of  which  the  debt  was  created  ;  when  a 
debtor  shall  sell  or  convey  or  conceal  his  property  liable  for  the  payment  of  his 
debts,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  payment  or  the  same,  orwhenever  adebtor 
shall  threaten  or  prepare  so  to  do.  Attachment  bonds  must  be  in  double  tho 
amount  of  the  debt,  and  conditioned  to  pay  the  defendant  all  damages  sustained 
in  consequence  of  the  attachment,  in  the  event  the  plaintiff  shall  fail  to  recover. 

Arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt  is  unknown  in  this  State. 

An  assigimient  or  transfer  by  a  debtor,  insolvent  at  the  time,  of  real  or  person- 
al property,  or  choses  in  action  of  any  description,  to  any  person,  either  in  trust 
or  for  the  benefit  of  or  in  behalf  of  creditors,  when  any  trust  or  benefit  is  reserved 
to  the  assignor,  or  any  person  for  him,  is  fraudulent  in  law  against  creditors,  and 
as  to  them  null  and  void.  A  debtor  may  prefer  one  creditor  to  another,  and  to 
that  end  he  may  bona  fide  give  a  lien  by  mortgage,  or  other  legal  means,  or  ho 
may  sell  in  payment  of  the  debt,  or  he  may  transfer  negotiable  papers  as  col- 
laterial  security,  the  surplus  in  such  cases  not  being  reserved  for  his  own  benefit, 
or  that  of  any  other  favored  creditor,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  creditors.  All 
choses  in  action  arising  upon  contract  may  be  assigned  so  as  to  vest  the  title  in 
the  assignee,  but  he  takes  it,  except  negotiable  securities,  subject  to  the  equities 
existing  between  the  assignor  and  debtor  at  the  time  of  the  assignment  and  until 
notice  of  the  assignment  is  given  to  the  person  liable. 

In  cases  where  suit  is  pending,  or  where  judgment  has  been  obtained,  tho 
plaintiff  shall  be  entitled  to  the  process  of  garnishment  under  the  following  reg- 
ulations- The  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney-at-law,  shall  make  an  aflidavit 
"before  some  officer  authorized  to  issue  an  attachment  by  this  code,  stating  tho 
amount  claimed  to  be  due  in  such  action,  or  on  such  judgment,  and  that  he  has 
reason  to  apprehend  the  loss  of  the  same,  or  some  part  thereof,  unless  the  process 
of  garnishment  do  issue,  and  shall  give  bond,  with  good  security,  in  a  sum  at 
least  equal  to  double  the  amount  sworn  to  be  due,  payable  to  the  defendant  in 
the  suit  or  judgment,  as  the  case  may  be,  conditioned  to  pay  said  defendant  all 
costs  and  damages  that  he  may  sustain  in  consequence  of  suing  out  said  garnish- 
ment, in  the  event  that  the  plaintiff  fails  to  recover  in  the  suit  pending,  or  it 
should  appear  that  the  amount  sworn  to  be  due  on  such  judgment  was  not  due. 
I  -  If  any  bill  of  exchange,  draft  or  order,  is  made  payable  at  any  place  out  of  this 
State  and  within  the  United  States,  and  the  same  is  returned  under  protest  for 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  holder  thereof  shall  be  entitled  to  recover 
of  the  drawer  and  endorsers  in  the  first  case,  and  the  acceptor  also  in  the  latter 
case,  in  addition  to  the  principal,  interest  and  protest  fees,  five  per  cent,  on  the 
principal  as  damages  for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment.  If  such  bill,  draft 
or  order  is  payable  at  a  place  without  the  limits  of  -the  United  States,  the  holder 
may  recover  ten  per  cent,  damages  as  right  for  non-acceptance  or  non-pay- 
ment. 

The  superior  courts  are  the  highest  courts  of  general  original  jurisdiction. 
They  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  divorce  suits,  cases  respecting  titles  to  land 
and  equity  cases.  The  powers  of  a  court  of  ordinary  and  probate  are  vested  in 
an  ordinary  for  each  county.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  all 
civil  cases  where  the  principal  sum  claimed  does  not  exceed  $100,  except 
where  jurisdiction  is  exclusively  vested  in  other  courts. 

Writs  to  the  superior  courts  must  be  filed  twenty  days,  and  served  fifteeen 
days  before  the  first  day  of  tho  term  to  which  they  are  returnable.  Actions  aro 
triable  only  at  the  second  term,  except  suits  for  rent,  which  are  triable  at  the 
first  teiTB.  In  justices'  courts,  summonses  shall  bear  date  15  days  before  tho 
time  of  trial,  if  the  amount  is  under  ^p50,  and  shall  bear  date  20  days  before  the 
time  of  trial  when  the  amount  is  over  §50,  and  shall  be  served  at  least  10  days 
before  the  time  of  trial. 

All  judgments  obtained  in  the  superior,  inferior,  justices'  or  other  courts  of 
this  State  shall  be  of  equal  dignity  and  shall  bind  all  tho  property  of  the  de- 
Cendaiit,  both  real  and  personal,  from  thQ  date  of  such  judgment,  except  aa 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  GEORGIA  AND  IDAHO.  849 


otherwise  provided  in  this  code.  "When  any  person  has  bona  Jide  ond  tor  a  \al- 
uable  consideration  purchased  real  or  personal  property,  and  has  been  in  pos- 
session of  such  real  property  for  four  years,  or  of  such  personal  property  two 
years,  the  same  shall  be  discharged  from  the  lien  of  any  judgment  agahist  the 
person  from  whom  he  has  purchased.  Yfhen  a  judgment  lien  has  attached  on 
personal  property  which  is  removed  to  another  Slate  and  sold,  if  brought  back 
again  to  this  Statt^it  will  be  subject  to  the  judgment  lien.  No  judgment  here- 
after obtained  in  the  courts  of  this  State  shall  bo  enforced  after  the  expiration 
of  seven  years  from  the  time  of  its  rendition,  when  Jio  execution  has  been  issued 
upon  it ;  or  when  execution  has  been  issued,  and  seven  years  shall  have  expired 
from  the  time  of  the  entry  upon  the  execution,  made  by' an  ofhcer  authorized  to 
execute  and  return  the  same  ;  such  judgments  may  be  revived  by  scire  facias ,  or 
be  sued  on,  within  three  years  from  the  time  they  become  doimant.  Execution 
may  issue  immediately  upon  the  rendition  of  judgment. 

Deeds,  Moktgages,  Kights  of  Mareied  Women,  Wills,  &c,,  A  deed  to 
lands  in  this  State  must  be  in  Avriting,  under  seal,  signed  by  the  maker,  attested 
by  at  least  two  witnesses  and  delivered  to  the  purchaser,  or  some  one  for  him, 
and  be  made  on  a  valuable  or  good  consideration.  No  prescribed  lomr  is  essential 
to  the  validity  of  a  deed  to  lands  or  personalty.  If  sufficient  in  itself  to  niako 
known  the  transaction  between  the  parties,  no  want  or  form  will  invalidate  it. 
A  deed  to  personalty  needs  no  attesting  witness  to  make  it  valid  ;  in  other  re- 
spects, the  principles  applicable  to  deeds  to  lands  are  applicable  to  it.  Gener- 
ally a  deed  is  not  necessary  to  convey  title  to  personalty.  Every  deed  conveying 
lands  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  tho  superior  court  of  tlio . 
county  where  the  land  lies  within  one  year  from  the  date  of  such  deed  ;  on  fail- 
ure to  record  in  this  time,  the  record  m"ay  be  made  at  any  time  thereafter  ;  but 
such  deed  loses  its  priority  over  a  subsequent  deed  from  the  same  vendor  re- 
corded in  time  and  taken  without  notice  of  the  existence  of  the  first.  To  au- 
thorize the  record  of  a  deed  to  realty  or  personalty,  it  must  be  attested,  if  execu- 
ted out  of  this  State,  by  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  tho  State  of  Georgia,  or  a 
consul  or  vice-consul  of  the  United  States  (the  certificates  of  these  officers  under 
their  seals  being  evidence  of  the  fact),  or  by  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  in  tho 
State  where  executed,  with  the  certificate  of  the  clerk,  under  the  seal  of  such 
court,  of  the  genuineness  of  the  signature, of  such  judge.  If  executed  in  this 
State,  it  must  be  attested  by  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  this  State,  or  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  notary  public,  or  clerk  of  the  superior  court  in  the  county  in 
which  the  last  three  mentioned  officers  respectively  hold  their  appointments ; 
or  if  subsequently  to  its  execution  the  deed  is  acknov/ledged  in  presence  of 
either  of  the  above-named  officers  that  fact  certified  on  the  deed  by  such  officer 
shall  entitle  it  to  be  recorded.  If  a  deed  is  neither  attested  by  nor  acknowledged 
before  either  of  the  officers  aforesaid,  it  may  be  admitted  to  record  upon  'the 
affidavit  of  a  subscribing  witness  before  either  of  the  above-named  officers  tes- 
tifying to  the  execution  of  the  deed  and  its  attestation  according  to  Jaw. 

All  property  of  the  wife  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  whether  real  or  personal 
or  choses  in  action,  shall  be  and  remain  the  separate  property  of  the  wife,  and 
all  property  given  to,  inherited  or  acquired  by  the  wife  during  coverture,  shall 
shall  vest  in  and  belong  to  the  wife,  and  shall  not  bo  liable  for  the  payment  of 
any  debt,  default  or  contract  of  the  husband.  The  wife  is  afemme  sole  as  to  her 
separate  estate,  unless  controlled  by  the  settlement.  Every  restriction  npon 
lier  power  in  it  must  be  complied  with  ;  but  while  the  wife  may  contract,  she 
cannot  bind  her  separate  estate  by  any  contract  of  suretyship,  nor  by  any  as- 
sumption of  the  debts  of  herjiusband,  and  any  sale  of  her  separate  estate,  made 
to  a  creditor  of  her  husband  in  extinguishment  of  his  debts,  shall  be  absolutely 
void. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  tho  testator  or  some  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed,  in  the  presence  of 
the  testator,  by  three  competent  witnesses  if  to  pass  real  estate,  and  two  If  per- 
sonal property. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IDAHO. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— JJonse  worth  $2000,  and  Personal  Property 
worth  $300.  The  head  of  a  family,  being  a  householder,  either  husband  or  wife,  may 
select  a  homestead  not  exceeding  in  value  f 2000  ;  while  furniture,  teams,  tools, 
stock,  and  other  personal  property  enumerated  by  statute,  to  the  value  of  $300  or 
more,  according  to  valuation,  shall  be  exempt  from  execution,  except  upon  a 
judgment  recovered  for  its  price,  or  upon  a  mortgage  thereon. 


850  BPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ILLINOIS. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ILLINOIS. 


ExKMPTTOKS  FTiOM  FORCED  SALE.— //ojw^?  t/;or//«  $1000,  and  Personal  Property. 
Exemptions  nro  na  follows,  except  for  wages  of  any  laborer  or  servant:  An 
estate  of  lioniestead  to  the  extent  in  value  of  ."i!  1 ,000,  and  proceeds  of  the  Bale 
thereof  to  that  amount  for  one  year  after  hucIi  sale.  Insurance  on  liomcstead  i:! 
exempt  Avhero  a  loss  occurs  thereon  to  Iho  extent  property  insured  would  have 
been  if  not  destroyed,  ]'ersonal  property  is  exempt  as  follows  :  1.  The  necessary 
v/earing  apparel  of  every  person.  2.  One  sewing  jnachine.  J!,  The  furniture, 
tools  and  implements  of  any  i)crson  necessary  to  carry  on  liis  or  her  trade  or 
business,  not  exceeding  in  value  $5100.  4.  Materials  and  stock  designed  and 
procured  by  him  or  her  and  necessary  for  carrying  on  his  or  her  trade  and  business, 
and  intended  to  be  used  or  wrought  therein,  not  exceeding  .«>  100  in  value.  5.  The 
implements  or  library  of  any  professional  person,  not  exceeding  $100  in  value. 

And  in  addition  to  the  above  property,  v/lien  the  debtor  is  the  head  of  a  fam- 
ily and  resides  v/ith  the  same,  the  following  :  1.  Necessary  beds,  bedsteads  and 
bedding,  two  stoves  and  pipe.  2.  Necessary  household  furniture,  not  exceeding 
in  value,  $200.  3.  One  cow  and  calf,  and  two  sv/ine.  4.  One  yoke  of  oxen,  or 
two  horses  in  lieu  thereof,  used  by  the  debtor  in  obtaining  the  support  of  his 
family,  not  exceediiig  in  value  $200,  and  the  harness  thereof,  not  exceeding  in 
value  $40.  5.  Necessary  provisions  and  fuel  for  the  use  of  the  family  for  three 
months,  and  necessary  food  for  the  stock  hereinbefore  exempted  for  the  same 
time.  C.  The  bibles,  school  books  and  fa.rnily  pictures.  7.  The  family  library. 
8.  Cemetery  lots  or  rights  of  burial,  and  tombs  for  repositories,  for  the  dead.  9. 
$100  worth  of  other  property  suited  to  his  or  her  condition  in  life,  selected  by  the 
debtor. 

When  the  head  of  a  family  dies,  deserts,  or  does  not  reside  with  same,  such 
family  is  entitled  to  the  bcnelit  of  exemptions  just  mentioned.  The  wages  and 
services  of  a  defendant,  being  the  head  of  a  family  and  residing  with  the  same, 
to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $25,  are  exempt  from  garnishment. 

Meciia^-ics'  Lien.— Any  person,  by  contract,  express  or  implied,  or  both, 
with  tlio  owner  of  any  lot  or  piece  of  ground,  furnishing  labor  or  materials  in 
building,  altering,  repairing  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  building  on  such  lot 
has  a  lien  upon  such  lot  or  building  for  the  amount  due  him  for  such  labor  or 
material.  To  the  extent  that  the  furnishing  such,  labor  or  materials  has  increased 
the  value  of  such  property,such  lien  takes  precedence  over  prior  incum- 
brances. Proceedings  to  enforce  a  mechanics'  lien  must  be  commenced  by 
the  original  contractor  within  six  months  from  the  time  when  the  last  pay- 
ment for  labor,  or  materials  becomes  due,  in  order  to  enforce  such  lien  against 
other  creditors  or  incumbrances 

Collection  of  Debts. — Arrests  in  civil  actions,  may  be  made  under  a  Statute 
■which,  provides  that  when  any  person  shall  be  about  to  commence  a  suit  in  any 
court  of  record  in  this  State  founded  upon  contract,  if  he  shall  file  an  affidavit 
setting  forth  tho  cause  of  action,  the  amount  due  the  plaintiff,  and  facts  showing 
that  defendant  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  that  he  lias  concealed, 
assigned,  removed  or  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  such  plain- 
tiif ;  and  shall  present  such  affidavit  to  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  if  there  be 
no  such  judge  in  the  county  at  the  time^  then  to  a  master  in  chancery ;  and  if 
sufficient  cause  be  shown,  bail  may  be  given.  The  judge  or  officer  ordering  the 
issuing  of  such  capias  must  require  bond  from  the  plaintiff,  with  security  to  be 
approved  by  tho  clerk  issuing  the  writ,  in  double  the  amount  sued  for,,  con- 
ditioned for  tho  effectual  prosecution  of  the  capiashj  plaintiff  and  payment  of  all 
damages  defendant  by  him  sustained,  on  account  of  the  wrongful  suing  out  of 
writ. 

AVrits  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes :  1.  Where  the  credi- 
tor is  a  non-resident,  2.  When  the  debtor  conceals  himself  or  stands  in  de- 
fiance of  an  officer  so  that  process  cannot  be  served  on  him.  3.  Where  tho 
debtor  has  departed  from  the  State  with  the  intention  of  having  his  effects  re- 
moved therefrom.  4.  Where  the  debtor  is  about  to  remove  his  property  from 
this  State  to  tho  injury  of  creditor  seeking  to  attach.  5.  Where  the  debtor  has 
within  two  years  preceding  the  filing  of  the  affidavit  required  in  this  proceeding 
to  be  filed  by  attaching  creditor,  fraudulently  conveyed  or  assigned  his  effects, 
or  a  part  thereof,  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  G.  Where  the  debtor 
has,  within  tv/o  years  prior  to  the  filing  of  such  affidavit,  fraudulently  concealed 
or  disposed  of  his  property  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  7.  When  tho 
debtor  is  about  fraudulently  to  conceal,  assign  or  otherwise  dispose  of  his  prop- 
erty or  effects  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors,   8.   When  tlie  debt  sued 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ILLmOIS. 


851 


for  "was  fraudulently  contracted  on  the  part  of  the  debtor;  provided,  the 
statements  of  the  debtor,  his  agent  or  attorney,  which  constitute  the  fraud,  shall 
have  been  reduced  to  writing  and  his  signature  attached  thereto  by  himself,  his 
'agent  or  attorney. 

To  entitle  a  creditor  to  sue  out  an  attachment,  the  claim  v/hich  he  seeks  to 
make  the  basis  of  this  proceeding  must  exceed  $20  in  a  court  of  record.  Plain- 
tiff, in  attachment  before  issuance  of  v/rit,  is  required  to  file  with  the  clerk 
issuing  same  a  bond  to  the  defendant  with  sufficient  surety  in  double  the  sum 
Bworn  to  be  due  to  him,  conditioned  for  the  payment  of  all  damages  and  costs  re- 
covered against  him  for  v/rongfully  suing  out  such  attachment.  Attachments 
may  be  issued  by  justices  of  the  peace  where  the  amount  claimed  is  within  their 
jurisdiction  for  the  same  causes  whch  authorize  their  issue  from  courts  of  record 
and  under  substantially  the  same  restrictions. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  may  bo  made  so  as  to  prefer  one  cr 
more,  or  a  certain  class  of  creditors. 

If  no  preference  is  made  by  the  debtor  the  creditors  have  an  equitable  lien  for 
their  j9ro  rata  proportions.  If  the  assignment  is  made  with  the  intent  of  delay- 
ing or  defrauding  creditors,  it  is  void— not  necessarily  so,  if  its  effect  is  to  delay 
creditors. 

One  partner  can  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  the  payment  of  firm 
debts.  Choses  in  action,  except  negotiable  instruments,  can  not  be  assigned 
here  so  as  to  give  assignee  a  right  of  action  on  them  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishee  process  may  issue  both  from  justices  courts  and  courts  of  record, 
either  on  attachment  or  after  judgment  and  execution  returned  nxdla  bona 
against  any  person  owing  debtor  or  having  money,  property  or  effects  belonging 
to  the  debtor  in  his  possession. 

The  acceptance  of  a  bill  need  not  be  in  writing.  Where  foreign  bills,  drawn 
within  this  State  and  payable  out  of  the  Unitetl  States,  are  duly  protested  for 
non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  the  holder  is  entitled  to  ten  per  cent,  damages, 
in  addition  to  the  costs  of  protest,  from  the  drawer  or  indorser.  On  bills  drawn 
in  this  State  and  payable  out  of  the  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  duly 
protested  as  aforesaid,  to  five  per  cent,  damages.  Any  note,  bond,  bill  or  in- 
strument in  writing,  made  payable  in  money  or  articles  of  personal  property  to 
any  person  named  as  payee  therein,  is  assignable  by  indorsement  under  the 
hand  of  such  person,  in  the  same  manner  as  all  bills  of  exchange.  Every  assignor 
or  indorser  of  such  instrument  is  liable  to  the  action  of  any  subsequent  assignee 
thereof,  if  such  assignee  has  used  due  diligence  by  the  institution  and  prosecu- 
tion of  a  suit  against  the  maker  thereof  for  the  recovery  of  the  money  or  proper- 
ty due  thereon,  or  damages  in  lieu  thereof,  and  has  obtained  judgment,  but  by 
the  use  of  due  diligence  lias  been  unable  to  obtain  satisfaction  thereof.  A  note, 
bond,  bill  or  other  instrument  in  writing,  payable  to  bearer,  is  transferable  by 
delivery,  and  every  indorser  thereof  is  a  guarantor,  unless  otherwise  expressed  in 
his  indorsement. 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  their  respective  counties,  where  the 
amount  claimed,  including  interest,  does  not  exceed  $200.  1.  In  all  actions 
arising  on  contract  for  the  recovery  of  money  on]y.  2.  In  actions  for  damages 
for  injury  to  real  property,  or  for  taking,  detaining  or  injuring  personal  property. 
3.  In  actions  for  rent  and  distress  for  rent.  4.  In  actions  against  railway  com- 
panies and  those  operating  railways  for  killing  or  injuring  horses  or  other  stock  ; 
for  loss  or  injury  to  baggage  or  freight ;  and  for  inj  ury  or  damage  to  real  or  personal 
property,  caused  by  setting  lire  to  the  same  by  their  engines  or  otherwise.  5.  In 
replevin  when  the  value  of  the  property  claimed  does  not  exceed  $200,  6.  In 
actions  for  damages  for  fraud  in  the  sale,  purchase  or  exchange  of  personal 
l^roperty,  and  in  all  cases  v/here  the  action  of  debt  or  assumpsit  will  lie. 

Circuit  courts  have,  by  the  Constitution,  original  jurisdiction  of  all  causes  at 
l?.w  and  in  equity,  and  such  api^ellate  jurisdiction  as  may  be  provided  for  by 
law.  Appeals  lie  from  justices'  courts  directly  to  these  courts,  defendant  to 
plead  at  sa^d  term.  Before  justices,  summons  must  be  served  three  days  beforo 
returned. 

Judgments  from  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  tho 
judgment  debtor,  situated  in  the  county  vdierein  judgment  is  obtained 
from  the  time  same  are  obtained,  are  revived  for  the  period  of  7  years. 
When  execution  is  not  issued  on  a  judgment  within  one  year  from  tho  time  tho 
same  becomes  a  lien,  it  shall  thereafter  cease  to  be  a  liaii  ;  but  execution  may 
issue  on  such  judgment  at  any  time  within  said  7  years,  and  it  becomes  a  lieu 
on  such  real  estate  from  the  time  of  the  delivery  of*  such  writ  to  the  officer  for 
service.  Such  judgments  may  be  sued  upon  or  revived  within  20  years  after  tho 
date  thereof  aud  not  after,  judgments  rendered  by  justices  of  the  peace  may 


852 


SPECIAL  LA'.VS   OF  ILLINOIS. 


bo  marlo  a  lien  on  real  estate  by  filing  .1  tranecript  tliereof  in  the  olTice  of  tbo 
clerk  of  the  circuit  court  for  the  county  in  wliicli  judj^ment  was  rendered.  Such 
tr.iiiscTif)tR  c;iii  only  bo  tiled  when  it  appears  by  return  of  execution  on  judg- 
mcuL  ( (Iclendaiit  has  not  personal  pioporty  in  the  county  where  same  was 
obtained  to  satisfy  sucli  judgment  and  costs. 

Executions  issue  from  courts  of  record  immediately  after  rendition  of  judg- 
ment and  at  any  time  thereafter  for  seven  years,  and  to  any  county  in  llio  Stale. 
They  are  a  lien  upon  the  personal  property  of  the  judgment  debtor  from  the 
time  of  delivery  to  the  oflicer.  ileal  estate  sold  under  execution  may  he  redeemed 
in  twelve  months.  Executions  from  justices'  courts  cannot  be  levied  on  real  es- 
tate, and  do  not  issue  until  twenty  days  after  judgment,  unless  the  judgment 
creditor  or  his  agent  make  oath  that  the  benefit  of  the  judgment  is  in  danger  of 
being  lost  unless  executioji  issue  immediately.  Executions  from  justices'  courts 
are  also  a  lien  upon  the  perscmal  property  of  the  defendant  from  tlic  time  of  their 
delivery  to  the  constable.  There  is  no  way  of  staying  executions  in  this  State  ex- 
cept by  appeal. 

'Deeds,  Mortgages,  Eights  of  Mareied  Womex,  "Wills,  &c.  Deeds 
and  other  conveyances  of  real  estate,  must  be  under  seal ;  any  scrawl  intended 
for  a  seal  is,  however,  sufficient.  No  subscribing  witness  is  necessary,  either  to 
the  validity  of  the  instrument  or  to  entitle  the  same  to  record.  Such  instruments 
may  be  acknowledged  within  this  State  before  a  master  in  chancery,  a  notaiy 
J)ublic,  a  United  States  com.missioner,  circuit  or  county  clerk,  justice  of  the  peace, 
or  any  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  or  any  judge,  justice  or  clerk  of  such  court. 
Such  acknowledgment  must  be  attested  v/hen  taken  before  a  notary  public  or 
United  States  commissioner  by  his  official  seal.  When  taken  before  a  court  or 
clerk  thereof,  by  the  seal  of  such  court  ;  and  when  taken  before  a  justict;  of  the 
peace  residing  out  of  the  county  where  the  land  conveyed  is  situated,  a  certificate 
of  the  county  clerk  of  the  county  wherein  such  justice  resides,  must  be  added, 
under  his  seal  of  office,  to  the  effect  that  the  person  taking  such  acknowledg- 
ment or  proof  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  said  county  at  the  date  thereof. 
"When  acknowledged  without  the  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  such 
acknowledgment  may  be  taken  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  notary  public. 
United  States  commissioner,  commissioner  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds, 
mayor  of  a  city,  clerk  of  a  county,  or  before  any  judge,  justice  or  clerk  of  tho 
supreme  court,  or  any  circuit  or  district  court  of  the  United  States,  or  any  judge, 
justice  or  clerk  of  the  supreme,  circuit,  superior,  district,  county  or  common. 
1)1  eas  court  of  any  of  the  United  States  or  their  territories.  When  such  acknowl- 
edgment is  made  before  any  notary  public.  United  States  commissioner,  com- 
missioner of  deeds  or  clerk,  it  shall  be  certilied  by  such  officer  under  his  official 
seal ;  if  before  the  mayor  of  a  city,  under  the  seal  of  the  city ;  if  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  a  certificate  must  be  added  as  in  case  of  prcof  or  acknowledgment 
within  the  State  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  residing  without  the  county  where 
the  land  conveyed  is  situated.  Acknowledgments  may  be  made  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  the  State,  territory  or  district  where  made,  and  the  certificate  of 
a  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  in  such  jurisdiction  to  that  effect,  under  his  hand 
and  the  seal  of  said  court,  is  evidence  that  such  acknowledgment  was  so  made. 

When  acknowledged  without  the  United  States,  such  acknowledgment  may 
be  taken  before  any  court  of  any  republic.  State,  kingdom  or  empire  having  a 
seal,  or  any  mayor  or  chief  officer  of  any  city  or  town  having  a  seal,  or  before 
any  minister  or  secretary  of  legation,  or  consul  of  the  United  States  in  any 
foreign  country,  attested  by  his  official  seal,  or  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
the  laws  of  such  foreign  country  to  take  acknowledgments  of  conveyances  of 
real  estate,  if  he  have  a  seal  ;  such  acknowledgment,  in  all  cases,  must  be  at- 
tested by  the  oflicial  seal  of  such  court  or  officer  ;  and  in  case  such,  acknowledg- 
ment or  proof  is  taken  other  than  before  a  court  of  record,  or  mayor,  or  chief 
officer  of  a  town  having  a  seal,  proof  that  the  officer  taking  the  same  was  duly 
authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  country  so  to  do  must  accompany  the  certificate  of 
Buch  acknowledgment. 

The  following  in  the  statutory  form  of  certificate.   It  is  the  same,  substan- 
tially, whether  grantor  is  unmarried  or  deed  executed  by  husband  and  wife  : 
State  of  Illinois,  ) 

C0UI«'TY  OF  SANGAMOX.  )  ^* 

I,  (name  of  officer  and  title),  do  hereby  certify  that  (grantor  and  if  wafe  join 
her  name his  wife  "),  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  person  v/hosa 
name  is  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  instrument,  appeared  before  me  this  day  ii) 
person  and  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  said  instrur 
me»t  as  his  free  and  voluntary  act,  for  the  tises  and  purposes  therein  set  forth. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  INDIANA. 


853 


Given  under  my  hand  and  (private  or  ofScial  as  the  case  maybe)  seal,  this  (daj 
of  month)  day  of  (month),  A .  D.  (year). 

[Seal.]  (Signature  of  officer.) 

No  deed  or  other  instrument  can  bo  construed  as  releasing  or  waiving  the 
riglit  of  liomestead,  unless  the  same  shall  contain  a  clause  expressly  releasing  or 
•waiving  such  right  ;  and  in  such  case,  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must 
contain  a  clause  substantially  as  follows  :  "  including  the  release  and  waiver  of 
the  right  of  homestead." 

No  chattel  mortgage  or  trust  deed  is  valid  as  against  the  rights  of  third  persons, 
unless  possession  thereof  shall  be  delivered  to  and  remain  with  the  grantee,  or  the 
instrument  shall  provide  for  the  possession  of  the  property  with  the  grantor,  and 
be  properly  acknowledged  and  recorded.  Such  instruments  may  be  ackowledged 
as  deeds.  They  are  valid  for  any  period  not  exceeding  two  years.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  the  tim.e  provided  in  the  nioi-tgage  for  the  possession  of  the  mort- 
gaged property  by  the  mortgagor,  such  possession,  if  continued,  renders  the 
mortgage  fraudulent  and  void  as  to  third  parties  Avith  or  without  notice,  actual 
or  constructive,  of  such  mortgage. 

Married  women  may  own  in  their  own  right  real  and  personal  property,  and 
manage,  sell  and  convey  the  same  to  the  same  extent,  and  in  the  same  manner 
that  a  married  man  can,  properly  belonging  to  him.  They  may  sue  and  be  sued 
without  joining  their  husbands,  to  the  same  extent  as  if  unmarried.  A  married 
woman  may  make  contracts  and  incur  liabilities  which  may  be  enforced  against 
her  to  the  same  extent  as  if  she  Avere  sole,  but  she  cannot  enter  into  or  carry  on 
any  partnership  business  without  her  husband's  consent,  unless  he  has  abandoned 
or  deserted  her,  is  idiotic  or  insane,  or  is  confined  in  the  penitentiary.  The  es- 
tate of  courtesy  is  abolished,  and  the  surviving  husband  or  wife  is  endowed  of 
one-third  part  of  all  lands  whereof  the  deceased  husband  or  wife  was  seized  of 
an  estate  of  inheritance  at  any  time  during  the  marriage,  unless  the  same  has 
been  relinquished  in  legal  form.  Dower  may  be  barred  by  release  thereof  in  due 
form  of  law,  and  by  jointure  or  devise,  accept  in  lieu  thereof. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  direction,  and  attested  by  two  credible  witnesses, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  INDIANA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— //ojne  and  Personal  Property  of  the  fol- 
lowing value. — Any  resident  householder  has  an  exemption  from  levy  and  sale 
under  execution,  of  real  and  personal  property,  or  both,  as  he  may  select,  to  the 
value  of  $300.  The  law  further  provides  that  no  property  shall  be  sold  by  virtue 
of  an  execution  for  less  than  two  thirds  of  its  appraised  cash  value,  The  pro- 
visions of  this  law  can  bo  waived  in  contracts.  To  do  this,  the  note  or  contract 
should  read  :  "  Payable  without  any  relief  whatever  from  valuation  or  apprais- 
mentlaws." 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  ori- 
ginal contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  two  months,  laborers  within  60 
days,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  a  lien  within  two  months  after  the  debt 
accrued.  This  lien  has  precedence  over  all  other  liens  or  encumbrances  placed 
on  the  property  subsequent  to  the  commencement  of  the  building  or  improve- 
ments.  Must  be  foreclosed  in  12  months. 

Collection  of  Debts.— No  persons  can  be  arrested  here  except  in  cases 
of  fraud,  actual. 

Writs  of  attachment,  which  may  be  obtained  by  any  creditor,  can  only  be  issued 
on  the  following  grounds : — 1.  Non-residence  of  any  of  defendants.  2.  Where 
any  of  defendants  is  secretly  leaving  the  State,  or  has  left  the  State  with  intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors.  3.  Or  conceals  himself  that  summons  cannot  be  served 
upon  him,  4.  Or  is  removing,  or  about  to  remove,  his  property  subject  to  execu- 
tion, or  part  thereof,  out  of  the  State,  not  leaving  enough  to  satisfyplaintifE's  claim. 
5.  Or  has  sold,  conveyed  or  otherwise  disposed  of  his  property  subject  to  execu- 
tion, or  has  suffered  or  permitted  it  to  be  sold  with  the  fraudulent  intent  to 
cheat,  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  6.  Or  is  about  to  sell,  convey  or  dispose  of 
same  with  such  intent.  A  statutory  undertaking  in  all  cases  in  attachment  must 
be  executed,  the  measure  of  damages  in  an  action  on  which  u  in  the  discretion 
of  the  jury. 


854 


SPECIAL  LAWS  Ol'^  INDIANA. 


In  .illachmcnta  levied  onronl  cctato,  the  lory  and  dis  prndcns  notice  for 
fvll  purporics.  In  aLtaclimciits,  except  on  ground  of  Jion-residcncc,  caution  ehould 
bo  used. 

An  assignment  in  trust,  for  tlio  benefit  of  creditors,  jnuro  for  tho  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  tlio  grantor,  •whether  named  in  tlio  dcc<l  of  assigment  or  not;  tlio 
\\ccd  of  assignment  must  bo  aclmowledgcd  and  recorded  lilco  other  deeds.  One 
/partner  cannot  assign  all  tho  partnership  assets  for  tho  j)ayment  of  i)artner- 
ihip  (lol)t3,  but  only  his  own  share  of  them.  Assignments  made  to  securo 
sincticB  or  endorsers  prior  to  any  i>ayinent  by  them,  aro  valid.  Kotos,  bills,  ac- 
counts and  every  species  of  contractor  claim  aro  assignable,  and  tho  assignee  can 
sue  on  it  in  his  own  name. 

In  notes  and  bills,  acceptors  aro  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
v/riting  on  the  bill ;  or,  if  on  asepcrato  piece  of  paper,  when  tho  party  who  gavo 
the  credit  saw  the  sepcrate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promiso  is  mado  in  writing  to  accept 
a  draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  i)erson  who  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  of  this  writing. 

All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  indorsers,  makers  or  acceptors,  or  parties 
in  any  manner,  can  be  suc<l  jointly  or  separately  in  tho  game  or  in  several  ac- 
tions. Drafts,  orders  or  bills  of  exchange,  payablo  at  eight  or  on  demand,  aro 
deemed  due  the  day  they  are  presented  for  payment,  and  if  unpaid,  may  be  pro- 
tested. Notarial  iirotest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  cf  i)ayment,  at  tho 
time  and  in  the  maimer  stated  in  the  protest. 

A  bill  in  the  State,  payable  out  of  the  State,  protested,  if  payablo  in  the  United 
States,  is  entitled  to  eight  per  cent,  damages ;  if  payablo  out  of  the  United 
States,  ten  per  cent,  damages.  ShcrilT's  are  liable  to  pay  ten  per  cent,  damages 
on  failure  to  pay  over  any'money  collected  by  them. 

Justice  Courts  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  sums  under  950,  and 
concurrent  jurisdiction  with  tho  circuit  courts  to  !i?200.  Service  of  summons 
must  be  made  in  circuit  courts  10  days  before  tho  lirst-day  of  term,  and  in  justice 
courts  3  days  before  trial. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  lienn  on  real  estate  for  a  period  of  ten 
years;  the  judgment  may  then  bo  revived  for  ten  years  longer;  judgments  are 
no  liens  on  personal  property.  Transcripts  of  judgment  before  justice,  if  filed 
in  the  circuit  court,  are  liens  on  real  estate. 

Executions  issue,  on  plaintiff's  order,  the  day  after  judgment,  and  are  a  lien 
on  personal  property,  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court,  from  the  time  they 
are  delivered  to  the  officer ;  when  issuing  from  courts  of  record,  from  the  time 
they  are  issued.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  bo  levied  on  real  estate.  Every 
species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  books  of  account,  debts  and  judgments, 
whether  the  interec-t  in  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  ia  subject  to 
execution  and  sale  at  law.  Redemption  after  execution  sale  is  permitted.  If 
an  execution  from  a  court  of  record  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors  can  be 
summoned  and  required  to  state  tinder  oath  what  property  or  interests  they  have 
or  own  which  may  be  reached  by  execution. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  "Women,  Wim^s,  &c.— Deeds,  must  bo  under 
Beal,  a  scrawl,  however,  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  acknowledgment,  if  made  in 
this  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  vdiere  the 
land  lies,  before  a  judge  or  before  a  notary  piiblic  ;  if  out  of  the  State,  before  ft 
commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  the  United 
States  who  has  a  seal.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate  where  the  grantor  is  unmarried  : 
[Form.] 

State  of  Indiana,  1 
County  of  Stark,  j 

Before  me,  ,  a  in  and  for  said  county,  this        day  of  , 

187  ,  personally  appeared  the  vy-ithin-named,  and  acknowledged  the  execution 
of  the  Avithin  and  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance. 

Witness  my  hand  and  official  seal.  (Signature  and  title.) 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  seperate  use.  A 
note  or  endorsement  by  a  married  woman  will  not  bind  her  seperate  estate  ;  it 
will  be  a  nullity.  The  widow  is  endowed  with  one  full  and  equal  third  part  of  all 
the  lands,  the  legal  title  to  which  was  in  her  husband  during  coverture,  unless 
such  right  of  dov/er  was  legally  barred. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  a  mortgage  of  a  stock  of  goods, 
the  grantor  having  a  right  to  soU  ;  so  is  any  mortgage,  "if  unregistered  and  tho 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IOWA. 


855 


chattels  left  vv'ith  llie  grmitor  ;  a,  cliattel  mortgage  unrecorae'a  more  tuun  ten 
(lays  is  void,  except  between  the  parties  ;  so  is  also  a  recorded  mortgage,  if  the 
goods  are  left  unreasonably  long  with  the  grantor  after  default  is  made  in  pay- 
ment. 

AVillo  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  pie- 
eencG  of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IOWA. 

ExEMPTioys  FRO Jl  Forced  SA1,-e.— Farm  of  40  Acres  or  JJotise  and  Lot  in  Cltij 
and  Personal  Proper ty.— The.  homestead  must  embrace  the  house  used  as  a  home  by 
the  owner  thereof,  and  if  he  has  two  or  more  houses  thus  used  by  him,  at  differ- 
ent times  and  places,  he  may  select  -which  he  will  retain  as  a  homestead.  If  with- 
in a  town  plat  it  must  not  exceed  ^cre  in  extent,  if  not  in  a  town  plat  it  mu^t 
not  embrace  in  the  aggregate  more^than  40  acres.  But  if  when  thus  limited,  in 
cither  case  its  value  is  less  than  $500,  it  may  be  enlarged  until  its  value  reaches 
that  amount. 

Wearing  apparellcept  for  actual  use;  trunks  to  contain  same;  1  gun  ;private  li- 
braries and  family  portraits  ;  musical  instruments  not  kept  for  sale;  2  cows  ;  1 
horse  ;  50  sheep  ;  5  hogs  ;  6  hives  of  bees  ;  1  bed  and  bedding  for  every  two  in  tho 
family  ;  household  and  kitchen  furniture  not  exceeding  ^p200  ;  spinning-wheel,  loom 
and  sewing  machi}ie  ;  provisions  and  fuel  for  G  months  ;  the  tools,  instruments  or 
books  of  debtor,  if  a  farmer,  mechanic,  surveyor,  lawyer,  clergyman,  physician, 
teacher  or  professor.  If  a  printer,  printing-press,  and  types,  etc.,  for  the  use  of 
euch  newspaper  otlice,  not  exceeding  $1200.  The  personal  earnings  of  the  debtor 
and  his  family  for  the  00  days  prccedinq  the  execution.  To  an  unmarried  person, 
a  person  not  the  head  of  a  family,  ordinary  wearing  apparel  and  trunks  to  con- 
tain the  same  are  exempt.  If  a  "debtor  absconds  and  leaves  his  family,  such  pro- 
perty allowed  to  the  head  of  a  family  shall  bo  exempt  in  hands  of  his  wife  and 
children,  or  either.  A  single  man,  not  the  head  of  a  family,  non-residents,  and 
those  who  have  started  to  leave  the  State  are  excluded  from  the  above  exemp- 
tions ;  their  property  is  liable  to  execution,  with  the  exception  of  ordinary  wear- 
ing apparel,  and  trunks  to  contain  the  same;  value  not  to  exceed  §75. 

No  exemption  shall  protect  property  against  execution  foi  the  purchase  money 
thereof. 

Mechanics'  Liek.— Every  mechanic  or  other  person  doing  any  labor,  or  fur- 
nishing any  material,  machinery  or  fixtures  for  the  erection  or  improvement  of 
any  building,  by  virtue  of  any  contract  with  the  owner,  agent,  trustee,  contrac- 
tor or  sub-contractor,  shall  have  a  mechanics'  lien  on  the  buildings,  lixtures  and 
real  estate.  Eailways  are  liable  in  the  same  way  as  other  property  for  construc- 
tion and  improvements.  No  person  who  takes  collateral  security  on  the  same 
contract  is  entitled  to  a  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed  in  ninety  days  after  the  la- 
bor to  affect  purchasers  or  incumbrances  without  notice  ;  as  between  the  ori- 
ginal parties, it  can  be  filed  any  time  in  five  years. 

Collection  of  Debts. — Arrest  in  civil  action  is  unauthorized  by  law  in  this 
State. 

Writs  of  attachment  nxiy  issue,  by  sworn  petition,  on  one  or  more  of  the 
following  grounds  :  1.  That  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation  or  acting  as  such. 
2.  That  he  is  a  non-resident  of  the  State.  3.  That  he  is  about  to  remove  his  prop- 
erty out  of  the  State,  without  leaving  sufficient  remaining  for  the  payment  of 
debts.  4.  That  he  has,  or  is  about  to  dispose  of  his  property,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors.  5.  That  he  has  absconded,  so  that  ordin- 
ary process  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  G.  That  he  is  about  to  remove  perma- 
nently from  the  State  and  refuses  to  secure  the  debt.  7,  That  he  is  about  to 
convert  property  into  money  for  purpose  of  placing  it  beyond  the  reach  of  credit- 
ors. 8.  He  has  property  and  rights  which  he  conceals.  9.  That  the  debt  is  f>  r 
l)roperty  obtained  under  false  pretenses.  In  No.  4,  C,  and  P,  attachment  may  be- 
commenced  before  the  debt  is  due.  Bond  must  be  three  times  the  amoun'. 
claimed,  and  sheriif  may  attach  fifty  per  cent,  in  value  more  than  amount 
claimed.  Attachment  can  only  be  levied  on  property  not  exempt  from  execution. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  must  be  made  for  the  benefit 
of  all  creditors  p?'ora/«.  An  inventory  of  assets  and  liabilities  must  be 
eworn  to  by  the  insolvent,  with  a  list  of  the  creditors  and  their  respec- 
tive demands.    Assignments  must  be  duly  acknowledged   as  transfers  of 


856 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IOWA. 


real  estate,  mid  recorded  in  llio  county  wlioro  tlio  insolvent  rcRidos,  or  whore  the 
businesH  in  respect  oi"  which  the  saiuo  iH  made;  lias  h(M;n  conducted.  The  aBsigneo 
tihall  lile  the  assi^nniont,  inventory  with  Ihc  chirk  of  the  district  court,  and 
shall  give  bond  for  the  |)ci-t'<Min;ini'c  ol  liisduty  in  (h)ul)lc  tlie  amount  of  the  invent- 
ory and  valuation.  iN'o  dividend  can  h(!  declared  in  less  than  three  months. 
Creditors  may  accept  their  j;/'o  rata  of  assets,  and  lake  judgment  for  the  remain- 
der if  thoy  choose. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  either  on  execution  or  attachment  against  any 
pei-son  owing  the  debtor  or  having  his  property  in  possession.  The  garnishee  is 
entitled  to  compensation  for  his  trouble  and  expense  ;  this  is  payaldi;  out  of  Iho 
fund,  if  any  is  found  in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due  from  the  garjiishee,  thea 
the  plaintiff  is  bound  to  pay  this  sum. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  liable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in» 
dorsed  in  writing  ;  or,  if  on  seperate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  seperate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing,  to  accept 
a  draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  ijerson  who  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  this  writing.  The  rate  of  damages  to  be  allowed  and 
paid  on  the  non-acceptance  or  non-payment  of  bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  en- 
dorsed in  this  State  is  as  follows  :  If  bill  be  drawn  upon  a  person  at  a  place  out 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  California,  Oregon,  Keveda,  or  any  of  the  territories, 
liye  per  cent,  upon  principal  specified  in  the  bill,  and  interest  on  the  same  from 
the  time  of  protest.  3f  drawn  upon  a  person  at  any  other  place  in  the  United 
States,  other  than  in  this  State,  three  per  cent,  v/ith  interest.  All  parties  to 
notes  and  bills,  whether  endorsers,  acceptors  or  makers,  can  be  sued  jointly  or 
seperatelv.  Notarial  protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  of  payment  as 
stated  therein. 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices  of  the  peace,  ^100,  but  by  agreement  of  parties  may 
be  extended  to  ?!!300. 

Circuit  court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  probate  business  and  appeals  from 
justices  of  peace.  District  court  has  exclusive  criminal  jurisdiction.  The  v  wo 
courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases,  except  such  as  arc  speciaHo 
circuit  court  fis  above.  Service  of  summons  must  be  ten  clear  days  iu  district 
and  circuit,  and  live  in  justice  courts. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition  and  for  10  ye&ra 
thereafter,  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently  acquii.id 
by  him,  and  situated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  is  rendered.  The  ju'2g- 
ment  can  be  revived  at  the  end  of  that  time.  No  execution  can  issue  on  a  jiwJ.g- 
ment  in  a  court  of  record  older  than  ten  years ;  new  suit  has  to  be  brought  on,)he 
same.  Judgments  in  courts  of  record  create  no  lien  on  personal  property.  "  iSfo 
execution  can  issue  on  a  justice's  judgment  five  years  after  its  rendition,  with;.>ut 
revivor.  Judgments  before  justice  can  be  made  to  create  lieu  on  real  estate;,  by 
filing  a  transcript  of  the  judgment  in  the  circuit  court. 

Execution  may  issue  as  soon  as  judgment  is  obtained,  but  one  can  be  out  at 
the  same  time.  Execution  from  a  court  of  record,  may  issue  to  any  county  in  I'lo 
State.  From  a  justice,  can  be  levied  on  personal  property  07ihj.  Real  ests-te 
may  be  redeemed  within  a  year  after  sale ;  but  if  defendant  files  stay  bond,  or 
appeals  to  supreme  court,  his  equity  of  redemption  is  cut  off.  If  the  defendant 
fails  to  redeem  in  six  months,  any  creditor  of  the  defendant,  whose  demand  is  a 
lien  on  the  real  estate  sold,  may  redeem  within  nine  months  from  date  of  sale. 

Deeds,  Bights  of  Markied  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Acknowledgment  of 
deeds,  made  in  the  State,  must  be  before  a  judge  of  any  court  of  record,  clerk  ot" 
supreme,  district  and  circuit  courts,  or  their  deputies,  county  auditor  or  hia 
deputy,  each  notary  public  and  justice  of  the  peace  in  his  own  county.  Acknow- 
ledgments out  of  State  must  be  before  some  court  of  record,  before  some  com- 
missioner for  the  State  of  Iowa,  or  before  a  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace. 
If  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  the  certificate  of  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  Iho 
county  as  to  his  official  character  must  be  attached. 

Chattel  mortgages  must  be  acknowledged  as  other  conveyances  and  recorded 
in  the  county  where  property  is  situate.  Foreclosures  can 'be  made  by  sheriff 
without  action  in  court.  The  mortgaged  property  is  left  in  possession  of  mort- 
gagor, unless  otherwise  provided.  Sales  under  chattel  mortgage  foreclosures 
shall  be  in  the  same  manner  as  other  sheriff's  sales. 

]\Iarried  women  can  hold  property  the  same  as  any  other  person,  and  are  lia- 
ble on  all  contracts  made  by  them,  but  her  own  property  is  in  no  case  liable  for 
her  husband's  debts.  The  common  law  right  of  dower  exists  in  this  State,  and 
in  executing  deeds,  she  must  acknowledge  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband, 
that  she  was  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  such  conveyance,  and  reliii» 
quislied  her  dower  freely  and  without  compulsion  from  her  husband. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KANSAS. 


857 


All  "Wills,  except  noncupative,  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or 
by  some  person  in  bis  presence  and  by  bis  express  direction,  and  attested  and  sub- 
scribed in  liis  presence  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses.  Subsequent  incom- 
petency of  tbe  witness  will  not  invalidate  the  will.  Noncupative  Avills,  proved 
by  two  competent  witnesses,  when  tbo  value  of  the  estate  does  not  exceed  $300, 
are  valid. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KANSAS. 

EXEMPTION'S  FKOM  FoECED  SALE. — Home  160  Acres  of  Farm  Land,  or  Tiouftc'^ 
and  One  Acre  in  a  Village  or  City,  and  Personal  Property,  A  homestead  to  the 
extent  of  160  acres  of  farming  land,  or  of  one  acre  within  tbe  limits  of  an  incor- 
porated town  or  city,  occupied  as  a  residence  by  the  family  of  the  ov/ner,  to- 
gether with  all  improvements  on  the  same,  of  whatever  value  is  exempt.  Exempt 
lions  of  personal  property  allowed  a  resident,  being  the  head  of  a  family,  are  : 
the  family  library,  bible  and  school  books  ;  family  pictures  and  musical  instru- 
ments in  use  ;  a  pew  in  a  church  and  lot  in  a  burial  ground ;  all  the  wearing  ap- 
parel and  all  beds,  bedsteads  and  bedding  used  by  the  family  ;  cooking-stove, 
appendages  and  cooking  utensils,  and  other  stoves  and  appendages  necessary 
for  the  rise  of  the  family  ;  a  sewing  machine  ;  all  spinning  wheels  and  looms, 
and  other  implements  of  industry  and  other  household  furniture  not  abve  enu- 
merated, not  to  exceed  $500  in  value  ;  2  cows,  10  hogs,  1  yoke  of  oxen,  and  1 
horse  or  mule,  or,  in  lieu  of  the  yoke  of  oxen  and  horse  or  mule,  a  span  of  horses 

01  mules  ;  20  sheep  and  wool  from  same,  either  raw  or  manufactured  ;  the  neces- 
sary food  for  the  stock  mentioned  above  for  one  year  ;  1  wagon,  cart  or  dray ; 

2  plows,  one  drag  and  other  farming  utensils  not  exceeding  '^300  in  A'aluo  ;  pro- 
visions and  fuel  on  hand  sufficient  for  a  year  ;  the  necessary  tools  and  imple- 
ments of  any  mechanic,  miner  or  other  person,  used  and  kept  for  the  pvirpose  of 
carrying  on  his  trade  and  business,  together  with  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding 
5p400  iu  value  ;  the  library,  implements  and  office  furniture  of  any  professional 
man.  Exemptions  of  personal  property  allowed  a  resident  of  this  State,  not  the 
head  of  the  family,  are  :  wearing  apparel ;  pew  in  a  church  and  lot  in  a  burial 
ground;  necessary  tools  and  instruments  of  any  mechanic,  miner  or  other  per- 
son, used  and  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  trade  or  business,  together 
with  stock  in  trade  as  above.  The  earnings  of  a  debtor  also,  for  personal  ser- 
vices rendered  within  3  months  next  preceding  the  issuing  of  an  execution,  aro 
exempt,  if  it  appear  they  are  necessary,  in  whole  or  in  part  for  the  support  of  his 
family.  No  personal  property  is  exempt  from  attachment  or  execution  for  the 
wages  of  any  clerk,  mechanic,  laborer  or  servant. 

MEcnA>:ics'  Lien. — Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The 
original  contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  four  months  ;  all  other  persons 
claiming  a  lien,  within  two  months  after  the  debt  accrued.  This  lien  has  prece- 
dence over  all  other  liens  or  encumbrances  placed  on  the  property  subsequent  to 
the  commmencement  of  the  building  or  improvements. 

Collection"  of  Debts.— Arrest  and  bail,  iu  civil  actions,  are  provided  for  by 
the  laws  of  this  State. 

The  order  of  arrest  is  issued  by  the  clerk,  or  by  the  justice,  only  upon  positive 
affidavit  showing  one  or  more  of  the  statutory  grounds  therefor  ,similar  to  those 
on  which  writs  of  attachment  issue.  (See  Attachments.)  Before  the  order 
issues,  the  plaintiff  must  also  file  an  undertaking,  with  sufficient  surety,  con- 
ditioned for  the  payment  of  damages  occasioned  by  the  arrest,  if  \\Tongful.  In 
practice,  this  remecly  is  seldom  resorted  to  in  Kansas. 

Attachment,  against  the  .property  of  defendant  may  issue  in  civil  cases,  when 
the  defendant,  or  one  of  several  defendants,  is  a  foreign  corporation  or  non-resi- 
dent (but  not  iu  cither  of  these  instances  for  any  claim  other  than  a  debt  or  de- 
mand arising  on  contract,  judgment  or  decree,  unless  the  cause  of  action  arose 
wholly  within  the  limits  of  this  State.  It  may  also  issue  when  the  defendant  or 
one  of  several  defendants  has  absconded  with  fraudulent  intent,  or  has  left  the 
county  of  his  residence  to  avoid  summons,  or  concealed  himself  to  avoid  sum- 
mons, or  is  about  to  remove  his  property,  or  a  part  thereof,  out  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court  with  fraudulent  intent  ;  or  is  about  to  convert  it  into  money  to  put 
it  beyond  reach  of  creditors  ;  or  has  property  which  he  conceals,  or  has  assigned, 
removed  or  disposed  of  his  property  ;  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  defraud, 
hinder  or  delay  creditors ;  or  fraudulently  contracted  or  incurred  the  debt, 
liability  orobligatiou  ;  or  where  the  actionals  brought  for  damages  arising  from 


858 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KANSAS. 


Iho  commiRBion  of  any  crime,  or  for  Boduotioii,  or  v/lioro  Uio  debtor  iailn  to  pay 
on  delivery  wlicrc,  by  the  contract,  lie  was  to  ]);iy  on  delivery.  Tbe  order  ia 
isHued  (as  in  case  of  arrest  and  bail,  svpra),  only  upon  afiidavit  and  undertaking, 
I3ut,  where  tlie  defendant  is  a  foniign  corporation,  or  Avbere  the  defendant  or  de- 
fendants arc  all  non-residenis  of  the  State,  the  undertaking  is  not  required. 

CaruLsheo  process,  in  atlacbnient  proceedings,  is  also  provided  for  against  any 
person  or  corporation  having  possession  of  property  or  being  indebted  to  the  de- 
fendant. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inure  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  •\vliethcr  named  in  the  deed  of  arisignmcnt  or  not  ;  tlio 
deed  of  assignment  must  bo  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds. 
Assignments  made  to  secure  sureties  or  indorsors,  jirior  to  any  payment  by  them, 
are  valid  here.  Assignment  of  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  inay  be  made  in 
this  State,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  thereon  in  his  own  name. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
■n-riting  on  tlie  bill ;  or,  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  wlio  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  separate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  v/riting  to  accept  a 
draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  person  v/ho  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  this  writing.  (Bills  of  exchange  and  notes  duly  pro- 
tested for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  damages 
as  follows  :  if  drawn  on  or  made  by  a  person  outside  the  State,  six  per  cent.  ;  if 
outside  any  of  the  United  States  or  territories,  ten  per  cent,  damages  on  the 
principal  sum).  All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  endorsers,  maker.-?  or  ac- 
ceptors, or  parties  in  any  manner,  can  be  sued  jointly  or  separately  in  the  same 
or  in  several  actions. 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  actions  on  contract  on  account,  bill, 
3iote  or  bond  where  the  amount  claimed  or  balances  due  does  not  exceed  S300,  iji 
actions  on  undertakings  given  in  civil  proceedings  before  them  where  the  kuiu 
due  or  demanded  does  not  exceed  ^500;  in  replevin  where  the  value  of  tho 
property  does  not  exceed  $100.  District  courts  have  general  original  jurisdiction 
in  all  cases,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  from  inferior  courts.  Upon  default,  judg- 
ments may  be  obtained  before  justices  after  three  days'  service  of  summons,  but 
in  contested  cases,  a  delay  of  thirty  days  may  be  readily  obtained  before  judg- 
ment, and  afterward  by  a  stay  of  execution  as  above  stated.  (See  Executions.) 
Jn  the  district  court,  if  in  session,  judgment  maybe  taken  npon  default  after 
forty  days'  service  of  summons,  but  in  contested  cases,  issues  must  be  m.ade  up 
for  trial  ten  days  prior  to  the  term.  Terms  of  the  several  district  courts  of  the 
State  are  held  as  often  as  every  six  months. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  upon  the  real  estate  of  the  debtor  in  the  county  where 
rendered,  for  the  period  of  live  years,  and  maybe  made  a  lien  upon  real  estate  in 
other  counties  by  filing  in  the  clerk's  oflice  therein  an  attested  copy  of  the  jour- 
nal entry  of  the  judgment.  Justices*  judgments  may  bo  made  a  lien  upon  real 
estate  in  same  manner.  But  if  execution'be  not  taken  out  and  levied  within  ono 
year  after  rendition  of  judgmant,  the  lien  becomes  inoperative  as  against  other 
judgment  creditors.  Judgments  which  have  become  dormant  may  be  revived 
by  the  court  ui)6n  motion  of  the  judgment  creditor  and  notice  to  the  parties  in- 
terested. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  ren^ereA.— Exceptions.— li  the 
word  "  appraisement  waived,"  or  words  of  similar  import,  bo  inserted  in  any 
mortgage,  bond,  note,  bill  or  written  contract,  judgment  shall  be  J'endered  ac- 
cordingly, and  execution  shall  not  issue  thereon  for  G  days.  If  upon  the  docket, 
in  cases  of  judgment  rendered  by  justices  of  the  peace,  any  person,  resident-  of 
the  county,  being  good  and  sufficient  security,  shall,  Avithin  10  days,  undertake 
that  the  judgment  shall  be  duly  paid,  execution  shall  be  stayed  for  periods 
ranging  from  30  to  120  days,  according  to  the  amount  of  tho  judgment. 

Executions  are  a  lien  on  personal  i^roperty  only  from  the  time  they  are 
•ictually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 
Redemption,  after  execution  sale,  is  unknown.  If  an  execution  (from  a  court 
of  record)  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors  can  be  summoned  and  required 
to  state  under  oath  what  property  or  interest  they  have  or  own,  which  may  be 
reached  by  execution. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Makried  "Women,  &c.— Deeds  in  this  State  need  not  be 
under  seal.  "When  acknowledged  within  this  State,  it  must  be  before  some  court 
Laving  a  seal,  or  some  judge,  justice  or  clerk  thereof,  or  some  justice  of  tho 
peace,  notary  public,  county  clerk  or  register  of  deeds,  or  mayor  or  clerk  of  an 
incorporated  city.  When  acknowledged  without  this  State,  it  must  be  before 
Bome  court  of  record,  or  clerk  or  officer  holding  the  seal  thereof,  or  before  some 
notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  or  commissioner  to  take  acknowledgmenta 


SPECIAL  LAAVS  OF  KENTUCKY. 


859 


appointed  by  tlie  Governor  of  this  State,  or  before  any  consul  of  the  Lnited 
States,  resident  in  a  foreign  port  or  country.  If  taken  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace  the  acknowledgment  must  bo  accompained  by  a  certiticate  of  his  official 
character,  under  the  hand  of  some  court  of  record,  to  which  the  seal  of  said 
court  shall  be  affixed. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment  required  : 
State  of  , ) 

COU>'TY  OF  . )     ■  ,  .  ^ 

On  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187     ,  before  mo,  a  m  ;viid  for 

said  personally  came  ,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  per- 

son whose  name  affixed  to  the  foregoing  conveyance  as  grantor  and 

duly  acknowledged  the  execution  of  the  same. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name  and  affixed  my 
seal,  the  day  and  year  last  above  written. 

(Husband  and  wife  should  always  join  in  conveyances.)  I\o  separate  ac- 
knowledgment  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  wife. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property,  to  their  separate  use, 
the  same  as  unmarrried.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman 
will  bind  her  property  the  same  as  if  she  were  unm-arritd. 

Chattel  mortgages 'of  perishable  articles,  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
mortgagor,  with  the  right  to  use  the  same  ;  or  of  a  stock  of  merchandise  which 
is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  mortgagor  with  privilege  to  sell  in  due  course  ot  his 
business,  or  in  any  manner  for  his  own  benefit ;  or  of  any  chattels  which  are  left 
in  the  possession  of  the  mortgagor,  the  mortgage  not  being  duly  registered,  are 
void  as  to  the  creditors  of  the  mortgagor,  unlcsii  they  have  iiotico  of  the  samo. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KENTUCKY. 

Exemptions  from  Fouced  Salt:. — Home  worth  $1,000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erfii.  To  bona  fide  housekeeper  with  a  fam.ily,  resident  in  the  State :  2  work 
beasts,  or  1  work  beast  and  1  yoke  of  oxen  ;  2  plows  and  gear ;  1  wagon  and  a  set 
of  gear,  or  1  cart  or  dray  ;  2  cows  and  calves  ;  10  head  of  sheep ;  provisions  suf- 
ficient to  sustain  the  family  one  year,  and  provender  sufficient  to  support  the 
stock  one  year  ;  1  sewing  machine  ;  tho  usual  household  and  kitchen  furnitura 
of  limited  value,  etc.;  the  tools  of  a  mechanic  not  exceeding  $100  in  value;  tho 
libraries  of  ministers  of  the  gospel,  physicians  and  attorneys-at-law  not  to  ex- 
ceed in  value  §500,  but  the  last  is  not  in  addition  to  the  two  work  beasts, 
wagon,  cart  or  di-ay.  In  addition  to  the  personal  property  exempt  from  execu- 
tion on  all  debts  or  liabilities  created  after  the  1st  of  June,  18CG,  so  much  land, 
including  tlie  dwelling-house  and  appurtenances  owned  by  the  debtor  as  shall 
not  exceed  §1,000,  shall  also  be  exemi)t  to  the  bona  fide  housekeeper  with  a  fam- 
ily- 

Mechanics'  Liens. — There  is  a  general  law  for  the  State  (not  applying  to 
Jefferson  county,  Avhich  has  a  special  act  in  somo  respects  difilerent)  giving 
mechanics  and  material  men  liens  upon  the  improvements  and  interest  of  iho 
employer  in  the  land  for  work  done  and  material  furnished.  Sub-contractors 
and  laborers  may  acquire  a  liSn,  by  giving  the  employer  v/ritten  notice  of  their 
claim,  and  that  they  look  to  the  laiid  and  improvements  for  compensation.  Liens 
must  be  filed  in  sixty  days  and  suit  brought  in  six  months,  to  enforce  claim^s,  or 
they  are  lost. 

CoLiiECTioN  OF  DEBTS. — A  defendant  in  a  civil  action  may  be  arrested  when 
an  affidavit  is  filed  and  bond  given,  for  causes  for  v/hich  an  attachment  v/ill 
"Ae. 

The  defendant  may  give  bail,  or  in  lieu  of  bail,  deposit  in  the  hands  of  tho 
sheriff,  or  in  court,  the  amount  of  money  mentioned  in  the  order  of  arrest.  In 
default  of  both,  he  will  be  committed  to  jail,  there  to  remain  until  he  pays  the 
debt,  gives  bail  or  take  the  insolvent  debtor's  oath. 

Attachment,  in  a  civil  action  for  the  recovery  of  money,  may  issue  against  tho 
property  of  the  defendant,  or  a  garnishee  where  the  action  is  against:  1.  A  de- 
fendant, or  several  defendants,  who,  or  some  one  of  whom,  is  a  foreign  corpora- 
tion or  a  non-resident  of  the  State.  2.  Who  lias  been  absent  therefrom  "four 
months.  3.  Has  departed  from  the  State  Avith  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  4. 
Who  has  left  the  county  of  liia  residence  to  avoid  the  service  of  a  summons.  5. 


860 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KEXTUCKY. 


Bo  conceals  liimself  that  a  summons  cannot  be  eorvod  on  him.  C.  Is  about  to 
remove,  or  has  romoveclhis  property,  or  a  material  part  thereof,  out  ol'  tluH  Stato, 
jiot  leaving  enough  therein  to  satisfy  the  plaintilT';;  elaiiii  or  the  claim  of  said 
defend.'iut's  creditors.  7.  lias  sold,  conveyed  or  otlierwisu  disposed  of  his  property, 
or  suftored  or  i)oi-mittcd  it  to  bo  sold,  with  the  fraudulent  intent  to  cheat,  hinder 
or  delay  his  creditors.  8.  Is  about  to  sell,  convey  or  otherwise  dispose  of  hi:! 
property  with  such  intent.  An  attachment  shall  not  be  granted  on  tl.ie  ground 
that  the  defendant,  or  defendants,  or  any  of  them,  is  n,  foreign  corporation,  or  a 
jion-residentof  this  State,  for  any  claim  other  than  a  debt  or  <lemand  arising  on 
contract.  To  obtain  an  attachment,  the  plaintilf  mustfdc  an  atlidavit,  sliowing  : 
1.  The  nature  of  his  claim.  2.  That  it  is  just.  3.  The  amount  which  the  affiant 
believes  the  plaintiff  ought  to  recover.  4.  The  existence  in  the  action  of  some 
one  of  the  grounds  above  enumerated.  No  attachment  will  issue  until  bond  and 
security  in  double  the  amount  of  the  debt  is  given. 

A  defendant  may  be  arrested  in  a  civil  action  for  causes  for  which  an  attach- 
ment may  issue,  on  filing  affidavit  and  giving  bond. 

Assignments,  sales,  mortgages,  judgments  suffered  in  contemplation  of  insol- 
vency and  with  a  design  to  prefer  one  or  more  creditors  to  the  exclusion  in  wholo 
or  in  part  of  others,  shall  operate  as  an  assignment  and  transfer  of  all  the  prop- 

,  erty  and  effects  of  the  grantor,  and  shall  enure  to  the  benefit  of  all  his  credit- 

I  ors. 

Garnishee  maybe  summoned  on  attachment.  Ue  shall  not  be  subject  to 
costs  beyond  those  caused  by  his  resistance  of  the  claim  against  him.  After  re- 
turn of  execution,  endorsed  "  no  property  found,"  an  equitable  action  may  bo 
brought  for  the  discovery  by  the  defendant  of  money,  choses  in  action,  equitable 
and  legal  interests,  etc.  In  such  an  action,  any  one'indebted  to  the  defendant  or 
holding  moiiey  or  property  belonging  to  him  may  bo  made  defeiulant.  Attach- 
ments may  issue  without  affidavit  or  bond.  The  court  shall  enforce  the  surren- 
der of  money,  property,  etc.,  and  may  commit  to  jail  any  defendant  or  garnishee 
refusing  to  make  such  surrender. 

All  bills,  bonds  or  notes,  for  money  or  property  shall  be  assignable  so  as  to 
vest  in  the  assignee  the  right  of  action.  Three  days  of  grace  are  allowed  on  bills 
of  exchange.  The  endorser  on  a  note,  unless  put  on  the  footing  of  a  foreign  bill, 
is  discharged,  xmless  the  holder  brings  suit  against  the  maker,  if  note  remains 
unpaid,  at  the  first  court  held  after  its  maturity,  and  j^rosecutes  the  maker  to  in- 
solvency. Promissory  notes,  payable  and  negotiable  at  a  bank  in  this  State, 
■which  shall  be  endorsed  and  discounted  by  said  bank,  or  by  any  other  bank,  shall 
and  are  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  foreign  bills  of  exchange. 

Justice  courts  have  jurisdiction  exclusive  of  the  Circuit  Court,  but  concurrent 
■with  the  quarterly  court,  of  all  actions  and  proceedings  for  the  recovery  of  money 
or  personal  property,  where  the  matter  in  controversy,  exclusive  of  interest  and 
costs,  does  not  exceed  650  in  value,  and  in  other  cases  specially  provided  by  stat 
ute.  Justices  of  the  peace  in  Jefferson  county  and  a  few  other  counties  have 
jurisdiction  to  the  extent  of  $100,  exclusive  of  interest  and  costs. 

The  Court  of  Ajjpeals  has  general  appellate  jurisdiction  over  all  courts,  except 
"U'here  the  judgment  grants  a  divorce,  or  is  rendered  b^^  a  quarterly,  county,  police, 
city,  mayor's  or  justice's  court.  Circuit  Courts  have  general  original  jurisdic- 
tion of  all  actions  and  proceedings  for  the  enforcement  of  civil  rights  and  redress 
of  civil  wrongs,  except  when  exclusive  jurisdiction  is  given  to  other  courts. 
(Civil  Code,  §  18.)  They  have  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  judgments  of  quarterly 
courts  when  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds  $^20.  Quarterly  Courts  have 
jurisdiction  of  actions  to  recover  movcj/ or  personal  property.not  exceeding  in 
value  3100.  They  have  appellate  jurisdiction  from  judgments  of  justices  of  tho 
peace  for  $5  and  over. 

Summons  must  bo  issued  and  served  10  days  before  return  day  thereof.  In 
.  equitable  proceedings  the  sunimons  is  returr.ablo  in  twenty  days.  In  justices' 
courts,  on  sums  less  than  $50,  it  is  returnable  in  five  days,  and  on  sums  greater 
than  650,  in  ten  days. 

Executions  issue,  from  magistrates  courts  for  sums  less  than  §50,  in  5  days, 
for  sums  over  f 50,  in  10  days  ;  from  the  Jefferson  court  of  common  pleas,  quar- 
terly courts  an d_ circuit  courts,  in  ten  days  ;  from  the  Louisville  Chancery  court; 
in  15  days  after  judgment  rendered  ;  is  returnable  to  some  rule  day  of  the  court, 
not  under  30  nor  over  70  days  from  the  test,  and  binds  the  real  estate  but  not  tha 
personal  estate  (until  levied)  of  the  defendant  only  from  the  time  the  same  is  de- 
livered to  the  proper  officer  to  execute.  For  cause  shown,  tho  court  may  order 
immediate  execution. 

A  judgment  is  not  a  lien  on  the  property  of  the  defendant.  A  judgment  may  ho 
enforced  by  issuing  execution  at  any  time  v/ithin  15  years  from  its  rendition. 


SPECIAL  LAYv'S  OF  KENTUCKY. 


861 


Each,  renewal  of  execution  revives  tlio  judgment  for  15  years  from  the  date  of 
sucli  renewal.  Foreign  judgments  must  be  proven  by  certificate  of  judge  and 
clerk. 

"Writs  of  provisional  seizure  may  also  issue,  without  the  plaintifC  giving  bond, 
A  defendant  may  replevy  for  3  months  a  judgment  or  execution  against  him, 
at  any  time  before  a  sale  of  property  under  the  same,  by  giving  to  tlie  officer  ro. 
obligation,  payable  to  the  plaintiff  with  good  security  for  the  amotmt  thereof,  in- 
cluding interest,  costs  and  half  commissions  up  to  that  time. 

If  land  sold  under  execution  does  not  bring  two-thirds  of  its  value,  the  defend- 
ant or  his  representatives  shall  have  the  right  lo  redeem  the  same  within  a 
•yjar. 

Deeds,  Hights  of  Markied  "Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  need  not  bo  tin- 
d'jr  seal.  Deeds  executed  in  this  State  by  persons  other  than  married  women, 
may  be  admitted  to  record  :  first,  on  the  acknowledgment  before  the  clerk  of  a 
county  court  by  the  party  making  the  deed  ;  or  second,  by  the  proof  of  two  sub- 
scribing witnesses,  or  by  the  proof  of  tlieir  signatures.  Deeds  executed  out  of 
the  State,  and  within  the  United  States,  by  persons  otlier  than  married  women, 
may  be  admitted  to  record  when  the  game  shall  be  certified  under  his  seal  of 
office  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  or  his  deputy,  or  by  a  notary  public,  mayor  of  a  city 
or  secretary  of  si^lte,  or  commissioner  to  'take  the  acknowledgment  of  deeds,  or 
by  a  judge  under  the  seal  of  his  court  to  have  been  acknowledged  or  proved  bo- 
fore  him  in  the  manner  hereby  required.  Deeds  executed  out  of  the  United 
States  by  persons  other  than  married  women,  may  be  admitted  to  record  when 
the  same  shall  be  certified  by  any  foreign  minister  or  consul,  secretary  of  lega- 
tion of  the  United  States,  or  by  tlie  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  certified  under 
his  seal  of  office  or  the  judge  of  a  superior  court  of  the  nation  where  the  deed 
ehall  be  executed,  to  have  been  acknowledged  or  proved  before  him  in  the  man- 
ner prescribed  by  law. 

A  deed  of  a  married  woman,  to  bo  effectual,  shall  bo  ackn.owledged  before 
some  of  the  officers  named  in  the  preceding  sections,  and  lodged  in  tlie  proper 
office  for  record.  Previous  to  such  acknowledgment,  it  shall  bo  the  duty  of  the 
officer  to  explain  to  her  the  contents  and  effect  of  the  dee<l  separately  and  apart 
from  her  husband,  and  thereupon,  if  she  freely  and  voluntarily  acknowledge  the 
same,  and  is  willing  for  it  to  be  recorded,  the  officer  shall  certify  the  same, 
(Privy  examination  need  not  bo  stated  in  certificate.)  "When  the  acknowledg- 
ment shall  be  taken  by  an  ofllcer  out  of  this  State,  tho  same  shall  bo  acknowl  • 
edged  and  certified  to  tho  effect  following  : 
State  of  Kentucky,  ) 

COUKTY  OF  MeKCEK.  j 

(or  town,  city,  department  or  parish  of  .) 

I,  A.  B.  (here  give  his  title),  do  certify  that  this  instrument  of  writing  from 
C.  D.  and  wife  (E.  F.,  or  from  E.  F.,  wife  of  C.  D.),  was  this  day  produced  to  me 
by  the  parties,  and  which  was  acknowledged  by  the  said  G.  D.  to  be  his  act  and 
deed,  and  the  contents  and  the  effect  of  the  instrument  being  explained  to  the 
said  E.  F.  by  me  separately  and  apart  from  her  husband,  she  thereupon  declared 
that  she  did  freely  and  voluntarily  execute  and  deliver  the  same,  to  be  her  act 
and  deed,  and  consented  that  the  same  might  be  recorded. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  of  office. 

[seal.]  A.  B.  (signature  and  title.) 

Proof  by  subscribing  witness. 
State  of  Kentucky,  ) 
County  of  Mercer,   j  - 

I,  A.  B.  (here  give  the  title),  do  certify  that  this  day  came  before  me  G.  II.  and 
I.  J.  the  subscribing  witnesses  to  the  foregoing  deed  (or  other  instrument)  by  C  D. 
to  L,  M.,  which  witnesses  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  whose  names 
are  so  written  as  witnesses,  and  being  solemnly  sworn  by  me  in  due  manner,  did 
eeverally  declare,  on  their  oaths,  that  the  said  C.  D.  did  acknowledge  this  instru- 
ment to  be  his  act  and  deed,  and  that  the  signature  thereto  was  made  by  him  ; 
that  they  know  him  to  be  the  same  person  who  is  named  as  the  grantor  therein, 
and  that  they  did  subscribe  said  deed  as  witnesses  by  his  request. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,18  . 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

Deeds  made  by  residents  of  the  State,  must  be  legally  lodged  for  record  with- 
in sixty  days  from  the  date  thereof.  By  non-residents,  and  in  tho  United  States, 
within  four  months  ;  if  out  of  the  United  States,  within  twelve  months.  Deeds  are 
not  legally  recorded  until  the  clerk's  tax  is  paid.  The  county  clerk  is  the  re- 
corder of  deeds.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  and 
take  effect  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  recorded. 


862 


SPECIAL  LAWS   0"F  LOUTSIAISTA. 


Chattel  inort.jjagca  must  ho  duly  ackiiowlodKcd  and  recorded.  Tho  posse* 
8ion  of  tlio  property  inort;^a^;c(i  may  r(3inain  in  tlu;  inortgaRor.  Five  years'  poH- 
ecssioii  opcratc^s  an,  a  bar  lo  tho  iiiortgago(t.  A  inorLgago  on  a  (Uock  of  goods  if; 
only  valid  as  to  tho  goods  iu  storo  at  tho  time  it  is  given,  and  ia  not  good  aa 
to  after-acquired  bLocIc. 

Tho  real  estate  of  a  married  woman  owned  before,  or  acquired  after  marriage, 
{■hall  not  bo  liable  for  the  debts  of  Lor  liusband,  but  are  liable  for  debts  of  her 
a:!d  licr  Imsband  jointly  created,  in  writing,  for  necessaries  furnished  her  or  any 
member  of  her  family.  The  property  of  the  Imsband  shall  not  be  subject  to  tho 
payment  of  any  of  the  wife's  tlel)ta  incurred  previous  to  marriage. 

V/'ills  must  l>e  iu  vv'ritintr,  signed  ])y  tho  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  liis  direction  ;  and  if  not  written  wholly  by  himself,  must  Ik;  at- 
te;-,tod  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses,  subscribing  their  names  iu  his 
presence. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  LOUISIANA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— J/ome  o/lC.O  Acres  of  Land,  and  Personal 
Property,  in  all  worth  ^72,000. — 160  acres  of  land,  with  buildings  and  improvements 
therson,  occupied  as  a  residence,  and  bona  fide  owned  by  the  debtor,  having  a 
family,  a  person  or  persons  dependant  upon  him  for  support  ;  together  with 
personal  property,  making  in  all  a  value  not  exceeding  $2,000.  Tools  of  trade, 
salaries,  wages,  and  personal  services,  all  wearing  apparel,  all  agricultural  im- 
plements, working  cattle,  and  provisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  carrying  on 
the  plantation  for  the  coming  year.  jSTo  home  exempted  in  the  city  or  villages, 
and  iu  any  case  only  for  benefit  of  persons  having  a  family. 

Mechanics'  Lien — The  contractor  has  a  lien  for  the  payment  of  his  labor  on 
the  building  or  other  work  v/hich  ho  may  have  constructed.  Workmen  em- 
ployed immediately  by  the  owner  in  tho  construction  or  repair  of  any  building 
tave  the  same  privilege.  If  the  contractor  be  paid  by  the  employer,  actions  for 
work  and  supplies  furnished  tho  former  will  not  lie  against  the  latter,  but 
moneys  due  the  contractor  by  tho  employer  may  bo  seized  and  applied  towards 
payment.  No  agreement  for  work  exceeding  $500,  unless  reduced  to  writing 
and  registered  vvith  the  recorder  of  mortgages,  shall  be  privileged  as  above.  For 
amounts  less  than  $C00,  this  formality  is  dispensed  with,  but  the  privilege  is 
limited  to  G  months  from  the  time  of  completed  v/ork.  Workmen  employed  on 
vessels  or  boats  have  a  lien  on  the  same,  and  are  not,  in  any  case,  bound  to  re- 
duce their  contracts  to  writing,  but  their  privileges  closes  if  they  allow  the  ves- 
Bols  to  depart  without  exercising  their  right. 

Collection  of  Debts.— Arrest,  in  civil  action,  may  bo  made  of  a  debtor 
v/lio  is  about  to  leave  the  State  without  leaving  sufncient  property  to  satisfy  tho 
judgment  sought  to  be  obtained  by  the  creditor,  and  held  until  security  is  given 
that  he  will  not  depart  from  tho  State  v/ithout  leave  of  court  ;  23rovided,  that 
no  citizen  of  another  State  shall  be  arrested  at  suit  of  resident  or  non-resident 
creditor,  except  upon  oath,  that  the  debtor  has  absconded  from  his  residence.  Ar- 
rest or  attachment  may  be  made  v/hether  the  debt  is  due  or  not,  and  agent  or 
attorney  may  swear  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief. 

Wilt  of  attachment  may  issue  against  a  defendant  for  the  following  causes  : 

1.  Where  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident.  2.  Where  he  is  about  to  leave  the 
State  permanently.  3-  Where  he  conceals  himself  to  avoid  being  cited.  4.  Where 
lie  has  mortgaged,  assigned  or  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with 
intent  to  give  an  unfair  preference  to  some  of  his  creditors,  or  place  his  property 
or  evidence  of  debt  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors.  In  every  case  where  an 
attachment  is  sought,  the  petitioning  creditor  must  give  a  bond,  payable  to  tho 
clerk  of  the  court  for  an  amount  one-half  over  the  claim  demanded,  with  surety 
residing  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  Writs  of  sequestration  may  issue  in 
this  State  upon  an  aflidavit  made  by  party,  or  agent,  or  attorney  in  his  absence, 
showing  one  of  the  following  grounds,  after  executing  a  bond  with  one  good  resi- 
dent surety  in  an  amount  to  be  determined  by  the  judge  ;  1,  Where  the  plaintiff, 
who  has  had  possession  of  the  property  for  one  year,  has  been  ejected  by  force. 

2.  Where  the  plaintiff  seeks  the  possession  of  movable  property,  and  fears  tho 
party  having  possession  of  the  same  may  impair  its  value,  may  remove  it  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  or  may  conceal  or  dispose  of  it  during  the  continu- 
ance of  the  suit.  3.  Where  a  wife  sues  for  separation  from  bed  and  board,  or  for 
Geparation  from  property  alone,  and  lias  reason  that  her  husband  may  injure  her 
dotal  property  or  waste  the  fruits  and  revenues  j)roduced  by  the  same  during  tho 
pendency  of  the  suit,  4.  Where  the  defendant  has  aslted  for  a  stay  of  proceeed« 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  LOUISIANA. 


863 


ingg  against  liim,  and  at  a  meeting  of  Ws  creditors  tliey  should  fear  ho  v/ill  avail 
himself  of  such  stay  of  proceediiigy  to  dispose  of  tlie  whole  or  part  of  his  property. 
5.  Where  the  plaintiff  has  a  lien  or  privilege  on  property. 

"Writs  of  sequestration  may  also  issue,  without  the  plaintifc  giving  hond,  in 
cases  where  ho  Keeks'  to  enforce  a  landlord's,  seaman's,  mechanic's  or  lahorer'8 
lian. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  or  claims  of  any  kind  is  valid,  and 
the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name,  but  the  assigument  of  a  debt  must  be  no- 
tified to  the  debtor.  Garnishment  can  issue  on  an  execution  or  attachment 
against  any  person  owing  the  debtor,  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

Justice  of  the  peace  lias  jurisdiction  up  to  ^100,  including  parish  courts,  origi- 
nal jurisdiction,  from  $100  to  ??500.  District  courts  on  all  amounts  over  §500. 
Ai)deals  from  justices,  when  over  ?10,  returnable  to  the  parish  courts,  except  in 
the  parish  of  Orleans,  whore  returnable  to  third  district  court  when  over  $10. 
Appeals  lie  from  parish  coiirt  on  sums  over  ??100.  From  district  coxirt  to  supreme 
court  over  $500.  Service  of  citation  must  be  made  for  ten  days  before  any  action 
can  be  taken. 

Judgments,  to  operate  as  a  lien,  must  be  recorded  in  the  mortgage  book  of 
the  parish  recorder.  It  then  becomes  a  judicial  mortgage  on  all  the  real  estate  of 
the  debtor  where  recorded. 

There  is  no  stay  of  execution,  and  it  can  issue  at  any  time  after  judgment. 
No  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution  or  mortgage. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Makkied  Womex,  Yv'illg.— Deeds  are  valid  without 
Bcrawl  or  seal.  They  must  bo  acknowledged  in  the  State  before  a  notary  publio  , 
or  recorder,  or  in  presence  of  two  witnesses,  who  may  i)rovo  the  signature.  If 
acknowledged  out  of  the  State,  before  a  commissioner  of  Louieiana,  or  in  confor- 
mity to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  acknowledged,  and  in  the  latter  case  tho 
official  character  of  the  officer  before  whom  tho  acknowledgment  is  taken  must  bo 
properly  verified.  Tho  husband  must  join  in  the  eseoutio:i  of  a  deed  made  by  tho 
wife  conveying  her  real  estate,  and  authorize  her. 

When  the  husband  sells  his  own  real  estate,  tho  wife  must  join  him  and  re- 
nounce all  her  rights,  and  she  must  bo  examined  apart  from  her  husband  and 
duly  informed  of  the  nature  of  the  act.   No  particular  form  of  words  is  necessary, 
except  the  above  must  be  shown.   This  form  is  used  : 
State  of  , ) 

COU^ITYOP  .r 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  came  before  me,  John  Hampden,  a  notary 
public  within  and  for  the  county  aforesaid,  duly  commissioned  and  acting  as  such, 
A.  B.  and  his  wife,  C.  D.,  to  me  known  personally  (or  proved  such  by  two  credible 
v/itnesses)  to  be  the  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  deed ; 
and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowledged  that  he  had  executed  the  said  conveyance,  for 
the  consideration  and  purposes  therein  mentioned  and  set  forth  ;  and  the  said 
C.  D.,  being  by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrumeait, 
in  an  examination  apart  from  her  husband,  and  fully  advised  of  the  nature  or 
her  rights  upon  his  property,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely, 
and  without  compulsion  or  undue  inJiuence  of  her  said  husband. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  of  office,  on  this  day  of  ,  187  . 

JOHN  HAMPDEN,  A^otory  Public. 

The  estate  of  a  married  woman,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage, 
remains  her  separate  estate,  and  cannot  be  sold  by  her  husband.  All  i)roperty 
acquired  during  marriage  from  the  joint  er  separate  earnings  of  husband  and 
wife,  and  the  revenues  of  the  separate  property  of  each,  is  equally  divided  be- 
tween them.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  but  it  is 
best  for  her  to  join  in  any  conveyance  made  by  him,  in  order  to  renounce  any 
claims  che  may  have  on  his  estate.  (She  has  no  claim  unless  her  lien  or  mort- 
gage is  recorded.)  The  husband  must  join  his  Avife  in  any  conveyance  of  her 
£:cparate  estate. 

There  is  no  chattel  mortgage  in  this  State,  but  the  law  creates  certain  privi- 
leges upon  movables,  which  are  as.  follows:  1.  The  vendors  privilege  on  tho 
movables  not  paid  for;  2-  For  debts  due  for  necessary  supplies  furnished  to 
any  farm  or  plantation  and  for  Eaoney  actually  advanced  for  the  supplies  and 
necessary  erpenses  for  any  farm  or  plantation  on  the  crops  of  the  year  or 
the  proceeds  thereof  ;  3.  The  lessor's  privilege  on  the  crops  and  movables 
on  the  property  leased  ;  4.  Architects,  undertakers,  furnishers  of  material,  etc.» 
on  the  edifices  or  other  works  built  or  repaired. 

These  privileges  are,  however,  preserved,  andean  be  acquired  only  by  having 
lecorded  in  the  parieh  where  the  property  is  the  account  containing  the  state- 
ment of  indebtedness  in  detail,  and  tho  balance  due,  under  the  oath,  of  thQ  party 


864 


RrKCIAli  L/VWS   OF  JNIAIXE. 


(loi)ig  or  liavijiff  llio  work  dono,  find  thin  to  bo  recorded  the  day  tho  contract  was 
entered  into,  to  liave  eircot  against  third  parties. 

Tho  estate  of  a  married  woman,  whether  acquired  hoforo  or  after  marriage, 
remains  lior  separate  estate,  and  cannot  bo  sold  by  tho  knsband.  All  jjroperty 
acquired  during  marriage  from  tho  joint  or  separate  earnings  of  husband  and 
wife,  and  tho  revenues  of  the  separate  property  of  each,  is  equally  divided  be- 
tween them.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  but  it  is 
best  for  her  to  join  in  any  conveyance  made  by  him,  in  order  to  renounce  any 
claims  she  may  have  on  his  estate.  (She  has  no  claim  unless  her  lien  or  mort- 
gage is  recorded.")  The  husband  must  join  Iub  wife  in  any  conveyance  of  her 
separate  estate.  The  wife  may  make  her  last  will  without  tho  authority  of  her 
husband. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MAINE. 

EXEMPTIOKS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— //oine  Worth  ^500  and  Personal  Property. 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  fi500,  or  lot  purchased  from  the  State,  for  a  homestead. 
After  the  death  of  the  debtor,  his  widow  and  minor  children  are  entitled  to  tho 
?ame  exemption.  A  lot  in  a  burying-ground  ;  wearing  apparel ;  necessary  house- 
hold furniture  not  exceeding  ^i!50  ;  1  bed,  bedstead  aiid  bedding  for  every  two  in 
the  family  ;  all  family  portraits  ;  bibles  and  school-books  in  use  ;  copy  of  tho 
statutes,  and  a  library  not  exceeding  $150 ;  one  cooking-stove,  12  cords  wood,  5 
tons  anthracite  coal  and  50  bushels  bituminous  coal ;  ^^10  worth  of  lumber,  wood 
or  bark  ;  all  produce  until  harvested ;  1  barrel  of  flour ;  30  bushels  corn  and 
grain  ;  all  potatoes  ;  all  flax  raised  on  1  acre  of  land  and  all  articles  manufactured 
therefrom  for  the  family ;  tools  in  trade  ;  1  sewing  machine  worth  $100  ;  1 
pair  working  cattle  or  mules  ;  1  or  2  horses,  not  exceeding  in  value  $300,  and  hay 
to  keep  them  through  the  winter  ;  one  cow  and  heifer  ;  10  sheep,  and  the  lambs 
and  wool  raised  from  them,  and  hay  to  keep  them  during  the  winter  ;  1  plov/  ; 
a  cart  or  truck  wagon  ;  harrow  ;  yoke  with  bows,  ring  and  staple ;  2  chains  ;  a 
mowing  machine,  and  one  boat  of  2  tons. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Mechanics  have  a  lien  on  buildings  for  labor  and  mate- 
rials furnished  for  erecting  or  repairing  same,  which  may  be  enforced  by  attach- 
ment in  ninety  days  after  same  are  furnished  or  labor  done,  and  against 
vessels  for  four  days  after  same  is  launched. 

Collection  of  Debts. — Arrests  in  civil  actions  can  be  made.  In  actions  of 
tort,  the  body  is  committed,  unless  bail  is  given.  In  actions  on  contract  over 
ten  dollars,  and  the  debtor  is  about  to  depart  from  the  State  to  reside  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  State,  and  carries  with  him  property  more  than  sufB.cient  for  hi3 
support,  he  can  be  arrested. 

Every  assignment  made  by  a  debtor  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  shall  provide 
for  a  proportional  distribution  of  all  his  real  and  personal  estate,  except  what  is 
by  law  exempt  from  attachment,  among  all  his  creditors,  becoming  parties 
thereto,  and  in  whatever  form  made  shall  have  the  effect  aforesaid,  and  be  also 
construed  to  pass  all  such  estate,  whether  specified  therein  or  not.  A  release  may 
be  inserted  in  the  deed  of  assignment,  which  shall  forever  discharge  the  assignor 
from  the  claims  of  such  creditors  as  become  parties  thereto.  The  assignor  shall 
make  oath  as  to  the  truth  of  the  assignment.  The  assignee  must,  within  fourteen 
days  after  the  assignment  is  made,  give  public  notice  of  his  appointment  in 
some  newspaper  printed  in  the  county  where  the  assignor  lives,  such  notice  to 
by  continued  three  weeks  successively.  Three  months  from  such  assignment  is 
allowed  creditors  to  become  parties  thereto.  If  the  assignment  is  not  sworn 
to  and  notice  not  given,  then  the  same  is  void  against  attaching  creditors.  All 
properly  conveyed  by  the  assignor  previous  to  and  in  contemplation  of  tho 
assignment,  with  the  design  to  delay,  hinder  or  defraud  creditors,  or  to  give 

f>reference  to  one  creditor  over  another,  shall  pass  to  the  assignee  notwithstand- 
ng  such  transfer. 

AVrit  of  attachment  may  be  issued  in  any  civil  action  and  can  be  levied  on  all 
property  not  exempt,  which  ci'eates  a  lien  that  continues  for  30  days  after  exe^ 
cution  issues. 

Negotiable  notes,  bills,  and  bonds  are  assignable,  so  that  assignees  may  sue  in 
their  own  name.  Any  person  Avho  holds  any  goods,  effects  or  credits  belonging 
to  a  debtor  may  be  required,  under  the  "  trustee  process,"  to  deliver  up  the  same 
for  the  credtitor  to  reach,  except  $20  due  the  debtor  for  wages,  and  even  then 
when  the  debt  is  for  necessaries. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  on  any  promissory  note,  inland  bill  of  exchange,  draft 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MAIISTE. 


865 


or  order  for  payment  of  money,  payable  in  this  State  at  a  future  day,  or  at  sight, 
nnd  not  on  demand,  a  grace  of  three  daj'S  shall  be  allowed.  In  an  action  on  a 
promissory  note,  payable  at  a  certain  place,  either  on  demand  or  on  demand  at 
or  after  a  time  specified  therein,  the  plaintiff  shall  not  recover  unless  he  proves 
a  demand  made  at  the  place  of  payment  prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  suit. 
iNo  person  shall  be  charged  as  an  acceptor  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  draft  or  written 
order,  unless  his  acceptance  shall  be  in  writing,  signed  by  him  or  his  lawful 
agent ;  and  no  waiver  of  demand  and  notice  by  an  indorser  of  any  promissory 
note  or  bill  of  exchange  shall  be  valid  unless  it  is  in  writing  and  signed  in  like 
manner.  No  action  can  be  maintained  upon  any  note  or  other  security  given  for 
intoxicating  liquors,  sold  in  violation  of  the  act  relating  to  sales  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  unless  the  security  is  negotiable  paper  in  the  hands  of'  an  innocent 
holder,  and  for  value.  No  agreement  that  personal  property,  bargained  and  dc- 
^livered  to  another,  for  which  a  note  is  given,  shall  remain  the  property  of  tho 
payee  till  the  note  is  paid,  is  valid,  unless  it  is  made  and  signed  as  a  part  of  tho 
note  ;  nor  when  it  is  so  signed  in  a  note  for  more  than  $30,  unless  it  is  recorded  like 
mortgages  of  personal  property.  Damages  on  protest  of  bills  of  exchange,  of 
$100  or  more,  payable  by  the  acceptor,  drawer  or  indorser  of  one,  in  this  Stato 
are,  if  payable  at  a  place  75  miles  distant,  one  per  cent. ;  if  payable  in  the  Stato 
of  New  York,  or  in  any  State  northerly  of  it,  and  not  in  this  State,  three  per 
cent. ;  if  payable  in  any  Atlantic  State  or  territoiy  southerly  of  New  York  and 
northerly  of  Florida,  six  per  cent. ;  and  in  any  other  State  or  territory,  nine  per 
cent. 

The' jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  ^20,  supreme  judicial  court,  of 
all  civil  and  criminal  matters,  and,  except  in  county  of  Cumberland,  exclusive 
of  all  sums  over  $20  ;  in  county  of  Cumberland  over  $500,  concurrent  jurisdiction. 

Service  must  be  had,  in  cases  before  justice  of  the  peace,  7  days  before  the  re- 
turn day.  In  the  courts  of  record,  on  individuals,  14  days,  and  on  corporations, 
30  days,  before  the  return  day. 

Judgments  are  liens  for  30  days  where  it  is  created  by  attachment,  but  not 
otherwise.  Execution  can  issue  on  judgments  after  term  of  the  court  expires  at 
■which  judgment  was  obtained  for  3  years,  and  for  the  same  length  of  time  after 
ihe  last  execution.  Judgments  can  be  sued  on  for  20  years.  The  execution  can- 
not be  stayed  unless  it  is  issued  wrongfully,  and  then  only  upon  giving  bond  to 
the  3  udgment  creditor. 

Peeds,  Rights  of  Makried  "Womeis",  "WiiiLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal ; 
a  scrawl  is  not  suflficient.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  witnesses,  but  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged in  the  State  before  a  justice  of  the  peace.  Out  of  the  State,  before  any 
justice  of  the  peace,  magistrate,  notary  public,  commissioner  for  the  State,  or  by 
any  United  States  minister,  consul,  or  any  notary  public  in  any  foreign  country. 
The  wife  must  join  in  the  deed  to  relinquish  dower,  or  she  may  do  it  by  a  separate* 
deed.  When  she  joins  with  her  husband  in  the  same  deed,  either  can  acknowl- 
edge the  instrument.   No  separate  examination  of  the  wife  is  necessary. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment  to  be  used  in  this  State  • 
State  of  Maine,  ) 
County  of  Waldo,  j 

On  this  day  of  ,  187  ,  personally  appeared  the'  above-named 

grantor,  and  aknowledged  the  foregoing  instrument,"by  him  signed,  to  be  his  frea 
act  and  deed. 

Before  me,  Sam  Johnson, 

Justice  of  the  Peace, 

If  acknowledged  out  of  this  State,  use  this  form  : 
State  of  Vermont,  ) 
County  of  Windham.  ) 

On  this  day  of  ,  187  ,  personally  appeared  before  me  E. 

Anderson,  notary  public,  the  above-named  ,  the  grantor,  and  ac- 

knowledged this  instrument  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

rsEAL.]  E.  Anderson,  Notary  Public. 

As  to  property,  both  real  and  personal  not  obtained  by  them  from  their  hus- 
bands, married  women  can  control,  dispose  of,  and  encumber  as  though  they  wero 
femme  sole,  and  free  from  the  debts  of  their  husbands.  They  can  make  contracts, 
lor  which  they  and  their  property  are  liable,  whether  notes  or  otherwise,  and 
their  property  may  be  attached  and  taken  on  execution  to  satisfy  any  judgment 
received  against  them.  They  cannot  be  arrested.  A  wife  must  join  in  a  deed 
from  the  husband  in  selling  his  real  estate,  to  relinquish  dower,  and  he  must 
joia  with  her  ia  selling  her  real  estate  only  when  it  comes  to  her  from  him. 


806 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MARYLAND. 


All  chattel  mortgages  made  to  Bccuro  over  $30  are  void,  unless  possession  is 
given  to  the  mortgage!!,  or  rather  talteu  out  of  tho  jjOssesKioii  of  the  mortgagor, 
and  tlio  mortgage  recorded  in  tho  town  where  the  mortgagor  lives. 

Jn  this  State  all  wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  tho  testator,  or  by  Bomo 
pereon  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  shall  bo  attested  and 
Bubscribcd  iu  his  presence  by  three  credible  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MARYLAND. 

ExEMPTiOKS  moit  Forced  Salt^ — No  Homestead  Exemption,  hut  Personal 
Property.  The  property  exempted  is  the  personal  property  actually  necessary 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  family  and  the  implements  or  tools  necessary  to  earn 
a  livlihood,  and  wearing  apparel.  The  Constitution  of  the  State  directs" the  Leg- 
islature to  pass  laws  exempting  from  judicial  sale  property  not  exceeding  $500, 
§100  is  the  amount  fixed  and  exempted  in  pursuance  of  this  constitutional  re- 
quirement. The  exact  language  of  the  law  is,  "all  wearing  apparel,  books, 
and  the  tools  of  mechanics." 

Mechanics'  Liex. — Every  building  erected,  and  every  building  repaired, 
rebuilt  or  improved  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth  of  its  value,  shall  be  subject  to 
a  lien  for  the  payment  of  all  debts  contracted  for  work  done  or  material  fur- 
nished for  or  about  the  same  ;  also  vessels,  boats  or  machines  constructed  or 
repaired  within  this  State  are  subject  to  mechanics'  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed 
in  the  record  office  within  six  months  after  the  work  has  been  finished  or  mate- 
rials furnished.  If  the  contract  shall  have  been  made  with  an  architect  or 
builder,  or  any  person  other  than  the  owner  of  tho  ground  o)i  which  the  building 
is  erected,  or  his  agent,  notice  of  intention  to  claim  a  lien  must  be  given  to  the 
owner  within  sixty  days.  The  mechanics'  lien  has  priority  over  all  other  liens  or 
incumbrances  placed  on  the  property  after  the  commencement  of  the  building, 
and  over  mortgages  to  secure  future  advances,  where  the  loan  or  advance  is  not 
actually  made  until  after  the  commencement  of  the  building. 

Collection  of  Debts — ^No  person  can  be  arrested  in  civil  action  here. 
Writs  of  attachment  may  be  obtained  on  the  following  grounds:  Non-residence 
of  the  defendant,  absconding  or  secretly  removing  from  his  place  of  abode,  with 
intention  to  evade  payment  of  his  debts.  When  two  summons  have  been  re- 
turned non  est  in  any  action.  No  bond  is  required  before  issuing  in  the  foregoing 
cases.  Attachment  may  be  had  on  any  debt  due  by  a  married  woman  trading  as 
a/e?nrne  sole.  Upon  aflidavit  and  approved  bond  in  double  the  debt  claimed, 
attachment  for  fraud  will  be  issued  where  debtor  is  about  to  abscond  from  the 
State  ;  or  has,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of,  or  conceal  his  property,  or  some 
part  thereof,  or  to  remove  the  same  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors  ;  or  has 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt.  In  these  cases  caution  should  be  used  not  to 
resort  to  attachment  unless  the  proof  of  the  alleged  fraud  is  such  as  would  satisfy 
a  jury  upon  trial. 

Every  species  of  property,  or  legal,  or  equitable  interest  in  property,  is  sub- 
ject to  attachment  and  execution  at  law. 

Assignments,  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  not  regulated  by  any 
special  enactments  and  are  common  in  use.  The  debtor,  so  far  as  the  State  laws 
are  concerned,  may  prefer  any  creditor  or  class  of  creditors,  or  may  exact  releases, 
if  he  assigns  all  his  propertj\  Any  chose  in  action,  judgment,  bond,  legacy  or 
distributive  share  of  an  estate  may  be  assigned  in  writing,  signed  by  the  person 
authorized  to  assign  the  same,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name. 

As  to  garnishment,  attachments,  either  on  judgment  or  on  original  process,  in 
those  cases  where  attachments  are  authorized,  may  be  laid  in  the  hands  of  any 
person  or  corporation  who  may  then  be  made  to  disclose  under  oath  whether 
tliey  owe  or  are  indebted  to  the  defendant  or  have  any  property  of  his  in  their 
possession.  ^100  of  the  wages  due  to  any  laborer,  or  employee  is  exempt  from 
attachment  or  garnishment. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  a  protest  made  by  a  notary  public  for  non-payment  or 
non-acceptance,  is  ^jrtma/acie  evidence  of  the  presentment  and  non-jjayment  or 
non-acceptance  at  the  tim'e  and  in  the  manner  stated  in  the  protest,  and  that  notices 
thereof  have  been  sent  or  delivered  in  the  manner  therein  stated.  The  holder 
of  a  protested  bill  of  exchange,  drawn  in  this  State  on  a  foreign  country,  shall 
recover  so  much  current  money  as  will  purchase  a  good  bill  on  the  same  country, 
and  fif  ten  per  cent,  damages,  and  costs  and  legal  interest.  If  the  bill  is  drawn 
upon  any  person  in  any  other  State,  district  or  territory  of  the  United  States, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MAEYLAXD. 


8G7 


the  holder  shall  recover  bo  much  current  money  as  will  produce  a  good  bill  on 
the  same  place  and  eight  per  cent,  damages,  and  costs  and  legal  interest. 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  cases  where  the  debt  or  damage 
claimed  does  not  exceed  one  hundred  dollars,  and  in  all  cases  of  greater  amount 
the  circuit  courts  of  the  several  counties  have  jurisdiction,  and  in  Baltimore  city 
either  the  superior  court,  court  of  common  pleas,  or  city  court. 

An  execution  or  attachment  may  issue  at  any  time  within  12  years  from  the 
date  of  such  judgment,  or,  if  there  be  a  stay  thereon,  at  any  time  "within  12  years 
after  the  expiration  of  cuch  stay,  v^here  there  has  been  no  change  of  parties  to 
such  judgment.  In  the  city  of 'Baltimore,  execution  can  issue  on  the  day  judg  - 
ment is  rendered.  In  somo  of  the  counties,  v/hen  judgment  is  rendered  at  tha 
first  trial  term,  there  is  a  stay,  by  rule  of  court,  until  the  next  term.  Every 
kind  of  property  can  bo  reached  either  by  execution  or  attachment.  Kedemp- 
tion  after  sale  upon  execution  is  not  allowed.  Execution  may  be  stayed  for  six 
months  by  superseding  the  judgment  within  sixty  days  after  it  is  entered,  by 
giving  two  securities  v/ho  must  confess  judgment. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  upon  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  from  the  date  of 
the  judgment,  and  upon  all  leasehold  interests  and  terms  for  years,  except 
leases  for  not  more  than  five  years  and  not  renewable.  But  a  judgment  is  not 
a  lien  upon  personal  property  until  execution  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  sheriff. 
Execution  may  issue  at  any  time  within  twelve  jears,  but  after  twelve  years 
the  judgement  is  barred  by  limitations,  unless  previously  renewed  by  scire  facias. 
Judgments  of  justices  of  the  peace  can  be  made  a  lien  on  real  estate  by  being 
recorded. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Makried  Wojiek,  Wills,  &c.— The  form  of  convey-  - 
ances  have  been  simplilied  by  tlie  code.  No  words  of  inheritance  are  neces- 
sary. A  fee  simple  estata  passes,  unless  a  contrary  intention  shall  appear  by 
jCxpress  terms  or  bo  necessarily  implied.  Deeds  must  be  under  seal  (a  scrawl 
is  sufiicient),  and  the  signature  must  be  attested  by  at.  least  one  witness.  A  con- 
(Bideration  must  be  stated.  In  deeds  of  fee  simple  property,  the  wife  must  join 
to  release  her  right  of  dower.  No  special  form  of  acknowledgment  or  separate 
examination  i!^ necessary  for  a  married  woman. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate. 
State  of  Makyland,  ) 
County  op  Carrol,  j 

I  hereby  certify  that,  on  this  day         ,  in  the  year  ,  before  tlio 

subscriber  (here  insert  the  official  style  of  the  ofiScer  taking  the  acknowledgment), 
ersonally  appeard  (here  insert  the  name  of  person  or  persons  making  the  ac- 
nowledgment),  and  acknowledged  the  aforegoing  deed  to  be  his  act  (or  did  each 
acknowledge  the  aforegoing  deed  to  be  their  respective  act). 

[Seal.]  (Signature.) 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
the  day  and  year  aforesaid- 

The  acknowledgment,  if  made  within  the  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace  for  any  county  or  city,  or  a  judge  of  a  court  of  a  county  or  city 
having  a  seal.  If  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State, 
but  out  of  the  county  or  city  in  which  the  real  estate  lies,  the  official  character  of 
the  justice  of  the  peace  must  be  certified  by  the  clerk  of  the  circuit  court  or 
superior  court  under  his  official  seal. 

If  acknowledged  without  the  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  the  acknowl- 
edgment may  be  made  before  :  First,  a  notary  public  (who  must  atlix  his  notarial 
seal);  second,  a  judge  of  any  court  of  the  United  States;  third,  a  judge  of  any 
court  of  any  State  or  territory  having  a  seal  j  fourth,  a  commissioner  of  Mary- 
land to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds. 

If  acknowledged  without  the  United  States,  the  acknowledgment  may  be 
made  before  :  First,  any  minister  or  consul  of  the  United  States  ;  second,  a  notary 
public  ;  third,  a  commissioner  of  Maryland  to  take  acknowledgments.  To  every 
certificate  before  a  judge  tlie  seal  of  the  court  must  be  affixed. 

Married  women  hold  their  real  and  personal  property  for  their  own  separate 
use  and  entirely  protected  from  the  debts  of  tlie  husband,  and  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  a  trustee.  They  may  devise  the  same  as  fully  as  a  femme  sole,  or  may 
convey  the  same  by  a  joint  deed  with  the  husband.  If  the  wife  die  intestate, 
leaving  children,  her  husband  has  a  life  estate  in  her  property ;  if  she  die  in- 
testate leaving  no  children,  her  husband  has  a  life  estate  in  her  real  estate  and 
her  personal  property  vests  in  him  absolutely.  A  married  woman  may  be  sued 
jointly  with  her  husband  on  any  note,  contract,  or  agreement  which  she  has  ex- 
ecuted jointly  v/ith  him,  and  the  judgments  recovered  in  such  cases  are  liens  ou 
the  property  of  both,  and  may  b©  collected  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the  defend- 


8GS 


SPECIAL  LAV/S  OF  ?1ARR AOIIUSETTS. 


ants  woro  not  husband  and  v.-ifo.  A  woman  becomes  of  lef;al  ago  to  conVey  real 
estato  at  twenty-one,  but  may  receive  lier  property  and  release  her  guardian  at 
eightceii,  or  upon  marriage. 

Bills  of  sale  or  cliattel  mortgages  aio  valid,  although  the  vendor  or  mortgagor 
of  Lho  chattels  remains  in  poascssion  ;  provided,  they  aro  jjroperly  acknovvl(;dg(;d 
and  recorded,  and  the  vendee  or  mortgagee  sliall  make  oath  at  the  time  of  ex- 
ecution before  some  person  authorized  to  tako  the  acknowledgment,  that  tlio 
consideration  stated  in  the  bill  of  sale  or  mortgage  is  true  ajid  bona  Jide.  They 
maybe  acknowledged  out  of  the  State  before  any  person  authorized  to  take  ac- 
knowledgment of  deeds,  and  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  or  city  -whore  the 
vendor  resides,  withiix  twenty  days  from  date.  If  aclcnowledged  within  the  State, 
it  must  be  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  judge  of  the  orphans'  court  of  the  city 
or  county  where  the  vendor  resides. 

Wills  should  be  in  -writing,  and  signed  by  the  party  making  them,  or  by  some 
other  person  in  his  i^resence  and  by  his  express  directions,  and  shall  be  attested 
and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  by  three  or  four  credible  wit- 
nesses. A  wife  may  make  a  will  and  give  all  her  property,  or  any  part  thereof 
to  her  husband,  or  any  one  other  person,  with  the  consent  of  the  husband  sub- 
scribed to  said  -will.  Provided  the  wife  shall  have  been  privately  examined  by 
witnesses  to  said  will,  apart  out  of  the  presence  and  hearing  of  her  husband,  &c. 
(in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for  in  deeds),  and  provided  also  said  will  bo 
j'nade  CO  days  before  death  of  the  testatrix. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Exemptions  feosi  Forced  ^■A.-UE.—TIomeioorth  ;?800,  and  Personal  Property. 
Every  householder  having  a  family  shall  be  entitled  to  an  estate  of  homestead 
to  the  extent  in  value  of  $800,  iu  the  farm  or  lot  of  land  and  buildings  thereon 
owned  or  rightly  possessed  by  lease  or  otherwise  and  occupied  by  him  as  a  resi- 
dence, and  such  homestead  and  all  right  and  title  therein  shall  be  exempt  from 
attachment,  levy  or  execution,  sale  for  the  paj^ment  of  his  debts  or  other  pur- 
poses. To  constitute  such  catato  of  homestead  and  to  entitle  property  to  such 
exemption,  it  shall  be  set  forth  in  the  deed  of  conveyance  by  -which  the  property 
is  acquired  that  it  is  designed  to  be  held  as  a  homestead,  or  after  the  title  has 
been  acquired  such  design  shall  be  declared  by  a  Avriting  duly  signed,  sealed, 
acknowledged  and  recorded  on  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county  or  district 
Avhsre  the  property  is  situated.  Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows  :  The 
necessary -wearing  apparel  of  the  debtor  and  his  family ;  1  bedstead,  bed,  and  the 
necessary  bedding  for  every  two  persons  of  the  family ;  stove  and  fuel  not 
exceeding  $50  in  value  ;  other  necessary  household  furniture  not  exceeding 
in  value  $300  ;  the  family  library  not  exceeding  $50  in  value ;  1  cqw,  6  sheep, 
1  swine  and  2  tons  of  hay  ;  tools,  implements  and  fixtures  for  carryiiig  on  trade 
or  business  not  exceeding  $100  in  value;  materials  and  stock  designed  for  his 
trade  or  business  not  exceeding  $100  in  value  ;  necessary  provisions  not  exceed- 
ing $50  in  value  ;  the  boat,  fishing  tackle  and  nets  of  fishermen,  actually  in  use 
in  their  business,  not  exceeding  $100  in  value  ;  the  uniform,  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments required  by  la-iv  to  be  kept  by  the  citizens  ;  1  sewing  machine  to  the 
value  of  $100,  and  the  -wages  for  personal  labor  are  exempt  from  attachment  to 
the  extent  of  $20  for,  a  debt  or  demand  other  than  for  necessaries  furnished  to  the 
debtor  or  his  family. 

Mechakics'  Lien. — Any  person  furnishing  labor  and  materials  for  the  erec- 
tion, alteration  or  repairs  of  any  building,  shall  have  a  lien  on  the  same,  but  no 
lien  for  the  materials  shall  attach  unless  he  shall  notify  the  owner,  in  case  he  is 
not  the  purchaser,  in  v/riting,  that  he  intends  to  claim  a  lien  for  the  same  before 
they  are  furnished.  Where  the  contract  for  furnishing  labor  and  materials  ia  for 
an  entire  sum,  a  lien  -will  attach  for  the  labor,  if  its  value  can  be  ascertained 
separate  from  the  materials,  but  not  beyond  such  entire  sum.  Notice  in  writing 
from  the  owner  of  such  building,  that  he  will  not  be  responsible  for  the  labor 
and  materials  to  bo  furnished  to  the  party  furnishing  or  performing  the  same, 
■will  prevent  the  lien  from  attaching. 

Collection  of  Debts.— When  an  arrest  of  the  defendant  in  a  civil  action, 
on  mesne  process,  in  an  action  of  contract,  is  desired  by  the  plaintiff,  the  plain- 
tiff, or  some  person  in  his  behalf,  malces  affidavit,  and  proves  to  the  satisfaction 
of  some  justice  of  a  court  of  record,  police  court,  judge  of  a  probate  court,  master 
in  chancery,  commissioner  of  insolvency,  and,  except  in  the  county  of  Suffolk, 
tiial  justice  or  of  any  justice  of  the  peace,— 1.  That  he  has  a  good  cause  of  action, 
and  reasonable  expectation  of  recovering  a  sum  amounting  to  $20.  exclusive  of  all 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


869 


costs  which  have  accrued  in  any  former  action.  2.  That  he  believes,  and  has 
reason  to  believe,  the  defendant  has  property  not  exempt  from  being  talcen  on 
execution,  which  he  does  not  intend  to  apply  to  payment  of  the  plantiS's  claim  ; 
and,  3.  That  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  that  the  defendant  intends 
to  leave  the  State,  60  that  execution,  if  obtained,  cannot  be  served  upon  him  ; 
or  (instead  of  the  seconder  third),  that  the  defendant  is  an  attorney-at-law  ; 
that  the  debt  sought  to  be  recovered  is  for  money  collected  by  the  defendant  for 
the  plaintiff,  and  that  the  defendant  unreasonably  neglects  to  pay  the  same  to 
the  plaintiff.  And  such  affidavit,  and  the  certilicate  of  the  magistrate  that  he  is 
Batislied  the  same  is  true,  thall  be  annexed  to  the  writ. 

In  actions  of  tort,  tlie  arrest  of  the  defendant  may  be  procured  when  tho 
plaintiff,  or  some  one  in  his  behalf,  make3  oath,  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  one  of 
said  magistrates,  that  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  that  he  has  a  gootl 
cause  of  action  against  the  defendant ;  that  he  has  reasonable  expectation  of 
recovering  a  sura  equal,  at  least,  to  one-third  tho  damages  claimed  in  the  writ ; 
and  that  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  that  the  defendant  intends  to 
leave  the  State,  so  that  If  execution  be  obtained  it  cannot  be  served  on  him.  An 
order  for  arrest  on  an  execution  issued  on  a  judgment  for  debt  or  damages  in  a 
civil  action,  except  in  actions  of  tort,  may  be  ol;)tained  when  the  plaintiff,  or  some 
one  in  his  behalf,  makes  affidavit  and  proves  to  tho  satisfaction  of  any  one  of  said 
magistrates  :  1.  That  he  believes,  and  has  good  reason  to  believe,  that  the  debtor 
has  property  not  exempt  from  being  taken  on  execution,  which  he  does  not  intend  to 
apply  to  the  payment  of  the  plaintiff's  claim  ;  or,  2.  That  since  the  debt  was  con- 
tracted, or  the  cause  of  action  accrued,  the  debtor  has  fraudulently  conveyed,  con- 
cealed, or  otherwise  disposed  of  some  part  of  his  estate,  with  a  design  to  securo 
the  same  to  his  own  use  and  defraud  his  creditors  ;  or,  3.  That  since  the  debt 
was  contracted,  or  cause  of  action  accrued,  the  debtor  has  hazarded  and  paid 
money  or  other  property  to  the  value  of  §100  or  more  in  some  kind  of  gaming 
prohibited  by  the  laws  of  this  State  ;  or,  4.  That  sinco  the  debt  was  contracted 
the  debtor  has  wilfully  expended  and  misused  his  goods  and  estate,  or  some  part 
thereof,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  himself  toswear  that  he  has  not  any  estate  to 
the  amount  of  ^520,  except  such  as  is  exempt  from  being  taken  on  execution  ; 
or,  5.  (If  the  action  was  founded  on  contract.)  That  the  debtor  contracted  tho 
debt  with  an  intention  not  to  pay  the  same  ;  or,  6.  That  the  debtor  is  an  attorney- 
at-law  ;  that  tho  debt  upon  which  the  judgment  on  which  the  execution  issued 
was  for  money  collected  by  the  debtor  for  the  creditor,  anZ  that  said  attorney 
■unreasonably  neglects  to  pay  the  same.  And  such  affidavit  and  the  certiticate  of 
the  magistrate  that  he  is  satisfied  there  is  reasonable  cause  to  believe  the  charges 
therein  contained,  or  some  one  of  them,  are  true,  shall  be  annexed  to  the  execu- 
tion. 

No  woman  shall  bo  arrested  on  any  civil  process  except  for  tort.  But  when- 
ever any  person  shall  obtain  a  judgment  against  any  woman,  whether  married 
or  unmarried,  for  the  sum  of  $20  and  upwards,  exclusive  of  all  costs,  which  make 
a  part  of  said  judgment,  and  while  so  much  as  that  amount  remains  uncollected, 
and  shall  take  any  execution  upon  the  same,  he  may  demand  payment  of  the 
same,  and  upon  failure  to  satisfy  said  execution,  the  judgment  creditor  may  cite 
the  judgment  debtor  to  appear  before  the  court  and  submit  to  an  examination 
touching  her  estate  and  the  disposition  of  the  same. 

When  a  person  is  arrested  on  mes2ie^9roce.';s  in  actions  of  contract,  as  above 
described,  he  may  obtain  his  release  by  proving,  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  one  of 
Baid  magistrates,  that  he  does  not  intend  to  leave  the  State,  so  that  execution,  if 
obtained,  cannot  be  eerved,on  him,  or  by  taking  the  oath  for  the  relief  of  poor 
debtors,  or  by  giving  bail  either  to  pay  the  judgment  or  to  answer  to  the  execu- 
tion. When  a  person  is  arrested  on  mesne  process  in  an  action  of  tort,  he  may 
obtain  his  release  by  giving  bail.  When  arrested  on  execution,  the  defendant 
may  obtain  his  discharge  by  taking  the  oath  for  the  relief  of  poor  debtors,  before 
any  one  of  said  magistrates,  and  satisfying  said  magistrates  of  its  truth.  The  oath 
is  as  follows  :  "  I,"  A.  B.,  "  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  have  not  any  estate,  real 
or  personal,  to  the  amount  of  thirty  dollars,  except  the  estate,  goods  and 
chattels  which  are  by  law  exempt  from  being  taken  on  execution,  and  that  I 
have  not  any  other  estate  now  conveyed,  concealed,  or  in  any  way  disposed  of 
with  the  design  to  secure  the  same  to  my  own  use  or  to  defraud  my  creditors." 

When  any  of  the  charges  of  fraud  aforesaid  are  proved,  the  debtor  shall  have 
no  benefit  from  the  provisions  for  the  relief  of  poor  debtors,  and  may  be  sentenced 
to  confinement  at  hard  labor  in  the  house  of  correction.  If  the  debtor  is  dis- 
charged on  execution  by  taking  the  poor  debtors'  oath,  the  judgment  remains  in 
full  force  against  his  goods  and  estate,  but  he  is  not  liable  to  a  second  arrest  of 
tho  body. 

y 


870 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MASS ACIItTSETTf!. 


An  attaohmGiit  of  tlio  property  of  defendanL  in  permitted  in  nil  oases  in  mesne 
process;  cither  by  direct  altaeJiinent  or  l)y  truetoc  or  garnisheci  process.  And 
wlioii  th(3  pi;(>i)erty  of  tlio  defendant  <;annot  1)0  readied,  so  as  to  1)0  attached  in  a 
suit  at  law,  it  may  ho  reached  in  equity.  In  cases  of  doubt  as  to  the  ownership 
of  tho  property  to  bo  atlaclied,  tlio  officer  requires  a  bond  of  indemnity. 

Besides  the  courts  of  minor  jurisdiction,  as  of  a  justice  of  tlio  peace  outside 
of  Suffolk  county  having  a  jurisdiction  not  exceeding  ^100,  and  of  police,  dis- 
trict, and  municipal  courts  having  jurisdiction  not  exceeding  §oOO,  and  establish- 
ed in  tho  larger  towns  and  cities  of  tho  State,  there  are  two  courts  established 
liavi)ig  jurisdiction  throughout  tho  State.  I'lrst— Tho  superior  court  holds  terms 
in  mo.;t  of  the  counties  every  three  months.  It  har-i  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  first-named  courts  from  s520  to  their  limit,  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
claims  exceeding -IjSOO  and  not  exceeding  $1000  iu  all  counties  except  Sulfolk 
county.  Ill  the  latter  county,  tho  jurisdiction  extends  to  $4000,  and  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  tho  supremo  judicial  court  of  all  claims  exceeding  said  Buma 
of  1000  and  $  1000.  Service  of  process  must  bo  made  in  tho  superior  court  14 
days  before  return  day.  Sec07id— The  supreme  judicial  court  has  juiisdlction  in 
equity,  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  tho  superior  court  as  aliove  described,  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  of  libels  for  divorce,  and  jurisdiction  of  questions  of  law 
brought  up  from  tho  superior  court. 

Judgments  are  not  a  lien  upon  property,  but  when  an  attachment  has  been 
made  on  mesne  2)yocess,  the  Ilea  holds  for  30  days  after  judgment,  in  which  to 
mako  a  levy  on  tho  execution.  Ko  execution  will  be  issued  within  24  hours 
after  judgment  has  been  entered,  and  all  original  executions  must  be  issued 
within  one  year  after  the  party  is  entitled  to  sue  it  out,  r.z.d  i:o  successive  execu- 
tion will  be  issued  unless  within  five  years  after  the  return  day  of  tho  one  preced- 
ing it.   All  executions  are  returnable  in  sixty  days  from  their  date. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Married  Womex,  Wills,  &c.— Conveyances  of  lands,  or 
of  any  estate  or  interest  therein,  may  be  made  by  deed  executed  by  any  person 
haviiig  authority  to  convey  the  same,  or  by  liis  attorney,  and  acknowledged  and 
recorded  in  tha  registry  of  deeds  for  tho  county  or  district  wliere  tho  lands  lie, 
without  any  other  act  or  ceremony,  _  • 

A  wafer,  or  other  tenacious  substance  upon  which  an  impression  may  be 
made,  is  a  valid  seal  in  this  State.  Tho  acknowledgment  of  deeds  shall  bo  by 
the  grantors,  or  one  of  them,  or  by  tho  attorney  executing  tho  same,  and  may  bo 
made  before  any  justice  of  tho  peace,  magistrate  or  notary  public,  or  commis- 
Bioner  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  within  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  foreign  country,  or  before  a  minister  or  consul  of  tho 
United  States  in  any  fori^n  country.  No  subscribing  witness  is  required 
when  the  deed  is  acknowledged  by  one  of  tho  grantors.  Incase  the  grantor 
refuses  to  acknowledge  tho  same,  it  may  be  proved  before  a  justice  of  the  peaca 
in  the  county  v/hero  the  land  lies,  or  where  the  grantor  or  any  subscribing  wit- 
ness to  the  deed  resides,  by  the  testimony  of  the  subscribing  v/itness,  an-dthe  shall 
certify  the  due  execution  of  same.  In  signing  deeds  it  is  not  necessary  that  tho 
wife  be  separately  examined ;  it  is  sufficient  to  bar  her  dower,  if  she  join  with 
her  husband  in  the  conveyance. 

A  married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property.  May  convey  the 
same,  make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole  ; 
but  her  separate  conveyance  of  her  real  estate  shall  be  subject  to  her  husband's 
tenancy  by  the  courtesy.  Conveyances,  contracts  and  suits  are  not  authorized 
between  husband  and  wife.  Every  woman  shall  be  entitled  to  her  dower  at 
common  law  in  the  lands  of  her  husband,  to  be  assigned  to  her  after  his  decease, 
unless  she  is  lawfully  barred  thereof. 

Chattel  mortgages  of  personal  property  shall  be  recorded  on  the  records  of 
the  city  or  town  where  the  mortgagor  resides  when  the  mortgage  is  made,  and  on 
the  records  of  the  city  or  town  in  which  he  then  principally  transacts  his  busi- 
ness, or  follows  his  trade  or  calling.  If  the  mortgagor  resides  without  the  Ste.te, 
his  mortgage  of  personal  property  within  the  State  when  the  mortgage  is 
made,  shall  be  recorded  on  the  records  of  the  city  or  town  where  the  property 
then  is  ;  unless  a  mortgage  is  so  recorded  within  fifteen  days  from  the  dato 
thereof,  or  the  property  mortgaged  is  delivered  to  and  retained  by_  the  mort- 
gagee, it  shall  not  be  valid  against  any  person  other  than  the  parties  thereto, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  mortgage,  contract  of  bottomry  or  respondentia, 
or  any  ti-ansfer,  assignment  or  hypothecation  of  a  ship  or  vessel,  and  also  except 
in  case  of  any  transfer  or  mortgage  of  goods  at  sea  or  abroad,  if  the  mortgagee 
takes  possession  of  such  goods  as  soon  as  may  be  after  their  arrival  in  this  State. 
When  it  is  required  that  a  mortgage  of  personal  property  shall  be  recorded  in 
the  records  of  two  municipalities,  such  mortgage  shall  be  considered  aa  dulj 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MICHIGA^^-. 


871 


recorded,  ■when  recorded  in  the  record  of  one  of  them  ,  provineci,  it  is  recorded  in 
the  records  of  the  other  within  ten  days  from  the  date  of  such  first  record. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  other  person 
in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  tho 
presence  of  the  testator  by  three  or  more  competent  witnesses. 


Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— ^Tome  worth  S1500  and  Personal  Pro- 
•perty.  A  homestead  consisting  of  any  quantity  of  land,  not  exceeding  40  acres 
and  dwelling  house  thereon  and  its  appurtenances,  not  included  in  any  recorded 
town  plat  or  city,  or  village  ;  or  instead  thereof,  at  the  ontion  of  the  owner,  ono 
lot  in  a  recorded  town  plat  or  city,  or  village,  and  the  dwelling  house  thereon 
and  its  appurtenances.  Said  property,  however,  must  not  exceed  $1,500  in 
value ;  if  so,  it  may  be  sold  and  the  excess  applied  in  payment  of  the  judgment. 
Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows  :  All  spinning  wheels,  weaving  loom 
with  the  apparatus,  and  stoves  put  up  and  kept  for  use  in  any  dwelling  house,  a 
Beat,  pew  or  slip  occupied  by  a  person  or  family  in  any  place  of  public  worship,  all 
cemeteries,  tombs  and  rights  of  burial,  all  arms  and  accoutrements  required  to 
be  kept  by  any  person,  all  wearing  apparel  of  every  person  or  family,  library 
and  school  books  of  every  individual  and  family  not  exceeding  f  150  in  value^ 
and  all  family  pictures.  To  each  householder  10  sheep  with  their  fleeces,  and 
the  yarn  or  cloth  manufactured  from  the  same,  2  cows,  5  swine,  and  provision 
and  fuel  for  six  months'  rise,  all  household  goods,  furniture  and  utensils  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $250 ;  tools,  implement,  materials,  stock,  apparatus,  team, 
vehicle,  horses,  harness  or  other  tilings  to  enable  any  person  to  carry  on  tho 
profession  or  trade,  occupation  or  business  in  which  he  is  wholly  or  principally 
engaged,  not  exceeding  in  value  5250  ;  and  a  sufiicicnt  quantity  of  hay,  grain, 
feed  and  roots  for  properly  keeping  for  six  months  the  animals  hereinbeforo 
specified  ;  1  sewing  machine  for  family  use  is  also  exempt.  No  portion  of  tho 
property  above  specified,  however,  is  exempt  from  execution  upon  a  judgment 
for  the  purchase  money. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Any  person  who  shall,  by  contract  with  the  owner,  part 
owner  or  lessee  of  any  piece  of  land,  furnish  labor  or  materials  for  constructing 
or  repairing  any  building,  wharf  or  appurtenances  on  such  land,  has  a  lien 
therefor  upon  said  building,  wharf,  machinery,  appurtenances,  the  entire  in- 
terest of  said  owner,  part  owner  or  lessee  in  and  to  said  land  not  exceeding  one 
quarter -section  ;  or  if  in  the  limits  of  an  incorporated  village  or  city,  in  the  lot 
or  lots  on  which  said  building,  wharf,  machinery  or  appurtenances  are  situated, 
to  the  extent  of  his  claim.  He  must  file  a  verified  certificate  with  the  register 
of  deeds,  containing  a  copy  of  the  contract,  if  in  writing,  or  if  not  a  statement 
of  its  terms,  with  a  description  of  the  land,  and  a  statement  of  the  amount  duo 
and  to  become  due,  with  all  credits  to  which  the  owner  may  be  entitled. 

The  owner,  part  owner  or  lessee  must  be  notified  of  the  filing  of  the  certifi- 
cate. In  order  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  lien,  proceedings  to  foreclose  must  bo 
taken  within  six  months  after  the  last  installment  shall  become  due.  A  sub- 
contractor has  a  lien  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  original  contractor, 
upon  complying  with  substantially  the  same  provisions  as  in  case  of  an  original 
contractor.  Mechanics,  workmen,  and  other  persons,  also  have  a  lien  in  certain 
cases,  for  performing  labor  or  furnishing  materials  in  building,  altering,  repair- 
ing, beautifying  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  other  building,  machinery  oi; 
appurtenances  to  any  house  or  building. 

Collection  of  Debts. — Persons  may  be  arrested  by  capias  ad  respondendum,' 
in  actions  arising  on  contract,  to  recover  damages  for  breach  of  promise  to 
marry,  for  moneys  collected  by  a  public  ofificer,  for  any  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
oluce,  or  in  any  professional  employment,  and  in  other  actions  than  those  aris- 
ing upon  contract,  where  an  order  for  bail  shall  be  indorsed  on  the  writ  by  a 
judge  of  the  court,  or  by  a  circuit  court  commissioner. 

Arrests  may  also  be  made  in  other  actions  upon  contract  than  those  above 
specified,  if  it  be  made  to  appear  that  the  defendant  fraudulently  contracted  the 
debt  or  incurred  the  obligation,  or  that  he  has  property  which  he  has  removed, 
or  is  about  to  remove,  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  with  intent  to  defraud 
his  creditors,  or  which  he  fraudulently  conceals,  or  which  he  unjustly  refuses  to 
anply  to  the  payment  of  any  Judgmeut  which  shall  have  Ijeen  rendered  against 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MICHIGAN, 


872 


RPECTAL  LA-^R  OP  MICHIGAN'. 


Attachi-nenta  inay  issue  in  favor  of  any  creditor  aRainKt  any  dcblor  having 
property  in  tlio  county  in  wlilcli  the  creditor  or  debtor  may  reside,  Bubject  to  the 
aLLachnient,  in  tho  circuit  court  of  fiaid  county;  or  in  caso  the  de1>tor  has  no 
property  in  tho  county,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  the  Slate,  then  an  attaclnnent  may 
jSRiie  in  tho  circuit  court  of  any  county  where  tho  i)roj)erty  of  tho  debtor  may  bo 
found. 

Tho  following  aro  the  principal  causes  of  attachment :  1.  That  tlio  defend- 
ant has  absconded  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  this  State,  or  that  lio  is  conccialed 
therein,  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors.  2.  That  tho  defendant  has  asoij^ned,  dis- 
posed of,  or  concealed,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of,  or  coiiceal  any  of  his 
property,  with  intent  to  defravid  his  creditors.  3.  That  tho  defendant  Ims  re- 
moved or  is  about  to  remove  any  of  his  property  out  of  the  State,  with  intent  to 
defraud  his  creditors.  4.  That  he  has  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  or  iii' 
curred  the  obligation  respecting  which  the  suit  is  brought.  />.  That,  ho  is  a  v.o-a^ 
resident  of  the  State  and  has  not  resided  therein  for  three  months  immediately 
preceding  the  timo  of  commencing  the  suit ;  or,  G.  That  tho  defendant  io  a 
foreign  corporation. 

No  bond  is  required  on  commencement  of  suit,  but  the  defendant  may  re- 
cover the  possession  of  the  pt-operty  taken  by  virtue  of  the  writ  by  delivering  to 
the  oflicer  a  bond  conditioned  for  the  payment  of  any  judgment  or  tho  return  of 
tlip  property.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  property  must  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
oflicer.  Attachments  may  bo  dissolved  by  a  judge  of  the  court,  or  by  a  circuit 
court  commissioner,  upon  application  of  the  defendant,  if  he  .shall  be  satisfied 
that  the  plaintiff  had  not  a  good  and  legal  cause  for  Buing  out  tho  writ. 

Assignments  of  bonds,  notes,  and  other  choses  in  action  not  negotiable  under 
existing  laws,  are  valid,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  for  and  recover  the  same  iu 
his  own  name. 

A  writ  of  garnishment  may  issue  in  a  personal  action  arising  upon  contract. 
As  to  notes  and  bills,  no  person  in  this  State  can  be  charged  as  an  acceptor 
on  a  bill  of  exchange,  unless  his  acceptance  is  in  writing,  signed  by  himself  or 
Ms  lawful  agent.  Bills  of  exchange,  duly  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non- 
payment, if  drawn  or  endorsed  within  this  State,  payable  at  any  place  without 
the  State  but  in  the  Lnited  States,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  damages  in  ad- 
dition to  tho  contents  of  such  bill,  with  interest  and  costs,  as  follows:  When 
payable  within  either  of  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio  and  New  York,  three  per  cent,  on  the  contents  of  the  bill ;  when  payable 
within  either  of  the  States  of  Missouri,  Kentucky,  ]\laine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Virginia  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  five  per  cent,,  and  if  payable  else- 
where within  any  of  the  United  States  or  territories  thereof,  ten  per  cent.  No 
damages  are  allowed,  if  payable  within  this  State.  If  payable  outside  of  tho 
United  States,  five  per  cent,  is  allowed,  besides  the  current  rate  of  exchange  at 
time  of  demand.  All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  drawers,  makers,  guaran- 
tors of  payment,  endorsers  or  acceptors,  may  be  sued  in  one  action,  and  judg- 
ment may  be  rendered  and  execution  issued  in  the  same  manner  as  though  all 
were  joirit  contractors.  Any  bill  of  exchange,  note,  or  draft  payable  on  demand, 
and  any  check,  bill  of  exchange,  or  draft  drawn  upon  any  bank  or  banking  insti- 
tution, is  deemed  to  be  due  on  the  day  mentioned  for  tho  payment  of  tho  same, 
without  any  days  of  grace  being  allowed.  ■  Guarantees  of  payment  or  of  the  col- 
lection are  negotiable,  and  pass  to  the  holder  of  tho  note.  Notarial  protest  is 
evidence  of  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner 
stated  in  the  protest,  unless  the  defendant  shall  annex  to  his  plea  an  affidavit 
denyinj^  the  fact  of  having  received  such,  notice. 

justices  of  the  peaca  have  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  actions  wherein  the  debt  or 
damages  do  not  exceed  §100,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  courts  of 
record  in  all  actions  upon  contract  wherein  the  debt  or  damages  do  not  exceed 
^p300,  except  actions  for  a  disturbance  of  a  right  of  v/ay  or  other  easement;  ac- 
tions for  libel,  slander,  or  for  malicious' prosecutions,  and  actions  against  execu- 
tors or  administrators  as  such,  except  in  cases  specially  provided  by  law.  Cir- 
cuit courts,  in  their  respective  counties,  have  and  exerciseoriginal  and  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  all  civil  actions  and  remedies  of  whatever  name  and  description, 
and  of  all  prosecutions  for  crimes,  misdemeanors,  offences  and  penalties,  except 
in  cases  where  exclusive  or  concurrent  jurisdiction  is  given  to  or  possessed  by 
some  court  or  tribunal  in  virtue  of  some  statutory  provisions,  or  the  principles 
and  usages  of  law.  Said  court  has  such  appellate  jurisdiction  and  powers  as  are 
provided  by  law.  Service  of  summons  may  be  made  at  any  time  before  return 
(lay. 

A  judgment  has  no  effect  upon  the  property  of  a  jud^ent  debtor,  either  real 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MICIIIGA^T. 


873 


or  personal,  until  the  issuG  and  levy  of  an  execution .  A  certified  transcript  o£ 
the  judgment  of  a  justice  of  tlie  peace  for  twenty  dollars  and  over,  exclusive  of 
costs,  on  certain  conditions,  may  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  circuit 
court  of  the  county  in  which  the  judgment  shall  have  been  rendered,  in  which 
case  the  judgment  shall  be  of  the  same  effect  as  a  judgment  rendered  in  said  cir- 
cuit court.    Judgments  may  be  entered  in  any  court  upon  confession. 

Executions  in  courts  of  record  may  issue  upon  the  reiidition  of  judgment  to 
the  proper  officer  of  any  county  in  the  State,  and  successive  or  alias  executions 
may  issue  one  after  another  upon  the  return  of  any  execution  unsatisfied  in 
whole  or  in  part.  They  are  not  a  lien  upon  property  until  a  levy  is  made.  Exe- 
cutions in  justices'  court,  except  in  certain  specified  cases,  may  issue  at  the  ex- 
piration, of  five  days  from  the  rendition  of  judgment,  unless  the  execution  bo 
stayed.  The  defendant  in  the  execution  in  justices'  court  may  stay  the  same, 
except  in  certain  specified  cases,  by  filing  proper  security  for  the  payment  of  lha 
money,  with  interest  and  costs  for  four  months  from  the  commencement  of  suit, 
if  the  judgment  shall  not  exceed  fifty  dollars,  and  for  six  months  if  the  judgment 
exceeds  fifty  dollars. 

Land  sold  under  execution  may  be  redeemed  within  one  year  from  the  timo 
of  sale.  Every  species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  and  the  interest  of  the  de- 
fendant in  any  property,  except  such  as  is  exempt  from  execution  by  statute,  is 
Bubject  to  execution  and  sale. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Markied  Womex,  "Wills,  &c — Deeds  must  be  under  , 
seal,  with  two  witnesses  ;  a  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  execution  of  deed« 
must  be  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or  commissioner  of  a  court  of  record,  or 
before  any  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State.  The  deed 
must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies.  Deeds  executed  in  any 
other  State  muSt  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  and  the  execu- 
tion thereof  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of 
Buch  State  to  take  acknowledgments  ;  or  they  may  be  acknowledged  before  any 
commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  for  such  purpose. 

If  made  before  any  other  of&cer  than  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  the  deed 
must  have  attached  thereto  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  of  the 
county  or  district  within  which  such  acknowledgment  was  taken  under  his  seal 
of  office  ;  that  the  person  whose  name  is  subscribed  to  the  certificate  of  acknowl- 
edgment was,  at  the  date  thereof,  such  ofiicer  as  he  is  therein  represented  to 
be,  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  such  person  subscribed  thereto  be  genuine, 
and  that  the  deed  is  executed  and  acknowledged  according  to  the  laws  of  such 
State. 

The  acknowledgment  of  a  deed  by  a  married  woman,  when  she  joins  with  her 
husband  in  a  deed  of  conveyance,  must  bo  taken  separately  and  apart  from  her 
husband,  and  she  must  acknowledge  that  she  executes  the  same  freely  and  with- 
out any  fear  or  compulsion  from  any  one. 

A  husband  is  not  required  to  join  in  a  deed  by  the  wife  conveying  her  prop- 
erty. No  particular  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  is  required,  but  it 
should  appear  from  such  certificate  that  the  person  making  the  same  Avas  legally 
authorized  to  take  such  acknowledgment  ;  that  the  grantor  or  grantors  were 
personally  known  to  him,  and  that  they  appeared  before  him  and  acknowledged 
the  deed  to  be  his  or  their  free  act.  When  executed  by  a  married  woman,  it 
should  show  that  she  executed  the  same  freely  and  without  fear  or  compulsion 
from  any  one. 

Married  women  may  hold  teal  and  personal  estate  to  their  separate  use,  and 
may  contract  in  reference  to  the  same,  and  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  like 
effect,  as  if  they  were  unmarried.  And  they  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  relation  to 
their  sole  property  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  unmarried.  Dealings 
directly  between  husband  and  wife  are  permitted.  The  husband  has  no  interest 
in  the  property  of  the  wife  as  tenant  by  the  courtesy,  Separate  property  acquired 
by  females  before  or  after  marriage  is  not  liable  for  the  liusband's  debt.  The 
wife  is  entitled  to  dovv^er  in  all  lauds  owned  by  her  husband  during  coverture. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  attested  and  subscribed  in  thQ  pyesenco 
of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  coinDetent  -witnesses. 


874 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MINNESOTA 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Exemptions  from  Forcet)  Sale  .—Home  ofFAghty  Acrca  in  Farm  Lands,  and 
Lot  in  Villar/e  or  Citii,  with  I'crsonaL  rropi'rtij.  Jiiglity  acres  of  laud  nnd  dwell- 
ing liouGO  thereon,  or  instead  thereof,  one  town  or  city  lot  and  the  dwelling 
houses  thereon,  regardless  of  value.  Family  Bible,  books,  pictures  and  musical 
instruments  ;  church  pew  and  cemetery  lot ;  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and 
family,  also  beds,  bedsteads  and  bedding;  Btovcs  and  appendages,  cooking 
utensils,  and  furniture  not  enumerated  not  exceeding  §500  in  value  ;  3  cows,  10 
Bwine,  1  yoke  of  oxen,  and  a  horse  (or  a  span  of  horses  or  mules),  20  sheep ;  neccs- 
Bary  food  for  stock  for  one  year ;  1  "wagon,  cart  or  dray,  1  elcigh,  2  ploughs, 
1  drag,  and  other  farming  utensils  not  exceeding  $300  'in  value  ;  one  sewing 
machine  ;  seed  grain  for  one  year  ;  one  year's  provisions  for  debtor  and  family  ; 
one  year's  fuel ;  tools  or  instruments  used  for  carrying  on  trade,  and  stock 
in  trade  not  exceeding  f 400  ;  library  and  implements  of  any  professional  man  ; 
80  acres  of  land  and  dwelling  house  thereon,  or  instead  thereof,  one  town  or  city 
lot,  and  the  dwelling  houses  thereon,  regardless  of  value.  Also  the  wages  of 
any  laboring  man  or  woman  or  their  minor  children,  not  exceeding  $50,  due  for 
services  rendered  during  the  jiinety  days  preceding  the  issue  of  the  process. 

Mechakics'  Lien.— ]Mechanics  and  material  men  have  a  lien  for  labor  done  or 
material  furnished  on  land  and  improvements.  Such  lien  is  subject  to  the  rights 
of  prior  bona  fide  lien  holders.  The  claim  must  be  liled  within  one  year,  and  this 
gives  a  lien  for  two  years.  Sub-contractors,  laborers  and  persons  furnishing 
materials  to  the  contractors,  may  acquire  a  lien  on  the  payments  due  to  the  orig- 
inal contractor  by  serving  an  attested  account  on  the  owner. 

Collection'  of  Debts. — Arrest  in  civil  action  is  unknown  here. 
Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  on  the  following  grounds  :  Defendant  being  a 
non-resident  or  a  foreign  corporation,  or  has  departed  from  the  State  with  intent  to 
delay  or  defraud  his  creditors,  or  keeps  himself  concealed  with  like  intent  j  that 
the  debt  was  fraudulently  .contracted ;  or  that  defendant  has  assigned, 
secreted  or  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his 
creditors  ;  or  that  ho  is  about  to  do  so.  Attachments  are  levied  on  bulky  articles 
of  personal  property  without  removal,  by  fding  a  copy  of  the  writ  with  the  town 
or  city  clerk,  and  on  real  estate  by  recording  the  writ  in  the  oflice  of  the  register 
of  deeds. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  not  governed  by  statute  and  fol- 
low common  law  rules.   No  tiling  or  record  is  necessary. 

Garnishment  may  issue  at  the  time  of  filing  the  complaint,  or  issuing 
Bummons,  or  at  any  time  thereafter.  The  indebtedness  of  the  garnishee,  or  the 
value  of  property  in  his  hands,  as  well  as  the  indebtedness  of  the  defendant, 
must  not  be  less  than  $25,  besides  costs,  to  entitle  the  plaintiff  to  judgment  in  the 
district  court,  and  not  less  than  $10  in  the  justice's  court. 

On  notes  and  bills  grace  is  allowed,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressed,  on 
all  time  paper,  and  on  that  payable  at  sight,  but  not  on  that  payable  on  demand. 
Liability  of  indorsers  is  fixed  by  protest  and  notice,  same  as  at  common  law. 
Demand  paper  must  be  presented  within  sixty  days  from  its  date  to  charge  the 
indorser.  Acceptances  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  acceptor  or 
his  duly  authorized  agent. 

District  Courts  and  Courts  of  Common  Pleas  have  original  jurisdiction  in 
all  equitable  actions  where  a  justice  of  the  peace  has  not  jurisdiction,  regardless 
of  amount ;  and  in  all  civil  actions  where  the  amount  exceeds  $100,  and  below 
that  sum,  with  certain  provisions  as  to  costs.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  juris- 
diction oi  all  amounts  under  $100  in  civil  actions,  except  cases  involving  title 
to  real  estate,  false  imprisonment,  libel,  slander,  malicious  prosecution,  crim. 
con.,  seduction,  or  promise  to  marry  ;  or  for  an  action  against  an  administrator 
or  executor. 

Judgments  upon  being  docketed  in  the  office  of  the  court  of  record,  become  a 
lion  on  all  real  property  of  the  judgment  debtor  in  the  county  where  docketed, 
for  ten  years.  No  lien  on  personal  property  is  created  by  a  judgment.  Justices' 
judgments  become  liens  when  a  transcript  is  filed  in  the  district  court. 

Executions  issue  from  district  courts  when  demanded,  or  any  time  within  ten 
years  after  judgment  is  rendered.  They  are  returnable  in  district  courts  within 
sixty  days  ;  personal  property  is  first  levied  upon,  and  is  sold  at  ten  days'  notice  ; 
real  estate  is  sold  on  a  notice  of  six  weeks,  published  in  a  newspaper  of  the 
county,  and  notices  posted  in  three  public  places  for  the  same  time.  Keal  estate 
Bold  on  execution  may  be  redeemed  within  one  year 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 


875 


Deeds,  Eights  of  Married  Womek,  &c.— Deeds  mnst  be  signed,  sealed  (a 
Bcrawl  answering  for  a  seal)  and  acknowledged  by  the  grantor,  attested  by  two 
vdtnesses,  and  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  lands  are  situated.  Acknowl- 
edgments in  this  State  maybe  made  before  a  judge  of  the  supreme,  district  or 
probate  court,  or  a  clerk  of  said  courts,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
or  court  commissioner.  Out  of  this  State,  acknowledgments  of  deeds  to  lands  in 
this  State  may  be  made  before  a  judge  of  a  United  States  court,  judges  or  justices 
of  any  State  or  territorial  court  of  record,  clerks  of  any  of  said  courts,  justices  of 
the  peace,  notaries  public,  or  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this 
State  for  that  purpose.  Justices  of  the  peace  or  other  officers  not  using  a  seal, 
must  have  their  official  character  certified  to  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record. 
No  separate  acknowledgment  to  a  deed  is  required  by  a  wife,  but  she  must  join  in 
her  husband's  acknowledgment. 

The  following  form  of  acknowledgment  is  used  indifferently  for  single  persons 
and  for  husband  and  wife  : 
State  of  Mini^esota,  \ 
County  of  .  ( 

Be  it  known  that  on  this         day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  ,  personally  appeared 

before  me  ,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  person 

described  in  ,  and  who  executed  the  foregoing  instrument  and  acknowledged 
that  executed  the  same  freely  and  voluntarily,  without  any  fear  or  com- 

pulsion from  any  one,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

Married  women  may  hold  property,  real  or  personal,  in  their  own  name  and 
for  their  own  use,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage.  She  may  make 
contracts,  and  her  property  is  liable  for  her  debts  ;  but  no  conveyance  of  her 
separate  real  estate  is  valid  unless  her  husband  join  therein. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  void  as  against  creditors  and  subsequent  mortgagees  and 
purchasers  in  good  faith,  when  the  mortgagor  retains  possession  of  the  property, 
unless  duly  acknowledged  and  filed  in  the  office  of  the  town  or  city  clerk,  both 
where  the  mortgagor  resides  and  where  the  property  is  located.  They  cease  to 
be  notice  after  two  years  from  the  date  of  filing. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

ExEMPTioxs  FROM  FORCED  S  ALE.— Worth  §2,000  and  Personal  Property 
On  debts  contracted  after  Sept.  1, 1870,  only  80  acres  of  land  to  the  head  of  each 
family,  being  a  housekeeper,  to  a  resident  of  any  incorporated  town,  being  the 
head  of  a  family,  and  a  housekeeper,  §2,000  worth  of  real  property,  comprising 
the  proper  homestead.  The  exempt  personality  is,  1.  The  tools  of  a  mechanic 
necessary  for  carrying  on  his  trade.  2.  The  agricultural  implements  of  a  farmer 
necessary  for  two  male  laborers.  3.  The  implements  of  a  laborer.  4.  The  books 
of  a  student  required  for  the  completion  of  his  education.  5.  The  wearing 
apparel  of  every  person.  G.  The  libraries  of  licensed  attorneys-at-law,  practicing 
physicians  and  ministers  of  the  gospel,  not  exceeding  in  value  ^250.  7.  The  arms 
and  accoutrements  of  every  person  enrolled  in  the  militia  of  the  State.  8.  All 
books,  globe  and  maps  used  by  teachers  of  schools,  academies  and  colleges  ;  also, 
the  following  property  of  each  head  of  a  family  or  housekeeper :  one  work  horse 
or  mule,  or  1  yoke  of  oxen ,  2  cows  and  calves,  5  head  of  stock  hogs  and  5  sheep, 
50  bushels  of  corn,  10  bushels  of  wheat  or  rice,  200  lbs.  of  meat,  1  cart  or  wagon, 
not  to  exceed  in  value  $100,  household  and  kitchen  furniture  not  to  exceed  $100 
in  value;  and  $100  of  the  wages  of  laborers  is  exempt  from  garnishment,  in 
the  hands  of  their  employers. 

Liens — Judgments,  when  enrolled,  are  liens  on  all  property  in  the  county 
where  rendered  ;  may  be  made  liens  in  any  county  by  having  abstract  enrolled 
there.  Mortgages  and  deeds  in  trust  are  also  liens.  They  must  be  acknowl- 
edged and  recorded  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  deeds  of  conveyance. 
Mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor  done  and  materials  furnished  in  the  erection  and 
repair  of  buildings,  but  suits  to  eiiforce  a  mechanic's  lien  must  be  commenced  in 
eix  months. 

Collection  of  Debts.— No  person  can  be  arrested  for  debt  in  this  State. 
^  "Writs  of  attachment  may  be  issued  on  one  or  more  of  the  following  grounds : 
1.  That  the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  this  State  ; 
or,  2,  That  he  has  removed  or  is  about  to  remove  himself  or  property  out  of  this 
State;  on  3.  That  he  so  absconds  or  conceals  himself  that  he  cannot  be  served 
With  a,  summons  ;  or,  4.  That  he  has  property  or  rights  in  actions  which  he  con- 
ceals, and  unjustly  refuses  to  apply  to  the  payment  of  Ms  debts  ;  or,  5.  That  he 


876 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MIRRISRIPPI. 


has  .assigned  or  disposed  of,  or  ii  about  to  assign  or  disposo  of  his  property 
or  rights  in  action,  or  sonio  part  thereof,  witli  intent  to  dclraud  his  creditorn,  or 
give  an  unfair  i)roforenco  to  soiiio  of  them  ;  or,  0.  Tliat  ho  iias  converted  or 
is  about  to  convert  liis  property  into  money,  or  evidences  of  debt,  with  intent  to 
l)hu;o  it  beyond  tlie  reacli  of  his  creditors  ;  or,  7.  That  ho  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt,  or  incurred  the  obligation  for  which  tho  suit  has  been,  or  is 
about  to  be  brought. 

Before  any  writ  of  attachment  shall  issue,  tho  creditor,  his  agent  or  attorney, 
must  malce  an  affidavit  as  to  the  amount  an(l  character  of  lii,^  debt  or  claim,  and 
the  existence  of  one  or  more  of  said  grounds  of  attachment,  and  give  bond  iii 
double  the  amount  of  the  principal  of  the  claim,  conditioned  to  pay  all  damages 
v.'liich  tho  defendant  may  eustain  by  reason  of  tho  wrongful  suing  out  of  the 
attachment. 

Writs  of  garnishment  may  issue  on  suggestion  that  any  party  is  indebted  to  or 
has  property  of  tho  defendant  in  his  hands. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  and  other  legal  or  equitable  demands 
is  valid,  and  when  the  assignment  is  in  writing,  the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own 
name.  No  particular  form  of  words  is  necessary  to  constitute  a  valid  assignment. 
The  maker  of  any  bill,  note,  etc.,  may  plead  any  payment,  off-set  or  other  equity 
in  defense  of  tho  same  against  the  assignee,  had  or  possessed  by  him  against  tha 
assignor  previous  to  notice  of  the  assignment. 

Justices'  courts  have  jurisdiction  up  to  $150  ;  Circuit  courts  over  that  amount. 
Chancery  courts  have  jurisdiction  in  the  administration  of  estates,  all  probate 
matters  over  minors  and  lunatics,  in  matters  of  dower  and  divorce,  and  the  fore- 
closure of  mortgages,  and  they  have  nearly  all  the  jurisdiction  of  English  chan- 
cery courts. 

Executions  are  required  to  bo  issued,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  plaintiff, 
■within  20  days  after  the  adjournment  of  the  term  of  court  at  which  the  judgment 
is  rendered.  No  stay  law  for  staying  executions  except  in  justices'  courts,  and 
only  then  upon  giving  bond.  Parties  may,  by  consent,  however,  have  judgment 
entered  up,  with  stay  of  execution  for  any  specified  time. 

Claims  against  deceased  persons  must  be  probated  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of 
the  chancery  court  having  charge  of  the  estate,  within  one  year  from  the  date  of 
the  first  notice  to  creditors  to  present  their  claims,  otherwise  they  are  barred.  If 
the  evidence  of  debt  is  a  bond,  note  or  bill,  it  must  be  filed,  with  the  aflidavit  of 
the  creditor  attached,  that  no  portion  of  the  money  intended  to  be  secured  by  it 
has  been  received,  and  no  security  or  satisfaction  given  for  the  same  except  tho 
amount  credited,  if  any.  If  it  is  an  open  account,  the  aflidavit  must  set  out  that 
tho  amount  stated  is  just  and  true,  and  that  no  part  of  the  money  stated  to 
be  due,  nor  any  security  or  satisfaction  for  the  same  has  been  received  except 
■what  is  credited,  if  any.  If  it  is  a  judgment,  a  certified  transcript  must  be  filed, 
accompanied  with,  a  similar  oath. 

The  above  affidavits  jnaybe  made  by  non-residents  before  a  commissioner  for 
the  State  of  Mississippi,  a  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record,  a  notary  public, 
or  justice  of  the  peace,  with  the  certificate  of  a  judge  or  clerk  of  some  court  of 
record  as  to  his  official  character. 

Deeds,  Eights  op  Married  WoME^-,  Wili.s,  «&c.— Deeds  to  lands  must  bo 
recorded  in  the  office  of  the  chancery  clerk,  in  the  county  where  the  lands  lie. 
Before  being  recorded  they  must  be  acknov/ledged.   The  acknowledgment  must 
be  substantially  as  follows  : 
State  of  Mississippi,  ) 
CouxTY  OP  Marion,  j 

Personally  appeared  before  the  undersigned  (here  follows  the  name  and  title 
of  the  officer),  John  Leslie,  who  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  and  deliv- 
ered the  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance  as  his  own  act  and  deed,  on  the  day  and 
year  and  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  day  of        ,  A.  D.,  187  . 

(Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

If  a  married  woman  is  a  party  to  the  deed,  the  following  should  be  added  to  the 
foregoing  form  of  acknowledgment,  immediately  after  the  word  "mentioned  :  " 
Also  personally  appeared  before  me,MaryLeslie,wifeof  the  said  John  Leslie,who, 
on  a  private  examination  before  me,  separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband, 
acknowledged  that  she  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  foregoing  deed  of  con- 
veyance, as  her  own  voluntary  act  and  deed,  freely,  without  any  fear,  threats  or 
compulsion  of  her  said  husband,  on  the  day  and  year  and  for  the  purpose  therein 
mentioned.   Given  under  my  hand,  etc.  (as  above). 

The  foregoing  acknowledgments  may  be  taken  before  any  judge  of  the 
Bupreme  court,  or  any  judge, of  the  circuit  court,  any  chancellor,  any  clerk  of  a 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSOURI. 


877 


court  of  record,  or  any  justice  of  the  peace  or  member  of  the  board  of  Bupervi' 
Bors,  whether  the  land  conveyed  lie  in  or  out  of  his  county. 

If  the  party  conveying  land  in  this  State  is  a  non-resident,  his  acimowledg' 
ment  may  be  made  before  any  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  or  a  judge  of  the  district  court  of  tho  United  States,  or  justice  of  the  su- 
preme court  or  superior  court  of  any  State  or  territory  of  the  Union,  or  any  justice 
of  the  peace  whose  official  character  shall  be  certified  to  under  the  seal  of  soma 
court  of  record  in  his  county,  or  before  any  commissioner  residing  in  such  State 
or  territory  who  may  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  to  take  acknowl- 
edgments and  proof  of  deeds  and  other  conveyances.  Every  deed  must  be  sealed, 
but  a  mere  scrawl  answers  for  a  seal. 

Property  acquired  by  married  women  either  before  or  after  marriage,  enures 
with  the  income  solely  to  the  wife's  benefit.  She  may  sell  the  same,  provided 
her  husband  joins  in  the  deed  of  conveyance  ;  and  she  may  dispose  of  it  by  last 
will  and  testament.  She  cannot  bind  her  property  for  her  husband's  debts 
beyond  its  income. 

All  contracts  made  by  the  husband  and  wife  or  either  of  them,  for  supplies  for 
the  plantation  of  the  wife,  may  be  enforced  and  satisfaction  had  out  of  her 
separate  estate.  All  contracts  made  by  the  wife,  or  by  the  husband  with  her  con- 
sent, for  family  supplies  or  necessaries,  wearing  apparel  of  herself  and  children, 
or  for  their  education,  or  for  materials  used  or  work  done  for  the  benefit  of  her 
separate  estate,  or  for  household  furniture,  are  binding  on  her,  and  satisfaction 
may  be  had  out  of  her  separate  estate. 

A  married  woman  may  engage  in  trade  as  a  femme  sole.  "WTien  she  does,  sho 
is  bound  as  though  unmarried  for  all  contracts  made  in  the  course  of  her  trade. 
She  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  before  marriage.  The  husband  is  not  liable  for 
ante-nuptial  debts.  All  other  contracts  than  those  enumerated,  made  by  a  mar- 
ried woman,  are  absolutely  void. 

As  to  dower  the  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  of  all  lands  of  which  her  hus- 
band died  seized  and  possessed,  or  which  he  had  conveyed  during  his  lifetime 
otherwise  than  in  good  faith  or  for  a  valuable  consideration,  during  her  life.  If 
there  are  no  children,  she  Inherits  all  of  her  husband's  estate. 

The  husband  is  entitled,  in  courtesy,  to  one-half  of  all  his  deceased  wife's 
lands  during  his  life,  dependant,  however,  upon  the  common  law  prerequisites. 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  attested  by  three 
credible  witnesses.  If  the  will  is  wholly  vmtten  by  the  testator,  and  subscribed 
by  him,  it  need  not  be  attested  by  any  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSOURL 

Exemptions  from  Forced  ^ajje— Homestead  ?P1500  to  ??3000,  and  Personal 
Property.  Homestead,  if  in  the  country,  not  to  exceed  ^150U  in  value,  and  in 
cities  of  over  40,000  inhabitants,  not  to  iexceed  $3000  in  value.  Personal  prop- 
erty is  exempt  as  follows  :  For  heads  of  families,  all  wearing  apparel,  usual 
household  furniture  not  to  exceed  ^100  in  value,  provisions  in  the  house  and  the 
usual  tools  of  trade  of  a  mechanic ;  for  farmers,  working  and  other  kind  of 
animals  amounting  in  value  to  about  $300.  Persons  may  claim,  in  place  of  tho 
aforesaid  animals,  any  kind  of  property,  real  or  personal.  Women,  being  aban- 
doned by  their  husbands,  and  being  heads  of  families,  m&y  claim  the  same  ex- 
emptions as  the  husbands.  Persons,  other  than  heads  of  families,  are  allowed, 
as  exemptions,  their  wearing  apparel  and  the  necessary  tools  of  a  mechanical 
trade.  The  last  month's  wages,  regardless  of  amount,  are  exempt  from  execu- 
,  tion  and  attachment. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  orig- 
inal contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  six  months,  laborers  within  thirty 
days,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  a  lien  within  four  months  after  the  debt 
accrued.  This  lien  has  precedence  over  all  other  liens  or  encumbrances  placed 
on  the  property  subsequent  to  the  commencement  of  the  building  or  improve- 
ments. 

Collection  of  Debts.— Arrest  for  debt  is  unknown  here.  Writs  of  attach- 
ment may  be  obtained  on  the  following  grounds  : — Non-residence;  being  about 
to  remove  from  the  State  ;  concealment  with  view  to  avoid  service  ;  removal  of 
property  from  State,  or  concealment  of  the  same,  with  a  view  to  hinder  and  de- 
lay creditors  ;  where  debt  is  contracted  out  of  the  State,  and  debtor  absconds 


878 


SPECIAL  LAWB  OF  MISSOURI. 


from  thoro  finil  pncrctly  removes  his  property  into  tliis  Stato  :  for  debt  contracted 
fraudulently  or  from  commission  of  felony;  or -wJiero  goods  wcro  bought  and 
payment  is  to  bo  m.ido  in  cash  and  tlio  same  is  not  done  ;  bond  must  bo  in  double 
the  debt  claimed,  with  one  or  more  sureties,  who  must  bo  resident  householders 
in  the  county  whero  suit  is  brought.  Attachments  sliould  bo  resorted  to  in  this 
Stato  with  great  caution,  and  only  where  tlio  proof  hi  strong  and  clear.  Every 
ppccics  of  property,  whether  it  bo  legal  or  equitable,  is  subject  to  attachment 
.Tiid  execution  at  law.  When  attachment  is  levied  oji  real  estate,  notice  is  to  bo 
filed  at  the  recorder's  olFice,  and  this  fixes  legal  notice  of  the  encumbrance. 

Asiignmenls,  in  trust  for  the  beiiclit  of  creditors,  inure  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  intliedeedof  assignment  or  not;  tho 
deed  of  assignment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds.  One 
partner  cannot  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  tho  payment  of  partnership 
debts,  but  only  liis  own  share  of  them.  A  creditor,  if  he  attacks  an  assignment 
as  fraudulent,  and  is  defeated,  cannot  afterwards  claim  the  benefit  of  the  aa- 
eignmcnt  and  be  allowed  to  prove  his  debt  before  the  assignee.  Assignments, 
made  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment  by  them,  are  valid 
here.  Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable, 
and  the  assignee  can  sue  on  it  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued,  either  on  execution  or  attachment,  against  any 
person  owing  the  debtor  or  having  his  property  in  possession.  The  garnishee  is 
entitled  to  compensation  for  his  trouble  and  expense,  including  attorney's  fees  ; 
this  is  payable  out  of  the  fund,  if  any  is  found  in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due 
from  the  garnishee,  then  the  plaintiff  is  bound  to  pay  this  sum. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
VTTiting  on  the  bill ;  or,  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  separate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  v^^riting  to  accept  a 
draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  person  who  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  this  writing. 

Bills  of  exchango  and  notes  drawn  and  negotiated  in  this  State  or  on  any 
person  within  the  State,  expressing  on  their  face  for  "  value  received,"  and  duly 
protested  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  dam- 
ages as  follows  .  If  drawn  on  a  person  residing  in  this  State,  four  per  cent. ;  if 
outside  the  State,  ten  per  cent.  ;  if  outside  any  of  the  United  States  or  territo- 
ries, twenty  per  cent,  damages  on  the  principal  sum.  These  damages  are  not 
recoverable  if  the  bill  is  drawn  by  and  on  a  person  residing  in  this  State,  and 
payment  of  the  principal  is  made  within  twenty  days  after  dishonor.  All  parties 
to  notes  or  bills,  whether  endoi^sers,  makers,  or  acceptors,  or  parties  in  any  man- 
ner, can  be  sued  jointly  or  separately  in  the  same  or  in  several  actions.  Drafts, 
orders  or  bills  of  exchange,  payable  at  sight  or  on  demand,  are  deemed  due  tho 
day  they  are  presented  for  payment,  and  if  tmpaid,  may  be  protested.  Notarial 
protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  of  payment,  at  the  time  and  in  the 
manner  stated  in  the  protest. 

Sheriffs  are  liable,  for  failure  to  pay  over  money,  to  pay  five  per  cent,  dam- 
ages per  month  from  the  time  demand 'is  made  of  them,  in  addition  to  legal  in- 
terest. They  are  also  liable  for  the  full  value  of  property  in  replevin  or  attach- 
ment suits,  when  they  have  taken  insufficient  bond. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts,  in  counties  having  over  50,000  inhabitants, 
on  bonds  and  notes  for  the  payment  of  money  up  to  $300,  on  other  contracts  up 
to  $200,  on  actions  for  torts  up  to  $100.  In  counties  having  under  50,000  inhab- 
itants, on  notes  and  bonds  for  payment  of  money  up  to  $150,  on  other  contracts 
up  to  $D0,  and  in  torts  up  to  §50.  In  actions  for  recovery  of  specific  personal 
property,  up  to  $)200,  in  the  former,  and  up  to  $100  in  the  latter  class  of  counties. 
All  these  amounts  are  exclusive  of  interest.  Circuit  courts  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  justices'  courts  as  follows,  in  counties  irrespective  of  popula- 
tion :  On  written  or  verbal  contracts,  in  sums  over  $50,  and  in  the  former  class' 
of  counties  for  torts,  in  sums  over  $25,  and  for  recovery  of  specific  personal  prop- 
erty up  to  $200  ;  in  the  latter  class  of  counties  for  torts,  in  sums  over  $25,  and 
for  recovery  of  personal  property  in  sums  not  exceeding  $100. 

Service  of  summons  must  be  made  in  circuit  courts  15  days  before  return  day, 
and  all  actions  are  triable,  in  counties  having  over  40,000  inhabitants,  at  the  re- 
turn term  ;  in  other  counties,  actions  on  notes  and  bonds  are  triable '  at  the  re- 
turn term,  and  other  actions  at  the  next  term. 

Before  justices,  service  must  be  made  15  days  before  trial,  in  cases  where  they 
have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  circuit  courts  ;  in  other  cases  6  days  is  sufS.- 
cient ;  but  in  St.  Louis  county  15  days  is  required  in  all  cases. 

Judgments,  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition,  and  for  three 
years  thereafter,  on  all  real  estate  owiied  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently  ac- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSOUKI. 


879 


quired  by  liim,  and  situated  in  tlio  county  wliero  the  judgment  is  rendered.  Tho 
judgment  can  be  revived  so  that  the  lien  can  bo  kept  up  for  ten  years  after  its 
rendition.  No  execution  can  issue  on  a  judgment  in  a  court  of  record  older  than 
ten  years,  new  suit  lias  to  be  brought  on  the  same.  Judgments  in  courts  of  rec- 
ord create  no  lien  on  personal  property.  No  execution  can  issue  on  a  justice's 
judgment  three  years  after  its  rendition,  Avithout  revivor.  Judgments  befora 
justice  can  be  made  to  create  lien  on  real  estate  by  filing  a  transcript  of  the 
judgment  in  tho  circuit  court. 

Execution  issues  the  day  judgment  i3  rendered,  and  are  a  lien  on  personal 
property,  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court  from  the  time  they  are  delivered 
to  the  officer  ;  when  issuing  from  courts  of  record,  only  from  the  time  they  aro 
actually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 
Every  species  of  property,  real  ()r  personal,  books  of  account,  debts  and  judg- 
ments, whether  the  interest  in  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  is  subjecli 
to  execution  and  sale  at  law.  Eedemption,  after  execution  sale,  is  unknown 
here.  If  an  execution  from  a  court  of  record  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors 
can  be  summoned  and  required  to  state  under  oath  what  property  or  interests 
they  have  or  own,  which  may  be  reached  by  execution. 

Deeds,  Eights  op  Markied  Womex,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  bo  under 
seal,  a  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  acknowledgment,  if  made  in  this  State, 
may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  be- 
fore a  court  or  judge,  the  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  a  notary  public ;  if  out  of 
tills  State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  a  court 
or  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  the  United  States 
who  has  a  seal.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  tho  deed  recorded  in  tho 
county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate  where  the  grantor  is  unmarried  : 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment.] 

State  of  Missouiti,  \ 
County  of  Pike,  j 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  18   ,  before  tho 

undersigned,  a  ,  within  and  for  tho  county  of  ,  and  State  of 

Missouri,  personally  came  ,  who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the 

same  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  and  annexed  instru- 
ment of  writing  as  parties  thereto,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  act 
and  deed  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  sat  my  liand,  and  affixed  my  official 
eeal,  at  my  office  in  ,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[L.  S.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deeds,  the  latter 
releasing  dower.  Husband  and  wife  always  must  join  in  deeds,  whether  her  or 
his  real  estate  are  to  b^  conveyed  : 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment.] 

State  of  Missotjei,  \ 
County  of  Pike,     j  - 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  18   ,  before  the 

■undersigned,  a  ,  within  and  for  the  county  of  '  ,  and  State  of 

Missouri,  personally  came  ,  who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the 

same  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  and  annexed  instru- 
'ment  of  writing  as  parties  thereto,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  act 
and  deed  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned.    And  the  said  ,  being  by 

me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrument,  upon  an  examin- 
ation separate  and  apart  from  husband  ,  acknowledged  that  ex- 
ecuted the  same,  and  relinquishes  dower  in  the  real  estate  therein  men- 
tioned, freely  and  v/ithout  fear,  compulsion  or  undue  influence  of  said 
husband. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand,  and  affixed  my  official 
eeal,  at  my  office  in  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

Mai-ried  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  separate  use, 
through  a  trustee.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman  will  bind 
her  separate  estate  ;  it  will  not,  however,  bind  her  general  estate,  and  will  be  a 
nullity  unless  she  has  a  separate  estate  to  be  bound  by  the  paper.  If,  however, 
lier  note  is  for  purchase  money  of  property,  then  it  will  bind  even  her  general 
estate. 


880        SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MONTANA    AND  NEBRASKA. 


The  wife's  separate  property,  •whether  acquired  before  or  previous  to  mar- 
riage, is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  The  wife  is  endowed  of  one-third  of 
r.ll  the  lands  of  which  her  husband,  or  any  one  to  his  use,  was  seized  of  an  estate 
of  inheritance,  at  any  time  during  the  marriage  ;  albo,  of  leasehold  estate  for 
the  term  of  20  years  or  more. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles,  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
prantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  mortgage  of  stock  of  goods, 
the  grantor  having  right  to  sell  ^  so  is  any  mortgage,  if  unregistered  and  the 
chattel  left  with  the  grantor  ;  so  is  also  a  registered  mortgage,  if  the  goods  are 
left  iinreasonably  long  with  grantor,  after  default  is  made  in  jiayment. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  his 
presence,  and  at  his  request,  and  attested  by  two  competent  witnesses,  who 
shall  subscribe  their  names  as  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator.  Wilbi 
must  be  recorded  30  days  after  nrobate  :  if  lands  in  different  counties  are  devised 
a  copy  of  the  will  will  be  recorded  in  the  recorder's  office  in  each  county,  withiu 
eix  months  after  probate. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MONTANA. 

'  Exemptions  from:  Fokced  SaTj'k.— Home  worth  $2500,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. A  homestead  not  exceeding  in  value  $2.500 ;  in  a  city  or  village  not  to 
exceed  one  quarter  acre,  or  farm  land  not  exceeding  80  acres,  the  debtor  taking  his 
choice  selecting  either,  Avith  all  improvements  thereon  included  in  the  valuation. 
The  lien  of  a  mocbanic,  laborer,  or  mortgage  lawfully  obtained  upon  the  same  is 
not  affected  by  such  exemption.  In  addition  to  the  homestead,  personal  property 
to  the  value  of  ^1400,  and  more,  according  to  value  of  articles  enumerated  by 
fctatute,  is  allowed  to  the  householder  occupying  the  same. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEBRASKA. 

ExETJPTiONS  FKOM  FORCED  SALE.— 7Jo?ne  wortJi  §500,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty- A  homestead  containing  any  quantity  of  land  not  exceeding  160  acres,  and 
the  dwelling  house  thereon,  and  its  appurtenances,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner 
thereof,  and  not  included  in  any  incorporated  city  or  village  ;  or  instead  thereof, 
at  the  option  of  the  owner,  a  quantity  of  contiguous  land,  not  exceeding  two  lots 
in  any  incorporated  town,  city,  or  village,  and  according  to  the  recorded  plat  of 
said  incorporated  town,  city,  or  village  ;  or,  in  lieu  of  the  above,  a  lot  or  parcel 
of  contiguous  land,  not  exceeding  20  acres,  being  within  the  limits  of  an  incor- 
porated town,  city,  or  village,  the  said  parcel  or  lot  of  land  not  being  laid  off  into 
Btreets,  blocks,  and  lots,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the  State,  being 
the  head  of  a  family,  shall  not  be  subject  to  attachment,  levy  or  sale  upon  ex- 
ecution, or  other  process  issuing  out  of  any  court  in  this  State,  so  long  as  tho 
eame  shall  be  occupied  by  the  debtor  as  a  homestead.  All  heads  of  families, 
who  have  neither  lands,  town  lots,  nor  houses  entitled  to  exemption  as  a  homo- 
Btead,  under  the  laws  of  this  State,  shall  have  exemption  from  forced  sale  on 
execution  the  sum  of  $500  personal  property. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Any  person  who  shall  have  performed  any  labor,  or 
furnished  any  material  or  machinery  for  the  erection,  reparation  or  removal  of 
any  house  or  other  building  or  purtenances,  by  virtue  of  a  contract,  expressed  or 
implied,  with  the  owner  thereof,  or  his  agent,  shall  have  a  lien  thereon  to  secure 
the  payment  for  such  labor  performed  or  materials  furnished.  Said  lien  shall  be 
obtained  by  filing,  in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  for  record,  an  account,  in 
writing,  of  the  items,  and  making  oath  thereto,  within  four  months  after  furnish- 
ing such  materials,  or  work  and  labor.  The  lien  shall  operate  from  the  date  of 
the  first  item  till  two  years  from  the  date  of  the  last  item. 

Collection  of  Debts.— An  order  for  the  arrest  of  the  defendant  may  be  ob- 
tained on  affidavit  by  the  plaintiff,  his  agent,  or  attorney,  that  the  claim  is  just, 
and  that  one  or  more  of  the  following  particulars  are  true  :  that  the  defendant 
has  begun  to  remove  any  part  of  his  property  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
with  intent  to  defraud  ;  that  he  has  begun  to  convert  the  same  into  money  to 
place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors  ;  that  he  has  property  of  rights  of  action 
which  he  fraudulently  conceals  ;  that  he  has  assigned,  removed  or  disposed  of 
his  property  or  any  part  thereof  with  intent  to  defraud ;  that  he  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt  or  incurred  the  obligation  on  which  the  action  is  based.  Tho 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEBRASKA. 


881 


affidavit  must  furtlier  contain  a  statement  of  tlie  facts  claimed  to  justify  a  belief 
in  one  or  more  of  tlie  above  particulars.  A  bond  must  be  executed  like  tbat  iu 
cases  of  attachment. 

Tbe  plaintiff  in  a  civil  action  may  obtain  a  writ  of  attachment  against  all  tlio 
lands,  tenements,  goods,  chattels,  stocks,  or  interest  in  stocks,  rights,  credits, 
moneys  and  effects  of  the  defendant  in  his  county,  not  exempt  by  law,  iipon  tho 
following  grounds,  in  addition  to  those  enumerated  in  the  last  above  section  : 
when  the  defendant,  or  one  of  several,  is  a  non-resident  or  foreign  corporation  ; 
Avhen  he  absconds  with  intent  to  defraud  ;  when  he  has  left  tlie  county  to  avoid 
Gcrvice,  or  so  conceals  himself  that  summons  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  "When 
the  ground  of  attachment  is  that  tho  defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  foreign  cor' 
poratiou,  the  claim  must  be  a  debt  or  demand  arising  on  contract,  judgment  or 
decree.  A  bond,  in  not  more  than  double  the  amount  claimed,  with  one  or  more 
sureties  to  be  approved  by  the  clerk,  is  required,  except  when  the  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  or  foreign  corporation. 

In  cases  of  attachment,  "  when  the  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney,  shall  make 
oath  in  writing  that  he  has  good  reason  to,  and  does  believe,  that  any  person  or 
corporation,  to  be  named  and  within  tho  county  where  the  action  is  brought,  has 
property  of  the  defendant  (describing  the  same)  in  his  possession,"  the  said  prop- 
ertv,  whether  debts,  choses  in  action,  chattels  or  other  property,  may  be  garnished 
and  held  the  same  as  property  otherwise  attached.  In  all  cases  where  an  execu- 
tion shall  be  returned  unsatisfied,  and  the  judgment  creditor,  his  agent  or  at- 
torney, shall  file  an  affidavit,  that  any  person  or  corporation  (naming  the  same)- 
has  property  of,  and  are  indebted  to  the  judgment  debtor,  such  person  or  corpo- 
ration may  be  summoned  as  garnishee. 

All  bonds,  promissory  notes,  bills  cf  exchange,  foreign  and  inland,  drawn  for 
any  sum  or  sums  of  money,  certain  and  made  payable  to  any  person  or  order,  or 
assigns,  shall  be  negotiable  by  endorsement ;  made  payable  to  bearer,  shall  bo 
transferable  by  delivery  without  endorsement.  All  such  negotiable  paper  shall 
be  entitled  to  three  days'  grace.  January  1st,  February  22d,  July  4th,  December 
25th,  and  any  day  appointed  or  recommended  by  the  governor  of  this  State,  or  tho 
President  of  the  United  States,  as  a  day  of  fast  or  thanksgiving,  are  legal  holi- 
days for  commercial  purposes  ;  when  such  day  comes  on  Monday,  then  the  day 
after  is  when  the  act  is  to  be  performed.  "When  any  bill  of  exchange  shall  bo 
drawn  for  the  payment  of  any  such  sum  of  money,  and  such  bill  shall  be  legally 
protested  for  non-acceptanco  or  non-payment,  the  drawer  or  drawers,  endorser  or 
endorsers,  shall  be  Bubject  to  payment  of  twelve  per  cent,  damages  thereon,  if 
drawn  on  any  person  or  persons,  or  body-corporate,  without  the  jurisdiction  of  tho 
United  States,  and  six  per  cent,  damages  thereon  if  drawn  upon  persons  or  body- 
corporate  Avithin  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  and  without  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  State. 

The  supreme  court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  only  except  in  cases  relating  to 
revenue,  mandamtis,  quo  warranto,  habeas  corptis,  and  such  cases  of  impeachment 
as  may  bo  required  to  be  tried  before  it ;  and  both  the  supreme  and  district  courts 
Bhall  have  both  chancery  and  common  law  jurisdiction.  The  district  court  has 
original  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  and  suits  at  law  and  in 
chancery  arising  in  each  county  in  their  respective  districts,  except  when  justices 
of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  said  justices  of 
the  peace,  in  cases  where  the  cause  of  action  exceeds  fifty  dollars,  and  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  dollars,  and  has  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  of  appeals  from  a 
justice  of  the  peace  or  judge  of  probate.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdic- 
tion co-extensive  with  their  counties,  and  extends  to  all  cases  wherein  the  sum 
involved  does  not  exceed  ^5100.  When  action  is  rightly  brought  in  any  county, 
a  summons  may  issue  to  any  other  county,  and,  unless  otherwise  provided  for, 
shall  be  returnable  on  second  Monday  from  its  date,  but  when  issued  to  another 
county,  it  may  be  made  returnable,  at  tho  option  of  the  party  having  it  issued,  on 
the  third  or  fourth  Monday  after  its  date.  Personal  service  before  justices  of 
the  peace,  three  days  before  trial ;  constructive  service  may  also  be  made  in 
certain  cases  by  publication. 

Judgments  in  district  court,  are  liens  upon  the  lands  of  the  judgment  debtor, 
situated  in  the  same  county,  from  tho  first  day  of  the  term  at  which  judgment  is 
rendered  ;  but  judgments  by  confession,  and  those  rendered  at  the  same  term  in 
which  the  action  is  commenced,  are  liens  only  from  the  day  on  which  such  judg- 
ments are  rendered.  To  create  a  judgment  lien  in  other  counties,  a  transcript 
must  be  filed  or  levy  made. 

Judgments  in  probate  and  justices'  courts,  operate  as  a  lien  upon  the  realty  of 
the  debtor  when  a  transcript  thereof  is  filed  and  docketed  in  tho  office  of  tho 
clerk  of  the  district  court.  ^  ^ 


882 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEBRASKA. 


Lands,  tciicmontfi,  goods  and  cliattcls,  not  exempt  by  law,  are  subject  to  levy. 
Elocutions,  unless  stayed,  irbuo  at  any  time  after  judymont  on  order  therefor. 
May  issue  to  any  county  in  the  State,  and  simultaneously  to  any  other  counties  ; 
must  first  exhaust  goods  and  chattels,  and  afterwards  realty.  Are  not  liens  on 
personalty  or  realty  in  counties  other  than  the  one  in  which  judgment  is  obtain- 
ed, until  levy  has  been  made  or  transcript  filed.  Ko  redemption  of  propertysold 
on  execution  or  order  of  sale  on  foreclosure  of  mortgage  ;  title  becomes  absoluto 
on  confirmation  of  sale.  Judgments  become  dormant  and  ceai-e  to  be  a  lien  on 
debtors'  property  if  execution  is  not  issued  within  five  years  from  rendition  of 
judgment,  or  if  fivo  years  intervene  between  the  issuing  of  two  executions. 
Judgments  cease  to  operate  as  a  lien  on  the  debtor's  estate  to  the  prejudice  of  any 
subsequent  bona  fide  judgment  creditors,  unless  execution  is  issued  within  ono 
year  from  date  of  said  judgment  ;  but  when  the  issuing  of  an  execution  is  pre- 
vented by  stay,  appeal,  proceedings  in  error,  etc.,  such  year  does  not  begui  to 
run  until  after  tlio  removal  of  said  disability.  If  an  execution  be  returned 
•unsatisfied,  tho  debtor  can  be  summoned,  and  be  required  to  state  under  oath 
what  property  or  interests  he  has  or  owns,  which  may  bo  reached  by  execution. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  valid  against  bona  fide  purchasers  and  creditors,  if  tho 
instrument  shall  be  filed  and  recorded  in  tho  office  of  the  county  clerk  ;  but  cease 
to  b^  valid  against  creditors,  purchasers  and  subsequent  mortgagees  in  good  faith 
after  the  expiration  of  one  year  from  the  filing  thereof,  unless  within  thirty  days 
next  preceding  the  termination  of  said  year  a  true  copy  of  the  mortgage,  together 
Avith  a  statement  exhibiting  the  interest  of  tlie  mortgagee  in  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty, shall  again  be  filed  and  recorded.  Sale  or  mortgage  of  chattels,  unless  ac- 
c:)mpanied  by  immediate,  actual  delivery  and  continued  change  of  possession, 
are  prima,  facie  fraudulent  and  void  as  against  creditors  and  subsequent  bona 
fide  purchasers,  unless  tho  instrument  has  been  duly  filed  and  recorded  in  the 
o£B.ce  of  the  county  clerk. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Makried  Womeit,  &c.— All  deeds  affecting  the  title  to 
real  property,  or  any  interest  therein,  in  this  State,  except  leases  for  one  year  or 
for  a  less  time,  must  be  signed  by  ths  grantor,  of  lawful  age,  in  the  presence  of  at 
least  one  competent  witness,  who  shall  subscribe  his  name  as  a  witness  thereto, 
and  be  duly  acknowledged  or  proved  and  recorded.  Acknowledgments  or  proofs 
may  be  taken  in  the  State,  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court,  justice  of  the 
peace,  or  notary  public ;  no  officer  can  take  any  such,  acknowledgment  or  proof 
out  of  his  State  jurisdiction. 

The  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must  be  indorsed  on  the  instrument,  and 
show  that  tho  grantor  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  his  voluntary  act  and  deed, 
and  that  tho  olficer  before  Avhom  the  same  was  taken  knew  him  to  be  the  ident- 
ical ]person  whose  name  was  affixed  as  grantor,  or  had  satisfactory  evidence  of  the 
fact.  If,  after  the  instrument  is  executed  but  not  acknowledged,  the  grantor  die, 
or  if,  from  any  cause,  his  attendance  cannot  be  procured  in  order  to  make  the 
same,  or,  having  appeared,  ho  refuses  to  acknowledge  it,  proof  of  the  execution 
and  delivery  of  the  deed  may  be  made  by  any  competent  subscribing  witness 
thereto,  before  any  officer  authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgment ;  such  witness 
must  bs  personally  known  to  the  officer,  or  such  officer  must  have  satisfactory 
evidence  that  the  witness  is  the  person  who  subscribed  the  instrument  as  a  wit- 
ness. If  all  the  subscribing  witnesses  are  dead,  or  out  of  the  State,  the  execution 
of  the  deed  may  be  proved  by  proving  the  handwriting  of  the  grantor  and  of  any 
subscribing  witness  thereto.  All  deeds,  duly  executed  and  acknowledged,  must 
bo  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  land  lies  ;  in  case 
the  land  is  situated  in  an  unorganized  district,  the  deed  is  to  be  recorded  in  -the 
office  of  the  clci-k  of  that  county  to  which  said  district  is  attached  for  judicial 
purposes.  All  deeds,  mortgages  and  other  written  instruments  take  effect,  and 
are  in  force  as  to  third  parties,  from  and  after  the  time  they  are  delivered  to  the 
clerk  for  record.  No  separate  examination  is  required  in  taking  a  wife's  ac- 
knowledgment ;  to  convey  her  right  of  dower  she  must  execute  a  deed  with  or 
without  her  husband.  All  deeds  should  have  at  least  one  subscribing  v/itness. 
Private  seals  ai-e  abolished,  not  even  scrawls  are  required. 

[Form  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  of  Husband  an4  Wife-l 
State  of  , ) 

County  of         .  (  * 

On  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187     ,  before  me  (here  insert  namo 

and  title  of  officer),  duly  appointed,  commissioned  (or  elected)  and  qualified  for, 
and  residing  in  said  county,  personally  appeared  and  , 

his  wife,  to  me  personally  known  (or  by  the  oaths  of  one  or  more  witnesses 
whose  names  are  hereto  subscribed,  satisfactorily  proved)  to  be  the  identical 
persons  described  in,  and  whose  names  are  affixed  to,  the  foregoing  instrument 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEVADA, 


883 


as  crantors,  and  tliey  severally  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  voluntary  act 


auu  ueeu. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  ofTicial  seal,  at  , 
in  said  county,  the  day  and  year  last  above  written, 

[seal.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

The  property,  real  and  personal,  which  any  woman  in  this  State  may  own  at 
the  time  of  her  marriage,  the  rents,  issues,  profits  or  proceeds  thereof,  and  any 
real,  personal  or  mixed  property  which  shall  come  to  her  by  descent,  devise  or 
bequest,  or  the  gift  of  any  person  except  her  husband,  shall  remain  her  sole  and 
separate  property,  and  not  be  subject  to  the  disposal  other  husband,  or  liable 
for  his  debts.  She  may  bargain,  sell  and  convey  her  real  and  personal  property, 
and  enter  into  any  contract  in  reference  thereto,  in  the  same  manner,  to  the 
same  extent,  and  Avith  like  elfect  as  a  married  man.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued 
as  if  unmarried,  and  carry  on  trade  or  business  on  her  separate  account.  Her 
earnings  are  her  sole  property.  If  married  out  of  the  State,  she  may  bere  enjoy 
all  rights  to  property  there  acquired. 


Exemptions  Fkom  Forced  Saee. — A  Homestead  worth  $5000,  and  Personal 
Property.  A  homestead  owned  by  a  head  of  the  family,  worth  $5000,  and  the 
following  personal  property  :  household  furniture  to  the  value  of  $100  ;  provis- 
ions and  fire-wood  for  one  month ;  farming  utensils  of  a  farmer  not  exceeding  in 
value  f 200  ;  two  horses,  two  oxen  or  two  mules,  and  two  cows,  one  cart  or  wagon, 
mechanics'  tools  ;  a  miner's  dwelling,  in  value  $500,  and  his  mining  tools  ;  a 
library  of  a  dentist,  physician,  lawyer  or  surgeon  ;  one  sewing  machine  worth 
$150.  A  mortgage  or  other  security  on  the  homestead  is  void,  unless  for  purchase 
money  or  mechanics'  lien. 

MECHAifics'  LiE?r. — Persons  who  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the 
erection  or  improvement  of  any  building  has  a  lien  on  the  same  for  such  work 
and  materials  for  all  amoiints  over  $25.  And  so  have  all  laborers  on  all  work 
done  by  them  on  any  railroad,  toll-road,  canal,  water-ditch,  mine  or  mining-shaft, 
or  tunnel,  or  building 'lot  in  a  city  or  town  ;  jaroytfZecZ,  the  original  contractor 
shall  file  his  lien  in  sixty  days,  and  the  sub-contractor  or  laborer  in  thirty  days 
after  the  work  is  completed,  and  suit  commenced  in  six  months. 

CoLEECTioif  OF  DEBTS. — ^A  debtor  may  be  arrested  and  held  in  custody  or  re- 
leased on  bail,  upon  an  affidavit  being  made  by  the  plaintiff,  or  his  agent  or  attor- 
ney, that  the  defendant  is  fraudulently  disposing  of  his  property,  or  is  absconding 
from  the  State,  or  where  the  debt  was  contracted  in  some  fiduciary  capacity,  or 
where  the  action  is  for  libel  or  slander,  or  where  the  debtor  is  concealing  bis  prop- 
erty to  defraud  his  creditors. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  against  any  property,  whether  real  or  personal, 
of  the  debtor  maybe  attached  upon  the  plaintiff  entering  into  abend,  as  require(l 
by  the  statute,  not  to  be  less  than  $200  in  gold  coin,  with  sufficient  sureties,  and 
making  an  affidavit  that  the  debt  claimed  is  an  actual  bona  fide  debt  due  to  plain- 
tiff from  the  defendant ;  that  the  attachment  is  not  asked  to  hinder,  delay  or  de- 
fraud the  defendant  or  his  creditors  ;  that  the  action  brought  is  on  a  contract 
for  the  direct  payment  of  njoney,  and  which  is  not  secured  by  a  mortgage  or 
other  lien,  or  upon  a  contract  executed  by  a  party  not  in  this  State,  And  the 
property  so  attached  will  be  held  to  abide  the  judgment  the  plaintiii  may  recover. 

A  debtor  may  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  by  assigning  his  property  for 
their  benefit;  provided,  the  assignment  is  bona  fide,  and  bankruptcy  does  not  in- 
tervene. 

Notes  and  bills  for  the  payment  of  money  are  negotiable  like  bills  of  exchange, 
Acceptance  must  be  in  writing,  on  the  bill  or  on  separate  paper  ;  it  shall  noi 
bind  the  acceptor,  except  in  favor  of  the  person  to  whom,  such  acceptance  wua 
shown,  and  who  gave  value  for  the  same  on  the  strength  of  the  acceptance. 
Kates  of  damages  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance  are  as  follows  :  On  billa 
drawn  on  persons  in  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  $15  on  tho 
$100  ;  if  drawn  on  Europe  or  other  foreign  country,  $20  on  the  $100  ;  these  dama^ 
ges  are  in  lieu  of  protest  fees.  Paper  maturing  on  any  legal  holiday  m.ust  be  pro- 
tested  the  day  previous.  Legal  holidays  are  :  Sundays,  January  1st,  February 
22d,  July  4th,  Christmas  and  Thanksgiving  Days.  Sight  bills  or  drafts  are  not 
entitled  to  grace. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts  extends  to  $300,  except  when  suits  concern 
land  or  mining  claims. »  District  courts  have  general  jurisdiction' of  all  matters. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEVADA. 


884 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NKW  HAMPSHIRE. 


cither  of  n  legal  or  equitable  nature,  when  the  amount  exceeds  $300,  and  appellate 
jurisdiction  m  all  casea  wliich  originates  before  a  justice  of  the  peace.  The 
buprenie  has  appellate  jurisdiction  from  district  courts. 

Judf^monts  from  courts  of  record,  are  liens  on  the  debtor's  lands  in  the 
county  where  obtained,  a)Kl  uponliis  land  in  any  other  county  where  transcript 
of  same  is  tiled  :  and  judgments  br'l'oro  justice  of  tlie  peace  become  liciis  on  the 
debtor's  land,  where  a  trauscrii)t  of  the  sauio  is  liled  with  the  clerk  of  the  district 
court  of  the  county. 

Execution  may  bo  stayed  by  the  court  in  which  the  judgment  was  obtained  a 
reasonable  time  ;  and,  unless  same  is  thus  stayed,  it  can  issue  at  any  time  within 
the  limitation,  five  years,  and  may  be  levied  on  any  of  the  property  of  the  de- 
fendant not  exempt  by  law.  It  is  not  a  lien  on  personalty  until  an  actual  levy. 
As  the  judgment  is  a  lien  on  the  debtor's  land,  it  can  bo  enforced  by  the  execu- 
tion. 

Deeds,  Bights  of  Married  "Women,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in  writing,  a  scrawl 
will  answer  for  a  seal.    Witnesses  are  not  necessary  to  its  validity. 

If  proven  or  acknowledged  in  this  State,  it  must  be  before  a  judge,  or  olerk  of 
a  court  having  a  seal,  a  notary  public,  or  a  justice  of  the  peace.  I  f  without  the 
State,  before  any  judge,  clerk  of  a  court  havin<j  a  seal,  notary  public  or  justice  of 
the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  of  this  State.  It  before  a  justice  of  the'  peace,  it 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  certifying 
to  the  official  capacity  and  signature  of  the  justice.  If  taken  without  the  United 
States,  before  some  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  a  State,  Kingdom  or  Empire  hav- 
ing a  seal,  a  notary  public,  or  by  a  minister,  commissioner  or  consul  of  the  United 
States.  If  the  grantor  does  not  acknowledge  the  execution  of  the  deed,  the  wit- 
3iess  may  prove  his  signature  ;  but  if  the  witnesses  are  dead,  or  cannot  be  had, 
proof  by  competent  parties,  under  oath,  of  the  signature  of  the  grantor  and  at 
least  one  witness. 

The  wife  must  join  the  husband  in  the  execution  of  a  deed,  and  this  form  can 
be  used  for  the  certillcato  of  acknowledgment  by  husband  and  wife,  or  without  a 
wife,  and  can  be  changed,  to  suit  the  circumstances  : 
State  of  New  York,  ) 
County  of  Orange.  ) 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ^     ,  A.  D.  187  ,  person- 

ally appeared  before  me,  J.  Gordon,  a  notary  public  in  and  for  said  county  and 
State,  duly  appointed  and  qualified  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds,  etc.,  A.  B. 
and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  conveyed  instrument  as 
parties  thereto,  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  individuals  described  in  and 
who  executed  the  said  annexed  instrument  as  parties  thereto,  who  each  acknowl- 
edged to  me  that  they  each  of  them  respectively  executed  the  same,  freely,  vol- 
untarily and  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  And  the  said  C.  D., 
wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  having  been  by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents 
of  said  instrument,  acknowledged  to  me,  on  examination  apart  from  and  without 
the  hearing  of  her  said  husband,  that  she  executed  the  same  freely  and  voluntarily, 
without  fear  or  compulsion  or  undue  influence  of  her  said  husband,  and  that  she 
does  not  wish  to  retract  the  execution  of  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal, 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

J.  Gordon,  Notary  Public- 
All  the  property  owned  by  the  wife  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  or  to  which 
Bhe  acquires  after  marriage  by  inheritance,  devise,  gift  or  bequest,  belongs  to 
and  remains  her  separate  estate  which  she  can  sell  and  convey  without  the  con- 
sent of  her  husband.  And  all  property  acquired  by  purchase  by  husband  and 
wife  during  the  coverture  belongs  to  them  in  common  ;  and  upon  the  death  of 
the  husband,  one-half  goes  to  the  wife  ;  but  during  coverture,  is  under  the  abso- 
lute control  of  the  husband.  He  can  convey  the  same  without  the  joining  of  his 
wife  in  the  execution  of  the  deed.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  the  real 
estate  of  her  husband,  neither  has  he  any  courtesy  in  hers. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Exemptions  From  Forced  Sale. — Home  worth  ^500,  «?i(Z  Personal  Property, 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  5p500,  for  the  benefit  of  wife,  widow  or  children. 
Household  furniture  to  value  of  §100  ;  books  and  library  in  use  by  the  debtor  and 
his  family  to  value  of  $200  ;  necessary  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and  family ; 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  IIAMPSHIHE. 


885 


necessary  bed,  bedsteads  and  bed-clothing ;  1  cooking  stove  and  its  furniture  ; 
tools  of  liis  occupation,  $100  ;  provisions  and  fuel,  $50  ;  beasts  of  the  plow,  not  ex- 
ceeding 1  yoke  of  oxen  or  1  horse  ;  sowing  machine,  1  cow,  G  sheep,  1  pig  or  hog. 

Mechaxics'  Lie^j. — Laborers  and  persons  furnishing  materials  have  a  lien  on 
the  building  and  the  land  on  which  it  is  put,  to  the  amount  of  $15,  and  for  the 
Bpace  of  sixty  days  after  the  labor  was  performed  or  materials  furnished. 

Collection  OF  Debts — Arrest  for  debt  can  be  made  upon  aflidavit  of  the 
plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  that  defendant  ov/cs  more  than  $13.33,  and  conceals  his 
property  so  that  no  attachment  or  levy  can  be  made,  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State 
to  avoid  the  payment  of  his  debts. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes :  Non-residence  ; 
being  about  to  remove  from  the  State  ;  concealment  with  view  to  avoid  service  ; 
removal  of  property  from  State,  or  concealment  of  the  same,  with  a  view  to  hinder 
and  delay  creditors ;  where  debt  is  contracted  out  of  the  State  and  debtor  ab- 
sconds from  there  and  secretly  removes  his  property  into  this  State ;  for  debt  con- 
tracted fraudulently  or  from  commission  of  felony ;  or  where  goods  were  bought 
and  payment  is  to  be  made  in  cash  and  the  same  is  not  done  ;  bond  must  be  in 
double  the  debt  claimed,  with  one  or  more  sureties,  who  must  bo  resident  house- 
holders of  the  county  where  suit  is  brought.  Every  species  of  property,  whethei 
it  be  legal  or  equitable,  is  subject  to  attachment,  and  constitutes  a  valid  lien  on 
the  property  for  thirty  days  after  judgment,  within  which  period  tho  execution 
must  be  levied  to  preserve  and  protect  the  lien. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inure  for  tho  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assignment  or  not ;  the 
deed  of  assignment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds.  One 
partner  cannot  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  tho  payment  of  partnership 
debts,  but  only  his  own  share  of  them.  Assignments  made  to  secure  sureties  or 
endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment  by  them,  are  valid  here.  Notes,  bills,  accounts, 
and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  on 
it  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  on  attachment,  against  any  person  owing  the  debt- 
or or  having  his  property  in  possession.  The  garnishee  is  entitled  to  compensa- 
tion for  his  trouble  and  expense  ;  this  is  payable  out  of  tho  fund,  if  any  is  found 
in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due  from  the  garnishee,  then  the  plaintiff  is  bound 
to  pay  this  sum. 

All  notes  and  bills,  payable  in  cash  to  order  or  bearer,  are  negotiable  ;  on  de- 
mand, are  dishonored  and  overdue  GO  days  from  their  ditte.  Grace  is  allowed  on 
nil  notes,  drafts  and  bills  payable  on  time,  unless  expressly  excluded  by  terms  of 
the  contract. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  and  police  courts,  extend  only  to  $13.33.  The  cir- 
cuit court  has  jurisdiction  beyond  that  sum,  and  of  all  appeals  from  the  justice 
and  police  courts.  Superior  court  of  judicature  has  only  appellate  jurisdiction, 
and  may  issue  writs  of  error. 

Judgments  may  be  obtained  at  the  first  term,  unless  defendant  make  affidavit . 
of  defense,  in  which  case  he  is  entitled  to  continuance  unless  the  plaintiff  has 
given  him  30  days  previous  notice  to  be  prepared  for  trial. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  rendered,  and  are  a  lien  on  personal 
property  J  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court  from  the  time  they  are  delivered 
to  the  ofhcer  ;  when  issuing  from  courts  of  record,  only  from  the  time  they  are 
actually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 
Every  species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  books  of  account,  debts  and  judg- 
ments, whether  the  interest  in  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  is  subject 
to  execution  and  sale  at  law.  Eedemption  after  execution  sale  can  be  had  for 
one  year.  Stay  of  execution  is  only  had  when  plaintiff  is  insolvent  and  defendant 
furnishes  bond  to  pay  the  amount  of  judgment  in  review. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  &g.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal 
and  attested  by  two  witnesses.  The  acknowledgment,  if  made  in  this  State,  may 
be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  where  tho  land  lies,  before  a 
court  or  judge,  the  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  a  notary  public ;  if  out  of  the 
State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  a  court  or 
judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  tho 
United  States  who  has  a  seal,  or  a  justice  of  the  peace,  his  official  character  duly 
certified  by  the  clerk.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  land  lies.  No  separate  acknowledgment  is  required  to  be  made 
by  the  wife,  nor  need  she  be  examined  separate  and  apart  from  lier  husband,  bufi, 
she  must  join  in  the  deed  to  bar  her  dower  or  homestead. 


886 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  NEW  JEllSEY. 


The  following  is  the  form  to  bo  used  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  of  hus* 
band  and  wife  : 

State  of  Netv  Hampshire,  ) 
County  of  Caruoi.l.  I 

Personally  appeared  the  above-named,  A.  B.  and  0.  D.,  his  wife,  and  acknowl- 
cdc;cd  the  foragoing  instrument  to  be  their  voluntary  act  and  deed.  Before 
me,  this  day  of  ,  187  . 

Jonx  Gardner,  Commissioner. 

No  necessity  for  the  certificate  to  state  the  wife  releases  her  dower.  The 
above  is  sufficient.  Proof  of  subscribing  witnesses  must  be  made  by  depositions, 
and  upon  due  notice  to  the  parties  interested.  And  if  the  identity  of  the  grantor 
is  denied,  it  must  be  proven  by  deposition. 

Married  women  hold  all  property  owned  by  them  before  marriage,  or  acquired 
after  in  any  way,  except  through  property  of  the  husband,  to  their  sole  and  sepa- 
rate use  as  if  sole.  All  their  acts  in  reference  to  such  property  are  valid  and 
binding  upon  them  and  their  property.  All  other  contracts  void.  The  wife  is 
entitled  to  homestead  and  dower  in  all  the  property  of  her  husband,  unless  she 
release  the  same  by  joining  her  husband  in  its  conveyance.  In  most  respects  tho 
wife  is  equal  to  the  husband  before  the  law.  The  husband  cannot  convey  real 
estate  to  the  wife. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles  "which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  mortgage  of  stock  of  goods,  tho 
grantor  having  right  to  sell ;  so  is  any  mortgage  if  unregistered  and  the  chattels 
,left  with  the  grantor,  save  as  between  the  parties  thereto,  unless  the  above  pro- 
visions are  complied  with  and  an  oath  taken  by  both  parties  made  on  the  mort- 
gage, to  the  effect  that  the  debt  accrued  therein  is  just,  honestly  due  and  owing. 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  signed  and  sealed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  per- 
son in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  ia 
his  presence  by  three  or  more  credible  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  JERSEY. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— ^Tome  worth  ^1,500  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. Lot  and  buildings  thereon,  occupied  as  a  residence  and  owned  by  the 
debtor,  being  a  householder  and  having  a  family,  to  the  value  of  $1,500.  Per- 
sonal property  to  the  amount  of  $200,  owned  by  a  resident  head  of  a  family, 
appraised  by  three  persons  appointed  by  the  sheriff  ;  and  the  -widow  or  adminis- 
trator of  a  deceased  person  may  claim  the  same  exemption_of  $200  as  against 
creditors. 

Mechanics'  Liens.— Persons  who  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the 
erection  and  construction  of  buildings,  have  a  lien  on  the  same  for  such  labor 
and  materials,  iiicluding  the  lot  on  which  such  buildings  are  erected ;  provided, 
the  lien  is  filed  in  one  year  after  the  labor  is  performed  or  materials  furnished, 
and  the  summons  issued  in  the  year. 

Collection  of  Debts.— A  defendant  may  be  arrested  for  debt,  on  aflidavit 
being  made  that  he  is  either,  1.  About  to  remove  his  property  out  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  court,  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors  ;  or,  2.  Fraudulently 
conceals  his  property  or  rights  of  action ;  or,  3.  He  has  assigned,  removeii  or 
concealed,  oris  about  to  assign,  remove  or  conceal  his  property,  with  intent  to 
defraud  his  creditors ;  or,  4.  That  he  has  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  or 
incurred  the  obligation  about  which  the  suit  is  to  be  commenced. 

AVrit  of  attachment  by  the  creditor  or  his  agent  making  affidavit,  to  be  filed 
with  the  clerk  of  the  court  out  of  which  the  writ  is  to  issue,  stating  that  tho 
debtor,  according  to  his  knowledge  and  belief,  is  not  a  resident  of  this  State  ; 
that  he  owes  the  plaintiff  (specifying  the  amount),  or  that  the  debtor  absconds 
from  his  creditors.  All  property  of  the  defendant  may  be  seized  under  attach- 
ment, and  his  debtors  garnisheed,  but  the  real  estate  seized  under  attachment 
cannot  be  sold  for  twelve  months  after  seizure. 

Every  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors  of  the  assignor,  whither  of 
real,  personal,  or  mixed  property,  must  inure  to  their  mutual  benefit  without  any 
preference  or  priority,  and  all  preferences  by  which  one  or  more  creditors  are  to 
be  first  paid,  or  any  other  preferences,  are  fraudulent  and  void,  excepting  only 
creditors  holding  mortgages  and  judgment  creditors.  The  debtor  making  the 
assignment  must  attach  to  the  deed  of  assignment  an  inventory  of  all  his  estate, 
and  a  full  list  of  creditors,  these  to  bo  verified  t»y  the  affidavit  of  the  debtor. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF   XEW  JERSEY. 


887 


The  said  inventory  is  not  conclusive  upon  creditors  or  their  assignee  ;  the  latter 
can  recover  any  other  property  belonging  to  the  assignor  and  not  embraced  in 
the  schedule. 

Notes  for  the  payment  of  money,  payable  to  the  order  of  any  person  or  corpo- 
ration, are  negotiable  and  assignable  by  endorsement,  like  inland  bills  of  ex- 
change ;  bills  of  exchange,  for  the  svim  of  eight  dollars  and  upwards,  drawn  upoii 
any  person  in  this  State,  can  be  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment, 
and  be  governed  in  every  respect  by  the  law  governing  foreign  bills  of  exchange. 

All  checks,  drafts  or  bills  of  exchange  (other  than  those  drawn  upon  banKt;  or 
banking  houses}  whether  drawn  on  demand  or  otherwise,  are  entitled  to  three 
days'  grace.  Bills  of  cxchaiige,  taken  for  a  pre-existing  debt,  will  extinguish 
the  debt,  if  such  person  accepting  such  bill  for  his  debt  doth  not  take  due  courro 
to  obtain  payment  thereof ,  by  endeavoring  to  get  the  same  accepted  ai;d  paid, 
and  make  his  lorotest  thereof  in  case  of  non-acceptance  and  non-payment. 
Notaries  public  are  authorized  to  make  protest  of  negotiable  paper :  but  for 
want  or  In  default  of  a  notary,  a  justice  of  the  peace  may  make  lawful  protest. 
The  following  are  legal  holidays,  for  purposes  of  protest ;  Christmas  day,  first 
day  of  January,  fourth  of  July,  and  any  day  specially  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor for  a  day  of  fasting  or  thanksgiving,  and  paper  falling  due  on  such  legal 
holiday  shall  become  due  and  may  be  protested  on  the  day  preceding  the  holi- 
day ;  notice  of  protest  need  not  be  sent  till  following  such  holiday. 

Jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts  in  civil  actions,  on  amounts,  or  debt  claimed  rr 
matters  in  disp^ute,  which  docs  not  exceed  $100,  except  in  actions  of  replevin, 
Blander,  trespass,  for  assault,  battery  or  imprisonment,  and  actions  wherein  the 
title  to  lands  come  into  question.  Justices'  coixrts  are  courts  of  record.  Cmirt 
of  Common  P^eas.— Concurrent  wi^h  circuit.  Appellate  from  justice  of  the 
peace.  Circuit  Courts. — Have  concurrent,  civil,  original  jurisdiction  with  su- 
preme court,  and  appellate  from  the  common  pleas  court.  Court  of  Chancer]/  .— 
Exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  equity  and  divorce  cases.  Supreme  Court. — Hai 
original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  of  all  civil  suits  at  law.  Court  of  Errors  and 
Appeals. — Has  only  appellate  jurisdiction,  and  is  the  court  of  last  resort. 

Judgments  constitutes  liens  on  all  the  lands  of  the  defendant  in  the  county 
where  obtained,  if  obtained  in  the  circuit  or  chancery  courts  ;  but,  if  obtained 
in  the  supreme  court,  or  docketed  there  from  the  circuit  or  chancery  courts,  a 
lien  on  all  the  lands  of  the  defendant  everywhere  in  the  State.  The  liens  con- 
tinue during  the  period  of  limitation. 

Executions  may  issue  immediately  after  judgment,  and  at  anj  time  within  the 
period  of  limitations,  against  the  body  of  the  defendant,  or  against  his  property, 
any  kind  of  which  can  be  levied  upon.  There  is  no  stay  of  execiition,  except  for 
a  short  period  on  judgments  obtained  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  where  good 
security  is  given,  unless  an  appeal  or  writ  of  error  is  taken.  There  is  no  redemp- 
tion after  sale  under  execution. 

Deeds,  Kights  ofMabkied  "Womex,  "WitLS,  &c.— All  deeds  must  be  written 
in  the  common  law  form,  under  seal ;  an  impression  on  wafer  or  wax  is  sufficient, 
attested  by  at  least  one  witness,  and  have  the  word  heirs  incorporated  to  con- 
vey a  fee.  Both  husband  and  wife  must  join  in  a  deed  conveying  the  estate  of 
either,  the  wife  to  relinquish  her  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  and  the  husband 
to  give  his  assent  to  the  wife's  conveyance.  If  the  deed  is  acknowledged  in  this 
State,  it  must  be  done  before  the  chancellor  or  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  a 
master  in  chancery,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pieas,  or  a  commissioner  of 
deeds. 

If  out  of  the  State,  before  a  judge  of  the  supreme,  superior,  circuit  or  district 
court  of  the  State  or  United  States  v/ithout  any  seal  of  such  court  or  judge  ; 
before  a  mayor  or  other  chief  magistrate  of  a  city,  under  the  seal  of  such  city  ; 
before  a  master  in  chancery  of  New  Jersey,  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  New 
Jersey,  tmder  his  seal;  before  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  or  any 
Oiucer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  the  State  whore  taken,  to  take  the  acknowledg- 
ments of  deeds,  and  in  the  latter  cases  there  shall  be  annexed  a  certificate  under 
the  great  seal  of  such  State  or  territory,  or  under  the  seal  of  the  county  court 
where  the  same  is  taken  that  such  officer  is  such  as  he  claims  to  be,  and  as  such, 
officer  authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgments  of  deeds  in  such  State  or  terri- 
tory, and  that  his  signature  is  genuine. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate'to  be  used  : 
State  of  New  York,  1 
County  CF  Or AXGE,  p*' 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  187     ,  before  me,  the 

subscriber,  John  Currie,  a  notary  public,  personally  appeared  A.  B.  and  C.  D., 
Ms  wife,  who,  I  am  satisfied,  are  the  grantors  named  in.  and  who  executed  tha 


888 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  YORK. 


•within  inBtrumoTit  of  conveyano.o,  and  I  having  first  mado  Irnown  to  them  the 
contents  thereof,  they  did  therefore  severally  acknow]cd|:^o  before  mo  (hat  they 
Bigi\ed,  scaled  and  dcilivered  the  Bnmo  ao  their  voluntary  aet  aud  deed,  for  the 
uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

And  the  sai<l  C.  ]).,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  being  by  mo  privately  examined 
eeparato  and  apart  from  her  s^aid  husband  did  further  ackuowlc(l(_;o  tli."t  sho 
Binned,  sealed  and  delivered  the  sanio  as  her  voluntary  aet  and  deed,  freely, 
■without  anv  fear,  threat  or  comx>ulsiou  of  or  from  lier  said  husband. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  s.st  my  hand  and  allixed  my  official  seal 
the  day  and  year  aforesaid.  Jorix  Cukhje,  Notary  Pablic 

A  married  woman  can  hold,  to  her  solo  and  separate  use,  all  property,  both 
real  and  personal,  which  she  owned  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  or  which  sir- 
acquired  during  marriage  by  gift,  grant,  daiccnt,  dcviso  or  bequest,  and  th-^ 
rents,  profits  and  issues  thereof  shall  not  bo  subject  to  the  disposal  of  her  hus- 
band, nor  liable  for  his  debts.  She  can  bo  sued  Avith  her  husband  for  debts  con- 
tracted for  her  own  benefit,  and  v/hich  cannot  bo  enforced  against  her  in  equity. 
"Widow  is  entitled  to  dower  iu  one-third  of  all  tho  real  estate  of  which  the  hus- 
band died  seized,  and  to  the  mansion  house  until  dower  is  assigned  her. 

All  chattel  mortgages  to  be  valid  as  to  creditors  and  subsequent  bona  fide 
putphasers,  must  be  tiled  with  the  clerk  or  register  where  the  mortgagor  resides, 
and  if  a  non-resident,  where  tho  property  is  situated,  or  the  possession  of  the 
property  mortgaged  must  be  immediately  delivered  to  the  mortgagee,  and  this 
possession  be  continued.  A.nd  thirty  days  before  the  expiration  of  one  year  from 
the  first  filing  of  such  mortgage,  a  truo  copy  of  same  must  bo  again  filed  with  the 
clerk  or  register,  accompanied  with  a  statement  showing  the  interest  of  the 
mortgagee  in  the  property.   The  same  bccom^is  void  as  to  creditors. 

Ail  wills  shall  be  in  writing,  and  shall  be  signed,  or  acknowledged  to  have 
been  signed,  by  the  testator,  and  declared  to  be  his  or  her  last  will,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  at  least  two  credible  witnesses  present  at  the  pame  time,  who  shall  sub-, 
scribe  their  names  as  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  YORK. 

ExEMPTioirs  FROM  FORCED  SAI.E. — Home  werth  $1000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1000  ;  but  not  as  against  an  execution  upon  a 
judgment  recovered  for  fraud.  Burial  plat  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  acre. 
Personal  property,  when  owned  by  a  householder,  is  exempt  as  follows  :  Spin- 
ning wheels,  looms  and  stoves  in  use  in  dwelling  house,  pictures  and  books  in  uso 
to  the  value  of  §50  ;  a  pew  in  a  church,  10  sheep,  1  cow,  2  swines  and  their  neces- 
sary food,  necessary  household  furniture  and  library  to  value  of  $250  ;  working 
tools,  professional  instruments,  a  team  and  necessary  food  therefor  for  ninety 
days,  and  a  sewing  machine,  except  on  execution  for  purchase  money  for  such 
things. 

Mechakics'  Liex.— The  laws  on  this  subject  are  not  uniform  throughout  the- 
State.  Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and  materials  on  land 
improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  claim  must  be  filed  within 
thirty  days  after  completion  of  labor  and  furnishing  of  materials  ;  and  in  the 
county  of  New  York,  aud  some  other  counties,  within  three  months.  The  lien 
continues  for  one  year. 

Collection  of  Debts.— The  defendant  is  liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  to 
bail,  at  any  time  before  judgment,  in  an  action  for  injury  to  person  or  character, 
or  vvTongfully  taking,  detaining  or  converting  personal  property  ;  in  an  action 
for  money  received  or  property  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a  public 
officer  or  attorney,  or  by  an  officer  or  agent  of  a  corporation  or  banking  associa- 
tion in  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such,  or  by  any  other  person  in  a 
fiduciary  capacity  ;  in  an  action  to  recover  the  possession  of  personal  jjroperty 
tin  justly  detained,  where  the  property  has  been  concealed  or  disposed  of  so  that 
it  cannot  be  found  by  the  sheriff ;  when  the  defendant  has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud 
in  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  the  obligation  for  which  the  action  is 
brought,  or  in  concealing  or  disposing  of  the  property  for  the  taking  of  which  the 
action  is  brought ;  or  wlien  the  action  is  brought  to  recover  damages  for  fraud 
or  deceit,  and  when  the  defendant  has  removed  or  disposed  of  his  jn-operty,  or 
ia  about  to  do  so  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  ' 

The  plaintiff  is  required  to  give  a  bond  in  at  least  S?100,  with  one  or  more 
resident  sureties,  householders.   The  affidavit  to  obtain  arrest  may  be  mad© 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  YOEK. 


889 


by  any  one  with  knowledge  of  tlio  facts.  Arrest  may  bo  made  by  non-resi- 
dents. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  on  acconnt  of  non-residence  ;  departure  from 
the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors,  or  to  avoid  service,  or  concealment 
with  like  intent  ;  removal  or  intended  removal  of  property  from  this  State  with 
intent  to  defraud  creditors,  or  the  assignment,  disposition  or  secretion,  actual  or 
intended,  of  property  with  Intent  to  defraud  creditors.  The  plaintiff  gives  a  bond 
in  at  least  $250,  with  one  or  more  resident  sureties,  householders.  Every  species 
of  property  is  subject  to  attachment  and  execution  at  law.  Attachment  on  real 
estate  becomes  a  iieu  on  filing  of  notice.  Attachments  may  be  made  by  non- 
residents. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorde<l. 
One  partner  cannot  assign  the  linn  assets  for  the  partnership.  A  debtor  may 
prefer  his  surety  or  endorse  on  an  existing  indebtedness,  although  not  yet 
matured.  All  claims  on  contract  are  assignable,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  in  "his 
own  name.   No  particular  form  of  assignment  necessary. 

Garnishment  can  be  had  either  on  execution  or  attachment  against  any  person 
owing  the  debtor  or  having  property  in  his  possession. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
writing  on  the  bill ;  or  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  Avriting  to  accept  a  draft  be- 
fore it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  a:iy  iierson  who  gave  credit  on 
the  strength  of  the  writing. 

Justices'  Courts  have  jurisdiction  in  actions  on  contract  and  for  damages  for 
fraud  in  sale  of  property  up  to  $200,  and  for  recovery  of  personal  property  to 
value  of  §200.   Process  returnable  in  from  6  to  12  days. 

The  supreme  court  is  a  court  of  general  jurisdiction  in  every  county  having 
cognizance  of  all  actions.   Process  returnable  in  20  days. 

"There  are  various  local  courts  in  the  cities  with  general  concurrent  jurisdic- 
tion with  the  supreme  court.  The  marine  court  of  the  city  of  New  York  has 
jurisdiction  in  actions  on  contract  where  the  recovery  sought  is  not  more  than 
§1000.  Process  returnable  in  six  days,  and  in  case  of  non-resident,  plaintiff  or 
defendant,  may  be  in  2  days. 

Judgments  are  Hens  for  10  years  on  all  real  estate  owned  ,  by  the  judgment 
creditor,  or  subsequently  acquired  by  him,  in  the  county  where  tlie  judgment  is 
docketed.  At  the  expiration  of  the  ten  years,  the  judgment  can  be  revived  by 
action.  Judgments  of  inferior  courts  are  made  liens  on  real  estate,  by  tiling  a 
transcript  in  county  clerk's  ofiQ.ce. 

Execution  issues  the  day  judgment  is  rendered.  Personal  property  is  bound 
from  the  time  of  the  delivery  of  the  execution  to  the  sheriff,  except  in  the  hands  of 
bona  fide  purchasers.  All  personal  property,  except  such  as  is  exempt  by  statute 
(see  Exemptions), may  belevied  upon  andsold.  All  interests  in  real  estate,  except 
a  mere  equitable  interest,  is  subject  to  execution  and  sale.  And  within  one  year 
from  the  sale  thereof,  the  property  may  be  redeemed  on  payment  of  the  bid, 
with  interest,  at  ten  per  cent.  If  an  execution  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtor 
can  be  examined  under  oath  to  discover  property  liable  to  execution.  And  any 
one  owing  the  debtor,  or  having  properly  of  the  debtor  in  his  possession,  may  bo 
likewise  examined  for  the  samei)urposc. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Makrted  Women,  'Wilt.s,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal ; 
a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient.  There  must  bo  a  subscribing  Avitness,  unless  the  deed 
is  acknowledged  by  the  grantor.  Within  the  State  the  acknowledgment  must 
be  made  by  judicial  officers  generally,  by  notaries  public  and  commissioners  of 
deeds.  Without  the  State  the  acknowledgment  may  be  taken  before  any  Nev/ 
York  commissioner,  or  before  any  officer  of  the  State  or  territory  where  made, 
authorized  by  the  laws  thereof  to  take  acknowledgments. 

The  officer  must  be  authenticated  by  the  certificate  of  the  county  clerk  under 
his  official  seal. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment,  where  the  grantor  i3  un:ni.r- 
ried : 

State  of  Ikdia^^a,  ) 
County  of  Jackson,  j 

On  this  day  of  ,  in  the  year  ,  before  me  personally  came 

A.  B.,to  me  known  to  be  the  individual  described  in  and  who  executed  the 
within  (or  annexed,  or  above)  conveyance,  and  acknowledged  that  he  executed 
the  same  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

Peter  Wilsok,  Notary  Public. 


800       LAWS  OF  NEW  MEXICO  AND  NORTH  CAIIOI-INA. 


Tlao  following  is  tlio  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed. 

State  of  Indiana,  ) 
County  of  Jackson,  j  ' 

On  this  day  of  ,  in  llio  year  ,  heforo  mo  personally  camo 

A.  B.  and  C  B.,  his  wife,  to  me  known  to  ho  the  individuals  described  m  and 
who  executed  the  within  (or  above,  or  annexed)  conveyance,  and  severally 
acknowledged  that  they  executed  the  same  for  the  ptirposes  therein  mentioned. 
And  the  said  C.  B.,  on  a  private  examination  by  me  made,  apart  from  her  hus- 
band, acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely,  and  without  any  fear  or 
compulsion  of  her  said  husband.  Peter  Wilson,  Notary  ruhlic. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  their  sole  and  separate 
use.  A  wife's  obligation  may  be  recovered  out  of  her  separate  property  when 
given  with  intent  to  charge  it.  Property  acquiredbefore  or  subsequent  to  mar- 
riage is  in  no  cases  liable  for  her  husband's  debts,  but  for  her  own  debts  only, 
A  widow  shall  be  endowed  with  oue-third  of  all  the  lands  owned  by  her  husband 
during  his  lifetime. 

To  render  a  chattel  mortgage  valid  as  against  creditors  and  purchasers,  there 
must  be  actual  possession  by  the  mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  or  copy  must  bo 
tiled  in  the  town  or  city  where  the  mortgagor  resides.  The  mortgage  must  be 
refiled  every  year. 

Every  will  must  be  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  shall  be  acknowledged  by 
him  to  be  his  will  to  each  of  at  least  two  attesting  witnesses,  each  of  whom  shall 
Eign  his  name  at  the  end  of  the  will,  at  the  request  of  the  testator.  The  witnesses 
to  any  will  shall  write  opposite  to  their  names  their  respective  places  of  residence  ; 
if  residing  in  a  city  the  Btreet  and  number  of  the  house  should  also  be  given. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

Exemptions  tkom  Forced  S>axje.— Borne  worth  ?plOOO  ;  Provisions,  $25  ; 
Furniture,  $10  ;  Tools,  $20.  Ileal  estate  to  the  value  of  $1,000  is  exempt  in  farm, 
if  the  heads  of  the  families  reside  on  the  same  ;  also  the  clothing,  beds  and  bed- 
clothing  required  for  the  iise  of  the  family,  and  firewood  requisite  for  30  days, 
when  actually  provided  and  intended  for  use.  All  Bibles,  Testaments,  hymn 
books,  and  school  books  used  by  the  family,  and  family  and  religious  pictures ; 
provisions  on  hand  to  the  amount  of  $25,  and  kitchen  furniture  to  the  value  of 
$10,  both  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor ;  also  tools  and  implements  belonging  to  the 
debtor  that  may  be  necessary  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  trade  or  business, 
whether  agricultural  or  mechanical,  to  be  selected  by  him,  and  not  to  exceed  $20 
in  A'alue.  Real  estate  when  sold  must  be  first  appraised  by  two  freeholders  of 
the  vicinity  and  must  bring  two-thirds  of  the  appraised  value. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  ^AiJE.—Home  worth  $1000,attfZ  Personal  Properly 
worth  $500.  Every  homestead,  and  dwellings  and  buildings  connected  there- 
with, not  exceeding  in  value  $1000,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  thereof,  or  in  lieu 
thereof,  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town,  or  village,  with  the 
dwellings  used  thereon,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the  State,  and 
not  exceeding  $1000  in  value.   Personal  property  to  the  extent  of  $500  in  value. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— All  laborers,  material  men  and  mechanics  have  liens  on 
the  houses  built,  improved  or  repaired  by  them,  and  on  the  lots  on  which  they 
are  built,  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  party  who  had  the  improvements  or 
repairs  done.  But  they  must  take  the  necessary  steps  to  enforce  this  lien,  by 
filing  same  and  bringing  suit  within  ninety  days  after  the  work  is  finished. 

Collection  of  Debts.— The  defendant  may  be  arrested  and  held  to  bail,  on 
the  following  grounds  :  Where,  as  an  attorney,  solicitor  or  agent  of  any  kind, 
he  has  collected  money  and  failed  to  account  for  it,  or  professional  misconduct 
or  neglect  in  office  ;  wiaere  he  has  unjustly  detained  personal  property,  or  where 
he  conceals  or  disposes  of  his  property  with  intent  to  depriA'e  the  plaintiff  of  the 
benefit  of  the  same  ;  where  he  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contractinpj  the  debt 
for  which  the  action  is  brought ;  wiaere  he  has  removed  or  disposed  of  his  prop- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NORTH  CAEOLINA 


891 


erty,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  defraud  hia  creditors ;  where  ho  is  a  non- 
resideut  of  the  State,  or  is  about  to  remove  therefrom,  or  where  the  action  is  for 
breach  of  promise  to  marry.  The  court,  or  judge  of  the  court  in  which  the  action 
is  brought,  jnust  order  the  arrest  of  the  defendant.  No  female  can  be  arrested 
in  any  action,  except  for  a  Avilful  injury  to  person,  character  or  property. 

"Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  on  making  affidavit  to  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing reasons:  1-  Where  the  defendant  or  corporation  is  anon-resident-  2. 
Where  the  defendant  has  absconded,  or  conceals  himself.  3.  Where  any  person 
or  corporation  is  about  to  remove  any  of  his  or  its  property  from  the  State.  4. 
AVTiere  any  person  or  corporation  has  assigned,  disposed  of  or  concealed,  or  i3 
about  to  dispose  of  or  conceal,  any  of  his  or  its  property,  with  intent  to  defraud 
his  or  its  creditors.  5.  Where  the  defendant  has  wrongfully  converted  property 
to  his  own  use. 

Garnishment  in  this  Stato  is  not  regulated  by  statute,  but  is  governed  by  the 
rules  of  common  law. 

Bills  and  notes  for  the  payment  of  money  are  negotiable,  like  inland  bills  of 
exchange,  whether  expressed  to  be  payable  to  the  order  of  a  person  or  not.  Bills 
of  exchange  payable  at  sight  are  entitled  to  grace  ;  but  bills  and  notes  payable 
on  demand  are  not  entitled  to  grace. 

Damages  on  protested  bills  are  as  follows  :  When  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State, 
and  on  a  person  outside  the  State  but  within  the  United  States,  three  per  cent. ; 
where  it  is  drawn  on  persons  in  any  other  place  in  North  A  merica^  or  in  the  West 
India  or  Bahama  Islands,  ten  per  cent. ;  when  drawn  on  persons  m  the  Madeira, 
Canaries,  Azores  or  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  or  in  Europe  or  South  America,  fif- 
teen per  cent. ;  and  any  other  place,  twenty  per  cent.  In  default  of  a  notary,  a 
justice  of  the  peace  or  a  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  may  protest  paper.  When  any 
check,  negotiable  or  promissory  note,  is  endorsed,  the  endorser,  unless  he  in  the 
endorsement  etipulatea  to  the  contrary,  becomes  surety  on  the  paper,  and  liable 
to  the  holder  without  any  demand  on  the  maker  ;  this  rule,  however,  does  not 
apply  to  bills  of  exchange,  either  inland  or  foreign. 

A!ssignment8  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  governed  by  the  rules  of  common 
law.  The  debtor  has  the  right,  therefore,  to  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors, 
provided  it  is  a  bona  fide  transaction. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  justices'  courts  extends  to  $200,  the  probate  court  has 
authority  over  probate  of  deeds  and  general  probate  business,  the  superior 
court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  demands  over  §200,  and  the  supreme  court 
has  only  appellate  jurisdiction. 

Judgments  are  liens  on  the  land  of  the  debtor,  from  the  time  they  are  docketed 
in  the  clerk's  ofiice  when  the  same  are  obtained  in  the  superior  court,  and  from 
the  time  a  transcript  from  the  justices  of  the  peace  is  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the 
superior  court.  Transcripts  of  judgment  thus  docketed  may  be  filed  in  any 
county  where  the  defendant  has  land ;  and  from  the  time  the  same  is  so  filed 
•with  the  clerk  of  the  court,  it  operates  as  a  Hen  on  defendants  lands. 

Executions  may  be  levied  on  real  as  well  as  personal  property,  whether  the 
realty  is  simply  an  equity  of  redemption,  or  whether  it  is  in  the  name  of  a  fraud- 
ulent vendee ;  leaseholds  of  three  years,  or  more  duration  are  treated  as  real 
property.  Executions  from  a  justice  of  the  peace  are  a  lien  on  personal  property 
from  the  time  of  the  actual  levy.  Executions  from  courts  of  record  issue  in  six 
weeks  from  the  rendition  of  the  judgment. 

Deeds,  Eights  op  Married  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  grantor,  or  proved  by  the  subscribing  witness,  before  clerks  of  the 
superior  courts,  or  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  or  notaries  public,  within  the 
State  where  the  grantor  or  witnesses  reside  ;  beyond  the  State,  their  handwriting 
may  be  proven  iii  this  State  before  either  of  the  above  officers,  or,  where  they 
reside  beyond  the  State,  the  acknowledgement  of  the  grantor  can  be  taken,  or 
proof  by  subscribing  witnesses  can  be  made,  before  a  special  commissioner  ap- 
pointed under  the  seal  of  the  probate  judge  having  jurisdiction,  authorizing  such 
commissioner  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  the  grantor,  or  examination  on  oath 
of  the  witnesses  to  the  deed,  and  the  proceedings  of  such  commissioner  shall  bo 
returned  to  the  probate  judge  issuing  the  commission,  who  may  adjudge  the  deed 
duly  acknowledged  or  proven,  and  order  it  registered.  Or,  the  deed  may  bo 
acknowledged  or  proven  by  witnesses  before  any  regular  commissioner  of  this 
State  resident  in  the  State  or  territory  where  the  grantor  or  witnesses  reside. 

Where  the  grantor  and  witnesses  reside  beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
the  acknowledgment  or  proof  may  be  taken  or  made  before  the  chief  magistrate 
of  any  city  where  they  reside,  or  any  minister,  ambassador  or  consul  o£  the 
United  States,  under  the  official  seal  of  such  magistrate  or  other  officer,  and  then, 
the  certificate  so  made  must  be  exhibited  to  the  probate  judge  having  jurisdic* 


892 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OHIO. 


tion,  who  will  adjudgo  tho  samo  duly  acknowlodgod  or  proven,  a:id  order  thu 
eamo  to  be  recorded  in  the  jiropcr  place  in  tliia  SLatc. 

Tho  wife  must  join  tlio  husljancl  in  the  execution  of  all  deeds  conceniinj;  real 
estate,  to  bar  her  dower,  and  her  sif^naturo  cannot  bo  i)roven,  but  her  Beparato 
aoknowlcdgment  must  bo  taken  ;  she  must  be  examined  privily  and  apart  from 
lier  husband,  and  nnist  show  sho  does  it  to  rclincpiish  her  dower.  Wliero  tho 
prantor  and  subscribing;  mtnesses  are  dead,  the  proof  of  tho  deed  may  bo  mado 
"by  provinjT  the  handv/riting  of  tho  grantor  or  tho  witnesses. 

Use  this  form  in  taking  the  acknowledgement  of  husband  and  v/ife  : 
State  of  , ) 

County  op         .  | 

Before  mo  (hero  insert  name  and  title  of  officer),  this  day,  personally  appeared 
A.  B.  and  C,  I).,  his  wife,  grantors  named  in  the  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance, 
and  the  said  deed  being  also  produced  and  exhibited  beforo  me,  the  said  A.  B. 
and  C.  D.  acknowledged  the  execution  thereof  by  them  as  their  act  and  deed  for 
the  purposes  therein  expressed  ;  and  the  said  C.  D.  being  by  me  privily  examined 
separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband;  touching  her  free  consent  in  tho  ex- 
ecution of  the  said  deed  of  conveyance,  in  her  examination  declared  to  mo  that 
she  executed  the  samo  f  reely,voluntarily  and  without  compulsion  or  restraint  upon 
the  part  of  her  said  husband,  or  any  person  whatsoever,  and  did  still  voluntarily 
assent  thereto  ;  and  this  she  does  in  relinquishment  of  her  dower  in  tho  land, 
mentioned  in  said  deed. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal  this 
day  of  ,187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

There  is  no  necessity  of  a  seal  to  a  deed,  a  scrawl  is  sutiicient. 

The  i)roperty  acquired  by  the  wife  either  beforo  or  after  marriage,  either  by 
inheritance,  devise,  gift  or  otherwise,  shall  be  and  remain  her  sole  and,  separate 
property,  free  from  the  debts  or  control  of  her  husband,  and  she  can  convey  tho 
same  with  the  written  consent  of  her  husband.  Sho  has  dov/er  in  all  the  real 
estate  of  her  husband,  owned  or  acquired  during  tho  coverture,  and  join  in  con- 
veyances made  by  him  to  release  the  same. 

No  chattel  mortgage  of  personal  property  is  valid  unless  the  samo  13  duly  re- 
corded in  the  county  where  the  grantor  resides,  or  the  possession  of  the  property  i.3 
removed  from  tho  grantor,  and  la  only  authorized  on  property  to  tho  valuo  of 
§300. 

The  will  must  be  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  other  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  subscribed  in  his  presence  by  two  witnesses, 
no  one  of  whom  shall  be  interested  in  tho  devise.  Or,  if  found  among  his  papers 
must  be  in  his  own  handwriting,  and  his  name  subscribed  thereto,  inscribed  in 
some  part  thereof,  and  the  handwriting  generally  known  to  his  acquaintances, 
and  proved  by  three  witnesses  to  be  every  part  in  the  testator's  own  hand- 
writing. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OHIO. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— 7/oms  JForfh  $1,000,  and  Personal  Pro- 
perty.— Every  head  of  a  family,  resident  in  Ohio,  shall  hold  exempt  from  exe- 
cution, his  homestead,  not  to  exceed  f  1,000.  If  the  homestead  exceed  5^1,000, 
the  property  will  be  partitioned  and  a  homestead  of  $1,000  set  off  to  the  debtor.  If 
he  have  no  homestead,  he  shall  hold  exempt  real  or  personal  property  not  to  ex- 
ceea  $500,  exclusive  t)f  general  exemptions,  which  are  :  Beds  and  bedstead  ;  1 
stove  ;  1  cooking  stove  ;  fuel  for  GO  days  ;  $100  of  wearing  apparel ;  1  cow,  or 
instead  $35  of  household  furniture  :  2  hogs,  or  instead  §15  of  household  furni- 
ture ;  6  sheep,  or  instead  §15  of  household  furniture  ;  all  Bibles  and  hymn 
books  ;  family  pictures  ;  provisions  not  exceeding  §50,  and  such  other  articles  of 
household  or  kitchen  furniture  as  may  be  needed,  liot  exceeding  §50  ;  a  sewing 
machine  ;  a  knitting  machine  :  tools  of  his  trade,  not  exceeding  §100  ;  his  per- 
sonal earnings,  and  his  minor  children's,  for  not  more  than  three  months  before 
judgment  ;  all  specimens  of  natural  history,  if  not  kept  for  pecuniary  exhibi- 
tion ;  a  doctor  shall  hold  his  horse,  saddle,  instruments  and  books,  the  two  latter 
not  to  exceed  §100,  exempt ;  a  drayman,  his  horse  and  dray  ;  a  faruier,  his  horse, 
wagon,  and  yoke  of  oxen.  Widowers  having  unmarried  nnnor  children, 
widows  and  married  people  having  no  children,  may  have  the  benefit  of  this  act. 
Tho  wife  raay  claim  exemption  Avhen  tho  husband  will  or  cannot,  but  tho  two 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OHIO. 


893 


may  not  claim  exemption  at  the  same  time.  Unmarried  women  may  liold  SlOO 
of  wearing  apparel,  ^25  of  books,  a  sewing  and  a  knitting  machine,  exempt. 

Mechaisics'  Lien. — Material  men  and  mechanics,  whether  they  be  contrac- 
tors, sub-contractors  or  laborers,  may  have  a  lien  upon  the  buildings  erected,  and 
the  land  on  which  the  buildings  are  erected,  if  v/ithin  four  months  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  labor  or  furnishing  of  the  materials  they  file  an  account,  under 
oath,  of  their  claim,  in  the  county  recorder's  office.  This  account  must  bo 
itemized.  If  the  worlc  be  done  or  materials  furnished  under  a  written  contract, 
such  contract,  or  a  copy  thereof,  must  be  filed  with  the  account.  The  lien  thus 
obtained  dates  back  to  the  commencement  of  the  labor  or  the  furnishing  of 
materials,  and  extends  to  two  years  after  the  completion  of  the  labor  or  tho 
famishing  of  materials. 

Collection  of  Debts. — Arrest  in  civil  actions  can  only  be  made  in  cases  of^ 
fraud.  The  plaintiff  may  set  forth,  by  afiidavit,  fraud  in  the  removal  or  conceal- 
ment of  property,  in  the  contracting  of  the  debt,  or  of  the  conversion  of  the  pro- 
perty into  money.  Escape  of  the  prisoner,  without  the  consent  of  the  creditor, 
is  not  satisfaction  of  the  debt,  but  non-payment  of  jail  fees,  which  jailer  may  de- 
mand weekly  in  advance,  at  tho  rate  of  forty  cents  a  day,  is  constructive  consent. 
This  remedy  is  rarely,  if  over,  resorted  to. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  bo  obtained  on  one  or  more  of  the  following 
grounds  :  1.  When  the  defendant,  or  one  of  several  defendants,  is  a  non-resident 
or  a  foreign  corporation  ;  or,  2.  Has  absconded  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors; 
or,  3.  has  left  the  county  of  his  residence  to  avoid  service  ;  or,  4.  So  conceals 
himself  that  service  cannot  be  made ;  or,  5.  Is  about  to  remove  his  property  out 
of  the  jurisdiction  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors  ;  or,  6.  Is  about  to  con- 
vert his  property  into  money  with  like  intent :  or,  7.  Fraudulently  or  criminally 
contracted  the  debt  or  incurred  the  obligation. 

An  attachment  on  the  first  ground  is  only  granted  on  claims  founded  on  judg- 
ment, contract  or  decree.  Tho  affidavit  in  attachment  may  be  made  at  or  after 
commencement  of  any  suit  by  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney.  Bond  in  attach- 
ment is  in  double  the  amount  of  the  debt  (except  when  obtained  on  the  first 
ground,  when  no  bond  is  required),  executed  by  one  or  more  sureties — it  is  the 
practice  to  have  two  sureties— need  not  be  householders.  There  is  no  duty 
imposed  upon  tho  creditor  to  publish  any  notice  of  attachment  on  real  estate  ; 
that  is  the  sheriff's  duty.  Attachment  may  be  had  before  the  debt  is  due,  when 
the  defendant  has  disposed,  or  is  about  to  dispose,  of  his  property  with  intent  to 
defraud  or  delay  his  creditors.   Same  lav/  as  above. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inure  to  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors ;  the  deed  of  assignment,  or  a  copy  thereof,  must  be  filed  within  ten 
days  of  its  execution,  in  the  probate  court  of  the  assignor's  county  of  re- 
sidence, by  the  assignee.  After  all  liens  and  mortgages,  the  wages  of  laborers 
and  operatives,  performed  within  six  months,  a^id  not  exceeding  one  hundred 
dollars,  are  to  be  first  paid.  Assignmejit  made  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers  are 
valid  in  any  case,  if  for  value.  Every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable; 
the  holder  of  it  must  sue  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  on  attachment,  and  a  process  analogous  to  it  on 
execution,  against  any  person  or  corporation  owing  the  debtor  any  moneys,  or 
having  his  property  in  possession.  In  no  case  is  the  garnishee  allowed  anything 
but  his  costs  in  the  case. 

All  bills,  notes,  or  other  instruments  payable  to  order,  bearer,  or  assignor  are  ne- 
gotiable. They  must  be  put  in  suit  in  the  name  of  the  real  party  in  interest.  Ko 
damages  or  attorney's  fees  can  bo  recovered  in  an  action,  save  when  there  is  an 
express  and  written  clause  in  the  note  or  bill,  allowing  the  recovery  of  such 
damages  or  fees,  in  case  it  shall  have  to  be  sued  upon.  Notarial  protest  is  evi- 
dence of  demand  and  non-payment,  in  the  manner  and  at  the  time  stated  in  the 
protest. 

Justices  of  tho  peace  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  up  to  ^100,  and  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  common  pleas  and  superior  courts  up  to  $300.  They  have  jur- 
isdiction in  actions  for  trespass  on  real  estate  -^here  the  damages  do  not  exceed 
§100,  and  in  actions  for  forcible  entry  and  detention  of  real  estate.  Summons 
issued  by  justices  of  the  peace  must  be  returned  witliin  twelve  days  of  their 
issue,  and  must  be  served  on  the  defendant  at  least  three  days  before  trial. 

Courts  of  common  pleas  have  original  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  suits  where  the 
amount  exceeds  the  jurisdiction  of  justices,  in  suits  affecting  real  estate,  in 
divorce  and  criminal  prosecution,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  of  cases  before 
justices  of  the  peace  and  probate  judges.  The  superior  courts  of  Cincinnati, 
Cleveland  and  Dayton  have  the  same  jurisdiction  as  courts  of  common  pleas,  ex- 
cept in  divorce,  criminal  law,  and  justices'  appeals.   The  district  courts  have 


894 


SPECIAL  LAWS    OF  OIITO. 


appellixto  juriSflioiion  of  common  picas  courts.  Tlio  superior  courts  in  gene 
ral  term  review  the  superior  courts'  flecisious  in  special  term.  The  supremo 
court  lias  appellate  jurisdiction  f)f  district  toixrt  and  general  term  of  superior 
court  decisions,  and  original  juriadiction  in  mandamus^  quo  warranto,  habeas  cor- 
pus and  'proccdciulo. 

Service  of  eunnnons  must  be  made  and  returned,  in  common  pleas  courts,  on  or 
before  the  second  Monday  after  their  date.  Actions  arc  triable  the  term  after 
the  issues  are  made  up,  or  if  they  be  made  up  during  a  term,  at  that  term. 

Judpncnts  of  courts  of  record,  execution  having  issued  on  them  within  one 
year  of  their  rendition,  are  a  lien  upon  all  real  estate  of  the  judgment  debtor's, 
f  ituato  in  the  county  where  the  the  judgment  is  rendered,  and  owned  by  him  at 
that  time,  from  the  first  day  of  the  term  at  which  such  judgment  is  obtained,  and 
for  five  years  thereafter.  Every  issue  of  execution  extends  the  lien  for  live  years, 
and  a  judgment  lien  may  be  extended  indellnitely.  Judgments  by  confession, 
and  judgments  obtained"during  the  same  term  at  which  the  action  is  commenced, 
date  from  their  rendition  only.  If  execution  be  not  issued  in  one  year,  the  judg- 
ment, though  still  a  lien,  dates  only  from  actual  levy  of  execution.  Judgments, 
nre  no  lien  on  personal  property  and  on  real  estate  acquired  subsequent  to  the 
;  date  of  judgment.  Dormant  judgments  may  be  revived  by  new  actions  founded 
on  them.  Judgments  obtained  before  justices  of  the  peace  may  be  made 
.liens,  by  filing  a  transcript  of  same  in  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
I  In  order  to  prevent  the  priority  of  a  judgment  lien  on  lands,  execution  must 
bo  issued  within  one  year  after  the  rendering  of  judgment.  Actual  levy  must  be 
1  made  on  personal  property  to  create  a  lien.  Executions  from  justices  of  the 
peace  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 

All  property,  legal  and  equitable,  is  subject  to  execution,  except  as  qualified 
by  the  exemption  laws.  Proceedings  in  aid  of  execution  may  be  instituted  at 
any  time  after  judgment  and  execution  by  which  tlie  debtor,  and  any  one  hav- 
ing property  of  the  debtor's,  may  be  compelled  to  disclose  its  nature  and 
i  amount. 

Before  the  return  of  an  execution  issued,  an  order  may  bo  granted  by  the 
court  upon  proper  affidavit,  which  will  have  the  force  of  an  attachment,  and  a 
copy  served  on  any  third  party  is  analagous  to  the  proceedings  in  garnishment. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Markied  Womeis",  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under 
seal,  a  scrawl  is  a  seal,  and  must  be  signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses, who  sign  also  as  attesting  the  execution  of  the  instrument,  and  acknow- 
ledged in  presence  of  any  officer  empowered  to  take  depositions.  If  the  grantors 
be  non-residents,  their  deed,  etc.,  may  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of  this 
State,  or  according  to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  it  is  executed  and  acknov.^- 
ledired.  Mortgages  in  this  State  date  and  become  liens  only  from  the  time  of 
their  entry  for  record.  All  other  deeds  are  to  be  recorded  within  six  months  of 
'their  execution,  in  order  to  become  notice  as  to  subsequent  purchasers  without 
notice. 

This  is  the  form  where  the  grantor  is  unrtiarried  : 
State  of  Itstdiana,  )  ./ 
County  of  Stark.  | 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  (the  date)  before  me,  the  subscriber  (title  of  officer) 
personally  came  (the  name  of  grantor)  the  grantor  named  in  the  foregoing  iu- 
Btrumei^t,  and  acknowledged  the  signing  and  sealing  thereof  to  be  his  voluntary  act 
and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  Witness  my  hand' and  (if 
the  officer  have  a  seal  of  office  he  will  here  state  :  official)  seal,  on  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

[seal.]  John  Harper,  Notary  Pitblic. 

The  wife  must  join  her  husband  in  a  deed  or  power  of  attorney,  whether  the 
land  be  in  her  own  right,  or  she  have  but  a  dower  interest  therein! 

This  13  the  form  when  the  grantor  is  married  : 
State  of  Indiana,  )  ^ 
County  of  Stark.  ) 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  ,  before  me,  the  subscriber  (John  Harper, 

.notary  public)  personally  came  and  his  wife,  the  grantors  mentioned 

in  the  foregoing  instrument,  and  acknowledged  the  signing  and  sealing  thereof 
to  be  their  voluntary  act  and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned. 
And  the  said  ,  wife  of  the  said  ,  being  by  me  examined  separate 

and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  the  contents  of  said  instrument  by  me  ex- 
plained and  made  known  to  her,  as  the  statute  directs,  declared  that  she  did  vol- 
untarily sign,  seal  and  acknowledge  the  same,  and  tliat  slie  is  still  satisfied  there- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OKEGOX. 


895 


with  as  lier  act  and  deed  for  the  use  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  Attesta- 
tion same  as  in  unmarried  form. 

A  married  woman  may  own  property,  real  or  personal,  in  licr  own  right,  with- 
out thie  intervention  of  a  trustee.  She  may  manage  it  herself,  but  cannot  dispose 
of  it  for  any  term  longer  than  three  years,  without  her  husband  joining  her. 
She  may  be  sued  or  sue  alone,  in  actions  concerning  her  seperate  property,  or 
upon  a  written  obligation,  contract  or  agreement  signed  by  her,  or  if  she  be 
engaged  in  any  business,  and  the  cause  of  action  grows  out  of  such  business, 
and  in  all  such  cases  a  personal  judgment  can  be  had  against  her,  and  her  separ- 
ate property  will  be  liable.  In  no  case  shall  she  be  required  to  prosecute  or  de- 
fend by  her  next  friend.  If  her  husband  has  abandoned  her,  she  will  be  con- 
sidered as/emme  sole-  The  widow  shall  be  endowed  with  one-third  part  of  all  tho 
lands  owned  by  her  husband  during  coverture. 

Chattel  mortgages  of  every  kind  are  valid,  if  the  instrument  itself,  or  a  truo 
copy  thereof,  be  deposited  with  the  clerk  of  township  where  the  mortgager  re- 
sides ;  or  if  he  be  a  non-resident,  where  the  property  is  situate  at  the  time  of  tho 
execution  of  the  mortgage. 

On  every  mortgage  so  filed  the  mortgagee  shall  make  the  following  state- 
ment : 

[Form.] 

State  of  ■    >  \  <•<. 

County  of  . 

,  mortgagee,  named  in  this  mortgage,  being  duly  sworn,  makes  oath 
Und  says  that  his  claim  against  ,  mortgager,  of  which  a  true  statement  is 

hereto  annexed,  amoimts  to  the  sum  of  ,  and  that  said  claim  is  just  and 

unpaid. 

Sworn  to  before  me  and  subscribed  in  my  presence  this  day  of 

,  A.D. 

Every  mortgage  so  filed  shall  be  valid  one  year,  and  may  be  renewed  within 
thirty  days  of  the  expiration  of  the  year,  by  refiling  the  original  mortgage,  or  a 
copy  of  it,  with  the  statement  as  above.  Each  renewal  is  valid  one  year, 
and  the  mortgage  may  be  so  renewed  indefinitely. 

Wills  mu6t  be  in  v/riting  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  tho  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses.  See  form  No.  45  on 
page  815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OREGON. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sat,^.— Personal  Property.  The  following  are 
exempted  :  Books,  pictures,  and  musical  instruments  to  the  value  of  $75  ;  necee- 
eary  wearing  apparel  owned  by  any  person  to  the  value  of  $100,  and  if  such 
person  be  a  householder,  for  each  member  of  his  family  to  the  valnie  of  $50  ;  the 
tools,  implements,  apparatus,  team,  vehicle,  harness  or  library  necessary  to  en- 
able any  person  to  carry  on  the  trade,  occupatioii  or  profession  by  which  such 
person  habitually  earns  his  living,  to  the  value  of  $400  ;  also  sutHcient  quantity 
'  of  food  to  support  such  team,  if  any,  for  sixty  days.  The  word  team  includes  only 
one  yoke  of  oxen,  or  a  pair  of  mules  or  horses,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  follow- 
ing property,  if  owned  by  a  householder  and  in  actual  use,  or  kept  for  use  by  and 
for  his  family,  or  when  being  removed  from  one  habitation  to  another  on  a 
change  of  residence  :  10  sheep,  Avith  one  year's  fleece  or  the  yarn  or  cloth  manu- 
factured therefrom ;  2  cows  and  5  swine  ;  household  goods,  furniture  and 
utensils  to  the  value  of  $300  ;  also  sufficient  food  to  support  such  animals,  if  any, 
for  three  months,  and  provisions  actually  provided  for  family  use,  and  necessary 
for  the  support  of  such  household  and  family  for  six  months  ;  the  seat  or  pew 
occupied  by  a  householder  or  his  family  in  a  place  of  public  worship  ;  all  property 
of  the  State,  or  any  county,  incorporated  city,  town  or  village  therein,  or  of  any 
other  public  or  municipal  corporation  of  like  character.  No  article  of  property, 
or  if  the  same  has  been  sold  or  exchanged,  then  neither  the  proceeds  of  such  saio 
or  the  article  received  in  exchange  therefor,  shall  be  exempt  from  execution 
issued  on  a  judgment  recovered  for  its  prize. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— Contractors  for  material  or  labor  on  any  building  have, 
from  the  time  work  is  commenced  thereon,  a  lien  on  the  building  and  the  ground 
on  which  it  is  situated,  prior  to  all  other  liens  on  the  same  premises  placed  there- 
on after  tlis  commencement  of  work  on  the  building.  Suits  must  be  brought 


896 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OREGOI^. 


■within  six  months  nftcr  payments  are  due  under  the  contract,  but  no  credit 
given  on  payments  can  extend  tlie  lien  beyond  two  years  from  the  completion  of 
tlic  work.  The  lion  extends  in  i'avor  of  tlio  workmen  to  tlie  extent  of  the  con- 
tract price:  if  before  payments  are  due,  Ihoy  give  written  notice  of  their  inten- 
tion to  hold  the  owner.  And  no  payments  made  to  the  contractor  before  they 
are  due,  under  the  contract,  can  defeat  tliis  lien. 

(Jt)LLECTioN  OF  DEBTS.— Arrcst  in  civil  actions  is  unknown  here,  except  in 
cases  of  fraud  or  of  absconding  debtors. 

In  actions  for  debt  or  tort,  the  goods  of  defendant  may  bo  attached,  -whenever 
the  plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  shall  make  and  file  an  allldavit  that  a  cause  of  action 
exists  against  the  defendant,  and  the  grounds  thereof,  and  that  the  defendant  i.5 
cither  a  foreign  corporation  or  a  iion-resident  of  this  State,  or  has  departed  there- 
from with  intejit  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors  or  to  avoid  service  of  sumnior.s 
or  keep  himself  concealed  therein  -with  like  intent,  or  has  removed  or  is  about  to 
remove  his  property  from  th3  State  with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors  ; 
that  he  has  assigned,  secreted  or  disposed  of,  or  is  about  to  assign,  secrete  or  dis- 
pose of  any  of  his  property  Avith  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors,  or  that 
the  defendant  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  tho 
obligation  for  which  the  action  is  brought.  Tho  affidavit  may  be  in  the  alter- 
native as  to  any  of  these  causes,  and  may  bo  either  i)ositive  or  upon  information 
and  belief.  But  upon  information  and  belief,  the  nature  and  sources  of  the  in- 
formation upon  which  tho  belief  is  founded  must  be  stated.  All  property,  or 
right  or  interest  therein,  not  exempt  from  execution,  may  be  attached. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  and  every  kind  of  contract  or  claim 
arising  out  of  contract,  is  valid,  and  action  thereon  must  be  brought  in  the  name 
of  the  real  party  in  interest ;  but  the  action  by  tho  assignee^  except  in  case  of 
negotiable  promissory  note  or  bill  of  exchange,  transferred  m  good  faith  for  a 
valuable  consideration  before  due,  shall  be  without  prejudice  to  any  set-off  or 
other  defense  existing  at  the  time  of  or  before  notice  of  the  asi^ignment. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued,  cither  on  execution  or  attachment,  against  any 
person  owing  tho  debtor  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

As  to  bills  and  notes,  no  person  is  chargeable  as  an  acceptor  of  a  bill  of  ex- 
change unless  his  acceptanoe  is  in  writing,  signed  by  himself  or  his  lawful  agent. 
Grace  is  allov/cd  on  all  bills  and  notes,  unless  they  contain  an  express  stipulation 
to  the  contrary.  On  bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  endorsed  within  this  State  and 
payable  without  tho  limits  of  the  United  States,  duly  protested  for  non-accept- 
ance or  non-payment,  on  due  notice  and  demand  thereof,  the  party  liable  for  tha 
contents  of  such  bill  shall  pay  tho  samo  at  the  current  rate  of  exchange  at  the 
time  of  the  demand,  and  damages  at  tho  rate  of  ten  per  centum  upon  the  con- 
tents thereof,  together  with  interest  on  such  contents,  to  be  computed  from  the 
date  of  -protest ;  said  amount  of  contents,  damages  and  interest  to  be  in  full  of 
all  damages,  charges  and  expenses.  On  bills  of  exchange  drawn  within  thia 
State,  payable  without  this  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  and  protested  for 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  drawer  or  endorser  thereof,  due  notice 
being  given  of  Buch  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  shall  pay  said  bill  with 
legal  interest,  according  to  its  tenor,  and  live  per  centum  damages,  together  with 
costs  and  charges  of  protest. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  in  actions  for  tho  recovery  of  money 
or  damages  only,  extends  to  §250  ;  for  the  recovery  of  specific  personal  property, 
when  tli6  value  thereof  and  the  damages  for  the  detention  do  mot  exceed  §250  ; 
for  the  recovery  of  any  penalty  or  forfeiture,  whether  given  by  statute  or  arising 
out  of  contract,  not  exceeding  §250. 

Tho  county  court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  the  first  instance  of  probato 
matters,  and  has  jurisdiction,  but  not  exclrfsive,  of  actions  at  law,  and  all  pro- 
ceedings therein  and  connected  therewith,  when  the  claim  or  subject  of  con- 
t:;oversy  does  not  exceed  the  value  of  §500,  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  actions 
of  forcible  entry  and  detainer,  without  reference  1o  the  value  of  the  property. 

The  circuit  court  is  clothed  with  all  the  judicial  power,  jurisdiction  and 
authority  not  vested  exclusively  in  some  other  court. 

Service  of  the  summons  in  county  and  circuit  courts,  if  made  within  tho 
county  where  action  is  brought,  must  be  made  ten  days  before  judgment  can  be 
obtained  ;  or,  if  served  within  an;^  other  county  in  the  State,  twenty  days.  Be- 
fore justices,  service  must  be  made  not  less  than  five,  nor  more  than  twenty  days 
before  day  set  for  trial. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition,  and  for  ten 
years  thereaftei',  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently 
acquired  by  him,  and  cituated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  is  rendered.  No 
execution  can  issue  on  a  judgment  older  than  teu  years,  unless  on  cause  shown. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  OEEGOX. 


897 


Judgments  create  no  lien  on  personal  property.  Judgments  before  justice  can 
be  made  to  create  lien  on  real  estate  by  filing  a  transcript  of  the  judgment  in  the 
circuit  court. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  rendered.  They  are  a  lien  only 
from  the  time  actually  levied.  Executions  from  justices'  courts  caniiot  be  levied 
on  real  estate.  Every  species  of  property,  or  right  or  interest  therein,  is  subject 
to  execution,  except  the  exemption.  Redemption  of  real  estate  sold  under  ex- 
ecution may  be  made  at  any  time  within  sixty  days  after  the  confirmation  of  the 
sale,  but  the  redemptioner,  in  addition  to  the  price  paid  by  the  purchaser,  must 
pay  interest  thereon,  at  the  rate  of  two  per  cent,  per  mouth,  from  the  date  of 
sale  to  the  date  of  redemption. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  r\lARRiED  Women,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal,  but  a 
scrawl  with  the  pen,  a  wafer,  or  other  adhesive  substance,  is  regarded  as  a  seal. 
They  must  have  two  witnesses ;  and,  to  be  entitled  to  record,  must  be  duly 
acknowledged. 

Acknowledgment,  if  made  in  this  State,  may  be  made  before  any  judge  of  the 
supreme  court,  county  court,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public  ;  if  out  of  the 
State,  before  any  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
or  any  other  oflicer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  State  or  territory,  or  country, 
to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds  therein,  or  before  a  commissioner  of  this  State. 
Unless  the  acknowledgment  be  before  a  commissioner,  when  taken  out  of  this 
State,  there  must  be  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  or  other  proper  certifying  officer  of 
a  court  of  record,  under  the  seal  of  his  office,  th?t  the  person  whose  name  is  sub- 
scribed to  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  was,  at  the  date  thereof,  such  officer 
as  he  is  therein  represented  to  be  ;  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  such  person 
subscribed  thereunto  to  be  genuine,  and  that  the  deed  is  executed  and  acknowl- 
edged according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  territory  or  district. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  when  tho  grantor 
is  unmarried : 


State  of 
County  of 


Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  >  18   ,  before  me,  the 

undersigned,  a  within  and  for  ,  personally  appeared  A.  B.,  to  me 

Ijersonally  known  to  be  the  identical  person  described  in  and  who  executed  the 
foregoing  deed,  and  to  me  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  same  for  the  uses 
and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join,  the  wife  releasing 
dower  or  conveying  her  own  lands  : 
State  of  Ohio,  ) 
County  of  Butlek,  )  ^' 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this         day  of  >  18   ,  before  me,  the  under- 

signed, a  noirary  public  within  and  for  said  county  and  State,  personally  appeared 
A.  B.  and  his  Avif  e,  C.  D.,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  identical  persons  de- 
scribed in  and  who  executed  the  foregoing  deed,  and  to  me  acknowledged  that 
they  executed  the  same  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed,  and  the  said 
C.  D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B-,  on  a  separate  examination  by  me  made,  separate 
and  apart  from  and  without  the  hearing  of  her  said  husband,  to  me  acknowledged 
that  she  executed  thQ  same  freely  and  voluntarily  and  without  fear  or  compul- 
sion from  any  one. 

[Seal.]  John  Mokgan,  Notary  Public. 

In  this  State  married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  iproperty  in  their  own 
names,  and  free  from  control  of  or  liability  for  the  debts  of  their  husbands,  but  in 
the  case  of  personal  property  a  schedule  must  be  filed  with  the  county  clerk. 

Chattel  mortgages,  to  be  alav/fullien,  must  be  filed  in  the  county  clerk's  office, 
and  are  in  force  for  one  year  only  from  the  date  when  so  filed.  They  may  be  re- 
turned for  a  further  period  of  one  year  by  the  mortgagee,  within  thirty  days 
next  preceding  the  expiration  of  the  year,  making  and  annexing  to  the  "instru- 
ment on  file  an  affidavit  setting  forth  the  interest  which  the  mortgagee  has  by 
virtue  of  such  mortgage  in  the  property  therein  mentioned.  Within  thirty  days 
of  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  another  affidavit  may  bo  made  in  like 
manner  and  with  like  elf  ect. 


57 


898  SPECIAL  J.A.WS   CF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  SAiAZ.—Real  or  Personal  Property,  Jg.SOO.  Keal 
or  pcr.sou.ll  properly  to  the  extent  of  .1^300,  besides  wearing  apparel,  bibles  and 
school  books  and  sewing  machines  in  tlie  use  of  the  family,  and  the  arms,  ac- 
coutniments,  and  uniform  of  a  soldier.  The  exemption  may  be  waived  in  note 
or  contract. 

M  i;o II ANirs' Lien.— These  bind  houses  and  lands  from  the  date  of  the  com- 
mencement of  work  on  the  building  (usually  the  cellar  diggijig);  for  all  worJ 
done  .ind  materials  furnished  toward  the  erection  and  construction  of  the  buil 
ing  ;  provided,  a  lien  for  the  same  be  filed  within  six  months  after  the  work  baa 
been  done  or  tbe  materials  furnished.  I^iens  may  also  ba  filed  for  alterations  or 
repairs  ;  they  bind  the  property  from  the  date  of  filing. 

The  debts  of  a  deceased  person  are  a  lien  on  his  real  estate  for  5  years  after 
his  death  ;  the  lien  may  be  continued  by  suit  brought  within  that  time.  The 
lien  of  judgments  operates  for  5  years  from  date  of  entry,  when  they  must  be 
revived  by  scire  facias.  The  lien  of  a  mortgage  for  purchase  money  is  good  from 
date  of  mortgage  if  rendered  within  60  days  ;  other  mortgages  irom  date  of 
record. 

C0LI.ECTIOK  OF  Debts — Arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt  is  abolished  in 
all  actions  founded  on  contract,  except  where  such  actions  arise  from  breach 
of  a  fiduciary  relation,  and  in  cases  of  fraud.  In  cases  where  imprisonment  still 
exists,  the  debtor  may  l^e  committed  to  prison  until  he  pays  the  debt,  or  gives 
bond  to  take  the  benefit  of  the  insolvent  laws. 

The  property  of  a  non-resident  debtor,  who  is  not  within  the  county  at  tbe 
time  the  writ  is  issued,  may  be  attached  in  civil  actions.  The  property  of  a  resi- 
dent debtor  may  be  attached  upon  affidavit,  that  the  defendant  is  justly  indebted 
to  him  in  a  sum  exceeding  5100,  and  setting  forth  the  natiire  of  indebtedness, 
and  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  remove  his  property  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or  that  the  defendant  has  trans- 
ferred, assigned  or  removed,  or  is  about  to  transfer,  assign  or  remove  his  proper- 
ty with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or  that  be  has  property,  rights  in  action, 
interest  in  any  public  or  corporate  stock,  or  evidences  of  debt  which  he  fraudu- 
lently conceals  and  refuses  to  apply  to  the  payment  of  his  debts.  Plaintifi!  must 
give  bond  of  indemnity  in  double  the  amount  claim.ed,  with  sufllcient  sureties,  to 
bo  approved  by  the  court  before  the  attachment  issues.  Attachments  may  be  is- 
sued in  the  nature  of  an  execution,  after  final  judgment,  which  is  a  means  of 
reaching  the  property  of  tbe  defendant  in  the  hands  or  custody  of  another. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  must  be  recorded  within  30  days  after 
date,  or  they  become  void  as  to  creditors.  Preference  in  assignments  are  void, 
and  fall  into  the  general  fund,  except  as  to  wages  due  laborers,  miners  and 
operatives,  who  are  preferred  to  the  extent  of  ^?100.  One  partner  may  make  gen- 
eral assignment  of  partnership  property  for  benefit  of  creditors. 

A  judgment  is  a  lien  on  all  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  within  tbe  county 
in  which  it  is  obtained.  Its  lien  continues  5  years,  after  which  it  must  be  revived 
or  continued  by  scire  facias.  Does  not  bind  after-acquired  property  unless 
levied  thereon  or  revived.  An  execution  binds  personal  property  of  the  defend- 
ant from  the  time  it  is  placed  in  tbe  hands  of  the  sherifP,  but  executions  issued 
by  a  justice  of  tbe  peace  only  bind  from  time  of  actual  levy.  When  personal 
property  or  any  leased  premises  is  taken  in  execution,  the  landlord  is  entitled  to 
one  year's  rent  out  of  the  proceeds  of  sale. 

To  stay  execution  defendant  may  plead  his  freehold,  that  is,  allege  bis  owner- 
ship of  unincumbered  real  estate,  or  put  in  si^ecial  bail,  and  thereupon  shall  be 
entitled  to  stay  of  execution  as  follows  :  If  under  $5200,  six  months  ;  if  over  §200 
and  less  than  §500,  nine  months  ;  if  over  $500,  twelve  months.  This  does  not 
apply  to  actions  on  judgments,  mortgages  or  bail  for  stay  of  execution  on  former 
judgments.  ^ 

In  tax  sales,  unseated  laiids  may  be  sold  after  one  year's  taxes  are  due,  but 
may  be  redeemed  by  owner  within  2  years  on  payment  of  amount  of  sale,  costs, 
interest,  and  25  per  cent,  penalty.  Improved  lands'  may  be  sold  for  non-payment 
of  2  years'  taxes,  but  must  be  redeemed  within  one  year  after  notice  of  sale.  In 
Philadelphia,  2  years  are  allowed  to  i-edeem  debts,  not  of  record  on  a  lien  on  tbo 
estate  of  the  deceased  person  for  five  years,  and  may  be  continued  for  five  years 
longer  by  suit  commenced  within  that  time.  In  case  the  personal  estate  of  a  de- 
cedent is  not  sufiicient  for  the  payment  of  his  debts,  the  orphans'  court  will 
direct  the  sale  of  the  realty.  The  widow  and  children  of  a  deceased  person  are 
entitled  to  $300  out  of  his  real  or  personal  estate. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  PENXSYLYANIA. 


899 


Deeds,  Eights  of  Married  WOMEif,  "Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seaj, 
a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient,  and  should  be  attested  by  two  .witnesses.  Acknowl- 
edgment of  deeds  may  be  taken  m  the  State,  by  justices  of  the  Supreme  court  of 
Pennsylvania,  judges  of  the  courts  of  common  pleas,  mayor,  recorder,  and  alder- 
man of  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Alleghany  and  Carbondale,  the  recorders  of 
deeds,  the  notaries  public,  and  all  justices  of  the  peace. 

Out  of  the  State  acknowledgment  may  be  taken  by  the  mayor  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  city,  town,  or  place  where  the  deed  is  executed  (under  the  public 
seal)  ;  any  justice  or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  superior  court,  or  court  of  common 
pleas,  or  of  any  court  of  probate,  or  court  of  record,  or  any  State  or  territoy  in 
the  United  States  (certified  under  the  hand  of  the  judge  and  the  seal  of  the 
court) ;  by  any  judge  of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  or  of  any  United  States 
district  court  ;  by  an  officer  or  magistra^;e  of  any  State  or  territory  in  the  United 
States  who  is  authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  own  State  or  territory  to  take  ac- 
knowledgments therein.  The  proof  of  such  authority  is  the  certificate  of  the 
clerk  or  prothonotary  of  any  court  of  record  in  such  State,  under  seal  of  the 
court,  that  the  officer  taking  such  acknowledgment  is  duly  qualified  to  take  the 
same  ;  by  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  of  the  United  States  (under 
official  seal)  ;  consuls  and  vice-consuls  of  the  United  States  (under  consular 
seal) ;  by  any  notary  public  in  any  State  or  territory  in  the  United  States,  t)r  in 
any  foreign  country  ;  by  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  in  any  State, 
territory  or  foreign  country,  whose  commissions  last  five  years  unless  sooner  re- 
voked. And,  where  the  person  making  the  acknowledgment  is  in  the  military 
service  of  the  United  States,  before  any  person  holding  the  rank  of  major,  or  any 
higher  rank,  in  said  military  service.  Proof  of  the  execution  of  a  deed  may  be 
made  by  the  affidavit  of  a  subscribing  witness.  Powers  of  attorney  relating  to 
real  estate  muse  be  acknowledged  the  same  as  deeds.  Acknowledgments  taken 
by  notaries  public  or  commissioners  of  deeds  need  not  be  certified. 

No  deed  or  contract  relating  to  the  real  estate  by  a  wife  is  binding  upon  her, 
unless  acknowledged  substantially  as  below  : 

[Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  by  Husband  and  Wife.] 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  ) 
County  op  Lehigh.  j 

Be  it  remembered  that,  on  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187   ,  before 

me  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  official),  duly  commissioned  in  and  for  said 
county,  came  .  and  ,  his  wife,  and  acknowledged  indenture  to  be 

their  act  and  deed,  and  desired  the  same  to  be  recorded  as  such.  She,  the  said  , 
being  of  lawful  age,  and  by  me  examined  separate  and  apart  from  her  said  hws- 
band,  and  the  contents  of  said  deed  being  first  fully  made  known  to  her,  did 
thereupon  declare  that  she  did,  voluntarily  and  of  her  own  free  will  and  accord, 
sign  and  seal,  and  as  her  act  and  deed  deliver  the  same,  without  any  coercion  or 
compulsion  of  her  said  husband. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

[seal.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

[Proof  by  Subscribing  Witness.] 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  ). 
County  of  Leaigh.  | 

Be  it  remembered  that,  on  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187   ,  be- 

fore me  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  official),  duly  commissioned  in  and  for 
said  county,  personally  appeared  ,  one  of  "the  subscribing  witnesses  to 

the  execution  of  the  above  indenture,  who  being  duly  sworn  (or  affirmed)  accord- 
ing to  law,  doth  depose  and  say  that  he  did  see  ,  the  grantor  above  named, 
sign  and  seal,  and  as  his  act  and  deed  deliver  the  above  indenture  (deed  or  con- 
veyance) for  the  use  and  purposes  therein  mentioned,  and  that  he  did  also  see 
subscribe  his  name  thereto  as  the  other  witness  of  such  sealing  and 
delivery,  and  that  the  name  of  this  deponent,  thereunto  set  and  subscribed  as  a 
witness,  is  of  this  deponent's  own  proper  hand-writing. 

Sworn  (or  affirmed)  to  and  subscribed  before  me  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

Witness  my  hand  and  official  seal. 

[seal.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

A  married  woman  may  hold  and  enjoy  as  her  own  separate  property  all  sucli 
as  she  owned  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  and  all  such  as  may  descend  to  or  vest 
in  her  during  her  coverture,  and  such  is  not  liable  for  any  debts  or  engagements 
of  her  husband,  A  married  woman  may  petition  the  court  for  leave  to  enjoy  her 
own  earnings,  which  will  be  allowed  ;  her  separate  estate  is,  however,  liable  for 
necessaries  purchased  by  herself  for  the  use  of  her  family.  She  cannot  make  a 
valid  contract  except  for  the  improvement  of  her  separate  estate  and  for  neces' 


<)()() 


KPKCIAL  LAAVS  OF  IIIIODE  ISLAXD. 


earies.  Slio  may  mako  a  will  of  her  separate  estate,  subject  to  her  husband's 
rights  as  tenant  by  tlio  courtesy. 

Wills  must  in  writing  :  and,  unless  the  person  making  the  Fame  shall  be  pre- 
vented by  the  extremity  of  his  last  sickness,  shall  be  signed  by  him  at  the  end 
thereof,  or  by  some  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  in 
all  cases  shall  be  proved  by  the  oaths  or  affirmation  of  two  or  more  competent 
witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  RHODE  ISLAND. 

ExEMPTioxs  From  Forced  Sai-e.— iVo  Home  Exempted,  hut  Personal  Prop- 
erty. — Householders  are  entitled  to  hold  the  following  exempt  from  execution  : 
The  necessary  wearing  apparel  of  the  debtor  and  bis  family  ;  his  necessary  work- 
ing tools,  to  value  of  $200  ;  his  household  furniture  and  family  stores,  to  the  value 
of  $300  ;  one  cow ;  one  hog  and  one  pig,  and  the  pork  of  the  same  ;  debts  secured 
by  bills  of  exchange  on  negotiable  promissory  notes. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor,  or  labor  combined  with 
materials  furnished,  which,  in  the  case  of  an  original  contractor,  must  be  prose- 
cuted within  six  months,  and  in  case  of  a  sub-contractor  or  day  laborer,  within 
thirty  days  after  commencing  the  work ;  but  no  landlord  is  bound  for  the  im- 
provements made  by  the  tenant,  nor  a  married  v/oman,  under  any  circumstances, 
unless  the  contract  is  in  writing,  assented  to  by  them,  and  is  clearly  intended  to 
bind  them. 

Collection  of  Debts.— The  defendant  may  be  arrested  in  all  cases  of  toits, 
where  the  form  of  the  actions,  as  trover  or  trespass,  or  the  necessary  allegations 
of  the  writ,  make  a  prima  facie  case  of  tort  ;  in  actions  of  debt,  convenant  and 
assumpsit,  which  cover  almost  all  collections.  No  arrest  of  females  can  be  had, 
on  original  writs,  but  males  may  be  arrested  on  original  writ  in  the  following 
cases  :  1.  In  case  of  claims  originating  before  July  1, 1870.  2.  Where  the  plaintiff, 
his  agent  or  attorney,  makes  atlidavit,  on  the  back  of  the  writ,  "  that  the  plaintiff 
has  a  just  claim  against  the  defendant,  upon  which  the  plaintiff  expects  to  re- 
cover, in  the  action  commenced  by  such  writ,  a  sum  suflicient  to  give  jurisdiction 
to  the  court  to  which  such  v/rit  is  returnable  ;  and  also,"  either  "  that  the  de- 
fendant, or  some  one  of  the  defendants,  is  about  to  leave  the  State-,  without  leav- 
ing therein  personal  or  real  estate  upon  which  an  execution,  that  may  be  obtained 
in  such  action,  can  be  served  ;"  or,  "  that  the  defendant,  or  some  one  of  the  de- 
fendants, has  committed  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  npon  which  the  action  is 
founded,  or  in  the  concealment  of  his  property,  or  in  the  disposition  of  the 
same." 

To  obtain  a  writ  of  attachment,  the  plaintiff  must  make  afifidavit  that  the  de- 
fendant ov/es  him  justly  the  claim  set  forth,  and  which  must  be  a  sum  sufficient 
to  give  the  court  jurisdiction  ;  that  defendant  resides  out  of  the  State,  or  has  left 
the  State,  and  is  not  expected  to  return  in  season  to  be  served  with  process  before 
the  next  term  of  the  court ;  or  that  hfe  has  committed  fraud  in  contracting  the 
debt  sued  on,  or  in  concealing  his  property,  or  in  disposing  of  the  same  fraudu- 
lently, and  all  the  legal  interest  of  the  defendant  in  property  can  be  -attached, 
except  what  is  exempt  from  execution. 

Assignments  made  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  valid  whether  a  preference 
is  shown  or  not,  except  where  the  grantor  is  imprisoned  on  execution.  Assign- 
ments or  other  conveyances,  given  as  security  for  past,  present  or  future  endorse- 
ments, if  made  in  good  faith,  are  valid,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  provisions  of  the 
bankrupt  act- 

Assignees  of  contracts  or  claims,  other  than  bills  of  exchange  or  negotiable 
promissoiy  notes,  must  sue  in  the  name  of  the  assignor,  unless  they  can  prove  a 
special  promise  by  the  defendant  to  pay  to  them. 

The  usages  relating  to  notes  and  bills  are  governed  by  the  common  law.  For- 
eign bills  drawn  or  endorsed  within  this  State  and  returned  protested  from  with- 
out the  United  States,  are  subject  to  10  per  cent,  damages  and  interest.  The 
holder  of  such  protested  bill  may  sue  the  drawers  and  endorsers  jointly.  Foreign 
bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State  and  returned  to  this  State  pro- 
tested for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  from  any  place  without  the  limits  of 
the  United  States,  are  subject  to  payment  of  10  per  cent,  damages,  besides  protest 
fees.  Inland  bills  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State  are  subject  to  5  per  cent, 
damages,  besides  protest  fees.  Bills  drawn  at  sight,  payable  in  this  State,  are 
due  on  presentation,  without  grace.    Notes,  for  the  payment  of  money,  only  are 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  RHODE  ISLAXD 


901 


assignable  and  negotiable  like  bills  of  exchange.  Legal  holidays  are  4th  of  July, 
Christmas  day  and  February  22nd  :  also,  any  days  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
Legislature  or  President  of  the  United  States  as  days  of  thanksgiving  or  holidays, 
Paper  maturing  on  any  of  those  days  must  be  protested  the  day  preceding  those 
holidays,  severally,  at  his  election.  Foreign  bills  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State 
and  returned  protested  from  without  the  State  and  within  the  United  States,  are 
subject  to  five  per  cent,  damages  and  interest.  Sight  bills  are  without  grace. 
Other  bills  and  notes  have  three  days'  grace,  except  the  last  day  be  Sunday  or  a 
holiday  they  are  payable  the  last  secular  day  preceding.  Holidays  are  July  4, 
Christmas,  February  22,  and  all  duly  appointed  thanksgiving  and  fast  days. 
Corporations  are  authorized  to  issue  promissory  notes  signed  by  their  proper 
officers. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extend  to  $100  ;  the  court  of  common  plea* 
has  original  jurisdiction  in  actions  for  §100  and  upwards,  and  has  exclusive  juris- 
diction on  appeals  from  justice's  courts.  The  supreme  court  has  exclusive  juris- 
diction in  equity  causes  appellate  from  the  court  of  common  pleas. 

Judgments  are  not  a  lien  on  real  estate,  and  only  binds  the  property  seized  by 
the  attachment. 

Execution  issues  after  the  rising  of  the  court,  or,  in  the  county  of  Providence, 
five  days  after  judgment,  except  on  motion,  when  they  may  be  granted  imme- 
diately. They  are  to  be  levied  oji  property  previously  attached,  before  the  return 
day  (the  first  day  of  the  next  term),  or  the  attachments  are  released.  But  where 
the  property  is  replevied,  and,  by  the  final  judgment  in  replevin,  is  restored  to  the 
officer,  it  must  be  levied  on  within  20  days  after  it  is  returned  and  becomes  sub- 
ject to  levy.  Executions  bind  nothing  except  what  they  are  levied  upon. 
They  may  be  levied  upon  anything  that  may  be  attached  on  original 
Avrit,  and  executions  of  justices'  courts  may  be  levied  on  real  estate,  but  no  exe- 
cution can  be  served  by  garnishment  or  trustee  process.  In  such  cases,  where 
there  has  beeniio  previous  attachment,  the  only  available  mode  of  procedure  is 
by  a  new  suit  on  the  judgment.  Executions  may  also  be  served  by  arrest  of  the 
body  of  a  defendant,  not  exempt  from  arrest,  in  actions  for  tort,  or  for  the  recov- 
ery of  debts  incurred  before  March  31,  1870,  or  where  the  defendant  was  arrested 
on  the  original  writ  or  on  a  writ  of  mesne  process,  or  where  proof  is  made  show- 
ing, to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  or  some  justice  thereof,  facts  which  would 
have  authorized  an  tirrest  in  the  first  instance,  but  no  female  can  be  imprisoned 
on  a  debt  less  than  $50,  not  under  seal.  There  is  no  redemption  for  execution 
sales. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Married  Womek,  "Wills,  &c.— Every  deed  of  real  estate 
requires  a  seal  (not  a  scrawl)  but  not  witnesses  are  essentially  necessary  to  their 
validity.  Within  the  State,  they  may  be  acknowledged  before  a  senator,  judge, 
justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public  or  town  clerk.  Without  the  State,  and  within 
the  United  States,  acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  any  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace,  mayor  or  notary  public,  or  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor 
of  the  State  and  duly  qualified.  As  it  has  never  been  determined  how  long  such 
an  appointment  as  commissioner,  and  as  some  presume  to  act  by  virtue  of  old  or 
uncertain  appointment,  it  is  better  to  resort  to  some  one  of  the  local  officials 
named  above — of  course,  selecting  one  whose  official  character  could  be  easily 
proved.  Without  the  JJnited  States,  deeds  may  be  acknowledged  before  any 
minister  or  consul  of  the  United  States,  or  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the 
Governor  and  duly  qualified. 

The  following  form  is  used  in  taking  the  acknowledgment  of  a  deed  where  it  is 
necessary  for  husband  and  wife  to  acknowledge  the  same,  and  can  easily  be  used 
Avhere  a  single  man  or  woman  makes  the  acknowledgment; 
State  of  Rhode  Islai^d,  ) 
County  of  Providence.  | 

Be  it  remembered  that,  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187   ,  before 

me,  Joseph  Perkins,  a  notary  public  duly  qualified,  etc.,  personally  appeared  A; 
B.  and  CD.,  his  wife,  and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowledged  the  foregoing  instru- 
nient,  by  him  signed,  to  be  his  free  and  voluntary  act  ajid  deed ;  and  the  said  C 
D.,  being  by  me  examined  privily  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  having 
said  instrument  shown  and  explained  to  her  by  me,  declared  to  me  that  it  is  her 
voluntary  act,  and  that  she  does  not  wish  to  retract  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  set  my  hand  and  seal  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  the  day 
and  year  above  written. 

Joseph  Perkins,  JSfotary  Public. 
The  wife  must  join  in  the  execution  of  a  deed  made  by  the  husband,  to  relirr 
quish  dower  ;  yet  the  husband  alone  is  required  to  acknowledge  it. 


902 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


Married  women  liold  real  and  personal  estate,  not  coming  from  the  husband, 
free  from  all  interference  of  the  husband's  creditors,  and  free  from  tlie  husband's 
interference  by  means  of  trustees  appointed  in  the  ordinary  mannei-,  or  by  the 
supreme  court  on  petition.  They  are  not  authorized  to  do  business  as  traders. 
They  may  sell  their  i)ersonal  estate  in  the  same  maimer  as  their  real  estate,  and 
certain  unimportant  kinds,  such  as  clothing,  books  and  similar  personal  articles, 
except  jewels,  they  may  sell  as  if  single.  Their  other  contracts,  except  their 
warranties  in  conveyances  of  real  estate,  are  utterly  void  and  do  not  bind  their 
separate  estate. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  pres- 
ence, and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of 
the  testator,  by  two  or  three  competent  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— //ome  worth  $1000,  Personal  Property 
$500.  A  homestead  to  the  head  of  each  family,  his  widow  or  the  orphan  minors, 
not  to  exceed  $1000.  Also,  personal  property,  -as  follows  :  "  Household  furni- 
ture, beds  and  bedding,  family  library,  arms,  carts,  wagons,  farming  implements, 
tools,  neat  cattle,  work  animals,  swine,  goats  and  sheep,  not  to  exceed  in  value 
in  the  aggregate  $500,— except  the  homestead  cannot  be  held  exempt  from  exe- 
cution issued  on  a  judgment  obtained  for  the  purchase  money  of  the  same,  or  for 
improvements  made  thereon,  or  taxes  due  thereon."  One- third  of  yearly  pro- 
ceeds of  persons  not  the  head  of  family  is  exempt,  except  as  against  taxes. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— All  persons  who  furnish  materials  or  perform  labor  in 
the  erection,  improvement  or  repairing  of  buildings,  have  a  statutory  lien  on  the 
same,  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  party  who  had  the  buildings  erected  or 
improvements  done  ;  provided,  that  within  ninety  days  after  he  ceases  to  labor 
a  proper  account  be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the  court  and  suit  thereon  be  begun  in 
six  months. 

Collection  of  Debts. — A  debtor  may  be  arrested  upon  an  order  from  the 
court  where  the  action  is  pending,  upon  an  affidavit  that  he  has  removed  or  dis- 
posed of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or 
has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  sued  for,  or  is  concealing  or 
disposing  of  the  property,  for  the  taking,  detention  or  conversion  of  which  the 
action  is  brought ;  or  where  the  action  is  brought  for  damages  for  fraud  or  de- 
ceit, or  for  money  received  and  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a 
public  officer,  agent  or  officer  of  a  corporation,  factor,  agent,  broker,  attorney- 
at-law,  or  one  acting  in  any  fiduciary  capacity,  or  for  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
office  or  professional  employment,  or  where  he  is  anon-resident  of  this  State,  or  is 
about  to  remove  therefrom  ;  or  when  the  action  is  for  injury  to  person  or  char- 
acter ;  or  for  injuring  or  for  wrongful  taking,  detaining  or  converting  property. 
No  female  can  be  arrested,  except  for  wilful  injury  to  property,  person  or  char- 
acter. 

A  writ  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes  :  1.  When  the  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  or  a  foreign  corporation.  2.  Or  where  he  has  abscond- 
ed or  concealed  himself  to  avoid  service  of  summons.  3.  Or  is  about  to  remove 
his  property  from  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors.  4.  Or  has  assigned, 
or  disposed  of,  or  secreted,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of  or  secrete  his  property, 
for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors. 

Debtors,  in  making  assignments,  can  prefer  any,  or  any  class  of  creditors,  and 
make  any  provisions  for  the  administration  of  the  property,  only  cannot  retain 
any  advantage  or  benefit  to  himself.  The  assignee  must,  within  ten  days,  call  a 
meeting  of  creditors,  to  appoint  an  agent  of  creditors  to  act  with  him,  who  has 
joint  control  of  the  property.  If  no  agent  is  elected,  the  assignee  is  both  assignee 
and  agent.  Assignments  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment 
by  them,  are  valid.  In  fact,  assignments,  free  from  fraud,  for  any  purpose,  are 
valid,  and  can  be  set  aside  only  in  bankruptcy,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
bankrupt  act.  Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  all  choses  in  action  are  assignable. 
The  assignee  should  sue  in  his  own  name. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  the  principles  of  the  common  law  apply  to  notes  and 
bills  of  exchange,  and  negotiable  papers  of  all  kinds,  as  to  endorsement,  presen- 
tation and  protest.  No  protest  is  necessary  on  a  bill  for  less  than  $100,  and  all 
bills,  foreign  and  domestic,  payable  at  sight,  are  entitled  to  days  of  grace. 

Endorser  or  acceptor  not  liable,  unless  the  endorsement  or  acceptance  be  in 


SPECIAL  LAAVS    OF   SOUTH  CAEOLINA. 


903 


writing  on  the  note  or  draft,  or  protest  be  made  for  non-acceptance.  Drawers 
and  endorsers  may  be  sued  jointly  and  severally.  All  bills  or  promissory  notes 
payable  to  order  or  bearer  under  ^1,  are  void. 

Justices'  courts  have  jurisdiction  to  the  extent  of  $100,  and  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  court  of  common  pleas.  The  court  of  common  pleas  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  appealed  from  justices  of  the  peace,  and  orig- 
inal and  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  actions  at  law  or  equity  where  the  amount 
sued  for  exceeds  $100.  If  the  debt  recovered  in  the  common  pleas  court  is  less 
than  5p50,  the  plaintiff  must  pay  costs.  The  Supreme  Court  has  appellate  juris- 
diction of  all  cases  in  equity  from  court  of  common  pleas  ;  corrects  errors  of  law 
in  cases  at  law  from  such  courts,  and  has  original  power  to  issue  writs  of  injunc- 
tion, mandamus,  quo  loarranto,  habeas  corpus,  and  such  other  remedial  writs  as; 
are  necessary  to  give  it  a  general  supervisory  control  over  all  the  courts  in  the 
State. 

Judgment,  as  soon  as  entered,  binds  all  real  estate  in  that  county,  and  can  be 
entered  at  same  time  in  several  counties,  bu.t  binds  personal  property  only  on 
levy,  constructive  or  actual. 

Execution  may  issue  at  once  after  judgment,  unless  the  court  open  a  special 
day  for  the  entry  of  judgments,  or  unless  a  notice  of  an  appeal  is  given,  and  then 
it  can  issue,  if  plaintiff  will  execute  to  the  defendant  a  bond,  with  good  sureties 
in  double  the  value  of  judgment,  to  pay  all  damages  sustained  by  the  defendant 
in  case  the  judgment  is  reversed.  Even  then  the  defendaut  can  still  secure  the 
stay  of  the  execution  until  the  appeal  is  disposed  of,  if  ho  will  execute  a  counter 
bond  to  plaintiff  to  pay  him  the  debt,  costs  and  damages,  if  the  judgment  be  sus- 
tained.   There  is  no  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Markied  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  of  conveyance  of 
real  estate  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses, 
and  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies  in  thirty-three  days  after 
same  is  acknowledged.  If  acknowledged  in  this  State,  it  must  be  done  before 
a  notary  public  or  trial  justice  ;  without  the  State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this 
State  only.  Before  the  deed  can  be  properly  admitted  to  probate,  one  of  the 
subscribing  witnesses  must  go  before  a  notary  public  or  trial  justice,  if  he  is  in 
this  State,  or  before  a  commissioner  for  this  State  if  he  is  without  the  State,  and 
make  affidavit  that  he  saw  the  grantor  sign,  seal  and,  as  his  act  and  deed,  de- 
liver that  deed,  and  that  he,  with  the  other  subscribing  witness,  naming  him,  did 
witness  the  execution  thereof.  And  the  officer  before  whom  such  affidavit  is 
made  must  add  this  certilicate,  which  must  be  signed  by  the  witness  : 
State  of  South  Carolina,  ) 
County  of  Charleston.  J 

Personally  appeared  before  me  A.  B.,  and  made  oath  that  he  saw  C.  D.  sign, 
seal  and  deliver  the  within  conveyance,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  thei-ein  men- 
tioned, and  that  he,  with  E.  F.,  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  witnessed  the  due 
execittion  thereof.  A.  B. 

Sworn  to  before  me  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

If  the  grantor  has  a  wife,  she  should  renounce  her  dower  before  a  notary  jmb- 
lic  or  trial  justice,  if  withi3,i  the  State,  or  before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  the 
State  if  outside  of  it,  and  the  officer  will  use  this  form  : 
State  of  South  Carolina,  ) 
County  of  Charleston.  j 

I  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  officer),  do  hereby  certify  unto  all  whom  it 
may  concern,  that  G.  H.,the  wife  of  the  within-named  C.  D.,  did  this  day  appear 
before  me,  and  upon  being  privately  and  separately  examined  by  me,  did  declare 
that  she  does  freely,  voluntary,  release  and  forever  relinquish  unto  the  within- 
named  John  Smitli,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  her  interest  and  estate,  and  also  all 
her  right  and  claim  of  dower,  of,  in,  or  to  all  and  singular  the  premises  within 
mentioned  and  released. 

(Signed  by  wife.) 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  .  A.  D.  187  . 

[Seal.]  (Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

All  the  property,  both  real  and  personal,  belonging  to  a  woman  at  the  time  of  her 
marriage,  and  all  which  she  acquires  during  coverture  by  gift,  grant,  inheritance 
or  devise,  shall  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property  free  from  the  debts  of  her 
husband,  and  may  be  disposed  of  by  her,  by  deed,  will  or  otherwise,  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried  ;  provided,  no  gift  from  husband  shall  injure 
the  just  claims  of  her  creditors.  She  must,  as  previously  stated,  relinquish  her 
dower. 


904 


.SPECIAL  LAWS   OP  TENNESSEE. 


Chattel  mortgagCH  of  i)ciishablo  goods,  of  goods,  wares,  and  incrchandiso,  in 
fact,  of  any  pei'Hoiial  property,  are  valid,  if  rc(!orded  witliin  sixty  days  in  the 
office  of  the  registrar  of  vicsnc  conveyances  in  the  county  wherein  the  property 
is  situated.  In  all  counties,  except  Charleston,  the  clerk  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  is  ex  officio  registrar. 

"Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  some  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the 
testator  by  three  or  more  competent  witnesses.  See  Business  Form,  No.  45,  p. 
815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  TENNESSEE. 

ExE^rPTTOXS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— /Tome  roorth  $1000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
iRrty.  The  following  property  is  exempt  for  garnishment,  execution,  or  attacn- 
ment :  Thirty  dollars  of  the  wages  of  mechanics  or  other  laboring  men  in  the 
hands  of  heads  of  families,  two  beds,  bedsteads  and  necessary  clothing  for  each, 
and  for  each  three  children  of  one  family,  one  additional  bed,  bedstead  and 
clothing,  the  value  of  such  bedsteads  in  no  case  to  exceed  $25  ;  2  cowy  K,nd  calves, 
and  if  the  family  consist  of  C  or  more  persons,  3  cows  and  calves,  etc.  ;  2  horses  or 
2  mules,  or  1  horse  and  1  mule,  and  1  yoke  of  oxen  ;  1  Avagon  or  cart,  etc.,  not  to 
exceed  in  value  §75 ;  25  lbs.  corn ;  20  bushels  wheat ;  500  bundles  oats,  etc.  ; 
1,000  lbs.  pork,  or  600  lbs.  bacon  ;  a  homestead  carpet,  manufactured  by  the  wife 
for  family  use  ;  G  cords  wood,  or  100  bushels  coal  ;  1  sewing  machine,  if  used  for 
livelihood,  etc.  ;  in  the  hands  of  mechanic,  who  is  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
trade,  one  set  of  mechanics'  tools  ;  a  homestead  in  the  possession  of  each  head 
of  the  family  and  the  improvements  thereon  to  the  value  of,  in  all,  .'jSlOOO.  Per- 
sons who  are  not  the  heads  of  families  ai-e  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  exemp- 
tions. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Material  men,  contractors  and  mechanics  who  furnish 
Avork  or  materials  to  aid  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  any  building  or  buildings, 
shall  have  a  lien  on  the  same  for  1  year  after  the  work  is  done,  provided  notice  in 
waiting  of  said  lien  be  first  given  to  the  owner,  or  his  agent  at  the  time  said 
work  is  begun,  or  materials  furnished.  All  debts  incurred  for  repairing,  fitting, 
building,  navigating,  or  furnishing  steam  or  keel  boats,  shall  be  a  lien  on  sueli 
vessels  provided  suit  be  commenced  within  three  months  from  the  time  the  debt 
Is  incurred. 

Collection  of  Debts.— Arrest  in  civil  actions  is  unknown  in  this  State. 
Writs  of  attachment  on  aflidavit  being  made  to  either  of  the  following  causes.  1. 
Where  the  debtor  resides  out  of  the  State.  2.  Where  he  is  about  to  remove,  or 
has  removed  himself  or  property  from  the  State.  3.  Where  he  has  removed,  or 
is  removing  himself  out  of  the  county  priA^ately.  4.  Where  he  conceals  himself, 
60  that  the  ordinary  process  of  law  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  5.  AVhere  he 
absconds,  or  is  absconding  or  concealing  himself  or  property.  G.  "Wliere  he  has 
fraudulently  disposed  of,  or  is  about  to,  fraudulently  dispose  of  his  property.  7. 
Where  any  person,  liable  for  any  debt  or  demand,  residing  out  of  the  State,  dies, 
leaving  property  in  this  State.    (Code,  §  3455.) 

Bond,  with  good  security,  must  be  given  in  all  cases  before  an  attachment  can 
Issue.  And  all  property,  both  real  and  personal,  legal  a-nd  equitable,  of  the 
debtor,  can  be  seized. 

All  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  inure  for  the  benefit  of  only  those 
creditors  of  the  grantor  named  in  the  deed  of  assignment ;  the  acceptance  of  the 
creditor  is  presumed,  imless  jjroof  to  the  contrary  is  made.  Assignments  can  be 
made  to  secure  endorsers  or  sureties.  Assignments,  like  other  deeds,  must  be 
acknowledged  and  recorded. 

Garnishment  can  issue  on  executions  or  attachments,  and  holds  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  defendant  in  the  hands  of  the  garnishee  from  the  date  of  the  service 
of  garnishment  to  his  answer.  The  garnishee  is  entitled  to  the  payment  and 
privileges  of  a  witness  and  his  costs. 

Every  bill,  note,  or  bond,  whether  sealed  or  not,  whether  payable  to  order  for 
value  received  or  not,  shall  be  negotiable  as  inland  bills  of  exchange  by  the 
custom  of  merchants.  And  the  holder  of  any  such  instrument  may  maintain  a 
joint  action  against  the  maker  and  any  one  or  more  of  the  endorsers,  or  a  joint 
and  several  action  against  any  one  or  more  of  the  endorsers.  The  holder  of  a  bill 
of  exchange,  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State  upon  any  person  or  corporation  of 
or  in  any  other  State,  territory  or  place,  and  which  is  protested  for  non-payment, 
may  recover  from  the  drawer  or  endorser,  besides  the  principal  and  interest. 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF  TEXNESSEE 


905 


damages  as  follows  :  Three  per  cent.,  if  drawn  on  any  person  or  corporation  in 
the  United  States  or  territories  ;  fifteen  per  cent.,  if  in  any  other  place  in  North 
America  ;  and  twenty  per  cent,  on  any  person  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Days  of  grace  are  not  allowed  on  bills  payable  at  sight.  The  certificate  of  a 
notary  public  in  or  on  his  protest  is  ^^riwia  facie  evidence  of  the  facts  stated 
therein. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts,  extends,  against  makers  of  notes  and  accept- 
ors of  drafts,  to  the  extent  of  ^500.  On  acco"iints,  obligations,  contracts,  and 
other  evidences  of  debt,  $^250.  Damages  and  replevin  suits,  §250.  The  circuit 
and  equity  courts  have  general  jurisdiction,  and  circuit  courts  have  jurisdiction 
appellate  from  justices  of  the  peace  on  all  cases  before  them.  The  supreme  court 
has  appellate  jurisdiction  only. 

Executions  may  issue  from  a  justice  after  two  days,  and  from  a  court  of  record 
after  30  days  from  date  of  judgment.  An  execution  from  a  justice  is  a  lien  only 
on  personal  property  from  the  day  of  its  teste,  audit  becomes  a  lien  on  real  estate 
only  from  the  day  of  its  levy  thereon.  The  lien  on  real  estate,  under  an  execu- 
tion from  a  justice,  can  be  enforced  only  by  an  order  of  sale  from  the  circuit  court, 
which  is  made  upon  the  return  of  the  execution,  with  the  levy  thereon,  and  all 
the  papers  into  the  circuit  court.  The  legal  interest  of  the  defendant  in  all  kinds 
of  personal  or  real  property,  also  in  stock  of  a  corporation ,  can  be  levied  on  under 
an  execution.  All  judgments  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  stayed  for 
eight  months,  upon  entering  good  and  sufficient  security  on  the  justice's  docket 
for  debt,  interest  and  costs,  if  same  is  done  in  two  days  after  judgment.  Iso  stay 
allowed  on  judgment  obtained  in  court  of  record.  Eeal  property  sold  under 
execution  can  be  redeemed  in  two  years  by  the  debtor,  or  by  a  judgment  creditor 
of  the  debtor.  In  case  the  debtor  does  not  redeem  until  other  judgment  creditors 
redeem,  he  shall  pay  all  the  judgments  which  have  secured  a  lien'by  redemption. 
The  legal  title  only  can  be  subjected  to  an  execution  at  law.  An  egaitable  in- 
terest m  lands  can  only  be  reached  by  bill  in  chancery. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  are  valid  without 
being  under  seal.  Not  good  as  to  strangers,  unless  duly  acknowledged  by  the 
grantor,  proved  by  two  witnesses  under  oath  and  recorded.  Deeds  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, if  the  grantor  is  in  the  State,  before  the  clerk  or  legally  appointed 
deputy  clerk  of  the  county  court,  or  before  a  notary  public.  If  before  a  notary 
public,  the  clerk  of  the  county  court  where  he  received  his  appointment  shall 
certify  as  to  his  official  capacity. 

If  the  grantor  is  without  the  State,  but  in  the  United  States  or  territories — L 
Before  any  court  of  record,  or  before  the  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  in  any  of 
the  States  of  the  Union  ;  or,  2.  Before  a  commissioner  for  Tennessee,  appointed 
by  the  Governor,  in  any  State  or  territory  ;  or,  3.  Before  a  notary  public  of  such 
State  or  territory. 

If  the  grantor  is  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Union  and  its  territories — 1.  Before 
a  commissioner  for  Tennessee  ap;x)inted  in  the  country  where  the  acknowl- 
edgment is  made,  2.  Before  a  notary  public  of  such  country.  3.  Before  a 
consul,  minister  or  ambassador  of  the  United  States  in  the  country  where  the  ac- 
knowledgment is  made. 

The  certificate  of  the  officer  before  whom  the  deed  is  acknowledged  must  be 
under  seal,  unless  acknowledgment  is  made  in  the  State  before  a  justice  or  judge 
of  some  court,  and  then  the  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  court,  certifying 
to  the  signature,  etc.,  of  the  justice,  or  of  the  clerk  of  the  court  certifying  to  the 
signature  of  the  judge,  must  be  under  seal. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  certificate  necessary  where  the  grantor  makes 
the  acknowledgment  in  person  and  in  this  State  : 
State  op  Tennessee,  ) 
County  of  Hardin.  ) 

_ "  Personally  appeared  before  me,  clerk  (or  deputy  clerk)  of  the  county  court  of 
said  county,  the  within-named  bargainer,  with  whom  I  am  personally  acquainted, 
and  who  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  within  instrument  for  the  pur- 
poses therein  contained. 

"  Witness  my  hand,  at  office  this         day  of        ,  A.  D.  187  ." 

[seal.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

As  the  wife  has  no  dower  in  land  granted  in  fee  by  the  husband,  it  is  not 
necessary  for  her  to  join  in  the  deed,  but  if  a  trust  deed  is  given,  then  the  wife 
must  relinquish  dower  by  joining  in  the  deed.  When  the  land  conveyed  is  the 
separate  estate  of  the  wife,  the  husband  must  always  join  her  in  the  deed.  In 
any  deed  where  the  wife  has  to  acknowledge  the  same,  the  certificate  of  the  officer 
or  court  before  whom  it  is  taken  must  contain  this  additional  clause  :  "  And  C. 
D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  having  appeared  before  me,  privately  and  apart  from 


900 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  TEXAS. 


her  liusband,  the  said  A.  B.,  acknowlodffed  Iho  execution  of  tlie  said  deed  to  hara 
heen  done  by  her  freely,  voluntarily,  juhI  iiiHlcrslaiuliiifrly,  without  compulsion 
or  constraint  from  Jior  said  huHbaiid,  lor  Ih.;  pui  posijs  th(;nuii  (ixprcssed." 

It  is  not  ne(!0ssary,  to  the  validity  ol  ;i  <l<  i  <l,  I lial,  iL  sliKiild  he  niit,med  in  pres- 
ence of  vvitnesses,  where  the  grantor  makes  lli<:  ack nowhjdKmcul, in  person.  But 
unless  grantor  does  acknowledge,  it  nuiKL  be  signed  in  presence  of  witnesses— two 
are  sullicicnt,  who  may  probate  Iho  same  Ijcl'ore  either  of  the  above-named 
officers,  and  in  such  case  the  following  form  must  be  used  : 
Static  ov  Maine,  ) 
CoirNTY  OF  Waldo.  ) 

Personally  appeared  before  me,  John  Campbell,  commissioner  for  Tennessee, 
etc.,  C.  and  D.,  subscribing  witnesses  to  the  within  deed,  who  lacing  just  sworji, 
deposed  and  said,  that  they  are  acquainted  with  A.  B.,  the  bargainer  (or  as  the 
case  may  be),  and  that  he  acknowledged  the  same  in  their  pi-esence,  to  be  his  act 
and  deed  upon  the  day  it  bears  date  (or  stating  the  time  as  prove'l  by  the  wit- 
nesses).  Witness  my  hand,  at  office,  this  day  of         ,  A,  1>.  187  . 

John  Campbell,  Commissioner  for  Tennessee, 

A  married  woman  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  her  sole  and  sepa- 
rate use,  without  or  through  a  trustee.  She  can,  if  over  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
and  own  the  land  in  fee,  or  equitably,  convey  same  without  her  husband  joining 
Avith  her  by  deed  or  will.  And  if  settled  upon  her  after  marriage  for  her  sole 
and  separate  use,  at  any  age.  A  note  or  any  other  obligation,  made  by  a  married 
woman,  will  not  bind  her  separate  estate,  unless  it  was  executed  with  the  express 
intention  to  bind  the  same  ;  or  unless  it  was  given  for  necessaries  for  herself  or 
her  minor  children. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  some  other  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the  tes- 
ator  by  two  witnesses,  no  one  of  whom  is  interested  in  the  will. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  TEXAS. 

ExEMPTioisrs  FROM  FORCED  SALE — Home  worth  $5000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. To  every  citizen,  householder,  and  head  of  a  family,  not  to  exceed  200 
acres  of  land  (not  included  in  a  city,  town  or  village),  or  any  city,  town  or  vil- 
lage lot  or  lots,  not  to  exceed  S5000  in  value  at  the  time  of  their  designation  as 
a  homestead,  and  without  reference  to  the  value  of  any  improvements  thereon. 
Also,  all  household  and  kitchen  furniture,  all  implements  of  husbandry,  all 
tools  and  apparatus  belonging  to  any  trade  or  profession,  and  all  books  belong- 
ing to  private  or  public  libraries  ;  five  milch  cows  and  calves  ;  2  yoke  of  work 
oxen ;  2  horses  and  1  wagon,  1  carriage  or  buggy  ;  1  gun  ;  20  hogs  ;  20  head  of 
sheep  ;  all  provisions  and  forage  on  hand  for  home  consumption  ;  all  saddles, 
bridles  and  harness  necessary  for  the  use  of  the  family  ;  and  to  every  citizen, 
not  a  head  of  a  family,  one  horse,  bridle  and  saddle,  all  wearing  apparel,  all 
tools,  apparatus  and  books  belonging  to  his  or  her  private  library. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Any  person  or  firm  Avho  may  labor,  furnish  material, 
machinery,  fixtures  and  tools  to  erect  any  house,  improvement,  or  any  improve- 
ment whatever,  shall  have  a  lien  on  such  article,  house,  building,  fixtures  or  im- 
provement, and  also  on  the  lot  or  lots  or  land  necessarily  connected  therewith, 
to  secure  payment  for  labor  done,  material  and  fixtures  furnished  for  construc- 
tion or  repairs.  Such  person  or  firm  shall,  within  six  months  after  such  debt 
become  due,  file  his  contract  in  the  office  of  the  district  clerk  of  the  county  in 
which  the  property  is  situated,  and-have  the  same  recorded  in  a  book  kept  for 
that  purpose  by  the  clerk.  If  the  contract,  order  or  agreement  be  verbal,  a  du- 
plicate copy  of  the  bill  of  particulars  must  be  made  under  oath,  one  to  be  filed 
and  recorded  by  the  clerk  as  provided  for  written  contracts,  the  other  to  be 
served  on  the  party  owing  the  debt.  When  the  contract  or  account  is  filed  and 
recorded,  they  must  be  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the  property  against 
which  the  lien  is  claimed.  The  filing  and  recording  fixes  the  lien  from  the  day 
it  is  filed.  The  lien,  if  against  land  in  the  country  upon  which  said  improve- 
ments have  been  made,  shall  extend  to  and  include  fifty  acres  ;  if  in  a  city, 
town  or  village,  it  extends  to  and  includes  such  lot  or  lots  upon  which  said  im- 
provements are  situated.  The  lien  may  be  enforced  against  the  land  and  im- 
provements, or  the  improvements  alone.  The  purchaser  having  a  reasonable 
time  to  remove  the  same.  The  sale  to  be  upon  judgment  and  order  of  sale. 
This  lien  extends  as  well  to  homesteads  as  to  other  property  ;  also,  to  all  boats 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  TEXAS. 


907 


navigating  the  waters  of  this  State.  All  actions  to  enforce  11 3ns  must  he  brought 
within  two  years. 

Collection  of  Debts.— Arrest  for  debt  is  unknown  here.   "Writ  of  attach- 
ment may  issue  for  the  following  causes,  viz.  :   When  the  defendant  is  not  a 
»«'  resident  of  the  State,  or  is  about  to  remove  himself  or  property  out  of  the  State, 

or  has  abandoned  the  country,  or  secretes  himself  so  that  the  ordinary  process  of 
law  cannot  be  served  on  him,  or  is  about  to  remove  his  property  beyond  the 
county  in  which  suit  has  been  or  is  to  be  instituted,  or  is  about  to  transfer  or 
secrete,  or  has  transferred  or  secreted  his  property,  for  the  purpose  of  defraud- 
ing his  creditors,  so  that  the  plaintili  will  probably  lose  his  debt.  Attachment 
bond  must  be  double  the  amount  claimed,  with  two  or  more  approved  securities. 
AflEidavit  made  to  facts  claimed  as  ground  of  attachment.  Everything,  except 
choses  in  action  and  property  exempted  by  law,  belonging  to  the  defendant  in 
execution,  may  be  levied  upon  and  sold  as  his  goods  and  chattels.  An  attach- 
ment levied  upon  real  estate  is  a  lien  thereon  from  date  of  levy. 

An  assignment  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  generally,  inure  for  the 
benefit  of  all  the  creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assign- 
ment or  not ;  but  a  failing  debtor  may  prefer  his  creditors.  Assignments  can  be 
made  in  this  State  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers  prior  to  any  payment  by  them. 

Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  are  assignable 
here,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  in  his  own  name.  An  assignment  proves  itself  in 
Texas,  and  can  only  be  put  in  issue  by  a  plea  of  non  est  factum.  A  parol  assign- 
ment is  good  here,  but  must  be  proven. 

Garnishment  may  be  issued  upon  attachment,  judgment,  or  upon  original 
suit,  upon  filing^proper  bond  and  affidavit.   May  be  issried  either  by  district  or 
justice  court.   Defendant  may  replevy  property  seized  in  hands  of  garnishee  by 
tiling  proper  bonds.   Garnishee  is  entitled  to  his  reasonable  costs. 
Ik  As  to  notes  and  bills,  acceptors  are  chargeable,  either  upon  written  or  verbal 

acceptance.  A  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange  drawn  by  merchants,  resident  in 
this  State,  upon  their  agents  or  factors  out  of  the  State,  having  fixed  the  liabil- 
ity upon  the  drawer  or  endorser,  are  entitled  to  recover  and  receive  ten  per 
cent,  damages,  and  all  costs  of  suit  thereon  accruing.  An  assignee  can  sue  any 
assignor  of  any  bill  or  note,  but  cannot  sue  any  two  or  more  of  them  in  the  same 
suit,  unless  they  are  joint  assignees.  When  suit  is  brought  against  a  remote  as- 
signor by  an  assignee,  he  cannot  only  set  up  any  defense  he  may  have  against 
the  plaintiif ,  but  any  he  may  have  against  any  of  the  intermediate  assignors. 
Three  days  of  grace  are  allowed  here  upon  all  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory 
notes  assignable  by  law.  A  notarial  protest  or  copy  of  record,  certified  to  under 
the  hand  and  seal  of  the  notary  public,  is  admitted  in  all  the  courts  of  this  State 
as  evidence  of  the  facts  therein  set  forth. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts,  extends,  against  makers  of  notes  and  ac- 
ceptors of  drafts,  to  §500.  On  accounts,  obligations,  contracts  and  other  evi- 
dences of  debt,  f 250.  Damages  and  replevin  suits,  f 250.  The  circuit  and  equity 
courts  have  general  jurisdiction,  and  circuit  courts  have  jurisdiction  appellate 
from  justices  of  the  peace  on  all  cases  before  them.  The  supreme  court  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  only. 

Judgments  and  decrees  in  any  court  of  record  shall  be  a  lien  on  the  debtor's 
land  from  the  time  the  same  is  rendered  in  the  county  where  the  debtor  resides ; 
if  rendered  in  any  other  county  than  where  debtor  resides,  from  the  time  when  a 
certified  copy  of  the  same  is  registered  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies.  But 
this  lien  only  exists  for  twelve  months.  Such  judgment  or  decree  does  not  give 
a  lien  on  the  debtor's  equitable  interest  in  land,  unless  within  sixty  days  after 
rendition  of  same  a  memorandum  of  the  same  is  registered  in  the  county  where 
the  land  lies.  A  lien  on  tlie  legal  title  of  the  debtor  in  real  estate  can  also  be 
iixed  under  an  execution  from  a  justice  of  the  peace,  by  filing  the  execution, 
with  the  levy  of  the  same,  and  all  the  papers  in  the  case  before  the  justice,  with 
the  circuit  court  from  which  an  order  of  sale  issues. 

Executions  in  district  court  issue  immediately  upon  the  adjournment  of 
court,  unless  court  is  in  session  twenty  days  after  rendition  of  judgment,  or  the 
defendant  is  about  to  remove  his  property  out  of  the  county  when  they  can  issue 
sooner.  In  justice  court  ten  days  after  rendition  of  judgment.  Executions  are 
not  liens  on  any  property  in  this  State  until  levied.  No  stay  laws  here,  except 
in  justice  court  for  three  months'  time.  Everything  except  choses  in  action  and 
property  exempted  by  law  belonging  to  the  defendant  in  execution,  may  be 
levied  on  and  sold  as  his  goods  and  chattels.    No  redemption  laws  here. 

Deeds,  Eights  of  Markied  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds,  mortgages  and 
deeds  of  trust  are  not  required  to  bo  under  seal.  Proof  or  acknowledgment  of 
©very  instrument  of  writing  for  record  may  be  taken  before  some  one  of  the  fol' 


<J08 


SPECIAL  J.AWS  OV  UTAH. 


lowing  officers  :  Wlicn  acknowledged  or  proven  within  this  State,  before  som« 
notary  public,  district  clerk  or  deputy  clerk,  or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  district 
court  in  this  State  ;  wlicn  acknowledged  or  proven  without  this  State,  and  within 
the  United  States  or  their  territories,  before  some  notary  public,  cominissioner 
of  deeds  for  this  State,  or  before  some  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  having 
a  seal  ;  when  acknowledged  or  i:>roven  without  the  United  States,  before  some 
public  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul  or  consular  agent  of  the  United  States, 
or  notary  public  ;  in 'all  cases  the  certificate  of  such  acknowledgment  or  proof 
shall  be  attested  under  the  othcial  seal  of  the  officer  taking  the  same,  ajid  tho 
deed  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  certificate  where  the  husband  and  wife  join 
in  the  deed  :  , 
State  of  Texas,  I 
County  of  Travis,  ( 

Before  me  personally  appeared  and  ,  his  wife,  parties  to  the 

foregoing  attached  ,  bearing  date  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  , 

both  of  whom  are  known  to  me,  who  acknowledged  severally  that  they 

had  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  for  the  purposes  and  consideratione 
therein  stated.   And  the  said  having  been  examined  by  me  privily  and 

apart  from  her  husband,  and  having  had  the  same  fully  explained  to  her,  she, 
the  said  ,  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  her  act  and  deed,  and  declared  to 

me  that  she  had  willingly  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  of  her  own  free 
will  and  accord,  without  fear  or  compulsion  on  the  part  of  her  said  husband,  and 
that  she  wished  not  to  retract  it. 

Witness  my  ofiicial  seal  and  signature  at  my  office,  this  day  of 

A.  D.  187  .  (Signature  and  title.) 

[Certificate  when  the  Grantor  is  Unmarried.] 
State  of  Texas,  (. 
County  of  Travis.  ) 

Before  me,  John  Smith,  clerk  of  the  district  court  in  and  for  said  county, 
personally  appeared  ,  who  is  to  me  known,  and  acknowledged 

that  signed,  executed  and  delivered  the  foregoing  deed  for  the  purposes 

therein  specified. 

Witness  my  official  seal  and  signature,  at  my  office,  in  the  city  of  Austin,  this 
day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  of  officer.) 

Deeds  may  be  authenticated  for  record  by  affidavit  of  one  or  two  attesting 
witnesses.   Two  witnesses  required  to  every  deed  unless  acknowledged. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  estate  or  personal  property  to  their  separate 
use.  A  married  woman  can  bind  herself  on  a  note,  draft  or  endorsement,  when 
for  necessaries  for  herself  or  children,  or  for  the  benefit  of  her  separate  prop- 
erty. All  property  acquired  by  husband  and  wife  during  marriage  is  their  com- 
mon property ,  except  that  acquired  by  gift,  devise  or  descent,  which  is  his  or  her 
separate  property.  The  husband's  consent  is  necessary  to  the  alienation  of  the 
wife's  separate  property.  The  husband  cannot  alienate  the  homestead  without 
the  consent  of  the  wife.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  the  use  of  one-third  of  the 
real  estate  for  her  life. 

A  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  here  between  the  parties  thereto,  but  void  as 
against  creditors  and  bonajide  purchasers  without  notice,  unless  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  mortgagor  resides. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  -person  in 
his  presence  and  by  his  direction  ;  and,  moreover,  if  not  wholly  written  by  him- 
self, be  attested  by  two  or  more  credible  witnesses  above  the  age  of  fourteen 
years,  subscribing  tlxeir  names  in  his  presence. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  UTAH. 

Exemptions  FROM  Forced  Sale.— ^Tome  loorth  $1000,  and  Personal  Property. 
To  each  memher  of  the  family  f 250.  To  the  head  of  the  family  is  allowed  a  home- 
stead not  exceeding  in  value  #1000,  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor,  and  personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $700  or  more,  according  to  the  value  of  articles  exempt 
by  statute  ;  aside  from  the  homestead  each  member  of  the  family  is  allowed  f 250. 
JSio  property  shall  be  exempt  from  sale  on  a  judgment  received  for  its  price,  on 
a  mechanic's  lien,  or  a  mortgage  thereon. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VEKMONT. 


909 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VERMONT. 

Ext:mptioks  from  Forced  Sale.— ITome  icorih  $500,  and  Personal  Property, 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500,  and  products,  such  suitable  apparel,  bedding, 
tools,  arms  and  articles  of  furniture  as  may  be  necessary  for  upholding  life  ;  1 
sewing  machine  kept  for  use,  1  cow,  the  best  swine,  or  the  meat  of  1  swine,  10 
sheep,  and  one  year's  product  of  said  sheep  in  wool,  yarn  or  cloth  ;  forage  suffi- 
cient for  keeping  not  exceeding  10  sheep  and  one  cow  through  one  winter  ;  10 
cords  of  firewood,  or  5  tons  of  coal;  20  bushels  of  potatoes,  such  military  arms 
and  accoutrements  as  the  debtor  is  required  by  law  to  furnish  ;  all  growing  crops, 
10  bushels  of  grain,  1  barrel  of  flour,  3  swarms  of  bees  and  hives,  together  with 
their  produce  in  honey  ;  200  lbs.  of  sugar,  and  all  lettered  gravestones  ;  the  bibles 
and  other  books  used  in  a  family  ;  one  pew  or  slip  in  a  meeting-house  or  place 
of  religious  worship  ;  live  poultry  not  exceeding  in  amount  or  value  the  sum  of 
§10  ;  the  professional  books  and  instruments  of  physicians,  and  the  professional 
books  of  clergymen  and  attorn eys-at-law,  to  the  value  of  §200,  and  also  1  yoke  of 
oxen  or  steers  as  the  debtor  may  select,  with  sufficient  forage  for  the  keeping  of 
the  same  through  the  winter  ;  or  in  lieu  thereof,  2  horses  kept  and  used  for  team 
work  not  to  exceed  in  value  ^5200,  with  sufficient  forage  for  keeping  same  ;  also 
pistols,  side-arms  and  equipments  personally  used  by  any  soldier  of  the  United 
States  and  kept  by  him  or  his  heirs  as  mementoes. 

Mechanics'  Liex.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor  and 
material  in  building,  repairing,  fitting  or  furnishing  any  vessel  until  eight 
months  after  such  vessel  is  completed.  It  may  be  secured  by  attachment,  and 
has  precedence  of  all  other  claims.  They  also  have  a  lien  upon  a  building,  and 
the  lot  on  which  it  stands,  for  erecting  or  repairing  such  building.  The  lien  con- 
tinues three  months  after  payment  comes  due,  but  does  not  attach  until  the  per- 
son claiming  it  has  filed  and  caused  to  be  recorded,  in  the  town  clerk's  office,  a 
written  memorandum,  by  him  signed,  asserting  such  claim. 

Collection  of  Debts. — No  female  can  be  arrested  on  any  process  in  an  ac- 
tion founded  on  contract.  No  resident  citizen  of  this  State,  or  any  of  tho 
United  States,  can  be  arrested  on  any  process  issued  on  any  contract,  unless  the 
plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney  file,  with  the  authority  signing  the  writ,  an  affida- 
vit, stating  that  he  has  good  reason  to  believe,  and  does  believe,  that  the  defend- 
ant is  about  to  abscond  or  remove  from  the  State,  and  has  property  secreted 
about  his  person  or  elsewhere  to  the  amount  of  $20,  or  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
demand  in  suit ;  or  file  an  affidavit  stating  that  the  defendant  neglects  or  refuses 
to  pay  over  on  demand  money  which  he  holds  for  the  plaintiff  in  a  fiduciary  ca- 
pacity. 

In  actions  of  contract,  writs  of  attachment  may  issue  against  the  goods,  chat- 
tels or  estate  of  the  defendant ;  and  in  actions  founded  on  tort,  for  want  thereof, 
against  the  defendant's  body. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  regulated  by  statute.  To  pro- 
tect the  property  in  the  hands  of  the  assignee,  it  must  be  for  the  benefits  of  all 
the  creditors.  Choses  in  action  may  be  assigned,  but  the  assignee  cannot  sue  in 
his  own  name,  unless  there  has  been  a  special  promise  to  pay  him,  or  the  de- 
mand is  what  is  known  as  "negotiable  paper." 

In  actions  on  contract  a  person  having  goods,  effects  or  credits  of  the  defend- 
ant in  his  hands,  may  be  summoned  as  trustee  in  the  suit,  and  he  is  required  to 
attend  and  disclose.  Judgment  is  rendered  against  him  in  favor  of  the  plaintiif 
for  the  amount  of  his  indebtedness  or  liability  to  the  defendant,  to  the  extent  of 
the  judgment  against  the  defendant.  This  process  cannot  be  sustained  unless 
the  debt  due  the  plaintiff  from  the  defendant,  as  Avell  as  that  from  the  trustee  to  / 
the  defendant,  exceed  $10.  It  does  not  reach  debts  due  on  a  contingency,  or  due  I 
on  a  judgment  where  the  judgment  debtor  is  liable  to  an  execution  on  the  judg- 
ment. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  &c.,  a  promissory  note  payable  on  demand  is  considered 
overdue  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  days  from  date,  and  presentment  and  demand 
of  payment  must  be  made  within  that  time  to  charge  the  endorser.  All  negoti- 
able paper,  except  that  payable  on  demand  or  at  sight,  is  entitled  to  three  days  of 
grace.  Negotiable  paper  may  be  endorsed  for  collection  and  sued  in  the  name 
of  the  agent  or  attorney,  though  he  is  not  the  real  party  in  interest,  and  holds  it 
for  collection  merely. 

Judgments  are  not  a  lien.  Eeal  estate  and  certain  articles  difficult  of  removal 
are  attached  by  leaving  a  copy  of  the  original  writ  in  the  clerk's  office.  Execu- 
tion may  issue  from  county  court  twenty-four  hours  after  the  rising  of  the  court, 
and  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  two  hours  after  judgment  is  rendered.   They  are  re- 


910 


SPECIAL  LAVVa  OF  VIRGINIA. 


Uirnablo  in  sixty  days,  and  must  bo  issued  and  placed  in  the  lianas  of  the  officer 
■within  tliirty  days  after  judirment,  to  liold  personal  property  attached  on  mesne 
process,  and  within  live  months  to  hold  real  estate  so  attached.  Ileal  estate  Kct 
off  on  execution  (there  is  no  power  to  sell  real  estate  on  execution)  may  be  re- 
deemed -within  six  months,  otherwi?;e  it  passes  to  the  creditor.  Personal  prop- 
erty taken  on  execution  is  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  has  jurisdiction  in  all  actions  of  a  civil  nature  -where 
the  matter  in  demand  does  not  exceed  .'5i200,  except  actions  for  slander,  false  im- 
prisonment, and  replevin  for  goods  and  chattels  -where  the  value  thereof  exceeds 
$20,  and  where  the  title  to  land  is  concerned.  A  justice  also  has  jurisdiction  in 
actions  of  trespass  on  the  freehold  where  the  sum  demanded  docs  not  exced 
The  county  courts  have  jurisdiction  of  cases  appealed  from  the  justices'  courts, 
and  of  all  actions  where  the  justices  have  not  jurisdiction.  The  municipal 
courts  of  Burlington,  Rutland  and  St-  Albans  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  county  courts,  to  the  extent  of  $500.  Suit  may  be  brought  in  the  town  where 
either  party  resides,  and  if  neither  party  resides  in  the  State,  in  any  town  in  the 
State. 

'  Process,  returnable  before  supreme  or  county  court,  must  be  served  at  least 
twelve  days  before  the  session  of  court  to  which 'it  is  returnable. 

Writs,  returnable  before  a  justice,  must  be  served  at  least  six  days  before,  and 
not  over  sixty  days  from,  the  return  day  ;  if  against  a  party  in  another  county, 
twelve  days  must  intervene  between  day  of  service  and  return  clay ;  and  in  any 
case,  if  the  defendant  is  a  corporation,  thirty  days  must  intervene. 

Deeds,  Kights  of  MAEPasD  Women,  Wills,  &(;.— Deeds  must  be  under 
seal  (not  a  scrawl),  signed  in  the  presence  of  two  subscribing  witnesses,  acknowl- 
edged before  a  proper  officer,  and  recorded  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  town  where 
the  land  lies.  In  this  State,  deeds  may  be  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  a  notary  public,  or  a  master  in  chancery.  Acknowledgments  out  of  this 
State,  may  be  taken  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public,  commissioner 
from  Vermont,  or  such  officer  as  is  authorized  to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds 
in  that  place. 

[Form  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment.] 
State  of  ,\ 
County  of  .  j 

At        this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  ,  personally  appeared  (and 

his  wife),  the  signer  and  sealer  of  the  above-written  instrument,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  same  to  be  his  (or  their)  free  act  and  deed. 

Before  me,  (Signature  and  title.) 

Married  women  cannot  make  contracts.  They  may  in  some  instances  change 
their  separate  property  so  that  it  may  be  reached  in  equity.  Her  real  estate,  and 
the  rents  and  profits  thereof,  are  exempt  from  attachment  for  the  husband's  debts ; 
and  also  the  husband's  interest  in  the  same  during  coverture,  except  for  debts  for 
necessaries  for  wife  and  family,  or  for  labor  or  materials  furnished  upon  such  real 
estate.  A  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her  property  by  will.  The  widow  is  en- 
titled to  dower,  during  her  natural  life,  of  one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  which  her 
husband  died  seized,  during  his  natural  life  unless  she  shall  be  barred.  Chattel 
mortgages  do  not  protect  the  mortgagee  against  bona  fide  purchasers  or  attach- 
ing creditors  if  the  property  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  niort- 
gagor. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person 
in  his  presen  ce  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  by  three 
or  more  credible  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  and  of  each  other. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VIRGINIA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sax.^:,.— Homestead  and  Personal  Property  to  the 
Vahoe  of  5?2000.  In  case  of  a  husband,  parent,  or  other  person  who  is  a  house- 
holder and  head  of  a  family,  the  law  exempts  from  distress  or  levy  divers 
enumerated  articles  of  household  and  personal  use,  furniture,  bedding,  etc., 
ranging  in  value  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  dollars,  according  to  the  condition 
and  size  of  the  family. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  every  householder  or  head  of  a  family  is  entitled  to  a 
homestead  exemption  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  set  apart  out  of  any  property 
which  he  may  select. 

Mechanics'  Lien.— All  artisans,  builders,  mechanics,  lumber  dealers  and 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  YIRGIiSriA. 


911 


others  performing  labor  or  furnishing  materials  for  the  oonstrnction,  repair  or" 
improvement  of  any  building  or  other  property,  are  allowed  a  lien  upon  such  prop- 
erty for  the  work  done  and  materials  furnished.  It  must  be  asserted  by  suit 
within  six  months  from  the  time  the  lien  is  secured. 

CoLLECTiOJf  OF  DEBTS. — Arrest,  in  civil  actions,  is  permitted,  when  the  plain- 
tilf,  by  affidavit,  shows  to  the  court  in  which  the  suit  is  pending,  or  to  any  judge 
or  justice  of  the  peace,  that  he  has  cause  of  action  or  suit  against  the  defendant, 
and  that  there  is  probable  cause  for  believing  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  quit 
the  State,  unless  forthwith  apprehended. 

The  defendant  may  be  discharged  from  arrest  by  giving  good  bail,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  bail  bond  being,  in  substance,  that  incase  judgment  is  rendered  for 
the  plaintiff,  the  defendant  will,  if  thereto  required,  within  four  months  after  the 
judgment,  discover  and  surrender  whatever  estate  he  may  then  have,  for 
the  satisfaction  thereof. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  be  issued  :  1.  Against  the  estate  of  a  non-resident 
defendant,  2.  Against  the  estate  of  any  defendant  who  is  removing  or  intends 
to  remove  the  specific  property  sued  for,  "  or  his  own  estate  or  the  proceeds  of 
tlie  sale  of  his  property,  or  a  material  part  of  such  estate  or  proceeds,  out  of  the 
State,  so  that  process  of  execution  on  a  judgment,"  when  obtained,  will  be 
unavailing.  3.  Against  the  estate  of  a  debtor,  whether  the  claim  be  payable  or 
not,  when  the  debtor  intends  to  remove  or  is  removing,  or  has  removed  his 
effects  out  of  the  State  so  that  there  will  probably  not  be  therein  sufiicieiit  effects 
of  the  debtor  to  satisfy  the  claim,  should  only  the  ordinary  process  of  law  be 
used  to  obtain  such  judgment.  4.  Against  the  estate  of  a  tenant  liable  for  rent, 
who  intends  to  remove  or  is  removing,  or  has,  within  thirty  days,  removed  his 
effects  from  the  leased  premises,  so  that  there  will  not  be  left  on  such  premises 
property  liable  to  distress,  sufiticient  to  satisfy  the  rent  to  become  payable— not 
exceeding  one  year's  rent  in  all.  5.  Against  steamboats  and  other  vessels,  for 
materials,  supplies,  work,  etc.,  furnished  and  done,  and  damages  for  certain  torts 
and  breaches  of  contract. 

The  foundation  of  the  attachment  in  each  case  is  the  affidavit  of  the  plaintiff 
or  of  his  agent,  setting  forth  not  only  the  particular  ground  of  the  attachment,  as 
above  given,  but  also  divers  partici\]ars  as  to  the  amount  of  the  claim,  whether 
due  or  not,  etc.  If  the  plaintiff  desires  that  the  property  to  be  attached  shall  be 
taken  into  the  possession  of  the  officer,  the  plaintiff,  or  some  one  for  him,  must 
give  bond,  with  good  security,  in  a  penalty  equal  to,  at  least,  double  the  amount 
sued  for,  conditioned  to  pay  all  costs  and  damages  occasioned  by  the  suing  out  of 
the  attachment.  The  sureties  must  either  reside,  or  must  have  estate  equal  to 
the  penalty  of  the  bond,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  No  bond  is  neces- 
sary, except  in  the  case  above  specified.  Every  species  of  property,  legal  or 
equitable,  is  liable  to  seizure  and  sale,  under  attachment. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  with  preferences,  are  allowed  by  the 
law  of  this  State.  Bonds  and  notes,  not  negotiable,  are  assignable,  and  the 
assignee  may  sue  upon  them  in  his  own  name.  Open  accounts  may  also  be 
assigned;  but  suit  must  be  brought  upon  them  in  the  name  of  the  original 
creditor. 

Process  of  garnishment  may  issue,  either  on  execution  or  attachment,  so  as 
to  reach  debts  due  to  the  defendant. 

Every  promissory  note  or  check  for  money  payable  in  this  State,  at  a  partic- 
ular bank,  or  at  a  particular  office  thereof,  for  discount  and  deposit,  or  at 
the  place  of  business  of  a  savings  institution  or  savijigs  bank,  or  at  the  place  of 
business  of  a  licensed  broker,  and  every  iidajid  bill  of  exchange  payable  in  this 
State,  is  deemed  negotiable,  and  may,  upon  being  dishonored  for  non-acceptance 
or  non-payment,  be  protested,  and  the  protest  be  in  such  case  evidence  of  dis- 
honor, in  like  manner  as  in  case  of  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange.  The  protest,  both 
in  the  case  of  a  foreign  bill  and  in  the  other  cases  above  mentioned,  is  made 
prima  facia  evidence  of  what  is  stated  therein,  or  at  the  foot  or  on  the  back 
thereof,  in  relation  to  presentment,  dishonor  and  notice  thereof.  Damages  are 
recoverable  on  bills  of  exchange— three  per  cent,  if  the  bill  be  payable  out  of 
Virginia  and  within  the  United  States,  and  ten  per  cent,  if  payable  without  the 
United  States. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  $50.  Civil  jurisdiction  of  the 
county  courts  is  confined  chiefly  to  matters  of  probate  and  guardianship  ;  with 
perhaps  a  few  unimportant  exceptions  they  have  no  jurisdiction  of  suits  for  the 
collection  of  debts.  Circuit  and  corporation  courts  have  general  jurisdiction  in 
all  civil  actions.  Process  in  these  courts  is  commonly  made  returnable  to  rules 
— held  on  the  first  Monday  in  each  month— and  two  rule  days,  at  least,  nmst  inter- 
vene between  service  and  trial. 


912 


RPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VIRGINIA. 


Judgments  arc  a  lien  on  all  the  real  estate  of,  or  to.  whicli  the  defendant  is  ot 
shall  bo  possessed  or  entitled  at  or  after  the  date  of  the  judgment,  or  the  com- 
mencement of  the  term  at  which  it  is  rendered.  They  create  no  lieu  on  iieraonal 
estate. 

Executions  may  issue  within'a  year,  and  a  scire  facias  or  action  may  be  brought 
within  ten  years  after  the  date  of  the  judgment.  Executions  create  a  lien  upon 
the  personal  property  of  the  debtor  from  the  date  of  tlio  delivery  of  the  writ  to 
the  officer,  whether  the  property  consists  of  chattels  or  of  choses  in  action.  As 
to  the  latter,  however,  the  lien  does  not  take  effect  against  an  assignee  for  valu- 
able consideration  without  notice,  nor  against  a  person  making  payment  to  the 
judgment  debtor  without  notice.  Ileal  estate  cannot  be  sold  or  levied  on  under 
execution.  An  execution  debtor  may  be  i-equired  to  discover,  under  oath,  his 
whole  estate,  real  and  personal,  and  to  convey  and  transfer,  for  the  satisfaction 
of  the  execution,  his  ijersoualty  and  any  realty  which  he  may  have  out  of  the 
State, 

If  execution  be  issued  within  the  year,  other  executions  may  be  issued,  or  a 
sctj'C  facias  or  action  may  be  brought  within  ten  years  from  the  return  day  of  an 
execution  on  which  there  is  no  return  by  an  otiicer,  or  within  twenty  years  from 
the  return  day  of  an  execution  on  which  there  is  such  return. 

Deeds,  Kights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  may  be  admitted 
to  record  as  to  any  party  thereto,  when  proved,  as  to  such  party,  by  two 
witnesses,  or  acknowledged  by  him,  before  the  court  of  the  county  or  corporation 
in  which  it  is  to  be  recorded,  or  before  the  clerk  of  such  court,  in  his  office. 
Also,  upon  a  certificate  of  his  acknowledgment  within  the  United  States,  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  commissioner  in  chancery  of  a  court  of  record,  a  notary 
public  or  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor ;  or,  upon  the  certificate 
of  the  clerk  of  any  county  or  corporation  court  in  this  State,  or  of  the  clerk  of 
any  court  out  of  this  State  and  within  the  United  States,  that  the  deed  was 
acknowledged  by  such  person  or  proved  as  to  him  by  two  witnesses,  before  such 
clerk  or  before  the  court  of  which  he  is  clerk,  or  upon  certificate,  under  the  offi.- 
cial  seal  of  any  minister  plenipotentiary,  charge  cVaffairs,  consul  general,  consul, 
vice-consul,  or  commercial  agent,  appointed  ty  the  Government  of  the  Uidted 
States  to  any  foreign  country,  or  of  the  proper  officer  of  any  court  of  such  coun- 
try, or  of  the  mayor  or  other  chief  magistrate  of  any  city,  town  or  corporation 
therein,  that  the  said  writing  was  acknov/ledged  by  such  person  or  proved  as  to 
him  by  two  witnesses,  before  any  person  having  such  appointment,  or  before  such 
court,  mayor  or  chief  magistrate. 

[Form  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  in  case  of  a'party  other  than  a 
Married  Woman.] 

State  of  ,  | 

County  (or  Corporation)  of  .  J  • 

I,  ,  a  justice  of  the  peace  (or  commissioner  in  chancery  of  the 

court,  or  notary  public),  for  the  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid, 
in  the  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  certify,  that  E.  F.  (or  E.  F. 

and  G.  H.,  etc.),  whose  name  (or  names)  is  (or  are)  signed  to  the  writing  above 
(or  hereto  annexed),  bearing  date  on  the  day  of  ,  has  (or 

have)  acknowledged  the  same  before  me,  in  my  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  acknowledgment  of  a  married  woman  must  be  certified  by  two  justices  of 
the  peace,  or  by  some  one  of  the  other  functionaries  authorized  to  certify  the 
acknowledgment  of  other  persons. 

The  certificate  must  be  to  the  effect  following  : 

State  of  , ) 

County  (or  Corporation)  of  .] 

I,  ,  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  State'of  Vir- 

ginia for  the  said  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  or  and 

,  justices  of  the  peace,  or  I,  ,  a  commissioner  in  chancery 

of  court  (or  notary  public)  for  the  county  (or  corporarion)  of  ,  in 

the  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  certify  that  E.  F,,  the  wife  of 

G.  H.,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  writing  above  (or  hereto  annexed),  bearing 
date  on  the  day  of  ,  personally  appeared  before  me  (or  us),  in 

the  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid  (or,  if  it  be  a  commissioner,  in  the  State, 


LAWS  OF  WASH.  TEE.  AND  WEST  VIEGIISriA 


913 


territory  or  district  aforesaid),  and  being  examined  by  me  (or  ns),  privily  and 
apart  from  her  linsband,  and  liaving  tbe  writing  aforesaid  fully  explained  to  her, 
she,  the  said  E.  P.,  acknowledged  the  said  writing  to  be  her  act,  and  declared 
that  8he  had  willingly  execnted  the  same  and  does  not  wish  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  -.my  hand  (or  our  hands)  this  day  of  ,  Anno 

Domini.  '  (Signature.) 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  separate  use 
through  a  trustee.  To  bind  the  separate  estate  of  a  married  woman  by  her  con- 
tract, the  intention  so  to  bind  it  should  be  expressed  on  the  face  of  the  contract 
The  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  part  of  all  the  real  estate  owned  by  her  hus- 
band during  coverture,  unless  she  has  barred  or  relinquished  the  same. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  unknown  in  this  State,  though  their  equivalent  is 
found  in  deeds  of  trust  of  personal  properly,  by  which  personal  property  of  any 
description  may  be  conveyed  for  the  benefit,  and  thus  made  available  for  tho 
security  of  creditors.  Such  deeds  are  not  effective,  as  to  other  creditors  and  sub- 
sequent purchasers  for  value  without  notice,  except  from  the  time  of  their  admis- 
sion to  record  in  the  proper  clerk's  ofiice. 

Wills  should  be  in  v/riting,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  in  such  manner  as  to  make  it  manifest 
that  the  name  is  intended  as  a  signature,  and,  moreover,  unless  it  be  whally 
written  by  the  testator,  the  signature  shall  be  made,  or  the  will  acknowledged  by 
him  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  competent  witnesses,  present  at  the  same 
time,  and  such  witnesses  shall  subscribe  the  will  in  the  presence  of  the  testator, 
but  no  form  of  attestation  shall  be  necessary. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WASHINGTON  TERRI- 
TORY. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Bajje— Home  worth  $1000  and  Personal  Property. 
To  each  householder  being  the  head  of  a  family,  a  homestead  worth  $1000,  while 
occupied  by  such  family.  All  wearing  apparel,  private  libraries,  family  pictures 
and  keepsakes  ;  to  each  householder,  1  bed  and  bedding,  and  1  additional  bed 
and  bedding  for  every  two  additional  members  of  the  family,  and  other  house- 
hold goods  of  the  coin  value  of  $1500;  2  cows  and  their  calves,  5  swine,  2  hives 
of  bees,  25  domestic  fowls,  and  provisions  and  fuel  f or  G  months.  To  a  farmer,  1 
span  of  horses  and  harness,  or  2  yoke  of  oxen,  and  1  wagon,  with  farming  uten- 
sils not  exceeding  §200  coin  value.  To  attorneys  and  clergymen,  their  libraries 
valued  at  not  to  exceed  $500,  with  office  furniture  and  fuel.  Small  boats  and 
lire-arms  kept  for  use,  not  exceeding  $50  in  coin  value  ;  parties  engaged  in  light- 
ering, 2  lighters  and  1  small  boat  valued  at  $250  ;  the  team  of  a  drayman. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  ^a.i.-e..— Home  worth^lOQO,  and  Personal  Property. 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1000,  is  exempt,  where  the  property  of  that  value  "is 
demised  or  granted  by  debtor,  being  a  husband  or  parent,  and  resident  in  the 
State,  as  a  homestead ;  and  where  he,  previously  to  contracting  the  debt  or  liability 
has  placed  a  declaration  of  his  intention  to  keep  the  property  as  a  homestead  on 
the  land  records  of  the  county  in  which  the  real  estate  is  situate.  Personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $300  is  also  exempted,  provided  debtor  is  a  resident  and 
a  parent. 

Mechakics'  Lien. — A  mechanic  or  workman,  or  any  person  who  shall  per- 
form any  labor  upon  or  furnish  material  to  erect,  repair,  alter  or  improve  any 
building,  has  a  lien  on  the  same,  which  can  be  enforced  by  sxiit  in  chancery  in  six 
months  ;  provided,  he  filed  his  account  under  oath  with  the  clerk  of  the  county 
court  in  thirty  days  after  the  work  was  done  or  material  furnished. 

Collection  op  Debts.— The  debtor  may  be  arrested  in  an  action  pending 
against  him,  until  he  give  security  that  he  shall  answer  such  interrogatories  as 
shall  be  propounded  to  him,  or  filed  within  four  months  after  judgment  and 
perform  the  requirements  of  the  judgment  or  decree.  But  before  tlie  order  for 
arrest  will  be  made,  the  plaintiff  must  make  affidavit — 1.  That  the  claim  is 
just  and  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  leave  the  State,  to  reside  permanently 
in  another  State,  without  paying  the  debt  for  which  the  action  was  brought.  ■  2. 
Or  that  he  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  for  which  the  action  was  brought 
3.  Or  that  he  fraudulently  conceals  his  property  or  rights  of  action.   4.  Or  that 

58 


914 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  AVEST  VIKGIXIA. 


he  has  romovod  or  is  about  to  rcmoro  his  property  beyond  the  State  "with  intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors.  5.  Or  that  lie  ]ias  converted  or  is  about  to  convert  his 
property  into  nion(!y  or  necTirUics,  or  that  lie  lias  assigned  or  removed  liis  prop* 
erty  with  like  intoiit.  And  the  phiiiiliff  will  also  ho  required  to  give  bond  and 
good  security,  to  indemnify  the  defendant  in  case  the  order  of  arrest  was  ma- 
liciously made. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  upon  the  [plaintiff  giving  bond,  for  the  same 
causes  tha^t  an  order  of  arrest  will  be  made,  and  the  following  additional  causes  : 
1.  That  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or  a  foreign  corporation,  2.  Or  that  the 
defendant  has  left  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors,    3-  Or  that  he  conceals  himself,  so  that  a  summons  cannot  be  served. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  not  regulated  by  statute  ;  the 
debtor  can  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  if  the  transaction  be  not  tainted 
with  fraud. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  every  note  or  check  :made  payable  at  a  particular  bank 
of  discount  and  deposit,  or  at  any  savings  bank,  and  every  inland  bill  of  exchange, 
is  negotiable,  and  may  be  protested,  and  the  protest  is  evidence  of  the  same  ffects 
as  in  case  of  foreign  bills  of  exchange.  Bills  of  exchange,  drawn  or  negotiated 
in  this  State,  duly  protested,  entitle  the  holder,  in  addition  to  the  usual  protest 
fees,  to  the  following  damages  :  Three  per  cent,  if  payable  out  of  this  State  and 
within  the  United  States,  and  ten  per  cent,  if  payable  out  of  the  United  States. 
Paper  payable  on  Sunday,  Christmas  day,  1st  o2  January  or  4th  of  July  must  be 
protested  on  the  day  previous  and  notice  of  dishonor  given  on  the  day  following 
Buch  holiday.  Any  paper  not  negotiable  as  above  stated,  is  subject,  in  the  hands 
of  the  holder,  to  all  equities  existing  against  the  assignor  ;  the  equities,  however, 
must  have  existed  before  the  defendant  had  notice  of  the  assignment  of  the 
papers. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  in  civil  actions  to  $100,  exclusive 
of  interest.  The  circuit  courts,  is  appellate  from  inferior  courts,  and  has  original 
and  general  jurisdiction  of  all  matters  at  law  Avhere  the  amount  exceeds  $50. 
The  supreme  court  of  appeals  has  appellate  jurisdiction  from  inferior  courts 
'  where  the  amount  exceeds  $100. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  from  the  first  day  of 
the  term,  if  rendered  in  a  court  of  record  ;  but  to  make  this  lien  available  agairrst 
a  purchaser  for  value,  and  without  actual  notice,  an  abstract  of  the  judgment 
must  be  filed  in  the  recorder's  ofiice  of  the  county  where  the  land  lies  ninety 
days  after  the  rendition  of  the  judgment  or  before  the  deed  to  the  real  estate  is 
delivered  to  the  purchaser.  Judgments  of  justice's  courts  also  give  a  lien  on 
real  estate  if  an  abstract  of  the  same  is  recorded  in  the  proper  county. 

Executions  are  a  lien  on  personal  property  from  the  date  the  same  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  officer,  and  may  be  levied  on  any  property  of  the  defendant 
not  exempt  by  law.  Executions  cannot  be  stayed,  except  when  obtained  before 
a  justice,  and  only  then  for  a  limited  time,  not  more  than  four  months,  upon  de- 
fendant giving  security.   No  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  WoME^^,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in  writing 
and  under  seal  ;  a  scrawl  will  answer  for  a  seal  if  deed  be  made  by  an  indi- 
vidual, but  not  if  by  a  corporation.  They  must  be  acknowledged  before  a  re- 
corder, prothonotary,  clerk  of  any  court,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public, 
commissioner  of  deeds,  or  proved  by  two  witnesses  before  the  recorder  of  the  court 
in  the  county  where  the  same  is  to  be  recorded.  If  acknowledged  out  of  the 
United  States,  before  a  minister  plenipotentiary,  charge'd  affaires,  consul-general, 
consul,  vice-consul  or  commercial  agent,  or  before  the  proper  officer  of  any  court, 
or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city  or  town,  under  the  official  seal  of  such  oflticer. 
The  wife  must  join  with  the  husband  in  the  deed  to  relinquish  her  dower. 

The  following  is  the  prescribed  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment : 

State  of  West  Yirgikia,  | 
County  of  Wood.  j 

I,  (giving  the  name  and  official  character  of  the  officer),  do 

certify  that  A.  B.  and  C.  D. ,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  writing  above, 
bearing  date  on  the  day  of         ,  A.  D.  187  ,  have  this  day  acknowledged 

the  same  before  me  ;  and  C.  D.,  the  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  personally  appeared 
before  me,  in  the  county  aforesaid,  and  being  examined  by  me,  privately  and 
apart  from  her  husband,  and  having  the  said  writing  fully  explained  to  her,  she, 
the  said  C.  D.,  acknowledged  the  eaid  Avritiiig  to  be  her  act,  and  declared  that 
she  had  willingly  executed  the  same  and  does  not  wish  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WISCOISTSIX. 


915 


A  married  woman  has  dower  in  all  the  real  estate  her  husband  is  seized  of 
during  coverture,  and  she  must  join  her  husband  in  the  execution  of  all  deeds  to 
the  same.  She  may  hold  her  separate  property  free  from  the  control  and  debts 
of  her  husband,  and  may  convey  the  same  as  if  she  were  unmarried  ;  provided, 
her  husband  joins  in  the  deed  with  her.  Her  separate  property  is  bound  for  her 
debts  contracted  before  marriage,  and  her  husband  is  not  liable  for  such  debts. 
She  may  deposit  her  separate  funds  in  bank,  and  withdraw  the  same  on  her  own 
check.  Where  tbe  husband  acquires  any  of  the  wife's  separate  property,  bj 
ante-nuptial  contract  or  otherwise,  he  becomes  liable  for  her  debts  contracted 
before  marriage  to  the  extent  of  the  property  so  acquired  by  him,  but  no  fur- 
ther. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  governed  by  the  common  law  ;  and  the  mortgage  will  bo 
void  unless  possession  of  the  mortgage  chattels  is  delivered  to  and  continuously 
remains  with  the  mortgagee. 

Wills  should  be  drawn  and  attested  according  to  form  No.  45,  p.  815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WISCONSIN. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  SAiiE.— T^'arm  of  Forty  Acres,  or  House  and  Lot  in 
Village  or  City,  and  Personal  Property.  A  homestead,  consisting  of  land  not 
exceeding  40  acres,  used  for  farming  purposes  ;  or  in  lieu  of  the  above,  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  debtor,  a  lot  in  any  town  or  city  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  acre. 
Family  Bible,  pictures,  school  books  and  private  library  ;  church  pew  ;  all  wear- 
ing apparel ;  usual  household  furniture,  not  to  exceed  $200;  gun  or  rifle,  not  to 
exceed  $50  in  value  ;  2  cows,  10  hogs,  yoke  of  oxen  and  horse  or  mule  ;  10  sheep 
and  wool  therefrom,  and  necessary  food  for  said  animals  and  for  the  debtor's 
family  for  one  year  ;  wagon  and  other  farming  utensils  not  to  exceed  $50  ;  also, 
all  insurance  money  arising  from  the  destruction  of  property  exempt  from  exe- 
cution ;  also,  the  earnings  for  the  past  sixty  days  of  persons  who  have  families 
to  support. 

The  tools,  implements,  and  stock  in  trade  of  a  mechanic  or  miner,  or  other 
person,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value  ;  library,  or  implements  of  any  professional 
man  not  exceeding  $200  in  value.  All  sewing  machines  kei>t  for  use  ;  any  swords, 
plate,  books,  or  other  article  presented  by  Congress  or  the  members  thereof. 

Mechais'ICS'  Liek. — All  persons  who  perform  labor  upon  or  furnish  materials 
for  the  building,  improving  or  repairing  of  buildings,  have  a  lien  thereon  for  the 
same,which  must  be  enforced  by  filing  a  petition  for  the  lien  in  six  months  in  the 
circuit  court  and  an  action  to  foreclose  in  one  year. 

CoLLECTioif  OF  DEBTS.— In  civil  actions  a  defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  in  the 
following  cases  :  1.  In  an  action  for  the  recoverj^  of  damages,  on  a  cause  of  ac- 
tion not  arising  out  of  contract,  where  the  defendant  is  not  a  resident  of  the  State, 
or  is  about  to  remove  therefrom,  or  where  the  action  is  for  injury  to  person  or 
character,  or  for  injuring,  or  for  wrongfully  taking  or  converting  property,  and 
in  actions  to  recover  damages  for  the  value  of  property  obtained  by  the  defend- 
ant under  false  pretences.  2.  In  an  action  for  a  fine  or  penalty,  or  for  money  or 
property  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a  public  officer  or  an  attorney, 
or  by  an  agent  of  any  corporation  in  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such,  or  by 
a  factor  or  agent,  or  any  other  person  in  a  fiduciary  capacity,  or  for  any  miscon- 
duct in  office  or  professional  employment.  3.  In  an  action  to  recover  possession 
of  personal  property  unjustly  detained,  where  the  property,  or  part  thereof,  has 
been  concealed,  so  that  it  cannot  be  taken  by  the  sheriff  ;  but  no  female  can  be 
arrested,  except  for  wilful  injury  to  person,  character  or  property.  4,  When  the 
defendant  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  obligation  for  which  the 
suit  is  brought . 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  on  the  plaintiff  giving  bond,  and  making  affidavit 
that  his  debt  is  just,  and  that  one  or  more  of  the  following  reasons  for  attach- 
ment exists  :  1.  That  the  defendant  has  absconded  or  is  about  to  abscond  from 
the  State,  or  is  concealed  therein,  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors,  2.  That  he  has 
assigned,  disposed  of,  or  concealed,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of,  or  con- 
ceal his  property,Avith  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  3.  That  he  has  removed  or 
is  about  to  remove  his  property  from  the  State  with  the  same  intent.  4.  That  he 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  upon  Avhich  the  action  is  brought.  5.  That  he  is 
a  non-resident.  6.  That  the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation  ;  or,  7.  That  he 
has  fraudulently  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors. 
Attachment  cannot  issue  unless  debt  exceeds  $50. 

All  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  void,  as  against  creditors,  un* 


916 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WISCONSIN. 


loss  the  assignee  is  a  resident  of  the  State  and  gives  bond,  to  tlie  value  of  the 
property  assigned,  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  trust. 

All  notes  or  certilicatcs  of  deposit,  payable  to  any  ])er80u  or  his  order,  are  nego- 
tiable. Bills  of  exchange,  payable  at  siglit,  are  entitled  to  grace  ;  but  when  pay- 
able on  demaiid  they  are  not  entitled  to  grace.  Protested  bills  of  exchange, 
drawn  or  negotiated  m  this  State,  entitle  the  holder  to  the  following  damages:  If 
drawn  on  any  person  residing  out  of  the  United  States,  or  in  some  one  of  the 
United  Stales  which  adjoins  this  State,  five  per  cent.  ;  if  drawn  on  a  person  in 
some  one  of  the  Uiiited  States,  but  which  is  not  adjoining  tliis  State,  ten  percent. 
Legal  holidays  are  January  1st,  February  22d,  July  4th  and  December  25th.  Pa- 
per maturiii'g  those  days,  or  on  Sunday,  must  be  protested  the  day  previous. 
And  when  any  of  those  days  fall  on  Sunday,  then  the  Monday  following  is  a  legal 
holiday,  and  paper  maturing  on  that  Monday  must  be  protested  the  Saturday 
preceding. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  on  all  real  estate  in  the  county  where  obtained,  and  in 
the  county  where  a  transcript  is  filed  and  docketed  in  the  circuit  coui't  clerk's 
ofl&ce,  and  the  lien  remains  on  such  real  estate  for  ten  years. 

,  A  transcript  from  a  judgment  before  a  justice  may  be  also  docketed  and  filed 
in  the  circuit  court  clerk's  office,  and  likewise  becomes  a  lien,  same  as  a  circuit 
court  judgment. 

Execution  may  issue  at  any  time  within  five  years  after  rendition  of  judg- 
ment as  of  course,  and  where  an  execution  was  so  issued  within  that  period,  then 
an  alias  may  be  issued  at  any  time  within  twenty  years  from  the  date  of  the 
judgment  ;  but  when  no  original  execution  within  the  first  five  years,  then  an 
alias  will  only  be  granted  on  affidavit  that  the  judgment  is  unsatisfied.  Execu- 
tions are  of  three  kinds— against  the  property,  against  the  person  of  the  debtor, 
and  for  the  delivery  of  personal  or  real  property  detained  by  the  defendant. 
Execution  gives  a  lien  on  personal  property  only  from  the  time  of  actual  levy, 
lieal  estate  sold  tinder  execution  can  be  redeemed  by  the  debtor  in  two  years 
from  the  date  of  sale,  or  by  his  creditors  in  two  years  and  three  months  from  that 
time. 

Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in  writing, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  that  they  be  in  the  form  of  a  quit  claim,  as  no  covenant  is 
absolutely  necessary  or  implied  ;  not  necessary  to  be  under  seal,  a  scrawl  will 
answer,  and  must  be  executed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses,  and  must 
be  acknowledged  in  the  State  before  any  judge  or  court  commissioner,  clerk  of  cir- 
cuit or  county  court,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  But  if  acknowledged 
ou.t  of  the  State,  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  person  authorized  to  take  the 
acknowledgment  of  deeds  under  the  laws  of  the  State  where  taken,  or  before  a 
commissioner  of  deeds.  But  unless  the  acknowledgment  is  taken  before  a  com- 
missioner of  deeds,  or  a  notary  public,  there  must  be  attached  to  the  deed  a  certifi- 
cate of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  under  seal  of  his  office,  that  the  person  who 
took  the  acknowledgment  was  at  the  date  thereof  such  oflicer  as  he  represents 
himself  to  be,  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  suchofiicer  to  be  genuine,  and  the 
acknowledgment  is  according  to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  taken. 

A  married  woman  must  join  in  the  execution  of  a  deed  to  her  husband's  prop- 
erty to  bar  her  dower.    She  can  do  this  by  an  attorney  duly  appointed. 

The  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgrhent  may  be  the  one  in  use  in  the 
State  wliere  taken. 

All  the  wife's  separate  real  and  personal  property  whether  owned  by  her  at  the 
time  of  her  marriage  or  acquii-ed  by  her  after  in  any  way,  remains  the  sole  and  sepa- 
rate estate  of  the  wife,  free  from  the  control  and  debts  of  her  husband.  She  can 
convey  the  same  as  if  sole,  and  without  the  written  consent  of  her  husband. 
She  is  liable  for  all  debts  contracted  .by  her  before  marriage,  and  after  on 
account  of  her  separate  property,  and  can  be  sued  for  the  same.  She  can  sue 
without  joining  her  husband,  but  if  sued  he  must  also  be  sued. 

She  has  dower  in  all  the  real  estate  of  her  husband,  owned  by  him  during 
coverture,  unless  she  relinquishes  the  same. 

A  chattel  mortgage  is  not  valid  as  to  third  parties,  unless  the  property  be  do- 
livered  to  the  mortgagee  and  remain  in  his  possession,  or  the  mortgage  be  filed 
with  the  clerk  of  the  town  where  tlie  mortgagor  resides,  or  where  the  property  is 
situated,  if  the  mortgagor  is  a  non-resident. 

No  will  made  withi]i  this  State,  except  such  non-cupative  wills  as  are  men- 
tioned in  section  number  six,  of  chapter  sixty-six  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  shalj 
be  effectual  to  pass  any  estate,  whether  real  or  personal,  nor  to  change  or  in  any 
way  affect  the  same,  unless  it  be  in  writing,  and  sig]ied  by  the  testator,  or  by 
sorhe  person  in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  sub- 
scribed in  the  presence  of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witness«s,  and 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ONTAEIO,  ETC. 


917 


If  the  -witnesses  are  competent  at  the  time  of  attesting  the  execTition  of  the  will, 
their  subsequent  incompetency,  from  whatever  cause  it  may  arise,  shall  not  pre- 
vent the  prohate  and  allowance  of  the  will,  if  it  be  otherwise  satisfactorily 
proved. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WYOMING. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— JTome  loorth  ^1500,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. A  homestead  consisting  of  a  house  and  lot  in  a  village  or  city,  or  land  not 
(Exceeding  160  acres,  the  value  not  in  either  case  exceeding  $1500,  is  allowed  to  a 
householder  occupying  the  same.  Also  the  following  property  of  a  householder, 
bt,ing  the  head  of  a  family,  is  exempt.  Wearing  apparel,  family  Bibles,  jnctures, 
school  books,  cemetery  lots,  bedding,  furniture,  provisions,  and  such  other  arti- 
cles tis  the  debtor  may  select,  not  exceeding  in  value  $500.  Tools,  team,  or  stock 
in  trade  of  a  mechanic,  miner,  or  other  person,  kept  and  used  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  oa  his  business  or  trade,  not  exceeding  $300,  are  exempt.  Library,  in- 
struments, kSnd  implements  of  any  professional* man,  worth  not  more  than  $300. 
The  person  Oaiming  exemption  must  be  a  bona  fide  resident  of  the  territory. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ONTARIO,  CANADA. 

Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale  .—The  bed,  bedding  and  bedsteads  in  ordi- 
nary use  by  the  debtor  and  his  family.  The  necessary  and  ordinary  wearing 
apparel.  One  store  and  pipes,  1  crane  and  its  appendages,  1  pair  of  andirons,  1 
set  of  cooking  ut-jnsils,  1  pair  tongs,  1  shovel,  1  table,  6  chairs,  G  knives,  6  forks, 
6  plates,  G  teacupj,  6  saucers,  i  sugar  basin,  1  milk  jug,  1  tea  pot,  6  spoons,  15 
hives  of  bees,  all  spinning  wheels  and  weaving  looms  in  domestic  use,  10  volumes 
of  books,  1  saw,  1  ^un,  6  traps,  and  such  fishing  nets  and  seines  as  are  in  common 
use.  All  necessaiY  fuel,  meat,  fish,  flour  and  vegetables  actually  provided  for 
family  use,  not  mcire  than  suflicient  for  the  ordinary  consumption  of  the  debtor 
and  his  family  for  3^0  days,  and  not  exceeding  in  value  the  sum  of  $40.  One  cow, 
4  sheep,  2  hogs  antl  food  thereof  for  30  days.  The  tools  and  implements  or 
chattels  ordinarily  ui,'fid  in  the  debtor's  occupation  to  the  value  of  $60. 

Exemptions  froj>^  Forced  Sales.— O/i.  Free  Grants  and  Homesteads  in  the 
Possession  of  Actuul  Sttilers,  in  the  Algoma  and  Nippissing  Districts,  and  certain 
lands  between  the  liiver  Ottawa  and  the  Georgian  Bay,  are  exempt  from  seizure, 
while  in  personal  propeirty,  beds,  bedsteads,  bedding,  and  wearing  apparel  of  the 
debtor  and  his  family,  household  furniture,  provisions,  farm  stock,  tools,  and 
implements  to  the  value  of  $60,  are  exempt  from  seizure. 

Mechanics'  Lien. — Mechanics,  laborers  and  material  men.  have  a  lien  on 
buildings  and  on  the  land  on  which  said  buildings  are  situate,  for  work  or 
materials  furnished  for  erecting  or  repairing  same.  Lien  can  be  secured  by  filing 
a  statement  of  the  claim  in  the  registrar's  office  within  30  days  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work.   It  will  pease  to  hold  good  after  the  expiration  of  90  days. 

The  Collection  op  Debts.— Defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  on  affidavit  by 
the  plaintilf  that  he  is  a  concealed  debtor,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  pro- 
vince with  the  design  and  intent  to  defraud  him  out  of  his  just  debt. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  for  any  debt  or  damages  arising  \ipon  any  con- 
tract, express  or  implied,  or  upon  any  judgment  where  affidavit  or  affirmation  is 
made  before  the  judge  of  the  county  court,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  the  clerk  of 
a  division  court,  where  the  debtor  absconds,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  pro- 
vince, leaving  property  liable  to  seizure  imder  execution  for  debt  in  any  county 
of  Ontario,  or  shall  attempt  co  remove  his,  her,  or  their  property,  either  out  of 
the  province,  or  from  one  county  to  another  therein,  or  from  Ontario  to  Quebec, 
or  shall  keep  concealed  in  any  county  of  Ontario  to  avoid  service  of  process. 
Such  judge,  clerk  or  justice  of  the  peace,  shall,  on  such  aflidavit  being  made, 
forthwith  issue  a  warrant  under  his  hand  and  seal,  directed  to  any  constable  of 
the  county,  or  directed  to  the  bailiff  of  a  Division  Court,  within  which  the  same 
was  issued,  empowering  said  constable  or  bailiff  to  attach,  seize,  take  and  safely 
keep  all  such  effects  and  estate  of  said  absconding  or  concealed  debtor,  wherever 
found  Avithin  said  county,  and  shall  within  twenty-four  hours  after  said  seizure, 
call  to  his  aid  two  freeholders,  who  shall,  after  being  sworn,  value  and  appraiso 
the  said  effects  so  seized,  when  the  said  bailiff  or  constable  shall  forthwith  return 
gaid  inventory  with  the  property,  to  th.9  clerk  of  the  Division  Court  within 


018 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  ONTAKIO. 


which  Bucli  ■warrant  wae  iBSued.  Proceedings  may  he  conducted  to  judgment 
and  execution  in  any  case  commenced  hy  attaclimcnt.  Defendants,  jigainet 
whoso  cllects,  &c.,  a  warrant  is  issued,  may  tender  a  hond  to  their  creditors,  with 
sureties  (in  douhlc  the  amount  of  tlio  sum  claimed)  prior  to  judf^rnent  and  obtain 
a  release  of  the  goods.  No  real  estate  is  liable  to  seizure  under  Division  Court 
writs  of  attaclimcnt. 

The  jurisdiction  of  Division  Courts  (of  which  it  is  provided  that  there  "Phall  at 
no  time  be  less  than  three,  nor  more  than  twelve,  in  a  county,  each  to  he  held 
once  every  two  months,  or  oftener  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge)  extends  to 
claims  of  debt,  account  or  breach  of  contract,  or  covenant,  or  money  demand, 
w  hither  payable  in  moiiey  or  otherwise,  where  the  amount  or  balance  claimed, 
does  not  exceed  $100,  and  in  all  torts  to  personal  chattels,  to  and  including  the 
sum  of  $40.  Summons  to  be  served  10  days  before  sitting  of  court.  Personal 
service  of  summons  necessary  where  claim  exceeds  $8.  No  unsettled  account 
to  a  greater  amount  than  $200  shall  be  sued  for  in  any  Division  Court,  in  which, 
case  judgment  shall  be  in  full  discharge  of  all  demands.  No  debt  due  for 
liquors,  drunk  in  a  tavern  or  ale-house,  or  any  gambling  debt,  or  any  claim 
touching  the  title  to  real  estate,  or  involving  any  right  to  custom  or  toll,  or  for 
(seduction,  or  breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  is  suable  in  a  Divisioii  Court.  Trial 
by  jury  is  accorded  in  cases  of  tort  or  trespass  where  claim  exceeds  $10,  and  in 
all  other  cases  where  amount  exceeds  $20.  Debtor  removing  to  another  county 
may  be  served  with  summons  from  the  Division  Court  where  the  debt  was  con- 
tracted, summons  in  this  case  to  be  mailed  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Division  Court 
where  the  debtor  may  reside  to  be  served  by  the  bailiff  of  said  Court,  who  will, 
through  the  Clerk  of  his  Division,  return  the  original  of  said  summons  duly  en- 
dorsed with  affidavit  of  service  to  the  issuing  clerk.  "Writ  of  execution  may  be 
issued  and  judgment  debtor's  goods  be  levied  on  by  the  same  means.  Execu- 
tions are  returnable  within  30  days  from  date  of  issue,  and  affect  personal  prop- 
erty only  ;  if  returned  nulla  bo7ia,  a  transcript  of  the  judgment,  if  for  $40  or  up- 
wards, from  the  clerk  of  the  Division  Court,  attested  by  the  seal  of  said  court, 
may  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  County  Court  where  such  judgment 
was  obtained,  or  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  debtor's  lands  may  be 
situate,  and  when  thus  tiled  shall  become  a  judgment  of  the  said  County  Court 
and  issue  execution  on  said  lands.  Division  Court  judgments  are  made  payable 
in  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  days,  more  or  less,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge  (but 
not  for  more  than  50  days  from  the  service  of  summons,  unless  plaintifif  con- 
sents), but  execution  may  issue  forthwith  on  sufficient  evidence,  adduced  by 
plaintiff,  to  satisfy  the  judge  that  the  said  plaintiff  will  be  in  danger  of  losing 
the  amount  of  said  judgment  by  delay  till  the  day  of  payment  before  issuing 
execution. 

On  return  of  execution  endorsed  nulla  bona,  judgment  summons  may  issue 
citing  judgment  debtor  to  appear  in  court  for  examination  under  oath  by  the 
judge  touching  his  ways  and  means  of  payment,  what  disposition  he  may  have 
made  of  his  property,  the  circumstances  under  which  he  contracted  the  debt, 
&c.,  on  which  the  judge  may  order  defendant  to  pay  a  stated  sum  per  month  on 
said  judgment  until  the  same  be  paid,  and  in  default  of  such  payments,  or  if 
guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt,  may  commit  said  defendant  to  the  com- 
mon ]ail  of  the  county  for  a  period  not  exceeding  forty  days.  Such  imprison- 
ment shall  not,  in  any  case,  operate  as  a  satisfaction  or  extinguishment  of  the 
debt,  but  the  party  imprisoned  may  be  released  forthwith  on  payment  of  the 
debt  and  costs.  The  judge  in  his  discretion  may  suspend  any  judgment,  order, 
or  execution  given,  on  being  satisfied  that  any  defendant  is  unable,  from  sick- 
ness or  other  sufficient  cause,  to  pay  or  discharge  the  debt  and  damages  recov- 
ered against  him,  or  any  instalment  thereof,  until  it  shall  appear  by  the  like 
proof  that  such  temporary  disability  lias  ceased. 

Wherever  any  goods,  chattels,  deeds,  bonds,  pro.  notes,  books  of  account, 
valuable  securities,  or  other  personal  property,  shall  be  wrongfully  taken  or  un- 
lawfully detained,  the  owner,  person,  or  corporation,  who  by  law  can  now  bring 
an  action  of  trover  or  trespass  for  personal  property,  shall  have  and  may  bring 
an  action  of  replevin  for  the  recovery  of  said  goods,  with  accrued  damages  for 
uidawful  caption  and  detention.   Judgment  holds  good  for  10  years. 

The  jurisdiction  of  County  Court  extends,  in  cases  of  debt  contract,  to  $200  ; 
where  the  amount  is  ascertained  hy  the  eignatare  of  the  defendant,  to  $400  ;  in  all 
matters  of  tort  relating  to  personal  chattels,  where  the  sum  does  not  exceed  $200. 
The  Superior  Law  Courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  County  Court. 
The  above  amounts  may  be  sued  for  in  the  Superior  Courts,  but  all  concerned  will 
only  be  liable  to  pay  and  receive  County  Court  costs  and  fees.  County  Court 
writ  of  summons  may  be  served  on  defendant  in  any  county  in  the  province,  but 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ONTARIO. 


919 


suit  must  be  brought  in  the  county  where  the  defendant,  or  one  or  more  of  them 
resides,  or  where  tlie  contract  was  made  payable.  The  County  Court  jurisdictioii 
also  extends  to  the  relief  of  persons  entitled  to  an  account  of  the  dealings  and 
transactions  of  a  partnership  (the  joint  stock  or  capital  not  having  been  over 
$800)  dissolved  or  expired,  seeking  such  account,  or  to  a  creditor  upon  the  estate 
of  any  deceased  person,  such  creditor  seeking  payment  of  his  debt,  not  exceeding 
$200,  out  of  the  deceased's  assets  not  exceeding  §800  ;  or  to  a  legatee  under  tho 
Avill  of  any  deceased  person,  such  legatee,  seeking  payment  or  delivery  of  his 
legacy,  not  exceeding  Jit!200  in  value,  out  of  such  deceased  person's  assets,  not 
exceeding  $800  ;  or  to  a  residuary  legatee,  or  one  of  the  residuary  legatees  of 
any  deceased  person  seeking  an  account  of  the  residue  and  payment,  or  appro- 
priation of  his  share  therein,  the  estate  not  exceeding  $800  ;  or  to  an  executor  or 
administrator  of  any  such  deceased  person  seeking  to  have  the  personal  estate, 
not  exceeding  $800,  of  such  deceased  person  administered  under  the  direction  of 
the  Judge  of  the  County  Court  for  the  County  v/ithin  which  such  executor  or 
administrator  resides ;  or  to  a  legal  or  equitable  mortgagee  whose  mortgage 
is  created  by  some  instrument  in  writing,  or  judgment  creditor  having  only  regis- 
tered his  judgment ;  or  person  entitled  to  a  lien  for  security  for  a  debt,  seeking 
foreclosure  or  sale,  or  otherwise  to  enforce  his  security,  when  the  sum  claimed 
does  arot  exceed  $200  ;  or  to  any  person  entitled  to  redeem  any  legal  or  eqiiitable 
mortgage,  or  any  charge  or  lien,  seeking  to  redeem  the  same,  where  the  sum 
actually  remaining  due  does  not  exceed  $200.  Injunctions  to  restrain  the  com- 
mitting of  waste  or  trespass  to  property  by  unlawfully  cutting,  destroying, 
or  removing  trees  or  timber,  may  be  granted  by  the  Judge  of  any  County  Court, 
which  injunction  shall  remain  in  force  one  month,  unless  sooner  dissolved  on 
an  application  to  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Judgment  in  a  County  Court 
is  not  a  lien  on  real  estate  owned  by  defendant. 

Jurisdiction  of  Superior  Court  extends  to  claims  of  over  $200  damages,  and 
over  $400  (secured  claim)  to  any  amount.  Judgments  in  the  County  Court  do  not 
hold  real  or  personal  estate  until  the  execution  is  in  sheriff's  hands. 

The  jurisdiction  of  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $40,  in  actions  for 
wages  between  masters  and  servants.  Garnishment  may  issue  to  recover  money 
due  debtor. 

Deeds,  Mortgages,  Chattel  Mortgages,  &c.— Conveyances  of  real  estate 
must  be  in  writing,  sealed  by  the  grantor,  and  subscribed  by  him  or  his  attorney 
duly  authorized,  and  attested  by  two  Avitnesses.  Deeds  must  be  under  seal,  a 
scrawl  will  not  ansv/er.  Deeds  and  mortgages  of  real  estate  are  proved  by  affida- 
vit of  one  of  the  witnesses  to  said  deed  or  mortgage,  said  afiBdavit  being  engrossed 
on  what  is  called  a  memorial,  setting  forth  a  digest  of  the  principal  details  of  the 
deed ;  this  memorial  shall  be  under  the  hand  and  seal  of  the  grantee  or  the 
grantor,  and  is  left  for  permanent  record  with  the  registrar  of  the  county  in 
which  the  property  conveyed  is  situate.  To  illustrate  :  John  Smith,  and  Mary 
his  wife,  convey  property  to  Kobert  Bell ;  each  will  sign  the  deed  in  the  order 
named,  and  John  Gordon  and  Peter  lloss  will  witness  deed.  In  this  case  the  af- 
fidavit on  the  memorial  will  read  as  follows  : 

County  of  York. )  John  Gordon,  of  Toronto,  in  the  said  county  of  York,  gentle- 
To  wit :  )  man,  in  the  within  Memorial  named,  maketh  oath  and  saith, 
that  he  was  present  and..did  see  the  Indenture  to  which  the  said  Memorial  relates, 
duly  executed,  signed,  sealed  and  delivered,  by  the  therein  named  John  Smith 
and  Mary  his  wife,  and  that  he  is  a  subscribing  witness  to  the  execution  of  the 
said  Indenture,  and  that  he,  this  deponent,  also  saw  the  said  Memorial  duly 
signed  and  sealed  by  the  therein  named  Robert  Bell,  for  registry  thereof.  Which 
said  Memorial  was  attested  by  him  this  deponent,  and  another  subscribing  wit- 
ness, and  that  both  said  instruments  were  executed  at  the  city  of  Toronto,  in  the 
said  county  of  York. 

Sworn  before  me  at  Toronto,  in  the  said  County  of  York,  this  1 
ninth  day  of  November,  A.  D.  1878.  I 

Samuel  Hill,  |-  John  Gordon. 

A  Commissioner  for  taking  affidavits  in  the  Queen's  Bench, 
in  and  for  the  said  County  of  York.  J 
Within  the  province  the  affidavit  to  execution  of  deed  may  be  taken  on  said 
memorial  before  the  registrar  of  the  county  or  his  deputy,  or  before  any  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  of  Ontario,  or  any  judge  of  a  county  court,  or  any 
commissioner  of  the  said  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  in  Ontari».  Out  of  the  Prov- 
ince, proof  of  deeds-,  conveyances,  or  wills,  may  be  made  by  affidavit  (or  declap 


920 


ILULICS   FOIl  f;()Ar]>UTIX('l   PEIlCENTAfn^S,  T.TQ. 


alion  when  Haiti  declaration  if?  bylaw  pcrmissablc)  Bworn  before  the  mnyor  ol 
chief  magistralo  of  any  city,  borough,  or  town  corporate  in  (Jreat  Britain  or  Ire* 
land,  nnder  the  common  seal  of  such  city,  borougli  or  town  corporate,  or  before 
the  chief  justice  or  judge  of  any  court  of  Queen's  Bencli  in  Quebec,  or  of  Iho 
supremo  court  of  any  British  colony,  or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city,  liorough, 
or  town  corporate  in  any  foreign  country,  or  any  consul  or  vice-consul  of  Her 
Majesty  resident  therein.  Deeds,  conveyances,  judgments,  &c.,  must  be  recorded 
in  the  county  where  property  is  situate,  and  bind  lands  according  to  priority  of 
registration.  A  wife  must  join  in  a  deed  with  the  hiisband,  in  selling  his  real  es- 
tate, to  relinquish  dower,  and  he  must  join  with  her  in  selling  her  separate  real 
estate,  acquired  previoits  to,  or  subsequent  to  marriage. 

No  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  as  against  the  rights  of  third  parties  (if  the  goods 
remain  with  the  grantor)  unless  said  instrument  is  duly  tiled  in  the  office  of  the 
clerk  of  the  county,  in  which  the  property  so  mortgaged  is  situate,  and  it  shall 
cease  to  be  valid  as  against  creditors,  if  not  refiled  before  the  expiration  of  the 
first  year,  together  with  a  statement  exhibiting  the  interest  of  the  mortgagee  in 
the  property  thereby  claimed.  Every  chattel  mortgage  is  void  as  against  credit- 
oi-s„  unless  accompanied  v/ith  an  affidavit  of  the  mortgagee,  sworn  before  a  com- 
missioner of  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench  or  common  pleas,  that  the  mortgagor  is 
justly  and  truly  indebted  to  the  mortgagee  in  the  sum  mentioned  in  said  mort- 
gage, and  that  "it  was  executed  in  good  faith  and  for  the  express  purpose  of  secur- 
ing the  payment  of  (he  money  so  3ustly  due,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  protect- 
ing the  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  therein  against  the  creditors  of  the  mort- 
gagor— and  in  case  of  an  absolute  sale,  that  the  sale  is  bona  fide  and  for  good  con- 
sideration (naming  the  sum)  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  goods  against 
the  creditors  of  the  bargainor. 

The  husband's  property  is  not  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  his  wife  previous 
to  her  marriage,  free  from  all  liability  for  her  husband's  debts. 

For  form  of  wills  and  mode  of  attestation,  see  Form  No.  45,  p.  815. 


RULES  FOR  COMPUTING  PERCENTAGES,  PROFITS,  &C. 

Rate  per  Cent. — To  find  the  Gain  or  Loss  xolien  the  Cost  and  Bate 
per  Cent.  Us  given. — Eide.  Multiply  the  cost  by  the  rate  per  cent,  and 
point  oft"  two  places  to  the  right  as  cents.  Example. — Bought  flour  for 
©500.00,  and  sold  it  at  an  advance  of  12  per  cent.  How  much  did  I  gain  ? 
500  multiplied  by  12  per  cent,  equals  $^60. 

To  Find  the  Rate  per  Cent,  when  the  Cost  and  Selling  Price 
ARE  Known — Eide.  Find  the  difference  between  the  cost  and  selling 
price,  the  difference  will  be  the  gain  or  loss  ;  then  annex  two  ciphers  to 
the  gain  or  loss  so  found  and  divide  by  the  cost,  the  result  will  be  the 
rate  per  cent.  Example. — Sold  a  drove  of  cattle  for  $10,000,  which  cost 
me  $8,500.  What  per  cent,  did  I  gain  ?  ^ns.— $10,000— 8,500  equals 
$1,500  ;  150,000  divided  by  8,500  equals  17  11-17  per  cent. 

To  Determine  the  Cost  when  the  Selling  Price  and  the  Rate 
PER  Cent,  of  the  Gain  or  Loss  are  Given. — liule.  Annex  two  ci- 
phers to  the  selling  j)rice  and  divide  by  $1.00  Increased  by  the  rate  per 
cent,  of  gain  or  loss.  Example. — A  cargo  of  coffee  was  sold  for  $25,(X)0., 
realizing  a  gain  of  25  per  cent.  What  was  the  cost  ?  Ans. — 1  plus  2^ 
equals  1.25.   2500.00  divided  by  $1.25  equals  20,000. 

To  Find  the  Cost  when  the  Loss  or  Gain  and  the  Rate  peb 
Cent,  are  Given. — Rule.  Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  gain  or  loss  and 
divide  by  the  rate  per  cent.  Example. — A  lot  of  ice  was  sold  at  a  profit 
of  $3,000,  the  percentage  of  the  profit  being  15.  What  was  the  cost  ? 
Ans.— 3000  divided  by  15,  equals  $2,000. 

To  Find  the  Rate  when  the  Cost  and  Gain  or  Loss  are  Gwen. 
— Ride.  Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  gain  or  loss  and  divide  by  the  cost. 
Example. — A  wine  merchant  sold  a  lot  of  wine  which  cost  him  $650,  and 
gained  $130.  Wliat  was  the  gain  per  cent.  ?  J.?zs.— 13000.00  divided  by 
650  equals  20  per  cent. 


SPECIAL  LAAVS  OF  NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


921 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


ExEMPTioiN'S  FROM  FoKCED  SALE. — There  is  no  homestead  law  in  this  prov- 
ince. The  wearing  apparel,  bedding,  kitchen  utensils,  and  tools  of  his  trade  or 
calling,  to  the  value  of  §100,  of  any  debtor,  are  exempt  from  levy  or  sale  under 
execution. 

Mechanics'  Liex. — Nbvjjouse  or  other  property  in  the  province  can  be  held 
liable  for  debts  due  parties  for  furnishing  materials  for  constructing  or  repairing 
same. 

Collection  of  Debts. — A  person  not  having  privilege  may  be  arrested  and 
held  to  bail  or  committed  to  prison  on  mesne  process,  in  any  cause  of  action  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  or  any  County  Court,  if  an  affidavit  be  first  made 
by  the  plaintifl:  or  his  agent  of  the  plaintiff's  cause  of  action,  and  that  the  amount 
thereof  not  being  less  than  $20  is  justly  due  to  the  plaintiff,  and  that  such  arrest 
is  not  made  for  the  purpose  of  vexing  or  harassing  the  debtor.  When  the  cause 
of  action  is  not  a  debt  certain  a  judge's  order  must  be  obtained. 

In  actions  in  justices'  Civil  Courts  and  Parish  Coiirts,  a  person  may  be  ar- 
rested on  the  plaintiff's  making  an  affidavit  of  his  cause  of  action,  and  that  after 
giving  full  credit  for  all  payments  and  offsets  the  defendant  is  indebted  to  him  in 
a  sum  not  exceeding  $20  nor  less  than  §2,  as  the  case  maybe,  and  that  he  is  afraid 
of  losing  his  debt,  and  that  he,  the  defendant,  is  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 

Members  of  the  legislature,  judges,  and  witnesses  attending  trial,  arc  exempt 
from  arrest,  and  in  actions  brought  in  justices'  Civil  Courts.  Females  also  are 
exempt  from  arrest.  No  person  can  be  arrested  under  an  execution  issued  on  a 
judgment  in  the  Supreme  or  County  Courts,  but  arrest  may  be  made  on  a  judg- 
ment obtained  in  justices'  Civil  Courts,  the  City  Court  of  St.  John,  the  town  of 
Portland  Civil  Court,  the  city  of  Frederieton  Civil  Court,  and  in  Civil  Courts 
held  by  Police  or  Stipendiary  Magistrates,  and  in  Parish  Courts,  to  the  amounts 
for  which  such  courts  respectively  have  jurisdiction. 

Arrest  and  imprisonment  may  be  had  and  allowed  for  :  1.  Default  in  the  pay- 
ment of  a  penalty  or  sum  in  the  nature  of  a  penalty  other  than  a  penalty  in  the 
nature  of  a  contract.  2.  Default  in  payment  of  any  sum  recoverable  on  summary 
conviction,  3.  Default  in  payment  of  County,  City,  Town,  Parish  or  District 
rates.  4.  Default  by  an  attorney  or  solicitor  in  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  when 
ordered  to  pay  the  same  in  his  character  of  an  officer  of  the  Court  making  the 
order.  5.  Default  by  a  trustee  or  person  acting  in  the  fiduciary  character,  and 
ordered  to  pay  by  the  Court  of  Equity  any  sum  in  his  possegsion  or  under  his 
control. 

Decrees  of  the  Court  of  Equity  may  be  enforced  by  execution  either  against 
the  goods  or  body.  A  debtor  in  custody  may  on  notice  apply,  and  on  making 
requisite  disclosure  be  discharged,  but  if  any  i3roperty  appears  on  disclosure  it 
may  be  attached. 

The  real  or  personal  property  within  the  province  of  any  defendant,  which  by 
law  is  liable  to  be  taken  in  execution,  may  in  respect  of  any  cause  of  action  upon 
a  contract  be  attached  and  held  as  security  to  satisfy  the  judgment  to  the  amount 
of  the  attachment.  A  person  at  the  time  of  entering  into  a  contract,  may  (ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  a  negotiable  instrument)  agree  and  stipulate  as  part  of  such 
contract,  that  in  respect  thereof  the  property  of  the  contracting  party  shall 
not  be  subject  to  attachment.  Before  any  writ  of  attachment  can  issue  the  plain- 
tiff or  some  one  on  his  behalf  must  make  affidavit  of  his  cause  of  action,  and  of 
the  amount  due,  and  (except  in  case  of  negotiable  instrument,  or  when  the  cause 
of  action  arose  prior  to  April  Sth,  1874)  lhat  no  agreement  was  made  that  an  at- 
tachment should  not  issue,  and  alfso  that  the  demand  is  not  secured  by  morlgago 
or  otherwise,  and  that  the  attachment  is  not  sued  out  to  vex,  or  to  harass,  or  to 
hinder,  delay,  or  defraud  any  creditor,  and  either  :  1,  That  the  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  of  the  province,  and  the  contract  was  made  or  is  payable  in  the  prov- 
ince, or  that  the  plaintiff  is  a  resident  of  the  province,  or,  2.  That  the  defendant 
is  a  resident  of  the  province,  and  that  plaintiff  is  apprehensive  that  unless  attach- 
ment is  issued  that  he  may  lose  his  demand.  In  cases  of  a  contract  other  than  a 
contract  for  the  payment  of  money,  no  attachment  shall  issue  unless  upon  an 
order  of  the  Court  or  a  judge  thereof. 

Garnishment  may  issue  to  arrest  money  due  the  debtor  from  third  parties. 
The  sheriff  having  an  execution  may  seize  and  take  any  money,  or  bank  or  Do- 
minion notes,  bonds,  specialties  or  other  securities  for  money  belonging  to  the 
person  against  whom  the  execution  is  issued. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  has  jurisdietion  in  actions  of  debt  when  the  sum  de- 


922 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  JJIiUiN'S WICK. 


niandcd  doos  not  exceed  the  sum  of  $20,  and  in  actions  of  tort  to  real  or  personal 
proi)erty  whore  damages  claimed  do  not  exceed  $8,  but  they  have  ]\ot  jurisdiction 
over  civil  actions  where  the  Queen  is  a  party,  or  whoro  the  title  to  land  comes  in 
question. 

There  is  a  Court  in  each  parish  (except  when  there  is  a  resident  Police  or  Sti- 
pendiary Magistrate)  called  "  The  pari,sh  of  {name,  of  ])arish)  Civil  Court,"  where 
the  jurisdiction  goes  as  high  as  .140  in  actions  of  debt,  and  IJIG  in  actions  of  tort, 
but  has  no  jurisdiction  over  civil  actions  Avhen  the  Queen  is  a  party,  or  where  tho 
title  to  land  comes  in  question. 

There  is  also  "  The  City  Court  of  St.  John,"  and  "  The  Town  of  Portland  Civil 
Court,"  having  jurisdiction  in  actions  of  debt  to  the  amount  of  -SSO,  and  ^'20  in 
actions  of  tort.  There  is  also  the  City  of  Fredericton  Civil  Court,  having  juris- 
diction in  actions  of  debt  to  the  amount  of  .?80,  and  in  actions  of  tort  to  the 
amount  of  §32,  but  no  jurisdiction  over  civil  actions  where  the  Queen  is  a  party, 
or  the  title  to  land  comes  in  question. 

The  names  of  the  several  Courts  are  :  Supreme  Court,  Circuit  Court,  Equity 
Court,  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Court,  County  Courts,  Probate  Courts,  St.  John 
City  Court,  City  of  Fredericton  Civil  Court,  Small  Debt  Court  of  Fredericton, 
Town  of  Portland  Civil  Courts,  Parish  Courts,  Justices'  Civil  Courts. 

Judgments  obtained  in  the  Supreme  and  County  Courts  bind  the  lands  of  tho 
debtor,  on  the  party  obtaining  it  filing  a  memorial  of  the  judgment  in  the  ofiice  of 
the  Registrar  of  Deeds  for  the  County  in  -which  the  lands  lie.  Memorial  must  be 
renewed  every  live  years.  Execution  placed  in  the  sheriff's  hands  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  executed  will  also  bind  the  lands. 

A  debtor  may  obtain  a  full  discharge  from  his  debts  by  making  an  assignment 
of  his  property  and  complying  with  the  other  stipulations  required  by  the  Do- 
minion Insolvent  Act  which  is  in  force  in  this  Province. 

Ox  Deeds,  Rights  of  Married  Women,  Wills,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under 
seal ;  a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient,  and  one  witness  only  is  required  by  law.  Before 
'the  registry  of  any  conveyance  the  execution  of  the  same  shall  either  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  person  executing  the  same,  or  be  proved  by  the  oath  of  a  subscrib- 
ing witness  in  the  manner  following,  that  is  to  say  :— If  the  execution  of  such 
conveyance  be  acknowledged  in  the  province,  then  such  acknowledgment  may  be 
taken  before  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  or  any  County  Court,  or  a  member  of  the 
Executive  or  Legislative  Council,  or  before  any  Registrar  or  Deputy  Registrar  of 
Deeds,  or  any  Notary  Public  appointed,  and  resident  in  the  province,  and  certified 
Tmder  his  hand  and  oflicial  seal,  or  before  any  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  County 
in  which  the  conveyance  is  to  be  registered.  If  the  execution  of  such  convey- 
ance be  proved  in" the  province,  such  proof  may  be  taken  by  and  before  any  of  the 
officials  hereinbefore  in  this  section  mentioned,  except  a  justice  of  the  peace  : 
provided  always,  that  in  cases  where  the  subscribing  witness  or  witnesses  to  any 
such  conveyance  is  dead  or  without  the  province,  then  the  execution  thereof  may 
be  proved  before  the  Supreme  Court,  or  some  Circuit  or  County  Court,  by  the  or- 
dinary legal  proof.  If  such  acknowledgment  or  proof  be  taken  out  of  the  province, 
the  same  shall  be  taken  by  or  before  some  one  of  the  officials  following,  that  is  to 
say  : — Any  commissioner  for  taking  affidavits  and  administering  oaths  under 
Chapter  36 ;  or  before  any  commissioner  authorized  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  ad- 
minister oaths  in  Chancery  in  England  ;  or  tefore  any  Notary  Public  certified 
tinder  his  hand  and  official  seal ;  or  before  the  Mayor  or  Chief  Magistrate  of  any 
city,  borough,  or  municipality  or  town  corporate,  or  the  seal  of  such  Mayor  or 
Chief  Magistrate,  or  before  any  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  or  Com- 
mon Pleas,  or  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  Master  in 
Chancery  in  England  or  Ireland,  or  any  judge  or  Lord  of  Session  in  Scotland,  the 
handwriting  of  any  such  judge,  baron,  or  Lord  of  Session  being  authenticated 
under  the  seal  of  a  Notary  Public,  or  before  a  judge  of  any  Court  of  Supreme 
jurisdiction  in  any  colony  belonging  to  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
or  any  Dependancy  thereof  ;  or  before  any  British  Minister,  Ambassador,  Consul, 
Yice-Consul,  Acting  Consul,  pro-Consul,  or  Consular  Agent  of  Her  Majesty,  ex- 
ercising his  functions  in  any  foreign  place  ;  or  before  the  Governor  of  a  State, 
and  certified  under  the  hand  and  Seal  of  office  of  such  Minister,  Ambassador, 
Consul,  Vice-Consul,  Acting  Consul,  pro-Consul,  Consular  Agent  or  Governor. 
If  the  conveyance  be  by  a  corporation,  proof  of  the  Corporate  Seal  shall  in  all 
cases  be  sufficient. 

A  conveyance,  or  power  of  attorney  for  the  same,  by  a  married  woman,  of  all 
her  right  and  interest  in  land  jointly  with  her  Imsbaiid,  shall  be  valid  if  executed 
without  compulsion  from  him,  and  the  person  authorized  by  law  to  take  acknowl- 
edgments of  conveyances  in  other  cases  certifying  thereon  that  he  has  examined 
her  apart  from  her  husband,  and  that  she  acknov/ledged  that  she  executed  the 
conveyance  freely. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  XOYA  SCOTIA  A2sT>  QUEBEC.  923 


A  wife's  property  acquired  before  marriage  is  in  no  case  liable  for  ber  Inis- 
band's  debts.  The  husband's  property  is  liable  for  the  wife's  ante-nuptial  debts 
on  judgment  being  obtained  against  liim. 

Mortgages  on  chattel  property  are  valid,  and  require  to  be  registered,  but  not 
every  year.  Bills  of  sale  require  to  be  registered  in  the  Kecord  Office.  For 
Wills,  consult  Form  No.  45,  page  815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  QUEBEC. 


Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— Personal  property  exempt  from  forced 
sale  being  used  and  owned  by  the  debtor  :  Bed,  bedding  and  bedstead  ;  necessary 
apparel  for  himself  and  family  ;  set  of  table  and  stove  furniture  ;  all  spinning 
wheels  and  weaver's  looms  in  use  in  the  family  ;  1  axe,  1  gun,  1  saw,  G  traps,  fish- 
nets in  common  use,  and  10  volumes  of  books  ;  fuel  and  food  for  30  days,  worth 
$20  ;  1  cow,  4  sheep,  2  hogs,  with  necessaiy  food  for  30  days  ;  tools  and  instru- 
ments used  in  his  trade  to  the  value  of  $20  ;  15  hives  of  bees,  and  wages  and  sal- 
aries not  yet  due  ;  besides  certain  other  properties  granted  by  the  courts. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NOVA  SCOTIA. 


Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale.— There  is  no  homestead  exemption  law  in 
this  Province.  Nothing  is  exempt  from  forced  sale  except  personal  property  to 
the  amount  of  $40, 

Mechanics'  Lien. — No  law  exists  to  enforce  a  mechanics'  lien  in  the  Prov- 
ince. Creditor  to  secure  himself  on  property  must  get  a  bill  of  sale  on  chattels, 
&c.,  and  have  it  recorded  in  County  Registrar's  office. 

The  Collection  of  Debts  .—Defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  under  execution 
if  the  amount  is  §1  or  upwards  ;  and  on  affidavit  by  plaintiff  that  defendant  is  a 
concealed  debtor,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  Province  with  the  iiitent  and 
design  to  defraud  him  out  of  his  just  debt,  capias  may  issue  and  arrest  ensue  for 
sums  of  $4  and  upward. 

Writ  and  attachment  may  issue  under  the  Absconding  Debtor's  Act  against 
defendant's  property  for  sums  of  f  20  and  upwards.  A  book  account  is  outlawed 
in  6  years ;  a  bond  in  G  years  ;  a  note  in  G  years,  and  a  judgment  in  4  years .  Juris- 
diction of  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $20  ;  two  justices  may  render  judg- 
ment for  $80.  The  largest  judgment  obtainable  in  the  County  Court  is  $500  ;  the 
amount  of  judgment  obtainable  in  the  Superior  Court  is  unlimited.  Money  can- 
not be  seized  under  execution.  Judgments  bind  defendant's  real  and  personal 
estate  as  soon  as  obtained. 

The  husband's  property  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  his  wife  previous  to 
marriage,  and  as  to  his  wife's  estate  acquired  previous  to  marriage,  the  husband 
h.a&  full  control  except  over  entailed  property. 


924 


TABLES,  &C.,  FOIl  MINEItS 


Miscellaneous  Facts  and  Processes  relating  to  Met- 
allurgy, Gold  and  Silver  Mining,  Treatment  of 
Ores,  &c. 

In  mining  operations  a  knowledge  of  the  following  facts,  calculations, 
&c.,  is  of  great  utility. 

In  Mbasubes  of  Earth,  Rock,  &;c. 

25  cub.  ft.  of  sand  =  1  ton.  13  cub.  ft.  of  quartz,  unbroken  in  lode  =  1  ton. 
17  cub.  ft.  of  clay  =  1  ton.  20  cub.  ft.,  brolten  from  lode  =  1  ton  cont.  meas. 
18  cubic  ft.  solid  earth  =  1  ton,    27  cubic  ft.  of  loose  earth  =  1  ton. 

Table  for  the  Conversion  of  English  and  Metric  Units. 


1  Meter  ^  3-2807  feet. 

1  Foot  =  0-3048  m. 

1  Liter  (vol.  of  1  kilog.  water)  = 

0-2202  gal. 
1  Gallon  (vol.  of  10  lbs.  water)  = 

4 -oil  liters. 
1  Kilog.  per  sq.  meter  =  0-2048  lbs. 

per  sq.  ft. 
1  Kilog.  per  sq.  mm.  =  1422-28  lbs. 

per  sq.  in. 
1  Lb.  per  sq.  in.  =  703-0958  kilogs. 

per  sq.  m. 
1  Gram  ^  15-4323  grs. 
1  Grain  =  0  0648  gram. 
1  Kilogrameter  =  7-2331  ft. -lbs. 

For  additional  items  consult  pp.  12G 


1  Foot-pound  =  0-1383  kgm. 

1  Atmosphere  =  14*7  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 
=  10  333  kilogs.  per  sq.  meter  = 
29-922  in.  or  760  mm.  of  mercury 
=  33-9  ft.  or  10^  meters  water. 

1  Kilogram  =  2-2046  lbs.  av. 

1  Pound  av.  =  0  4536  kilog. 

1  Deg.  Centigrade  =  6-9  deg.  F.— 32" 

1  Deg.  Fahrenheit  =  9-5  deg.  C.  + 
32° 

1  Calorie  (kilog.  water  raised  1°  C.) 

=  424  kilogrameters  =  3-9683 

heat-units. 
1  Heat-nnit  (lb.  water  raised  1^  F.) 

=  772  ft. -lbs  =  0-252  cal. 

and  576. 


Chapman's  Tests  for  the  Hardness  op  Gold  or  Silver  Ores, 
Hardness  =  1.5  yields  with  difficulty  to  the  nail. 

Hardness  =  2.5  does  not  yield  to  the  nail,  does  not  scratch  a  coin,  but 
is  easily  scratched  by  it. 

HARDifESS  =  3.5  scratches  a  copper  coin  easily,  but  is  scratched  by  it  with 
difficulty. 

For  Table  showing  quantity  of  Gold  to  the  ton  of  Ore,  &c,,  see  page  667. 

There  are  in  minerals  ez^/ii  shades  of  white,  ?7me  of  grej^  Six  of  black, 
five  of  blue,  twelve  of  green  and  yellow,  fifteen  of  red,  and  eight  of  brown, 
iDesides  clear,  dark,  light,  or  pale  in  these  shades. 

Metals  have  five  degrees  of  lustre,  splendent,  shining,  glistening,  glimmer^ 
ing,  dull. 

Hardness  of  Minerals,  beginning  with  the  softest. 


1.  Talc  ;  common  laminated,  light 

green  variety. 

2.  Gypsum,  a  crystallized  variety. 

3.  Calcareous   spar  ;  a  transparent 

variety. 

4.  Fluor- Spar  ;  crystalline  variety. 

5.  Apatite  ;  transparent  variety. 

5,  5.  Scapolite :  crystalline  variety. 


6.  Feldspar  ;  white  cleaveable  vari- 
ety, 

7.  Quartz  ;  transparent. 

8.  Topaz  ;  transparent. 

9.  Sapphire  ;  cleaveable  varieties. 

10,  Corundum. 

11.  Diamond. 


TABLES,  &C.,  FOR  MINERS 


925 


The  hardness  of  Precious  Stones  is  in  the  following  order,  be- 
ginning WITH  THE  HARDEST. 

1.  Diamond.  5.  Plyadiith.  9.  Agate. 

2.  Ruby.  6.  Emerald.  10.  Torqubise. 

3.  Sapphire.  7.  Garnet.  11.  Opal. 

4.  Topaz,  8.  Ametliyst. 

In  THE  Scour  of  water-course  Beds. 

I  ft.  per  second  will  scour  fine  clay, 
i  "  '■'  "      "  sand. 

I  "  "  "    coarse  sand. 

1  "  "  "    fine  gravel. 

2  ft.  per  second  will  scour  round  shingle  1  in.  diam. 

3  ft.       "  "   angular  stone,  size  of  an  egg. 
3  ft.       "  "  conglomerate. 

Value  of  Gold  according  to  fineness. — Pnre  gold,  1000  fine,  is 
worth  $20.67  per  oz.  ;  gold  500  fine,  is  worth  $10.33  ;  600  fine,  $12.40  ;  700 
fine,  $14.49  ;  800  fine,  $16.53  ;  900  fine,  $18.60.  At  the  mint  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  charge  for  melting,  assaying  and  refining  is  14  cents  per  oz.  Tlie 
charge  for  coining  is  ^  per  cent.  No  deposits  are  received  at  the  mint  in  less 
sums  than  $100. 

The  value  of  a  ton  of  pure  gold  is  $602,799.21.  The  vahie  of  a  ton  of  sil- 
ver is  $37,704.84.  The  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  gold  coin  is  3.685.8  lbs.  avoir- 
dupois. The  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  silver  coin  is  58,929.9  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
For  other  facts  relating  to  the  weight  of  the  i)recious  metals  consult  pp.  127- 
331. 

Amount  of  Metallic  Silver  obtainable  from  the  following  sim- 
ple substances  : 
Chloride  of  silver,  three-quarters,  or  nearly  seventy-five  per  cent.  Sul- 
phide of  silver,  three-quarters,  or  seventy-five  per  cent.  Bromide  of  sil- 
ver, one-half,  or  fifty  per  cent.,  generally  a  little  more.  Iodide  of  silver, 
three-sevenths,  or  forty-three  per  cent.  Oxide  of  silver,  nine-tenths,  or 
ninety  per  cent.,  generally  more.  Carbonate  of  silver,  three-fourths  or 
seventy-five  per  cent,  generally  more.  Nitrate  of  silver,  two-thirds,  or  nearly 
sixty  per  cent. 

Table  of  some  of  the  Properties  of  Various  Metals. 
Names  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 


Ductility. 

Mallebility. 

Power  of  Conduct- 
ing Heat. 

Power  of  Conduct- 
ing Electricity. 

Gold. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Silver. 

Silver. 

Silver. 

Copper. 

Copper. 

Platinum. 

Copper. 

Gold. 

Gold. 

Iron. 

Tin. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Nickel. 

Platinum 

Iron. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Lead. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Zinc. 

Bismuth. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Iron. 

Antimony, 

Lead. 

Nickel. 

Bismuth. 

To  determine  the  proportion  of  Gold  in  a  mixture  of  Gold  and 
Quartz. — To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  lump  of  gold,  quartz  or  aurifer- 
ous quartz,  divide  the  weight  of  the  lump  in  air  by  the  weight  of  an  equal 
amount  of  water.  To  find  the  weight  of  an  equal  amount  of  water,  deduct 
the  weight  of  the  lump  in  water  from  the  weight  of  the  lump  in  air.  When 
the  lump  is  to  be  weighed  in  water,  it  should  be  suspended  by  a  horse-hair 
so  as  to  hang  into  the  water  ;  keeping,  of  course,  all  other  parts  of  the 
scales  clear  of  the  water. 


926 


WIIEKE  TO  FIND  CJOLD  llEARINff  QUARTZ. 


Pliillips  gives  the  followin;^  riilo  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  gold  in  a 
lump  of  auriferous  quarts  : 

"  Tlie  specific  gravity  of  the  gold— 19,000. 
*'  The  specific  gravity  of  tlie  quartz — 2,000, 

"Tliese  numbers  arc  given  liere  merely  for  convenience  in  explaining  the 
rule  ;  tliey  do  not  accurately  represent  the  specific  gravities  of  quartz 
and  quartz  gold.  (The  quartz  gold  (>f  California  has  not,  on  au  average,  a 
specific  gravity  of  more  than  18,600. ) 

"  1.    Ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lump.    Suppose  it  to  he  8,067. 

"2.  Deduct  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lump  from  the  specific  gravity  of 
tlie  gold  ;  the  difference  is  the  ratio  of  the  quartz  by  volume  :  19,000 — 8,067 
=  10,933. 

"  3.  Deduct  the  specific  gravity  of  the  quartz  from  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  lump;  the  difference  is  the  ratio  of  the  gold  by  volume  :  8,067 — 2,'600 
=  5,467. 

"4.  Add  these  ratios  together,  and  proceed  by  the  rule  of  proportion. 
The  product  is  the  percentage  of  gold  by  bulk  :  10, 9'33-f 5,467=16,400.  Then 
as  16,400  is  to  5,467,  so  is  100  to  33,35. 

"  5.  Multiply  tlie  percentage  of  gold  by  bulk  by  its  specific  gravity.  The 
jiroduct  is  the  ratio  of  the  gold  in  the  lump  by  weight  :  33,35X19,00= 
643,65. 

"6.  Multiply  the  percentage  of  quartz  by  bulk  (which  must  be  66,65 
since  that  of  the  gold  is  33,35)  by  its  specific  gravity.  The  product  is  the 
ratio  of  the  quartz  in  the  lump  by  weight  :  66,65X2,60=173,29. 

"7.  To  find  the  percentage,  add  these  two  ratios  together,  and  proceed 
by  the  rule  of  proportion  :  633,65+173,29=806,94  Then,  as  806,94  is  to 
633,65,  so  is  100  to  78,53.  Hence,  a  lump  of  auriferous  quartz,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  8,067,  contains  78,73  per  ceiit,  of  gold,  by  weight. 

Gold-bearing  quartz  is  always  found  near  granite  and  slate,  so  that  it  is 
labor  lost  to  search  for  gold  where  the  primary  granite  is  covered,  thousands 
of  feet  deep,  with  stratified  rocks,  as  in  the  coal  beds  of  Pennsylvania,  or  the 
blue  limestone  of  south-western  Ohio.  The  probabilities  are  that  gold  will 
be  found  where  granite,  slate,  and  quartz  are  found  together.  It  is  well  es- 
tablished that  all  native  gold  either  is  or  was  at  one  time  embedded  in 
quartz,  hence  the  common  saying,  "  quartz  is  the  mother  of  gold."  Placer 
gold  appears  to  have  been  liberated  by  the  crumbling  of  quartz  ;  and 
wherever  gold  is  found  in  granite,  or  other  rocks,  the  theory  is  that  it  has 
been  communicated  from  neighboring  quartz  while  all  were  in  a  condition 
of  fusion. 

The  poorest  quartz  that  is  worked  yields  $10  per  ton,  some  yields  $4000 
per  ton,  but  the  richest  vein,  on  an  average,  will  possibly  not  be  over  $100. 

Gold  is  usually  found  in  metallic  condition,  but  never  free  from  silver. 
The  proportion  of  silver  in  the  gold  of  the  Comstock  lode  is  from  30  to  45 
per  cent.,  in  that  of  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T.,  47  to  50  per  cent.  Gila  River 
and  Australian  gold  contains  from  3  to  6  per  cent.  Up  to  July  2,  1878,  the 
entire  product  of  the  two  mines  known  as  the  California  and  Consolidated 
Virginia  may  be  divided  as  $45,000,000  gold,  and  $55,000,000  silver.  The 
color  of  gold  varies  according  to  the  proportion  of  silver  it  contains,  00  per 
cent,  of  silver  imparts  a  white  color  to  the  alloy. 

In  gold  mining,  the  precious  metal  not  being  found  in  ore,  is  eliminated 
from  the  containing  quartz  or  alluvium  by  very  simple  mechanical  or 
chemical  processes  ;  in  silver  mining,  the  metal  is  found  in  many  varieties 
of  ore,  each  of  which  must  be  reduced  by  intricate  chemical  processes 
varied  by  the  character  of  the  mineral  under  treatment. 

The  business  of  mining  resembles  a  lottery  ;  in  Mexico,  the  Count  Eegla 
obtained  for  many  years  $5,000,000  per  annum  from  them ;  Count  Valenciana 
$1,250,000,  and  the  Marquis  del  Apardado  got  $4,000,000  in  six  months  from 
a  mine.  In  the  United  States,  among  those  who  have  been  lifted  into  nota- 
ble prominence  by  successful  mining  operations  may  be  mentioned  John 


EXORMOUS  WEALTH  OF  PEKU. 


927 


Mackey,  chief  owner  of  the  Consolidated  Virginia  mine,  wliose  Trealtli  is  esti- 
mated at  about  $80,000,000  ;  Hon.  William  Sharon,  of  Nevada,  supposed  to 
be  worth  about  $90,000,000  ;  James  G.  Fair,  supt.  of  the  Consolidated  Vir- 
ginia and  California  mines,  estimated  wealth  about  |50, 000,000  ;  Hon.  J.  P. 
Jones  of  Nevada,  worth  about  $70,000,000,  and  many  others.  All  are  highly 
gifted  with  practical  sagacity  in  mining  matters,  and  as  a  general  rule  work- 
ed their  way  upwards  through  many  reverses.  The  miner  who  would  at- 
tain success  must  qualify  himself  by  toiling  to  obtain  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  his  guidance  in  emergencies.  Let  him  not  dispense  with  it  after  tho 
fashion  of  the  miner  who  once  brought  a  specimen  of  a  supposed  very  ricli 
gold  ore  to  a  San  Francisco  assayer  for  examination.  On  being  informed 
ithat  it  Avas  nothing  but  iron  pyrites,  and  not  worth  a  cent  a  ton,  the  as- 
tounded miner  exclaimed  in  tho  direst  dismay  :  "  Great  Creation  !  there  is 
an  old  woman  up  our  way  who  owns  a  hill  of  it,  and  I  married  her  ! 

The  silver  mines  of  Potosi  are  so  ]iotably  rich  that  $47,000,000  have  been 
coined  there  since  1845.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  are  the  celebrated 
silver  mines  of  Guantajaya,  once  famous  for  the  large  lumps  of  silver  form- 
erly found  there,  one  of  which  weighed  800  lbs. 

A  Peruvian  legend  of  questionable  veracity  narrates  the  finding  of  a  large 
lump  or  nugget  of  native  gold  weighing  400  ibs.  at  the  mine  of  San  Juan  de 
Oro,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon  river,  during  the  reign  of  Charles 
the  Fifth. 

From  time  immemorial  the  mines  of  Peru  have  been  fabulously  rich  in 
silver  i:)roducts.  This  was  the  inciting  cause  of  the  barbarous  enormities 
and  rapacity  of  the  Spaniards  at  the  time  of  their  conquest  of  the  country,  in 
murdering  the  inhabitants  and  plundering  the  tombs  of  the  Inca  kings,  the 
royal  repositories,  and  ancient  temples.  From  one  temple,  that  of  Cusco,  the 
robbers  obtained  $11,000,000. 

By  a  parity  of  what  wo  must  regard  as  retributive  justice,  much  of  the 
vast  wealth  obtained  by  these  enormities  from  the  helpless  natives  in 
Spanish  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  was  in  turn  pillaged  from  the 
freebooters  by  armed  vessels  under  the  English  flag.  These  mutual  plun- 
derings  extended  over  a  long  succession  of  years,  and  during  the  reign  of 
various  monarchs. 

In  Peru,  the  immense  silver-bearing  deposits'of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines 
have  been  worked  since  1630.  They  are  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
western  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  ft.  above  tide  level, 
and  in  consequence  have  hitherto  been  difficult  of  access,  but  under  the  new 
conditions  created  by  the  construction  of  the  Trans- Andean  raihvay  (one  of 
the  wonders  of  South  America),  an  output  of  20,000  tons  of  ore  per  day  is  spok- 
en of  as  a  possible  amount.  At  present  there  are  80  stamps  at  work,  each  witli 
an  estimated  capacity  of  crusliing  5  tons  of  ore  per  day,  but  200  or  300  head 
are  looked  forward  to  as  a  small  number  at  an  early  day.  The  ore  will 
average  about  $30  per  ton,  and  the  anticipated  annual  production  of  the 
mines  is  $100,000,000.  From  $250,000,000  to  $500,000,000  of  free  milling  ores 
will  be  left  above  drainage  level  by  the  new  tunnel  lately  constructed  • 
these  ores  it  is  proposed  to  excavate  by  means  of  steam  shovels,  and  loaa 
directly  into  railway  trucks,  which  deliver  them  at  the  top  of  the  mill.  The 
water  power  is  supplied  from  a  stream  issuing  from  a  lake  near  the  mines, 
and  is  utilized  by  six  double  turbine  water  wheels,  manufactured  by  James 
Leffel  &  Co.,  Springfield,  Ohio.  Four  of  these  turbines  are  of  30  ins.  diam., 
each  developing  200  horse-power,  and  two  of  23  ins.  diam.,  developing  100 
horse-power  each.  The  mineral  railway,  undoubtedly  tlie  highest  in  the 
world,  is  7  miles  long,  and  cost  $1,200,000,  the  object  of  the  road  being 
to  transport  ores  from  the  mines  to  water-power  for  milling  purposes.  The 
rolling  stock,  bridges,  rails,  &c.,  of  the  road,  were  transported  from  the 
coast,  nearly  200  miles  distant,  on  the  backs  of  mules,  over  almost  impassi- 
ble roads.  Nothing  Aveighing  over  300  lbs.  could  be  carried  ;  even  the 
cylinders  of  the  locomotives  were  brought  in  sections. 


928 


VAST   WJ'^ALTII   OF  IJSIJIA. 


The  silver  mine  of  Potosi  is  sugar-loaf  in  form,  9  miles  round,  1G,000  ft 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  2700  above  the  i)lain.  The  upper  part  ha 
5000  adits  for  mines.  Soutli  America,  per  Humboldt,  yields  per  annun 
^|i43,500,000  Avorth  of  silver  ;  at  tlie  present  time  tlic  yield  is  much  greatei 
One  mine  is  a  third  of  a  mile  deep,  and  8  miles  in  length,  employing  300 
miserablcs.  In  Peru  over  40  districts  are  famous  iov  their  vast  miuera 
Avealtli  in  gold  and  silver. 

In  Russia,  the  immense  mines  of  Siberia  are  government  property,  and  ar 
■worked  by  miserable  unfortunates  who  have  been  banished  by  a  cruel  des 
potism  for  crimes  ■which  are  in  many  cases  merely  imaginary  ;  the  wretchec 
exiles,  wlien  once  consigned  to  their  gloomy  depths,  are  never  permitted  ti 
emerge  into  the  liglit  of  day,  but  death,  more  merciful  than  the  tyrant 
soon  ends  the  strife,  for  few  survive  the  ordeal  more  than  9  years. 

The  "  wealth  of  the  Indies  "  is  no  poet's  dream  ;  there  the  mines  are  indi 
genous,  and  the  accumulation  of  the  xu'ecious  metals  has  been  such  that  it  ii 
usually  estimated  that  Nadir  Shah,  in  1740,  carried  away  not  less  than  160( 
or  $2,000,000,000.  In  Jahomqueir's  auto-biography,  he  relates  that  a  goldei 
platform  around  his  throne  weighed  40  tons.  His  throne  and  crown  wer( 
worth  $20,000,000.  On  his  marriage  he  presented  his  queen  with  as  manj 
lacs  of  rupees  as  amounted  to  $49,000,000,  and  Avith  a  necklace  of  40  beadf 
which  cost  him  $10,000  per  bead.  He  spent  besides  $10,000,000  on  the  toml 
of  his  father  Akbar,  one  of  the  wonders  of  India.  The  province  of  Berar 
on  one  occasion,  furnished  above  $20,000,000  in  gold. 

The  ceiling  of  the  pavilion  of  the  Peacock  Hall  in  Delhi  was  orginally  cov- 
ered with  silver  filigree  work,  but  in  1799  the  Mahrattas,  after  the  captun 
of  the  city,  took  the  silver  down  and  melted  it,  the  value  of  the  same  beiu| 
estimated  at  $1,000,000.  Here  was  the  famous  peacock  tlirone,  so  callec 
from  its  having  the  figures  of  two  peacocks  standing  behind  it,  their  tails 
being  expanded,  and  the  whole  so  inlaid  with  sapphires,  rubies,  emeralds,  and 
other  precious  stones  of  appropriate  colors,  as  to  represent  life.  The  thron( 
itself  is  G  ft.  long  by  4  ft.  broad  ;  it  stood  on  six  massive  feet,  which,  with  the 
bodj^,  were  of  solid  gold,  inlaid  Avith  rubies,  emeralds  and  diamonds.  It  was 
surrounded  with  a  canopy  of  gold  supported  by  12  pillars,  emblazoned  Avitli 
costly  gems,  and  a  fringe  of  pearls  around  the  borders  of  the  canopy.  Be- 
tweeix  the  peacocks  stood  the  figure  of  a  parrot,  life  size,  carved  from  a  sin- 
gle emerald.  On  either  side  of  the  throne  stood  a  chatta,  or  umbrella  (one 
of  the  Oriental  emblems  of  royalty)  made  of  crimson  velvet,  embroidered 
and  fringed  with  pearls.  The  handles  were  8  ft.  long,  of  solid  gold,  and 
studded  with  diamonds.  The  cost  of  this  superb  work  of  art  was  estimated 
at  $25,000,000. 

The  Melbourne  Herald  thus  describes  the  "  Welcome  nugget,"  weighing  18^ 
lbs.  Troy,  and  worth  $42,000,  found  at  Ballarat,  Australia,  on  the  9th  June, 
1858,  at  a  depth  of  190  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  earth  :  "A  large,  mis- 
shapen, irregular  lump  of  gold,  water-worn  and  rounded  upon  each  of  the 
numerous  edges  presented'by  a  surface  completely  and  more  or  less  honey- 
combed. Its  total  length  is  about  20  inches,  its  greatest  breadth  about  12 
inches,  and  its  greatest  depth  about  8  inches.''  Other  nuggets  varying  in 
weight  from  10  to  45  ozs.  had  previously  been  taken  from  the  same  claim. 

Another  nugget  weighing  145  lbs.  was  found  at  Korong,  Australia,  during 
the  summer  of  1857,  in  the  form  of  a  solid  mass  of  virgin  gold,  2  ft.  4  ins. 
long.,  10  ins  broad,  and  from  1  to  2  ins.  thick,  estimated  value  $35,000. 

Victoria,  in  Australia,  is  world  renowned  from  the  discovery  of  its  im- 
mense gold  fields  in  1851,  which  in  1852  produced  the  enormous  amount  of 
$70,000,000. 

A  nugget  weighing  161  lbs.  avoirdupois  (including  about  20  lbs.  of  quartz), 
of  an  estimated  value  of  $29,000,  was  found  in  Calaveras  Co.,  California,  in 
November,  1854.  # 

Perhaps  not  less  than  from  1800  to  2000  nuggets,  weighing  1  lb.  or  more 
each,  have  been  found  from  time  to  time  in  California.  ^  Of  these  probably 


MINI^^"G  IN  COLORADO 


929 


Jess  than  140  Aveigli  over  20  lbs.  each.  Nuggets  weighing  from  1  to  7  ozn. 
have  been  found  in  immense  iiumbers. 

Colorado  presents  a  confluence  of  wonders  in  the  form  of  mineral  deposits, 
which  it  Avould  require  a  volume  to  describe. 

In  the  Silver  Cliffs,  near  Rosita,  in  Avhat  is  known  as  the  Hard  scrabble 
district,  the  newly  discovered  mine,  worked  by  Powell,  Edwards  and  Haf- 
ford  (named  the  "" Racine  Boy"),  yields  a  return  of  875  ozs.  of  silver  to  tlie 
ton.  The  low  grade  pans  out  100  o/s.  and  upward.  The  mine  is  at  present 
(ISTov.  1878)  not  over  10  ft.  deep  and  almost  25  ft.  wide,  but  yields,  with  a 
very  small  force  of  men,  between  |;2000  and  $3000  per  day.  So  far  the 
mine  has  yielded  nothing  but  horn  silver,  a  chloride  carried  in  decomposed 
porphyry  full  of  seams  ;  the  ore  is  found  in  deposits  without  any  crevice 
veins  or  distinct  Avails.  Volcanic  xiplieavals  seem  to  have  burst  the  primary 
granite,  aiid  to  have  forced  through  chimneyed  j)assages  masses  of  eruption 
bearing  molten  precious  metals.  The  silver  has  been  cooled  amid  a  mix- 
ture of  porphyry,  manganite,  feldspar,  gypsum,  and  other  miiieral  substances 
more  or  less  decomposed  and  unstratified.  Four  miles  south-east  of  tlie 
Silver  Cliffs  is  the  great  "  Maine  mine,"  which  made  a  very  poor  man  a  mil- 
lionnaire  in  one  year. 

In  Leadville,  a  notable  mining  region,  high  up  in  the  Colorado  mountains, 
the  miueral  is  found  in  layers,  one  above  another,  with  a  regular  and  con- 
tinuous dip  iuto  the  ground.  Some  of  the  mines  have  disclosed  the  existence 
of  two  or  three  deposits  underlying  the  first  mineral  vein  struck  by  a  shaft, 
and  many  singular  variations  from  the  usual  form  of  mineral  deposits  have 
been  observed  here,  presenting  a  notable  contrast  to  the  prevailing  type  in 
California  and  the  other  parts  of  Colorado.  The  mineral  carries  100  ozs.  of 
silver  per  ton  and  upwards,  in  high  grade  ores,  and  from  25  to  60  ozs.  in 
low  grade  ores,  while  the  percentage  of  lead  varies  from  20  to  70.  The  ores 
lie  in  a  sand  or  soft  rock  and  are  easily  dug  out  with  pick  and  drill,  the 
quality  improving  with  the  increase  of  depth.  s,-; 

On  September's,  1878,  a  miner,  while  prospecting  about  Imlf  a  mile  in 
the  gulch  on  Bald  Mountain,  discovered  a  mine  of  marvellous  richness.  The 
ore  is  of  similar  character,  but  of  a  much  higher  grade,  than  the  ore  above 
noted,  much  of  it  running  as  high  as  3000  ozs.  per  ton.  A  mining  expert  es- 
timated the  value  of  the  mine  at  $1,000,000  ;  tlie  owiier  asserted  that  he 
refused  $250,000  for  it,  yet  six  weeks  previously  he  had  not  money  enough 
to  buy  a  pair  of  boots !  ^  .  * 

Mention  is  made  of  a  prospector  who,  while  recently  exploring  on  the 
Avest  side  of  Bodie  Bluff,  laid  bare  Avith  few  strokes  of  his  pick  an  8  inch 
vein  of  white  quartz,  almost  filled  with  solid  gold,  and  that  the  samples  as- 
sayed $40,000  per  ton  in  gold  and  $1500  in  silver  !  ■ 

Recent  examinations  of  the  Arizonia  mining  region  by  Prof.  Cox  of  Ind.,' 
has  demonstrated  that  the  mining  property  of  South  Arizonia,  once  devel- 
oped, Avould  supply  the  world  Avith  precious  metals.  Three  shafts  in  the 
Tough  Nut  Mine,  in  the  Tombstone  district,  averaging  10  ft.  deep,  shoAV  a 
solid  body  of  ore,  Avhich,  at  the  low  average  of  $700  to  the  ton,  Avill  yield 
$2,400,000.  He  Avas  present  when  assays  Avere  made  of  ore  from  this  mine 
going  from  $1,000  to  $27,000  per  ton,  The  conditions  as  regards  timber  and 
Avater  are  A'astly  superior  to  similar  surroundings  in  the  mining  regions  of 
Colorado  and  Nevada. 

For  several  years,  mining  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  has 
been  progressing  on  Silver  Islet,  a  storm-beaten  ledge,  situate  about  f  mile 
from  the  main  land,  aiid  exposed  to  the  full  SAveep  of  200  miles  of  Lake 
Superior  tempests.  The  locality  is  on  the  Canadian  shore,  17  miles  north 
of  Cape  Royale,  and  7  miles  east  of  Thunder  Cape.  The  ore,  Avhen  first  dis-, 
covered,  appeared  as  .streaks  of  shining  Avhite,  from  3  to  10  ft.  under  water,' 
and  proved  to  be  Avorth  from  $1400  to  $7000  per  ton,  the  general  average 
being  $1500,  of  the  kind  known  as  ^'packing  ore,"  being  sufficiently  rich 


980 


MINEIiAL  AVEALTII  OF  NORTH  AMEIilCA. 


to  bo  shipped  in  barrels  and  smelted  Avithoiit  further  treatment.  The  work-, 
ings,  which  penetrate  1000  ft.  under  water,  arc  protected  by  means  of  a 
system  of  breakwaters,  cribs,  coffer  dams,  &;c.,  ballasted  with  rocks  and  clay, 
erected  at  immense  cost  and  Avith  much  difficulty.  On  many  occasions 
furious  storms  have  utterly  Avreckcd  the  works,  sweeping  away  cribs,  rocks, 
buildings,  &c.,  leaving  nothing  but  ruin  and  desolation  behind,  causing  in- 
credible expense  to  reclaim  and  maintain  the  mine.  The  richest  deposit  was 
found  March  20,  1878.  For  the  week  ending  September  28,  1878,  'the  yield 
Avas  $43,000  ;  Oct.  5,  ^1)73, 000  ;  Oct.  12,  $69,000;  Oct.  19,  $103,000;  Oct.  28, 
$80,000.  The  richness  of  ore  increases  with  the  depth:  50  head  of  stamps 
crush  60  tons  daily. 

The  Homestake  Mine,  Black  Hills,  has  an  80  stamp  mill,  crushing  175 
tona  of  ore  per  day,  yielding  $900  per  ton;  another  80  stamp  mill  is  to  be 
finished  by  spring.  The  cost  of  mining  and  milling  varies  from  $2.50  to 
$3.50  per  ton  ;  daily  profit  $1000.  It  is  estimated  that  10  years'  supply  of 
ore  is  in  sight,  and  that  500  stamps  could  be  supplied. 

The  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  yielded,  during  the  23  years  following 
their  discovery,  $500,000,000  in  gold  and  silver  bullion,  and  have  wasted 
$250,000,000  more. 

In  North  America,  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
the  British  possessions,  is  absolutely  incalculable.  Notwithstanding  the 
enormous  yield  of  the  mines  during  late  years,  the  discovery  of  new  fields  of 
astonishing  richness  is  at  the  present  time  (1878)  a  matter  of  almost  daily 
occurrence.  It  is  asserted,  on  good  authority,  that  during  30  years  prior  to 
Jan.,  1878,  there  have  been  created  in  the  countries  Avest  of  the  Missouri 
River,  and  mostly  on  United  States  territory,  bullion  values  to  the  amount 
of  $1,948,000,000.  Of  this  sum  about  $1,586,000,000  has  been  composed  of 
gold,  very  little  silver  having  been  produced  prior  to  1861,  Avlien  the  Com- 
stock deposits,  discovered  3  years  before,  began  first  to  turn  out  this  metaj 
in  notable  quantity.  Of  the  $36,000,000  turned  out  by  the  Comstock  lode  in 
1877,  43  per  cent,  has  been  gold.  Of  the  base  bullion  made  in  Eureka  dis- 
trict last  year  (1877),  valued  at  $12,000,000,  over  16  per  cent.  Avas  gold.  The 
bullion  from  Nevada  is  nearly  40  per  cent.  gold.  Since  the  beginning  of 
1861,  the  production  of  gold  for  the  entire  Pacific  coast  has  been  "$876,000,- 
000;  of  silver,  $372,000,000.  During  1877,  the  bullion  values  consisted  of 
about  $51,000,000  gold,  and  $49,000,000  silver. 

The  folloAving  tabulated  statement  is  interesting,  as  showing  the  gradu- 
ally increasing  product  of  the  mines  on  the  Pacific  coast  during  the  4  years 
noted  in  the  table: 

1873.  1874.  1875.  -  1876. 

California  $18,025,722     $20,300,531     $17,753,151  $19,000,000 

Nevada   35,254,507      35,452,233      40,478,369  49,300,000 

Oregon   1,376,389  609,070        1,165,046  1,200,OOC 

Washington   209,395  155,535  81,932  100,000 

Idaho   2,343,654        1,880,004        1,554,902  1,700,000 

Montana   3,892,810        3,439,498        3,573,609  2,800,000 

Utah   4,906,337        5,911,278        5,687,494  5,600,000 

Arizona   47,778  26,066  109,093  1.400,000 

Colorado   4,083,268        4,191,405        6,299,817  7,000,000 

Mexico   808,798  798,878        2,408,671  2,200,000 

British  Columbia   1,250,035        1,636,557        1,776,953  1,500,000 

Total  $72,258,693    $74,401,055      $80,889,037  $91,800,000 

The  product  of  1876  will  be  swelled  to  $93,000,000  by  adding  the  sum  of 
$1,200,000  to  represejit  the  yield  of  Wyoming,  Dakota  and  New  Mexico. 

As  illustrative  of  the  fluctuating  value  of  mining  property,  it  may  be 
meutioued  that  during  the  early  part  of  September,  1878,  the  stock  of  the 


TEMPERATUEE  OF  MI^^ES,  &C. 


931 


Sierra  Nevada  and  Union  Consolidated  Mines,  whicli  had  been  selling  at  $4 
per  share,  took  a  sadden  leap  to  $190,  heing  equivalent  to  the  fabulous 
amouyt  of  $30,000,000  additional  capital,  each  mine  having  108,000  shares. 
No  ore  had  previously  been  found  below  tlie  1,800  foot  level,  but  an  incalcu- 
lable quantity  of  rich  ore  had  been  found  by  still  deeper  penetration.  Some 
specimens  are  reported  to  have  assayed  thousands  of  dollars  to  a  ton,  and 
one  notable  specimen  not  less  than  $10,000. 

The  Gwin  Mine  in  Calaveras  Co., Cal.,  is  1400  ft.  deep,  runs  80  stamps, 
and  yields  $60,000  to  $70,000  per  month,  of  Avhich  amount  one-half  is  clear 
profit. 

Of  the  quartz  mines  in  Soulumne  Co.,  one,  the  Confidence,  from  a  gros^^ 
product  of  $011,853,  paid  to  the  owners  $195,000  in  dividends,  besides  pay^ 
ing  in  full  for  equipment. 

The  yield  of  the  Gilpin  Co.  (Colorado)  mines,  for  the  year  1876,  was 
$2,105,037,  and  the  product  of  the  Boston  and  Colorado  Smelting  Works  at 
Black  Hawk,  Col.,  derived  from  Gilpin  Co.  ores,  was  $2,061,244,  coin  value. 

As  evidence  of  the  absorbing  interest  pervading  the  public  mind  regard- 
ing the  vast  mining  industries  of  the  country,  it  maybe  noted  that  during 
the  last  two  Aveeks  of  1878  no  less  than  20  mining  companies  Avere  incorpo- 
rated in  San  Francisco,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  over  $200,000,000. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  productive  capacity  of  the  mines  is  greatly  cur- 
tailed by  dry  seasons  and  a  short  water  supplj^,  as  a  full  allowance  of  this 
element  is  indispensable  in  hydraulic  mining,  and  for  the  operation  of  the 
ore-crushing  mills  wherever  steam  power  is  not  available. 

Among  the  serious  obstacles  in  mining  at  profound  depths  may  be  men- 
tioned the  influx  of  water  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  mine.  Incases 
where  the  workings  are  kept  above  the  adit  level  the  water  will  -pass  away 
through  tills  channel  by  its  own  gravity,  and  no  pumps  will  be  reqi-iired; 
but  when  the  excavations  penetrate  deeper  than  this  the  water  n:iust  be  ele- 
vated by  pumps  or  other  machinery  up  to  that  point.  In  causing  the  water 
to  make  its  exit  through  the  adit  level  an  enormous  saving  is  effected,  for 
otherwise  the  water  would  have  to  be  pumped  to  the  summit  of  the  shaft, 
frequently  at  a  vast  expense.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  single  adit  is 
made  to  drain  a  chain  of  mines,  as  in  the  Avest  of  Cornwall  the  "great 
adit,''  as  it  is  called,  which  extends,  including  its  branches  to  various  mines, 
over  30  miles,  and  conveys  away  a  torrent  of  water  resembling  a  small  river. 
In  addition  to  draining  off  the  water,  tlie  adit  subserves  the  important  use 
of  ventilating  the  mine  by  causing  a  circulation  of  air,  and  the  passage  may 
be  still  further  utilized  as  a  tram-way  for  the  conveyance  of  ore  and  rubbish 
from  the  interior  excavations,  the  outflow  of  the  water  being  effected 
through  a  channel  beneatlithe  tram-waj^.  The  water  is  raised  by  the  pump- 
ing machinery  from  the  Sump,"  or  bottom  of  the  engine  shaft,  which  is 
generally  sunk  below  the  deepest  level  of  the  mine,  so  as  to  form  a  pit  into 
which  the  water  may  flow  before  being  x^umped  up 

In  reference  to  the  temperature  of  mines,  the  solar  heat,  as  a  general 
rule,  exerts  no  influence  at  a  greater  depth  than  from  50  to  100  ft.  At  Pari;^, 
as  determined  by  Poisson,  a  thermometer  placed  at  a  depth  of  76  ft.  remains 
stationary  all  the  year  round.  By  penetrating  into  the  earth  beneath  tlie 
point  affected  by  the  solar  heat,  we  find  a  regular  and  rapid  increase  of 
temperature.  In  Cornwall,  with  a  surface  temperature  of  50°,  thetemi^cra- 
ture  of  the  rock  in  the  Dalcoath  mine,  at  a  depth  of  1381  ft.,  is  75.6°  ;  the 
temperature  of  springs  at  a  depth  of  1440  ft.  is  82°  ;  in  the  United  Cop- 
per Mines,  Cormvall,  the  temperature  of  the  rock  at  1201  ft.  is  88°  ;  in  the 
Guanaxato  Silver  Mine,  Mexico,  with  a  surface  temperature  of  08.8°,  the 
temperature  of  springs  at  a  depth  of  1713  ft.  was  98.2°.  The  last  noted  iur 
stance  indicates  1°  of  heat  for  every  45.8  ft.  ;  observations  recorded  in  Eng- 
land give  44  ft.  for  a  change  of  1  degree  ;  in  Saxony  it  is  considerably  great- 
er, being  nearly  65  ft.  to  a  degree  ;  and  a  few  observations  in  the  United 


COjMl'OSri'ION   OK   VARIOUS  HOCKS. 


States  indicate  54  ft.  to  a,  degree.  According  to  Kiiiyffer,  tlic  average  for  tho 
various  countries  Avliere  observations  liavo  Ijecn  made,  is  30.81  ft.  to  a  de- 
gree, but  this  rate  of  increase  is  manifestly  too  I'apid;  for  assuming  if  to  be 
true,  a  heat  sufficient  to  boil  water  -would  be  found  at  a  depth  ol;  .'j!)()2  ft.,  or 
slightly  more  than  a  mile,  at  48  miles  a  temperature  of  7000°,  sufFicient  to 
melt  all  knoAvn  rocks,  and  at  tlie  centre  of  the  earth  it  would  amount  to 
577,000°. 

The  deepest  artesian  Avell  in  the  world  is  at  Pesth,  Hungary,  being  3250 
ft.  deep,  or  about  twice  the  depth  of  that  in  Paris.  It  sends  up  a  jet  of  boil- 
ing Avater  42  ft.  higli. 

Of  the  rocks  encountered  by  miners,  it  may  be  noted  tliat  the  crystalline 
rocks  are  the  granitic  series  of  quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  gneiss,  syenite,  por- 
phyry, green-stone,  basalt,  and  compact  lavas,  all  in  varieties. 

Quartz  is  the  base  of  all  the  silicious  compounds  hi  nature,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  hardness  of  the  bodies,  as  crystals,  gritty  sand,  itc.  It 
cannot  be  cut  Avith  a  knife,  and  strikes  fire  with  steel.  It  is  96  or  97  parts 
silica  in  100,  and  2  or  3  of  clay  and  lime. 

Syenite  is  a  middle  rock  between  granite  and  porphyry,  composed  of 
feldspar  and  hornblende,  or  quartz  and  mica. 

Feldspar  is  composed  of  lamina  or  plates.  Its  constituents  are  silica  and 
alumina,  Avith  some  potash.  Abounds  in  granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  and  por- 
phyry. When  large  crystals  of  feldspar  appear  in  granites  they  are  called 
porphyritic.  Feldspar,  next  to  quartz,  is  the  most  abundant  stone,  being  a 
constituent  of  granite  and  other  rocks  ;  it  scratches  glass,  gives  out  sparks 
Avith  steel,  is  of  a  vitrified  iiature,  and  Avhen  crumbled  forms  tho  basis  of 
clay.  Feldspar  is  white,  red,  or  gray,  and  consists  of  64  in  100  parts  of 
silex,  19  of  clay,  2  of  lime,  13  of  potasli,  and  1  of  oxide  of  iron. 

Mica,  the  other  equal  part  of  granite,  is  47  silica,  22  clay,  14.5  potash,  15 
oxide  of  iron,  and  1.75  oxide  of  manganese.  Mica  is  occasionally  found  in 
large  plates,  is  tough,  flexible,  clastic,  semi-transparent,  and  sometimes  used 
as  a  substitute  for  glass.  When  decomposed  by  the  atmosphere  or  Avorn 
down,  it  mixes  Avith  the  clay  of  the  feldspar  or  the  sand  of  the  quartz. 

Porphyry  is  stone,  Avith  a  compact  base,  intermixed  with  crystals.  The 
base  is  trap,  and  the  crystals  feldspar  or  quartz. 

tSerpentineis  so  called  from  its  variegated  colors,  nsnally  green ;  composed 
of  32  silica,  37^  magnesia,  half  alumina,  10|  lime,  Avith  iron  and  carbonic 
acid  15. 

Curved  c/neiss  proves  that  it  Avas  once  fluid;  it  is  in  slaty  layers  or  plates, 
formed  of  feldspar,  quartz  and  mica,  separated  by  thin  layers  of  mica,  it 
contains  in  its  veins  all  the  metals,  and  follows  the  sinuosities  of  the  granite. 

Hornblende  is  42  silica,  30  oxide  of  iron,  12  clay,  and  11  lime. 

Av.gite  is  54  silica,  22  lime,  12  magnesia,  and  10  oxide  of  iron. 

The  Schistose  strata  are  inclined  from  52  to  70  degrees  in  mountains. 

Mufinesian  Limestone  contains  about  20  magnesia,  30  lime,  48  carbonic 
acid,  clay  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  renders  dilute  nitric  acid  milkj^,  and  effer- 
vesces little  in  acids. 

Mica  slate  is  mingled  with  quartz  in  masses  ;  clay  slate  has  quartz  in 
layers. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  forming  one-eighth  of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  contains 
56  parts  in  100  of  ox j- gen. 

Portland  stone  is  coarse  grit,  cemented  with  earthy  spar. 

Emery  is  a  mineral  containing  86  alumina,  3  silica,  and  4  iron. 

Corio'idimi  is  a  stone,  Avhich  in  crystals  is  a  six-sided  prism,  called  ada- 
mantine spar. 

The  hardness  of  rocks  is  a  surprise  to  many,  but  all  wonder  will  cease 
when  Ave  consider  the  effects  of  heat,  combined  with  the  pressure  of  super- 
incumbent rocks  during  millions  of  years,  in  forming  rocks  of  primary 
graywacke  from  sand,  and  primary  slates  from  clay.  In  exploring  or  pros- 
pecting for  mineral  veins,  it  is  Ave'll  to  remember  that  gold  is  not  coiifiued 


HOW  TO  FIND  MINERAL  DEPOSITS. 


933 


to  one  class  of  rocks.  In  Mariposa,  Cal.,  some  gokl-beariiig  quartz  veins 
are  in  granite,  but  the  largest  and  ricliest  are  in  slate  ;  the  noted  Oneida, 
Keystone,  Eureka  and  Springliill  veins  are  also  in  slate,  together  with  the 
most  valuable  veins  in  Amador.  Tlic  vein  of  tlie  Eureka  liad  a  thickness  of 
G  ft.  at  its  "  outcrop  "  on  the  surface  of  tlie  ground;  and  down  to  a  depth  of 
1300  ft.,  to  which  it  has  been  worked,  the  thickness  and  value  has  con- 
stantly increased  Avitli  the  shiking.  In  the  Calaveras  district,  rich  gold-bear- 
ing quartz  veins  are  found  both  in  limestone  and  granite;  in  Tuolumne  the 
richest  veins  occur  in  granite;  in  the  Alta  district  the  "  wall-rock''  is  serpen- 
tine, with  white  talc  iu  tlie  richest  deposits. 


Fig.  1. 

Ground  plan  of  tha intersection  of  lodes  in  the  Himmelfahrt  mine. 
The  engraving,  sketched  by  Weissenbach,  shows  the  appearance  presented 
by  the  intersection  of  two  veins  in  the  Himmelfahrt  mine,  near  Freiburg, 
German,y. 

ISIetallic  ores  exist  in  four  ways  :  1.  In  irregular  masses.  2.  In  fissures 
or  veins  crossing  the  strata  and  filled  with  the  ore,  combined  witii  some 
matrix.  3.  In  regular  interstratified  layers  or  beds,  and  4.  Intermixed  in 
small  fragments  among  the  rocks. 

A  knowledge  of  geology  and  geometry  is  of  the  ntmost  value  to  the 
practical  miner  to  aid  him  in  ascertaining  the  location  of  mineral  deposits, 
and  to  oiDerate  to  the  best  advalitage  in  obtaining  possession  of  them.  Tlie 
instruments  nsed  are  :  1.  The  magnetic  compass;  it  is  used  to  determine 
the  direction  of  a  metallic  deposit  in  places  where  the  influence  of  iron  is 
absent.  2.  The  graduated  semi-circle  or  clinometer,  which  is  used  to 
measure  the  dip  or  angle  of  the  lode.  3.  The  chain  or  cord,  to  measure 
distances  between  two  points.  4.  A  plane  table  or  plate  whenever  the 
proximity  of  iron  nullifies  the  action  of  the  compass. 

In  exploring  for  mineral  veins,  abundant  experience  has  shown  tho  pri- 
mary importance  of  the  following  suggestions  :  1.  Tliat  they  are  more 
numerous  in  mountainous  and  hillv  districts  than  in  the  level  territorv.  2. 


934 


THE  VARIOUS  MINERAL  VEINS  DESCRIBED. 


That  tlio  richest  lodes  occur  about  the  junction  of  tlio  crystalline  and  strati- 
fied rocks,  and  are  more  abundant  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  3. 
That  their  situation  is  frequently  determined  by  the  color  of  the  land,  which 
is  often  influenced  by  the  decomposition  of  part  of  the  mineral  coni])onents, 
and  scattered  fragments  of  the  vein  intermingled  Avith  the  soil.  4.  In  cases 
Avhere  the  location  of  the  bearing  is  partially  ascertained,  the  lode  may  fre- 
quently be  found  by  sluicing  a  shaft  through  strata  into  the  underlying  rock, 
and  thence  driving  adrift  or  tunnel  at  right  angles  to  the  bearing  of  the 
lode.  5.  The  best  in'oof  of  the  existence  of  a  lode  is  the  discovery  of  its 
outcrops  ;  this  sets  every  doubt  at  rest.  For  further  information,  see  Pros- 
pectinrj  for  Quartz,  page  452. 

Gold-bearing  quartz  veins,  in  California,  generally  run  from  north 
north-west  to  south  south-east,  with  a  steep  dip  to  the  eastward.  The  dif- 
fusion of  gold  through  the  quartz  is  very  unequal,  and  the  lodes  vary  from 
a  line  to  50  ft.  Two  ounces  of  gold  to  1  lb.  of  rock  is  a  rarity  greatly  ad- 
mired by  quartz  minerSj  for  that  proportion  is  held  to  be  exceedingly  rich 
in  the  precious  metal. 

Mineral  veins  arc  usually  graded  into  species,  of  which  the  prevailing 
forms  are  :  1.  The  Rake  vein,  which  extends  dowmvards  to  unknown 
depths,  is  frequently  many  miles  in  length,  and  is  the  prevailing  type  of 
the  mineral  veins  most  highly  valued  by  miners.  Beginning  at  the  "  out- 
crop "  it  perforates  the  strata  downwards  almost  to  tiieir  i)lane  of  stratifica- 
tion. It  also  intersects  or  penetrates  the  granite  rocks.  The  inclination  or 
"  dip  "  of  these  veins  varies  from  a  few  degrees  to  a  vertical  direction.  2. 
The  Interlaced  vein,  which  is  composed  of  many  small  veins  grouped  to- 
gether like  irregular  net  work,  is  frequently  surrounded  by  granite  rocks, 
and  more  usually  bear  the  ores  of  tin  than  any  others.  3.  The  Pipe  vein, 
Avhich  appears  like  an  irregular  shaft  filled  with  ore,  is  usually  found  be- 
ticeen  the  strata.  This  class  of  veins  present  a  great  variety  of  sizes,  and 
the  angle  of  inclination  is  generally  less  than  the  dip  of  the  rake  vein.  4. 
The  Dilated  or  Flat  vein,  which  in  its  extension  is  subject  to  varying  con- 
tractions and  expansions,  is  found  in  flattened,  ma.sses  in  horizontal  posi- 
tions like  seams  of  coal,  but  differs  from  a  coal  bed  by  great  variation  in 
thickness  within  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  wherever  breaks  or  interrup- 
tions occur.  The  best  mineral  deposits  are  often  found  at  these  faults.  5. 
The  Accmnidated  vein,  usually  found  filling  large  vacancies  in  the  earth,  is 
a  great  irregular  mass  of  ore,  apparently'isolated  from  all  other  mineral 
deposits.  Veins  of  this  class  occur  interposed  between  the  stratified  rocks 
and  also  in  the  granite. 

As  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  spaces  occupied  by  metallic  veins, 
they  are  :  1.  The  cracks  and  fissures  made  in  rocks.  2.  Openings  be- 
tween their  layers,  especially  in  Schistose  or  slaty  kinds.  These  crevices  or 
fissures  are  produced  in  great  numbers  Avhere  a  region  of  rock  is  under- 
going uplift  or  Avhere  a  folding  of  the  strata  is  in  progress,  owing  to  earth- 
quakes or  other  movements  of  the  earth's  depths.  The  mineral  contents  of 
these  crevices  may  have  been  charged  :  1.  When  the  fissures  or  crevices 
were  filled  from  either  side  or  below,  and  did  not  descend  to  regions  of 
liquid  rock,  being  not  connected  with  igneous  ejections.  These  include  all 
banded  mineral  veins,  and  nearly  all  those  filled  Avith  quartz  or  granite. 
The  intense  heat,  acting  on  the  moisture  present,  Avould  inevitably  decom- 
pose the  rocks  ;  then  their  mineral  matter  vsooner  or  later  w^ould  be  swept 
into  the  crevices,  and,  in  combination  with  emanations  from  the  deeper 
parts,  form  metallic  lodes.  Also,  2.  Where  the  rents  or  fissures  descended 
to  regions  of  liquid  rock  and  Avere  filled  from  below.  In  this  case  the  min- 
eral contents  of  the  A^ein  have  been  brought  up  in  some  state  of  combina- 
tion as  solutions  or  vapors.  The  veins  of  silver  ores  in  Nevada  and  many 
others  thus  originated  in  connection  with  subterranean  disturbances. 

Werner's  theory  is  that  open  fissures  in  the  earth's  crust  Avere  filled 
with  crystalline  and  metallic  matter  by  aqueous  infiltrations  from  above, 


THEORIES   OF  NOTED  Yv'ElTEIlS. 


935 


and  that  tlie  substances  of  mineral  veins  have  been  precipitated  from  a 
chaotic  menstruum  into  fissures  in  the  eartli  Avliile  it  Avas  in  some  nascent 
condition. 

Dr.  Hutton  contends  tliat  the  contents  of  mineral  veins,  like  those  of 
dikes,  were  formerly  molten,  and  while  in  this  condition  were  injected  from 
below  by  mechanical  force. 

Dr.  liucldand  and  M.  Neckar  propound  the  theory  that  the  contents  of 
some  metallic  lodes  were  deposited  in  crevices  and  iissiircs  in  the  earth's 
crust  by  the  condensation  of  mineral  exhalations  from  immense  subter- 
ranean fountains  of  intensely  lieated  matter. 

Sir  R.  Phillips  contends  that  metals  arc  generated  by  long  continued 
galvanic  action  between  mixed  rocks,  and  are  the  Aura  of  rocks,  combined 
with  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  whose  actions  and  reactions  are  elec- 
tricity. The  results  are  a  matrix,  a  compound  of  some  of  tlie  peculiar  raira 
Avith  oxygen  and  liydrogen  ;  exhalations  from  the  lower  parts  of  the  vein 
are  also  to  be  considered.  Ores  and  crystallizations  are  therefore  direct 
products  of  the  oxygeu  and  liydrogen  rendered  active  in  electricity,  and  of 
the  exudations  and  aura  of  the  rocks  and  strata.  Proximity  is  not  essential 
to  electrical  influences  ;  the  Avails  of  fissures  may  be  aff  ected  by  excite- 
ments from  a  distance. 

It  is  asserted  that  a  hole  drilled  into  aurif  erous  quartz  in  the  Urals,  and 
intended  to  be  used  for  blasting,  but  never  so  used,  Avas  examined  40  years 
after  it  was  made,  and  found  to  be  full  of  fine  crystals  of  gold. 

From  the  present  knoAvn  existence  of  electro-currents  "jn  many  Cornish 
veins,  and  the  analogy  between  voltaic  combinations  and  the  arrangement 
of  matter  in  mineral  veins,  Mr.  Fox  and  M.  Becquerel  reason  that  the  for- 
mation of  many  metallic  lodes  are  due  to  electro-chemical  agencies. 

When  loicle  fissures  or  fractures  of  strata  are  filled  Avith  stones  or  earth, 
they  are  called  faults  or  dikes,  but  when  charged  with  mineral  contents 
they  are  called  veins.  The  tests  of  a  probable  mine  are  metallic  ores  or 
sand  at  the  outcrop,  mineral  Avaters,  trees  or  grass  discolored,  and  the  i^ro- 
ducts  of  boring. 

The  best  systems  of  minerals  are  those  of  Berzilius,  and  the  chemical 
arrangement  of  Mohs  ;  Naumann  unites  them.  As  a  Avriter  on  the  min- 
eral kingdom,  mines,  furnaces,  the  treatment  of  ores,  &c.,  Emanuel  Savc- 
denborg  occupies  a  high  rank. 

Of  late  years  among  Avorks  of  notable  utility  to  miners  may  be  men- 
tioned, PhitUps'  Elements  of  Metalhirrjy ;  Dana's  Manual  of  Mineralogy  ; 
Randall's  Quartz  Opeixitor^s  Hand-Booh  ;  Silversmith's  Practical  Hand- 
Book  for  Min.ers  ;  liusteVs  Processes  of  Silver  and  Gold  Extraction.  Most 
of  the  engravings  of  furnaces  and  some  of  the  amalgamating  pans  de- 
scribed in  this  book  are  taken  from  the  last  noted  work,  Avhich  may  be  re- 
garded as  absolutely  indispensable  to  every  progressive  miner.  Due  ac- 
knowledgments are  also  rendered  to  other  standard  autliors,  successful 
miners  and  experienced  mill-men,  for  much  of  the  A^aluable  information 
presented  in  these  pages. 

The  superficial  appearance  of  the  outcrop  of  A"eins  often  indicate  the 
metals  they  contain.  The  iiresence  of  fluorspar  indicates  metallic  associa- 
tions Avherever  found.  A  broAvn  powder  at  the  surface  indicates  iron,  and 
often  tin  ;  a  pale  yelloAV  powder,  lead,  and  green,  copper.  Gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  porphyry,  quartz,  syenite,  and 
the  lowest  sandstone,  occasionally  in  coals,  and  abundantly  in  the  sands 
of  rivers.  Platina,  palladium,  rhodium,  osmium,  and  iridium  are  found 
almost  AvhoUy  in  the  sands  of  rivers.  Mercury  is  found  in  slate,  limestone, 
and  coal  strata.  Copper  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  syenite  (sometimes 
sandstone),  coal  strata,  and  alluvial  ground.  Iron  is  found  in  every  kind  of 
rock,  tin  in  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  and  slate,  lead  and  zinc  in  primary 
and  transition  rocks  J  except  trap  and  serpentine),  porpliyry,  syenite,  th« 


936 


MINING  NOMENCLATUKE. 


lowest  saudstono,  and  occ.asionally  in  coal  strata.  Gold  is  j'ellow,  coppei, 
red,  iron,  grey,  lead,  blue,  cobalt  and  numgaiiese,  grey  ;  all  the  others  are 
•white. 

Fig.  2  represents  tlie  transverse  section  of  a  mineral  vein,  in  which,  in 
mining  nomenclature,  A  A  represents  the  "  covntry,"  or  rock  composing  the 
fudes  of  the  vein,  C  C  is  the  vein,  D,  liangimi-wall,  C,  foot^waU,  D  D,  selva(/e,0, 
vxufh,  F,  horse.  Waste  rock  or  rubbish  is  termed  deads  or  atile  ;  workings  in 
a  mine  by  persons  of  AA-liom  no  record  remains  are  termed  old  men ;  an 
opening  left  for  letting  down  ore  is  called  a  pass;  the  place  at  Avhich  a  lode 
divides  in  two  is  nained  point  of  horse  ;  the  lowest  workings  in  a  mine  or 
level  are  called  bottoms  ;  the  appearance  of  a  mineral  lode  at  the  surface  is 
called  an  outcrop;  the  amount  of  slope  of  a  mineral  vein  measured  from  a 
horizontal  line  is  termed  a  dip  ;  a  horizontal  or  nearly  horizontal  working  in 
a  mine  is  called  a  drift,  cjallery,  level,  or  gunny ;  the  substance  in  which  ore 


is  found  embedded  is  termed  the  matrix  ;  a  cavern  or  fissure  in  which  water 
falls  and  disappears  is  called  a  swalloio  ;  the  ascending  air-current  from  a 
mine  is  termed  an  upcast,  the  downward  current  is  called  a  doioncast,  &c., 
&c.  Most  of  these  terms,  together  with  a  vocabulary  of  similar  technicali- 
ties, derive  their  origin  from  the  Cornish  miners. 

Metals  are  always  found  as  alloys,  sulphurets,  oxides,  or  salts.  Goiti, 
platinum,  and  columbium,  are  found  only  as  alloys.  Silver,  mercury,  cop- 
per, iron,  antimony,  arsenic,  and  cobalt,  in  the  four  states.  Lead  and  zinc 
in  tlie  three  last.  Tungsten,  uranium,  litanium,  chromium,  and  tantalium, 
only  as  oxides.  In  density,  the  order  of  metals  is  platina,  gold,  silver,  mer- 
curv,  lead,  copper,  tin,  iron,  zinc. 

!Few  metals  are  found  pure  or  native,  but  in  ores,  gaugues  or  compounds, 
combined  with  oxygen  or  acids  ;  often  two  or  more  resulting  metals,  with 
sulphur,  arsenic,  &c.,  in  veins  of  rocks,  the  foreign  bodies  being  called 
mineralizers,  as  sulphur  is  to  lead,  forming  sulphuret  of  lead,  called  galena. 

The  age  of  metals  is  estimated  by  that  of  the  containing  rocks  ;  the  age 
of  the  latter  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  even  approximately.    In  treating 


GEOLOGICAL  EPOCHS,  &C. 


937 


of  geological  epochs,  Dana  remarks  ;  "If  time,  from  the  commencement  of 
the  Silurian  formations  (tliose  resting  on  the  granite)  included  48  millions  of 
years,  which  some  geologists  wouldpronounce  mucli  too  low  an  estimate,  the 
Paleozoic  part,  according  to  the  above  ratio,  would  comprise  36  millions, 
the  Mesozic,  9  millions,  and  Cenzoic,  3  millions.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  as  rocks  are  formed  of  earth,  and  as  metals  are  found  mainly  in 
veins  and  crevices  of  rocks,  that  they  must  be  of  more  recent  origin  than 
the  latter. 

^  The  above  noted  estimate  of  geological  time  will  doubtless  astonish  many 
who  have  been  led,  by  a  mistaken  apprehension  of  the  true  meaning  of 
Genesis,  to  suppose  that  only  about  6000  years  have  elai^sed  since  the  crea- 
tion. For  further  evidence  on  this  subject,  see  Geological  Facts;  Ac/c, 
Origin,  and  Ultimate  Duration  of  the  Earth,  on  page  728.  The  adamantine 
facts  of  geology  render  very  slight  homage  to  the  cherished  errors  of  the 
world,  and  have  struck  fearful  blows  at  the  old  explanations  of  Genesis, 
but  time  is  a  powerful  remodeller.  Already  nearly  300  centuries  attest  the 
eternal  verity  of  the  grand  truths  for  the  propagation  of  which  Bruno  suf- 
fered death  and  Galileo  endured  imj^risonmeut,  for  their  alleged  inconsist- 
ency with  tlie  Jewish  cosmogony,  Avhich,  in  describing  an  apparent  truth, 
speaks  of  "  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  the  going  down  of  the  same  "  accord- 
ing to  a])pearances  as  presented  to  the  senses. 

The  world  has  witnessed  with  astonishment  the  disgraceful  treatment  ac- 
corded to  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson,  by  infamous  bigots,  who  insisted  that  his 
humane  use  of  antesthetics  to  mitigate  the  pains  of  women  in  labor  was 
neither  more  nor  less  tlian  a  direct  contravention  of  the  primeval  curse, 
:^vhich  affirmed  that  *'  in  sorrow  she  should  bring  forth  children."  It  is  safe 
to  say  tliat  the  bigot^i  did  not  belong  to  the  female  sex.  At  this  day  such  ab- 
surdity would  not  be  tolerated  a  single  hour. 

The  popular  outcry  which  at  one  time  denounced  the  use  of  the  lightning 
conductor  as  a  llagrant  defiance  of  heaven  is  also  silenced  forever.  Railroads 
and  telegraphs  have  been  similarly  denounced.  These  insanities  are  now 
numbered  with  the  things  of  the  past. 

It  is  notoriously  true  that  in  Scotland  the  fanning  mill  was  fiercely  as- 
sailed as  an  ungodly  machine,  and  the  inventor  was  subjected  to  persecution 
by  arrogant  lunatics  who  asserted  that  nothing  could  be  either  good  or  useful 
which  contravened  tlie  passage  which  reads : — "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it 
listeth."  Now  millions  use  fanning  mills  during  their  lifetime  without  ever 
thinking  of  such  an  objection. 

The  science  of  geology  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  its  teachings  have  met 
witli  very  general  acceptance  among  intelligent  observers.  It  is  sophistry 
to  afflrm"that  what  is  new,  must,  for  that  reason,  necessarily  be  false,  for  of 
the  disclosures  unfolded  by  the  stony  facts  of  geology  we  are  compelled  to 
affirm  that  they  must  be  true,  though  at  variance  with  the  beliefs  of  a  thou- 
sand generations. 

A  high  authority  has  classified  the  placers  of  California  as  follows  : — 

1.  A  coarse,  boulder-like  drift,  the  result  of  abrasion  and  powerful  cur- 
rents in  a  great  body  of  water. 

2.  A  river  drift  or  coarse  alluvium,  ancient  and  modern, 

3.  Alluvial  deposits  on  flats  and  broad  surfaces,  not  confined  to  river 
channels. 

4.  Lacustrine  deposits  made  at  the  bottoms  of  former  lakes  and  ponds. 
They  are  found  in  extensive,  basin-shaped  depressions  in  the  surface  of 
metamorphic  rocks.  These  depressions  have  evidently  been  filled  with  deep 
quiet  water,  from  which  thick  strata  of  clay,  fine  sand,  and  volcanic  ashes 
have  been  deposited  upon  the  auriferous  layer  at  the  bottom. 

In  the  gullies  and  ravines  the  auriferous  dirt  is  generally  a  very  stiff 
elay,  abounding  in  coarse  gravel  and  stones,  and  is  usually  as  wide  as  the 
stream  of  water  during  the  wet  season.  In  a  ravine  where  the  extreme 
width  of  the  stream  does  not  exceed  5  ft.,  as  a  general  rule  the  pay-dirt  will 


938 


FLUME  MIXIXG,  &C. 


not  be  more  than  a  foot  dcc]),  with  a,  bed  of  barren  dirt  oi\  top.  Wl)orc  the 
channel  of  a  stream  in  a  small  ravine  has  slightly  changed,  the  pay-dirt  may 
be  bnried  under  G  or  8  ft.  of  alluvial  soil.  Tlie  gold  •will  not  lodge  on  the 
smooth  or  steep  bed  rock  of  a  gully  ;  the  richests  spots  will  be  found  where 
the  bed  is  level,  and  where  the  strata  of  the  rock  are  almost  vertical  and  pre- 
sent many  jagged  points  to  detain  the  gold,  the  largest  pieces  being  usually 
found  near  the  bed  rock  in  the  deepest  part  of  the  stream. 

In  alluvial  workings,  near  rivers  and  streams,  the  vai'ious  companies  who 
work  neighboring  claims  often  club  togetlier  and  construct  a  large  Hume, 
into  which  the  stream  is  conducted  by  means  of  a  strong  barricade  or  Aving 
dam  of  rocks,  timber,  mud,  &;c.,  Avhich  causes  a  diversion  of  the  currciit, 
leaving  the  bed  of  the  river  nearly  dry,  thus  affording  access  for  working  it 
to  good  advantage.   The  stream  affords  plenty  of  water  for  mining  pur- 


Fig.  3 — Flume  Mining. 
poses,  together  with  ample  power  for  operating  under  shot  wheels  fox  work- 
ing pumps  to  rid  the  claims  of  the  surplus  Avater  Avhich  accumulates  in  the 
Avorkings.    See  Fig.  3,  representing  liume  mining. 

For  Placer  Mining,  Board  Sluice  Process,  see  page  453  ;  for  Hijdraxdic 
Mining,  Long  Tom  Process,  &c.,  -see  page  454;  for  Gold  Assay  by  Smelting 
Process;  Gold  Assay  iciih  a  Horn  Spoon ;  Assay  of  Rock  containing  Pyrites  ; 
Silver  Assay  by  Smelting ;  A^ssay  of  Argentiferous  Galena ;  Silver  Assay 
loith  Testing  Tiibe  ;  Test  for  Iron  or  Copper  Pyrites,  see  page  451 ;  for  Pros- 
pecting for  Quartz ;  Prospecting  a  River  Bar  ;  Prospecting  in  a  Gidly ; 
Prospecting  in  Flats ;  Prospecting  with  a  Knife,  &c. ,  see  page  452. 

In  order  to  thoroughly  dispel  the  common  illusion  that  a  mine  is  merely 
a  A^ast  excaA^ation  in  the  earth,  exposed  to  the  open  air,  rain,  storms,  &c., 
like  a  quarry,  it  may  be  well  to  enlighten  the  reader  by  presenting  a  few 
facts  relating  to  some  of  the  silver  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  in  Nevada. 
At  the  main  shaft  and  hoisting  works  of  the  Consolidated  Virginia  Mining 
Company,  we  find  a  great  mass  of  buildings,  resembling  a  vast  manufac- 
tory, containing  engine  and  boiler  houses,  machine  shop,  blacksmith  shop, 
carpenter  shop,  and  numerous  offices  connected  Avith  the  Avorks.  Around 


DESCKIPTIOX  OF  A  GKEAT  MINE. 


939 


the  buildings  are  enormous  piles  of  timber  and  lumber,  resembling  the  sur- 
roundings of  an  immense  saw-mill  with  its  accumulated  stock.  This  timber 
is  used  for  supports,  &c.,  in  the  mine,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  more  timber 
has  been  absorbed  by  these  mines  than  there  is  iu  all  the  houses  in  San 
Francisco. 

The  main  shaft  appears  as  an  opening  in  the  floor,  about  5  ft.  in  width, 
and  20  ft.  in  length,  with  a  depth  of  2000  ft.,  and  is  securely  cribbed  by 
means  of  substantial  timbers.  This  opening  is  divided  into  four  compart- 
ments by  means  of  partitions  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft  ;  three  of  these  four  compartments  are  used  for  hoisting  purposes, 
and  in  these  the  hoisting  cages  pass  up  and  down  to  and  from  the  various 
levels,  after  the  manner  of  an  elevator  through  the  various  stories  of  a  high 
building.  The  fourth  compartment  is  occupied  by  the  tanks  and  pump 
column  ;  an  iron  pipe  from  12  to  IG  ins.  diam.,  through  which  the  water  is 
forced  from  the  lower  levels  of  the  mine  to  the  surface  by  means  of  the 
massive  pumimig  machinery.  The  cages  in  the  different  divisions  work 
independent  of  each  other  ;  one  may  be  going  down  while  the  other  is 
going  up,  or  one  may  be  at  rest  while  the  others  are  in  motion. 

The  motive  power  for  hoisting  is  supplied  by  powerful  engines  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  building,  about  50  or  CO  ft.  distant  from  the  shaft,  and 
the  hoisting  is  effected  by  means  of  a  flat  cable,  some  5  or  G  ins.  wide,  £ 
ins.  thick,  and  braided  of  the  best  quality  of  steel  wire.  This  cable  is 
wound  and  unwound  on  an  enormous  reel  situated  near  the  engine,  and  the 
great  iron  wheels  and  pulleys  which  sustain  the  cables  are  supported  on 
what  is  termed  the  gallows  frame,  a  huge  structure  composed  of  massive 
upright  and  cross  timbers  constructed  directly  over  the  mouth  of  the  shaft. 
The  positions  of  the  cages  in  the  shafts  are  indicated  to  the  engineer  by 
means  of  a  hand  moving  over  a  dial  in  the  engine  room,  and  the  signals  for 
elevating  and  lowering  the  cages  are  struck  on  bells  near  the  engineer  by 
parties  in  the  cages  or  levels  below. 

The  entire  machinery  of  the  works  is  driven  by  a  compound  condensing 
engine  of  600  horse-power  ;  the  engine  has  two  cylinders,  the  first  24  x  48 
ins.,  and  the  second  48  x  48  ins.  in  size.  The  main  shaft  of  engine  is  14  ins. 
diam.,  and  weighs  15,000  lbs.  On  this  shaft  is  a  fly  wheel  (which  is  also  a 
band  Avheel,  carrying  a  belt  by  which  the  batteries  are  driven)  18  ft.  in 
diam. ,  and  weighing  IG^  tons.  On  the  extreme  end  of  the  main  driving 
shaft  is  coupled  a  shaft  11  ins.  diam. ,  extending  into  the  amalgamating 
room,  and  driving  the  pans,  agitators,  &c.  Engine  weighs  about  50  tons  ; 
there  are  8  boilers,  each  54  ins.  diam.  and  IG  ft.  iu  length.  The  smoke 
stacks  are  4  in  number,  42  ins-  diam.  and  90  ft.  high. 

In  the  new  stamp  mill  of  this  company  (100  ft.  long  and  68  ft.  wide) 
there  are  GO  stamps,  each  weighing  800  lbs.,  the  whole  requiring  one  car 
load  (1800  lbs. )  of  ore  to  be  sent  out  from  the  shaft  every  5  minutes  during 
the  day  and  night.  The  stami)s  are  driven  by  a  belt  from  the  main  band 
and  fly  wheel  ;  the  belt  is  24  ins.  in  width,  and  160  ft.  in  length  ;  speed 
3600  ft.  per  minute.  This  runs  the  counter-shaft  in  front  of  the  batteries, 
and  from  the  pullies  on  this  counter-shaft  there  are  belts  14  ins.  wide  and  60 
ft.  long,  which  run  each  battery  of  10  stamps.  The  batteries  are  fed  by  the 
Tulloch  self-feeders,  one  feeder  being  required  for  every  5  stamps,  and  two 
men  only  are  required  to  oversee  the  whole,  without  any  handling  of  the 
ore.  There  are  32  amalgamating  pans,  each  pan  holding  about  2000  lbs.  of 
pulp  from  the  batteries,  and  there  are  8  settlers  to  each  pair  of  pans.  The 
monthly  loss  of  quicksilver  alone  in  the  mills  of  the  company  is  estimated 
at  from  $60,000  to  $80,000.  The  owners  have  to-day  11  mills,  ranging  from 
15  to  80  stamps,  making  altogether  a  battery  force  of  375  stamps,  the 
largest  stamp  capable  of  pulverizing  5  tons  of  ore  every  24  hours.  The 
whole  liuman  force  employed  in  these  mills  numbers  622  men,  when  the 
mills  are  running  to  their  full  capacity. 

From  500  to  700  men  are  employed  and  divided  into  three  shifts,  each 


940 


HEIGHT  OF  MINES. 


shift  worldng  8  hours.  One  shift  goes  on  at  7  a.m.  ,0110  at  3  p.m.,  and 
another  at  11  p.m.  Order  is  respected  in  every  thing  ;  there  are  superintend- 
ents, foremen,  engineers,  miners,  timbermen,  watchmen,  pumpmen,  pick- 
ho^'s,  &c.  Each  employee  in  tlie  mine  has  his  duties  assigned  liim,  which 
must  be  performed,  and  each  is  confined  to  his  own  level,  and  there  only. 


Fig.  4.— Diagram  Illustrating  Height  of  Mines. 


To  describe  the  mine,  we  will  in  imagination  compare  it  to  a  house  of 
enormous  altitude  and  vast  dimensions  on  the  earth  ;  this  house  would 
require  to  be  2000  ft.  high,  with  20  stories  or  floors,  each  100  ft.  apart.  It 
is  safe  to  say  that  such  a  building  was  never  constructed,  and  never  Avill  be 
iu  this  world.   To  an  observer  in  Wall  street,  or  on  Broadway,  New  York, 


MINEES  FAINTING  FKOM  HEAT. 


941 


Trinity  Churcli  presents  an  imposing  spectacle,  but  our  imaginary  building, 
representing  the  Consolidated  Virginia  mine,  would  be  nearly  7  times  higher! 
In  the  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  there  are  TOO  miles  of  drifts,  galleries, 
cross-cuts,  shafts,  winzes,  &c.,  and  as  one  mine  co  inects  witli  another,  there 
are  what  might  be  called  streets,  3  miles  long.  The  mnin  workings  are  all 
lighted  with  lamps  and  candles  Avhich  are  always  kept  burning.  Quite  a 
number  of  engines  are  in  operation  in  the  lower  levels  hoisting  timber  to  the 
miners,  elevating  ore  at  the  winzes,  operating  Burleigh  drills,  and  driving  fans 
or  blowers  (like  those  used  in  a  foundry)  to  supply  fresh  air  to  the  workmen 
who  are  pantin;?  with  the  heat  in  distant  parts  of  the  mine.  These  engines 
are  run  by  compressed  air,  furnished  by  powerful  compressors  at  the  sur- 
face, as  owing  to  the  high,  temperature  at  these  profound  depths  steam 


Fig. 


-MiNEKS  FAIXTING  FKOM  HeAT  IN  THE  LOWER    LKVELS  OF  THE 

Comstock. 


engines  could  not  be  tolerated  a  single  liour.  When  at  work  the  miners  are 
naked  to  the  Avaist,  and  some  from  the  middle  of  the  thighs  to  tlieir  feet. 
The  only  garments  worn  are  a  pair  of  thin  pantaloons  or  overalls,  stout 
shoes,  and  a  light  hat  or  small  felt  cap  to  protect  the  head  from  the  fnlling 
sand.  Notwithstanding  all  this  many  faint  outright  from  the  effects  of  the 
heat. 

One  month's  supplies  for  this  mine  may  be  estimated  as  follows,  viz.  : 
500,000  ft.  of  timber,  560  cords  of  Avood,  350  boxes  of  candles,  2  tons  of 
giant-powder,  100  gals,  of  coal-oil,  200  do.  of  lard  oil,  800  lbs.  of  tallow, 
20,000  ft.  of  fuse,  37  tons  of  ice,  3000  bush,  charcoal,  1^  tons  of  steel,  5  tons  of 
round  and  square  iron,  4  tons  of  hard  coal,  50  kegs  of  nails,  «S:c.  Monthly 
wages,  ^i;90,000.  Miners  receive  S4  per  day,  engineers,  carpenters,  machin- 
ists, blacksmiths,  &c.,  from  $5  to  $7  per  day. 

The  Savage  and  Hale  and  Norcross  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  have 


942 


THE   SUTllO  TUNNEL. 


sliate  G  X  20  ft.,  and  2r»00  ft.  deep.  Tlie  Savage  Company  intend  to  sink 
their  present  shaft  to  a  deptli  of  4000  ft.  Their  great  lioisting  cable  of  steel 
Avirc  is  4000  ft.  long,  Aveiglis  25,100  lbs.,  and  is  -wound  and  unwound  on  a 
cone-shaped  reel  15  ft.  long,  Avitli  a  diam.  of  22  ft.  at  the  large  end  and  13 
ft.  at  the  small  one.  Tlic  reel  is  suspended  on  a  cast-iron  shaft  10  ins.  in 
diam.,  the  ends  of  whicli  revolve  in  i)onderous  bearings  sustained  by  foun- 
dations of  cut  stone  resting  on  the  solid  roclc.  The  ciigines  for  driving  the 
huge  reel  arc  two  in  number,  of  200  horse-power  each,  and  are  capable  of 
hoisting  from  480  to  500  tons  of  ore  every  24  hours.  The  hoisting  car  used  on 
tlie  lower  incline  is  made  Avholly  of  iron  and  steel,  runs  on  an  iron  track,  and 
holds  about  5  tons  of  rock.  The  incline  begins  at  the  foot  of  the  vertical 
shaft,  1300  ft.  below  the  surface,  and  runs  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  mine. 
The  hoisting  cages  on  the  mines  of  the  Comstock  arc  all  supplied  with  safety 
appliances,  which  operate  instantaneously  in  arresting  the  descent  of  the 
cage  in  the  event  of  the  cable  breaking. 


Fig.  6.— Sttteo  Tuknel. 


As  showing  the  vast  sums  of  money  disbursed  by  capitalists  when  full 
'  confidence  exists  of  obtaiiiing  renranerative  returns  from  mining  operations, 
'  it  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  following  items  regarding  the  outfit  of  a 
mine  which  has  not  as  yet  produced  a  cent's  worth  of  ore.  The  works  Avill 
be,  when  finished,  a  boiler  house  102  ft.  long,  50  ft.  wide,  containing  10 
boilers,  51  ins.  diam.,  IG  ft.  long  ;  one  main  hoisting  room,  151  ft.  long,  40 
ft.  wide,  48  ft.  high  ;  a  carpenter  shop,  50  ft.  wide  by  100  ft.  long,  for  fram- 
ing the  timbers  for  the  shaft,  a  machine  shop,  50  x  100  ft.,  and  a  black- 
smith's shop,  40  X  GO  ft. 

At  the  shaft  is  a  double  cylinder,  high  pressure,  direct-acting  engine,  both 
cylinders  being  connected  with  one  shaft  carrying  two  reels  for  winding  the 
ropes.  It  is  of  1200  horse-power,  and  callable  of  hoisting  10  tons  of  ore 
from  a  depth  of  nearly,  if  not  quite,  one  mile.  The  crank  shaft  weighs 
nearly  40  tons,  and  is  one  piece  of  wrought  iron.    The  intended  piston  speed 


THE  SUTllO  TUXNEL. 


04S 


13  960  It.  per  minute,  which  Avill  take  a  "  cage  "  through  tlic  shaft  at  rail- 
way speed.  The  cables  used  in  the  shaft  are  made  of  annealed  steel  wire,  7 
inches  wide  and  -g  ins.  thick,  and  are  Avound  on  the  reels  like  a  ribbon  on  a 
spool.  The  reels  are  15  ft.  diam.,  will  hold  4000  ft.  of  cable,  and  each 
is  fitted  with  powerful  brakes  and  safety  appliances  to  regulate  tlie  move- 
ments of  the  cages.  The  engine  foundations  are  solid  masonry,  5(3  ft.  long, 
38  ft.  wide,  and  22  ft.  deep,  to  which  the  engines  are  bolted  with  80  3-in.  and 
3j-in.  bolts,  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  stone  work.  Tlie  piston  rods  and 
all  the  valve  rods  are  of  steel,  and  the  valves  of  liard  brass. 

The  pumping  engine  is  a  horizontal  compound  condensing  engine,  direct 
acting.  The  cylinders  arc  of  the  following  dimensions  :  The  initial  cylinder 
is  33  ins.  diam.  and  12  ft.  stroke.  The  expansion  cylinder  is  G(3  ins.  diam. 
and  12  ft.  stroke  ;  engine  shaft  20  ins.  in  diam.,  about  18  ft.  long,  and  has  a 
fly-wheel  on  each  end  30  ft.  in  diam.,  and  each  Avheel  weighs  30  tons.  The 
engine  and  line  of  pumps  for  1200  ft.  weigli  749  tons.  The  cost  price  of 
engine  and  pumps  before  erection  was  $300,000.  It  is  to  drive  two  lines  of 
14" inch  pumps  of  10  ft.  stroke.  Its  Aveb  of  cams,  rods,  cut-off  gear,  air- 
cushions,  drop-weights,  &c.,  display  the  highest  skill  hi  workmanship. 


Fig.  7.— Longitudinal  Section  of  the  Comstock  Lode,  showing-  the 

DIFFERENT  MINING  CLAIMS  LOCATED  THEREON,  THE  OBE  BODIES  EX- 
TRACTED, AND   THE  INTERSECTION  OF  THE  SUTRO   TUNNEL  WITH  THE 

Lode  at  B.,  etc. 


The  Sutro  tunnel,  a  work  without  a  compeer  in  mining  enterprises  on 
this  continent,  was  begun  October  19,  1869  ;  the  object  being  to  penetrate 
the  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  at  a  point  nearly  2000  ft.  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  thus  form  an  outlet  for  the  drainage  and  rapid  transit  for 
the  miners  and  their  supplies,  together  with  quick  transportation  for  the  ore 
and  mineral  matter  taken  from  the  mines.  It  enters  the  mountains  in  the 
valley  of  the  Carson  river,  at  the  town  of  Sutro,  3-|  m.iles  below  Dayton,  ih 
miles  from  the  river,  150  ft.  above  the  river  bed,  and  strikes  the  1G40  ft 
level  of  the  Savage  mine  at  a  point  20,018  ft.  from  tlic  mouth  of  the  tunnel. 
The  work  was  prosecuted  day  and  night  with  a  result  of  from  13  ft.  to  16h  ft- 
l>ev  daj,  until  on  July  8,  1878,  a  connection  was  made  with  the  above  noted 
shaft.  A  wire-tramway,  running  from  the  Carson  river  to  the  mines,  Avill 
soon  be  in  operation  through  the  whole  length  of  the  tunnel,  with  an  outfit 
of  rolling  stock  capable  of  transporting  1000  miners  from  the  village  of 
Sutro  to  the  mines  in  15  minutes.  During  the  past  years,  nearly  3000  miners 
have  been  employed  in  these  mines,  and  hours  have  been  consumed  at  each 
shift  in  sending  down  the  men  in  cages,  a  dozen  or  so  at  a  time. 

The  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode,  and  all  other  mines  in  the  district,  are 
com])elled  for  all  time,  to  pay  the  Tunnel  Company  $^2  per  ton  for  every 
ton  of  ore  extracted  and  sent  to  the  mills  for  reduction.  The  rates  estab- 
li^lied  for  transportation  is  25  cents  per  ton  per  mile  over  the  4  miles  of 


944 


THE   SUTIIO  TUNNEL. 


main  tunnel,  and  25  cents  each  way  for  persons.  Ice,  now  sold  to  the  mining 
companies  at  .'ii!20  i)er  ton,  can  Ijc  supplied  in  nnliniited  quantities  ])y  the 
Tunnel  Company  I'rom  its  ponds  on  the  Carson  river,  at  less  tlian  per 
ton.  Cordwood,  now  sold  in  Vir<>;inia  city  at  $12  ])er  cord,  can  l)e  ])assed 
through  the  tunnel,  elevated  nearly  2000 'ft.  through  the  main  shalt,  and 
laid  down  for  $S  per  cord. 


Fig.  8.— GEOLOGicAii  Cross  Section  of  the  Country  from  the  entrance 
OP  THE  SuTRO  Tunnel  to  and  beyond  the  Comstock  Lode  ;  also 
THE  Four  Shafts  on  the  Tunnel  Line. 


The  notable  sanitary  uses  subserved  by  the  tunnel  has  already  dissipated 
the  poisonous  gases  in  the  lower  drifts  of  the  Savage  mines,  and  lowered  the 
temperature  of  the  2000  ft.  level  from  120°  to  90°  Fahr.  A  covered  steam- 
tight  drain  is  to  be  constructed  the  entire  length  of  the  tunnel  (under  the 
railroad  track)  to  form  an  outlet  for  the  drainage  of  the  mine.  Much  of 
the  Avater  in  the  workings  stands  at  a  temperature  of  160°  Fahr.,  and  if 
this  was  passed  through  the  tunnel  in  an  open  channel,  no  living  thing 
could  exist,  owing  to  the  hot,  confined  vapor.  It  is  further  .intended  to 
utilize  this  water  as  a  source  of  power  for  jnoving  the  long  trains  of  cars 
used  in  transporting  the  miners,  together  with  their  necessary  stores,  tim- 
ber, ore,  &c.  The  discharge  of  this  Avater  has  heretofore  been  effected  at 
an  annual  cost  of  $3,000,000.  The  drainage  must  pass  through  10  punips 
and  tanks,  through  2000  ft.  of  iron  pipe,  from  12  to  16  ins.  cliam.,  before 
reaching  the  surface.  The  great  iron  pump  rod,  2000  ft.  in  length,  and  hung 
at  several  points  with  immense  balance  bobs  to  prevent  it  from  being  torn 
asunder  by  its  own  weight,  is  kept  continually  swaying  up  and  doAvn  at  its 
round  of  duty.  Henceforward  this  drainage  will  only  require  to  be  elevated 
to  the  tunnel  level  in  order  to  find  an  outlet.  The  Tunnel  Company-  have  so 
far  expended  on  the  tunnel,  Avith  the  immense  shafts,  buildings,  machine 
shops,  engines,  &c.,  connected  therewith,  the  vast  sum  of  $3,200,000,  and 
the  projected  branches  and  extensions  towards  the  various  mines  will  still 
absorb  a  large  additional  sum.  In  carrying  out  this  wonderful  enterprise 
tlie  obstacles  presented  by  nature  were  of  "the  most  formidable  discription 
and  well  nigh  insurmountable,  but  they  Avere  finally  overcome  hj  the  un- 
tiring energy  and  indomitable  perseverance  of  Mr.  Sutro,  Avho  brought  to 
the  execution  of  this  herculean  task,  an  iron  Avill,  and  a  rare  combination  of 
executive  abilities. 

Many  rich  deposits  of  marvellous  extent  have  been  found  on  the  Comstock 
lode,  but  on  the  1500  foot  level  has  been  discovered  Avhat  appears  to  be  the 
central  mass,  a  body  of  ore  unparalleled  in  extent  and  value  by  any  thing 
hitherto  knoAvn.  This  has  enjoyed  world-wide  fame  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Big  Bonanza"  (a  Mexican  term  denoting  a  large  and  rich  body  of  ore — pros- 
perity. Borrasca  is  the  very  opposite  of  bonanza,  and  signifies  barren-rock 
— bad  luck — adversity),  and  measures  900  ft.  in  length,''550  in  depth,  and 
from  30  to  200  ft.  thick. 


DYNAMICS  OP  VOLCANIC  FORCE. 


945 


The  imraeiiso  cliasm,  rent,  or  fissure  in  the  rocks,  which  is  filled  by  the 
"  vein-matter,"  or  gaugue  (pronounced  f/cmg)  forming  the  Comstock  lode, 
extends  from  the  east  country  rock  (prophylite)  to  the  west  country  rock 
(syenite),  a  distance  of  from  iOOO  to  1200  ft.  The  gangue  is  composed  of 
quartz,  porphyry  and  clay,  which  incloses  the  ore.  This  chasm,  known  to  he 
about  4  miles  long  and  about  1200  ft.  Avide,  was  undoubtedly  formed  during 
ages  inconceivably  remote,  by  means  of  volcanic  action,  and  immense  frag- 
ments of  rock  appear  to  have  broken  away  from  the  edges  of  the  chasm, 
fallen  into  the  crevice,  and  thus  prevented  its  closing,  in  mining  nomen- 
clature these  are  termed  "horses  ;  "  they  still  remain  in  the  vein,  and  the 
ore,  quartz,  &c.,  has  filled  up  all  the  space  around  them.  Some  of  the 
"  horses  "  are  of  grea,t  extent,  being  from  50  to  100  ft.  in  length,  with  i^ro- 
portionate  thickness,  while  others  are  at  least  1000  ft.  in  length,  and  from 
300  to  400  ft.  thick.  The  fragments  from  the  west  side  of  the  crevice  are 
syenite,  those  from  the  east  side  are  prophylite,  usually  termed  porphyry  by 
the  miners. 

The  charging  of  this  enormous  crevice  with  what  nov/  forms  the  mineral 
contents  of  the  Comstock  lode,  is  manifestly  the  Avork  of  subterranean  forces 
combined  with  hot  mineral  wa.ter,  steam,  gases,  &c.,  from  boiling  springs 
beneath,  whiclx  have  filled  up  the  vein  with  its  rich  sulphurets  and  other 
ores  of  silver.  Traces  of  hot  springs  are  everywhere  visible  on  the  neigh- 
boring hills  to  the  eastward  of  the  vein,  and  the  noted  steamboat  springs, 
only  a  few  miles  distant,  are  even  now  in  full  blast,  engaged  in  the  formation 
of  a  metallic  lode  by  the  emission  of  hot  mineral  water,  steam,  and  enormous 
volumes  of  heated  gas,  through  a  crevice  over  a  mile  in  length.  Who  will 
not  say  that  here  we  find  one  of  the  instrumentalities  of  creative  power  in 
the  very  act,  as  it  were,  of  replenishing  the  earth  with  the  gifts  of  a  betief- 
icent  Providence  ? 

The  action  of  boiling  springs  is  due,  1.  To  the  access  of  subterranean 
waters  to  heated  rocks,  producing  steam,  which  seeks  exit  by  upward  vents  : 
2.  To  cooler  superficial  Avaters  descending  channels  to  where  the  steam 
prevents  further  descent,  and  gradually  accumnlating  until  the  channel  is 
filled  to  the  top  :  3.  To  the  heating  of  these  upper  waters  by  the  steam 
from  below,  to  near  the  boiling  point,  when  the  lower  portion  of  these  upper 
waters  becomes  converted  into  steam,  and  the  eruption,  or  jet  of  Avater 
results. 

The  dynamics  of  volcanic  force  is  an  interesting  study.  The  roar  of 
Niagara  is  a  gentle  zephyr  compared  Avith  the  bellowing  of  a  volcano.  The 
poAver  required  to  rupture  a  battery  of  steam  boilers  is  as  nothing  compared 
Avith  the  inconceivable  energy  necessary  for  the  upheaval  of  mountains,  the 
rending  of  rocks,  the  raising  of  islands  from  the  ocean's  bed,  and  forcing 
out  the  melted  lava  from 'beneath  the  gneiss  and  granite.  Very  frequently 
large  fragments  of  these  rocks  are  broken  off  and  throAvn  out  Av'ith  the  lava: 
Cotopaxi,  nearly  20,000  ft.  high,  has  i^rojected  a  stone  109  cubic  yds.  in  vol- 
ume to  the  distance  of  9  miles,  and  has  thrown  matter  6000  ft,  above  its 
summit.  This  of  itself  would  require  a  force  of  nearly  1500  atmospheres,  or 
22,500  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  !  In  1660,  the  amount  of  lava  ejected  by 
Mount  Etna  Avas  20  times  greater  than  the  Avliole  mass  of  the  mountain,  and 
in  1669,  Avhen  77,000  persons  were  destroyed,  the  lava  covered  84  square 
miles.  In  the  eruption  from  Skaptar  Jokul,  in  Iceland,  during  1783,  two 
streams  of  lava  floAved  in  opposite  directions,  one  of  them  50  miles  long  and 
12  broad,  and  the  other  40  miles  long  and  7  broad  ;  both  having  an  average 
thickness  of  100  ft.,  which  was  sometimes  increased  to  500  or  600  ft. ;  twenty 
villages  and  9000  inhabitants  were  destroyed.  The  seat  of  volcanic  poAver 
must  be  deeply  seated  beneath  the  earth's  crust,  where  the  heat  is  extremely 
intense  ;  lava  ejected  over  100  years  ago  from  Jorullo,  in  Mexico,  1600  ft. 
high,  is  not  yet  cool.  The  lava  thrown  out  of  Etna  in  1819,  Avas  in  motion  9 
months  later  at  the  rate  of  a  yard  a  day,  and  lava  from  a  previous  eruption 
of  the  same  mountain  Avas  in  motion  after  the  lapse  of  10  years. 


940 


THE  MINEF.AL  AVEALTII  OF  TIIE  WOllfJ). 


Not  only  do  very  many  mountains  and  nilnci-al  lodes  owe  their  ol■^^■ill  to 
volcanic  action,  but  nunioi'ous  islands  as  Avoll.  Tlio  Sandwicli  islands,  of 
which  Hawaii,  the  largest,  contains  4000  sfiiiarc  miles  of  surface  and  rises 
18,000  ft,  above  tlic  ocean  ;  Tencriffe,  l.".,000  ft.  liigli  ;  tlie  IMadcira,,  Iceland, 
Sicily,  Bourbon,  St.  Helena,  Java,  Sumatra,  Tristan  d'Acunha,  Faroe  and 
Azore  islands,  with  much  of  Celebes,  Ja])an,  &;c.,  are  mainly  composed  of 
lava  and  rocks,  as  sandstone  and  limestone,  upheaved  by  volcanic  action. 
Such  are  some  of  the  effects  of  that  tremendous  power  which  in  tlie  liands 
of  Omnipotence  has  played  so  imijortaut  a  part  in  the  formation  of  the  habit- 
able globe. 

During  the  most  ancient  times,  and  iu  the  divinely  framed  language  of  in- 
spiration, silver  is  used  as  the  primary  symbol  to  denote  truth.  Triitli  is  as 
an  ocean,  vast  and  inexhaustible.  Of  a  verity  the  symbol  is  in  tl)is  instance 
true  to  its  original,  for  such  a  thing  as  an  exhausted  silver  mine  has  never 
been  known  within  the  memory  of  man.  Pliny  s])eaks  of  silver-mines  being 
Avorked  during  his  time  to  the  depth  of  a  mile  and  a  half.  The  old  Spanish 
mines,  opened  long  before  the  time  of  Hannibal,  are  still  worked  with  enor- 
mous profits  ;  the  Hungarian  mines,  woi'ked  by  the  Romans  long  prior  to 
the  Christian  era,  are  still  productive;  the  South  American  silver  mines  have 
yielded  great  profits  during  300  years.  The  silver  mines  in  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains, and  at  Freiberg,  Germanj^,  discovered  during  the  11th  century,  and 
worked  constantly  ever  since,  yield  a  steady  increase.  The  Mexican  silver 
mines  have  yielded,  since  the  Spanish  Conquest  up  to  1860,  $2,039,100,000, 
and  are  even  now  enormously  rich.  In  Sweden  and  Norway,  silver  mines 
worked  before  the  discovery  of  America  are  still  yielding  profitable  returns. 
The  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines,  Peru,  discovered  in  1630,  from  whicli  5,000,000  lbs. 
of  silver  have  been  taken  in  45  years,  are  still  productive.  The  entire  silver 
yield  of  Spain  is  at  present  about  100,000  lbs.  troy  per  annum.  In  Bolivia, 
"S.  A. ,  the  annual  production  of  silver  is  at  present  about  450,000  lbs.  ;  here 
are  situated  the  famous  mines  of  Potosi,  formerly  belonging  to  Peru,  Avhich 
are  said  to  have  yielded  $1,200,000,000.  Of  the  silver  lode  mining  dis- 
tricts of  Mexico  and  South  America,  the  Sierra  Madre  mines  have  yielded 
$800,000,000  ;  Veta  Madre,  $235,934,636  ;  Rio  Grande,  $650,000,000  ;  Royas, 
$85,421,015  ;  Valencia,  $31,813,486  ;  Santa  Anna,  $21,347,210  ;  Biscania, 
$16,341,000.  The  Russian  mines  in  the  Urals,  according  to  Marshall,  yielded 
in  10  late  years,  65,330  lbs.  of  gold,  412,246  lbs.  of  silver,  and  6067  of  pla- 
tina,  from  the  serpentine  rocks. 

According  to  approximate  estimates  by  the  best  American  and  German 
authorities,  the  total  product  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  mines  in  the  Avorld, 
from  the  year  1500  to  1874,  is  as  follows :  Pounds  of  gold,  17,000,000,  valued 
at  $6,450,000,000.  Pounds  of  silver,  364,000,000,  valued  at  $8,175,000,000. 
Total  pounds  of  gold  and  silver,  381,600,000,000,  valued  at  $14,625,000,000. 
In  1810  the  annual  supply  of  bullion  to  Europe  was  estimsted  at  $40,000,000, 
of  which  one-third  was  nsed  for  manufactures  ;  at  the  present  day  the  an- 
nual supply  is  ranch  greater.  The  wealth  of  France  is  about  $  40,300,000,000. 

Among  civilized  nations  the  greater  part  of  this  enormous  mineral  wealth 
is  absorbed  by  tlie  coinage.  The  British  mint  has  8  melting  furnaces,  2 
cranes,  and  2  pouring  machines.  The  furnaces  are  used  three  times  per  day, 
and  as  each  pot  is  about  420  lbs.  they  melt  10,080  lbs.  in  a  day  of  10  hours. 
The  gold  pots  are  about  100  lbs,  and  melt  it  in  an  hour.  The  gold  bars  are 
rolled  cold  to  the  thickness  of  the  coin,  and  the  silver  bars  hot.  The  8 
presses  in  the  mint  strike  60  blows  per  minute,  and  produce  3600  coins  per 
hour  for  10  hours,  or  at  least  30,000  per  day,  making  240,000  for  the  8  presses. 
Good  steel  dies  make  300,000  to  400,000  impressions  before  wearing  out. 

A  lb.  troy  of  gold  yields  46^/5%  sovereigns,  a  lb.  troy  of  silver  yields  66s. 
(the  alloy  is  extra),  and  there  are  107,520  halfpence  in  a  ton  of  copper,  worth 
£224.   Griffin  estimates  the  wealth  of  the  United  Kingdom  at  $39,200,000,000. 

The  ores  of  silver,  tin,  copper,  lead,  &c.,  are  generally  found  in  what  are 
called  "  lodes,"  which  resemble  deep  fissures  in  the  earth,  filled  up  with  ore 


DETAILS  OF  MINING. 


947 


and  vein  stuff.  Tliere  firo  no  ores  of  gold,  but  it  is  found  to  pervade  similar 
lodes  in  quartz  rock.  These  lodes  are  known  to  penetrate  the  earth  to  pro- 
found depths,  and  most  frequently  assume  the  form  of  a  wedge,  with  the  tliin 


Kg.  9. 

end  uppermost,  widening  as  it  descends  downwards  to  an 'unknown  dis- 
tance. In  some  cases  these  lodes  enter  the  earth  with  a  slight  incline,  and 
they  are  known  to  extend  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  in  a  horizontal  direc- 


Fig.  10. 

tion,  with  a  width  ranging  from  less  than  1  inch  to  many  feet.  Fig.  9,  repro- 
duced from  Weale's  adxnirable  series,  represents  two  lodes,  the  first,  o,  b,  to 


ICX  I'LOI  TA  riON    IN  MINKS. 


tlic  ri<;lit,  enters  the  earth  at  an  angle  ;  c,  d,  represents  a  lode  undcrlyins  to 
the  left  ;  /,  represents  a  cross-cut  ;  r/r/rj,  a  shaft,  at  first  perijeiidicular,  after- 
wards upon  the  lode. 

Fig.  10  rc])resents  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  mine  in  which  the  shaded 
part  Vepresents  the  excavations  penetrated  l>y  two  perpendicul  shafts,  a  b, 
the  adit  level,  c  d,  c  d,  c  d,  otlier  levels,  usually  10  fathoms  or  GO  ft.  below 
each  other  ;  e  e,  -winzes,  or  small  shafts  connecthig  two  levels,  and  used  for 
the  purposes  of  ventilation  and  exploration. 

A  shaft  may  he  vertical  or  inclined.  It  is  styled  a  tunnel  when  it  forms 
with  the  horizon  au  angle  less  than  45  degrees. 


Underhand  Stopino.  Fig.  11.  Overhand  Stoping. 


Fig.  11  represents  the  process  of  stoping  or  exploitation  in  veins  of  the 
Rake  species,  by  which  the  ore  is  extracted  from  the  workings.  Stoping 
may  be  classified  under  two  heads:  1st.  Overhand  stoping  ;  as  shown  on  the 
right  side  of  the  figure,  by  which  the  ore  is  extracted  by  working  from  below 
upwards.  Overhand  stoping  is  the  method  in  general  use  in  this  country  ; 
by  this  method  of  working  in  ascending  steps,  the  ore,  as  detached,  falls  lay 
its  own  gravity.  2nd.  Underhand  stoping  ;  as  shown  on  the  left  of  the  cut, 
by  Avhicli  the  mineral  is  taken  from  the  vein  by  working  in  descending  stej^s 
from  above  downwards. 

In  the  cut,  B  A  is  the  hoisting  shaft,  C  D  and  E  F  are  air  shafts,  S  is  the 
sump  or  well  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  D  F  a  tunnel,  level,  or  gallery 
in  the  mine.  Imagine  the  ore  in  the  vein  to  be  laid  out  in  rectangular  masses 
as  exhibited  in  the  cut  ;  these  steps  or  benches,  generally  15  or  20  ft.  long, 
6  or  8  ft.  high,  and  as  wide  as  the  vein,  form  in  consecutive  succession  the 
ground  from  whence  the  ore  is  extracted  by  stoping  or  working  in  steps.  The 
miners,  in  overhand  stoping,  use  temporary  stages  from  which  they  attack 
the  vein  by  means  of  "drills,  picks,  &c.  ;  the  ore  and  rubbish  are  blasted 
down  and  piled  behind  the  miners  on  a  strong  scaffolding  of  timbers,  from 
whence  the  ore  is  discharged  through  suitable  apertures  called  mz7/s  or  passes 
(located  at  proper  distances  apart)  to  the  level  below,  to  be  conveyed  by  cars, 
&c.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  level,  or  to  the  hoisting  shaft,  for  elevation  to  the 
surface.  The  worthless  rubbish  is  sorted  out  and  used  for  filling  material 
to  occupy  the  vacancies  and  to  support  the  mine.  When  this  material  is  de- 
ficient it  must  be  supplied  from  the  surface,  especially  when  the  ore  deposits 
jire  of  great  extent  and  the  vacancies  large.  The  filling  should  be  tamped  solid. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  working  shaft  and  other  suitable  places,  pillars  of  vein 


HOISTING  MACtlI>4ERY. 


949 


stone  may  be  allowed  to  remain  with  good  results.  lu  Mexico,  very  exten- 
sive mines  are  wholly  sustained  by  pillars  of  ore,  the  number,  size,  distance 
ajiart,  &c.,  of  which  are  clearly  defined  by  law. 

The  first  process  in  opening  a  mine  is  to  find  the  lode,  then  a  hole  is 
usually  driven  straight  down  into  the  earth  so  as  to  strike  the  lode,  as  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  9.  This  is  termed  "  sinking  the  shaft,"  which  is  tlieii 
carried  down  upon  it  as  shown  in  the  cut,  although  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  shaft  is  carried  down  on  the  lode  from  the  surface.  As  tlie  shaft 
descends  the  adit  level  is  driven  ;  this  is  merely  a  tunnel  dug  from  the 
nearest  valley  or  water-course  right  into  tlie  mountain  or  hill  in  which  tlio 
lode  is  located,  so  that  all  the  Avaler  above  the  level  will  flow  away  of  itself. 
In  going  deeper  other  levels  are  driven  to  the  right  and  left,  extending  to 
great  distances  from  the  shaft,  but  always  following  the  direction  of  the 
lode,  and  these  levels  are  interpenetrated  at  suitable  distances  by  smaller 
shafts,  called  winzes,  which  are  of  great  use  in  promoting  proper  ventilation 
in  the  mine.  As  the  workings  are  extended  other  shafts  are  dug  from  the 
surface  as  necessity  may  require,  but  they  should  be  at  least  300  ft.  apart  ; 
and  where  a  mine  has  more  than  one  lode,  a  gallery  or  level,  called  a  "  cross- 
cut," is  driven  to  it  as  shown  at /,  in  Fig.  9.  The  size  of  shafts  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  duty  required.  To  accommodate  pulhping  and  winding  machinery 
for  elevating  the  kibbles,"  or  buckets  of  ore,  by  steam  power,  it  should  be 
from  6  to  8  ft.  in  width  and  from  14  to  20  ft.  in  length.  Square  shafts  are 
usually  lined  in  whole  or  in  part  with  timber,  and  circular  shafts  are  gen- 
erally built  up  with  stone.   For  a  depth  of  from  50  to  100  ft.  the  elevation 


Fig.  12.— Windlass. 


of  the  ore  may  be  effected  by  means  of  a  windlass,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  ;  in 
sinking  a  "  wiiize  "  from  level  to  level,  but  not  ])enetrating  to  the  surface, 
the  same  means  are  used,  but  in  deeper  excavations  it  is  usual  to  raise  the 
ore  by  what  is  styled  a  "  wjiim,"  worked  by  horse-power,  as  shoAvn  in  Fig. 
13,  in  which  the  cable  which  elevates  the  ore  is  wound  around  a  vertical  drum. 


Fig.  13 — Horse  'Whim. 
The  next  illustration,  Fis:.  14,  represents  an  ingenious  miner's  hoisting;  ■ 
power  constructed  by  Reynolds,  Rix  &  Co. ,  of  San  Francisco,  who  claim  that 


050 


HOISTING  MAOIIINEIIY. 


it  will  do  the  work  of  .1  steam  engine  at  onc-tentli  the  expense,  :is  one  liorso 
cau  eiisilj'-  hoist  by  it  1000  lbs.  at  a  deinh  of  500  ft. 


Fig.  14.— Mkjer's  Hoisting  power. 

For  deep  mines  the  horse  wliim  is  generally  superseded  by  reversible 
winding  engines,  Fig.  15,  in  which  the  chain  or  wire-rope  passes  around  a 
horizontal  drum,  which  is  driven  witli  great  rapidity  by  steam-power,  but 
this  costly  machinery  is  seldom  applied  to  mines  unless  it  is  settled  beyond 
a  doubt  that  they  will  become  of  permanent  value. 


Fig.  15.— The  Gbiefith  &  "Wedge  Winding  Engine. 

Water-power,  if  availahle,  can  also  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  lower- 
ing into  the  mine  timbers,  tools,  supplies,  <S:c.,  and  for  elevating  ore,  pump- 
ing, &;c. 


HOISTING  MACHINERY. 


951 


Fi.2:.  IG  represents  a  "  kibble,"  or  large  iron  bucket  used  in  raising  the 
ore  ;  it  will  hold  a  ton.  more  or  less.  Fig.  17,  at  a,  represe:^its  a  contrivance 
running  on  wheels  (on  rails  or  guides  of  wood  or  metal)  called  a  "  skip," 
bb,  represents  the  guide,  cc,  timbers  of  the  shaft,  dd,  rock  through  which 


Fig.  16.— A  Kibble.  Fig.  17.— A  Skip. 


the  shaft  is  sunk.  The  skip  has  the  lower  end  of  one  side  hinged  like  a 
door,  and  will  hold  2  tons  or  more  if  required.  Forraerlj^  these  contrivances 
were  elevated  by  means  of  hemp  ropes  or  iron  chains,  which  in  many  cases 
caused  dreadful  accidents  through  frequent  breakages.  Of  late  years  wire 
ropes  have  displaced  tlie  ropes  and  chains  of  former  times,  the  tensile 
strength  of  wire  rope  being  much  greater,  and  its  tendency  to  rupture  being 
much  less  than  that  of  ropes  or  iron  chains,  which  are  liable  to  part  quite 
snddenlj'-  without  the  slightest  warning,  often  causing  fearful  loss  of  life. 
Wire  ropes  never  break  without  giving  previous  warning. 


Fig.  18.  Fig.  19. 

Fig.  18  represents  the  manner  of  timbering  tunnels  when  the  rock  is  of 
a  soft,  crumbling  nature,  with  a  hability  to  cave  inward,  tlie  cross  pieces  on 


952 


TTMBERIXa  OF  MTTSTES. 


the  tunnel  bed  hciu^  ulaced  against  tlic  vertical  ponts  to  enable  them  to 
withstand  the  inward  pressure/  Fig.  1'.)  rej)rcsents  llie  method  of  tiniber- 
ing  where  tlie  tunnel  is  composed  of  solid  rock  on  the  one  side  and  looso 
material  on  the  other. 


Figs.  20,  21  and  22  represent  the  nndergronnd  timbers  of  a  nune  ;  the 
first  two  show  the  position  of  timbers  to  sustain  a  vertical  pressure  from 
above,  the  third  figure  represents  an  inclined  timber  to  sustain  both  vertical 
and  side  pressure. 

In  the  lofty  excavations  on  the  Comstock  lode  such  supports  as  the  above 
noted  would  i3e  utterly  inadequate,  hence  the  plan  of  timbering  in  square 
sets  was  contrived  and  adopted.  This  consists  of  square  14-inch  timbers 
framed  and  put  together  in  the  form  of  cribs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23,  four  by 
five  or  six  feet  in  size  ;  these  cribs  are  piled  one  iipon  another  to  any  desired 
height,  and  firmly  framed  together  so  as  to  fill  up  and  support  the  roof  and 
sides  of  any  sized  cavity  or  excavation,  while  the  interior  vacancies  may  be 
packed  solid  with  waste  rock.  They  also  serve  to  sustain  the  stulls  or  tim- 
bers (frequently  in  very  lofty  positions)  which  are  occupied  by  the  miners 
while  at  work  extracting  the  ore. 

A  tunnel  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  shaft  when  it  forms  with  the  horizon  an 
angle  exceeding  forty  five  degrees  (45°).  A  common  size  for  tunnels  is  3 
ft.^vide  at  the  top,  3|  to  4  ft,  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  0  ft.  high,  but  the  size 
is  quite  often  determined  by  the  size  of  the  vein  in  which  it  is  driven,  the 
size  of  tlie  one  being  generally  made  to  conform  to  that  of  the  other.  As  a 
rule,  shafts  and  tunnels  should  be  wrought  in  the  lode. 

The  item  of  timbering  the  various  shafts,  tunnels,  excavations, '&c.,  of 
mines  is  one  of  immense  cost,  but  it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  the 
work  be  efficiently  performed  by  competent  workmen,  otherwise  loss  of 
life  and  serious  damage  to  the  works  will  certainly  result.  The  timber 
should  be  left  as  round  as  possible,  be  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  to  ensure 
safety  against  rot,  be  kept  well  saturated  with  water  by  means  of  little 
spouts  or  pipes  in  connection  with  the  cisterns. 

In  some  mines  the  pillars  of  rock,  ore,  &c.,  left  standing  at  suitable  dis- 
tances for  the  protection  of  the  mine,  preclude  the  necessity  for  props  of 
timber.  In  addition  to  the  above,  the  refuse  rubbish  which  accumulates  in 
the  mine  after  the  extraction  of  the  ore,  is  piled  up  against  the  supports  to 
fill  up  the  excavations  so  as  to  sustain  the  immense  masses  overhead. 

In  mining  operations,  penetration  is  effected  by  means  of  rock  drills, 
manual  tools,  gunpowder,  fire,  nitro-glycerine,  &c. ;  the  hand  tools  for  drill- 
ing and  blasting  are,  a  sledge,  borer,  claying-bar,  scraper,  needle  or  nail, 
and  a  tamping-bar.  The  borer  is  of  iron,  tipped  Avith  steel,  shaped  like  a 
stout  chisel,  and  well  tempered.  The  hole  being  drilled,  a  cartridge  is  in- 
serted in  it,  or  a  quantity  of  gunpowder  is  rammed  in  and  fired.    To  iu- 


now  PENETRATION  IS  EFFECTED 


953 


crease  the  force  of  the  powder,  the  upper  part  of  the  aperture  above  the 
powder  is  (alter  the  fuse  is  properly  inserted)  filled  with  sand  or  clay, 
which  is  rammed  down  hard  by  means  of  a  tamping  bar,  formed  of  hard 
wood,  or  of  iron  Avith  a  copper  "tip,  which  is  struck  with  a  heavy  hammer. 
In  many  instances  lamentable  accidents  have  occurred  by  the  use  of  iron  or 
.steel  tamping  bars  causing  premature  explosions  by  striking  fire  against  the 
sides  of  the  hole  ;  hence  the  necessity  for  tlie  use  of  wooden,  or  copper- 
tipped  tamping  bars,  which  never,  under  any  circumstances,  strike  fire  by 
concussion  against  the  rocks.  The  hole  being  tamped,  the  projecting  end  of 
the  safety-fuse  is  ignited,  and  while  tlie  combustible  matter  which  fills  the 
interior  of  the  fuse  is  slowly  burning  towards  the  end  inserted  in  the 
powder,  the  men  withdravv^  to  a  sheltered  i)lace  to  avoid  danger  f i-om  the  fly- 
ing rocks  projected  by  the  explosion.  As  nearly  as  can  be  computed  the 
amount  of  powder  employed  in  blasting  should  be  just  enough  to  split  the 
rock  ;  in  some  cases  this  "is  effected  by  the  action  of  fire  without  blasting. 


Fig.  23.— Timbering  of  Mines  on  the  Comstock  Lode. 


In  using  nitro-glycerine  for  blasting  in  mines,  the  advantages  are,  that 
it  requires  a  smaller  hole  than  gunpowder  ;  it  dispenses  with  tamping,  aa 
water  only  is  used  (to  fill  the  holes),  in  which  it  is  easily  ignited  ;  it  is  much 
cheaper  than  gunpowder,  and  has,  taken  volume  for  volume,  twelve  times 
greater  explosive  force.  Sec  page  66G.  Lastly,  it  can,  with  proper  pre- 
cautions, be  easily  manufactured  on  or  near  the  spot  where  it  is  required 
for  use,  the  main  conditions  being,  that  syrup  of  glycerine  shall  be  slowly 


954 


QUARTZ  MACHINE liY. 


dropped  in  a  coinpoimd  formed  of  equal  quantities  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids  contained  in  a  strong  vessel  surrounded  by  ice,  Avitli  a  tliorough  agitji- 
tion  of  tlic  mixture  after  each  addition  of  the  syrup.  Tlie  nitro-glyccrinc, 
of  an  oily  composition,  is  removed  from  the  surface  and  repeatedly  washed 
Avith  clean  water.  It  is  liable  to  explosion  during  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture, if  not  kept  cold. 

The  disadvantages  of  nitro-glycerine  are,  that  it  is  poisonous,  and  exhales 
poisonous  vapors  after  being  exploded,  thus  rendering  its  use  impossible  in 
confined  workings  under  ground  ;  it  explodes  at  a  temperature  of  300° 
Falir.  ;  when  pure  it  explodes  by  concussion  alone,  and  when  impure  it  is 
liable  to  spontaneous  explosion. 

In  quartz  mining  the  grand  primary  step  in  beginning  should  be  to  deter- 
mine, beyond  doubt,  the  value  of  the  vein  or  mine.  In  "prospecting"  a 
vein  of  the  Rake  species,  a  shaft  should  be  sunk  on  it  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
100  ft.  and  a  tumiel  driven  to  correspond.  If  the  ore  on  being  worked  yields 
favorable  results,  the  inference  is  that  it  is  safe  to  invest  money  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  erection  of  suitable  machinery  for  extensive  mining  operations. 


QUARTZ  MACHINERY. 

Among  the  appliances  for  this  purpose  may  be  mentioned  ore-breakers, 
f;tamp  batteries,  grinders,  amalgamators,  concentrators,  separators,  cruci- 
bles, retorts,  &c.  The  ore-breaker  is  used  for  crushing  mineral  substances 
into  fragments  small  enough  to  be  passed  into  the  stamp  batteries. 

The  following  cuts  represent  the  Blake  Ore  Breaker,  a  machine  widely 
known  as  having  earned  for  itself  the  highest  character  for  efficiency -where- 
ever  it  has  been  brought  into  use. 


Fig.  24.— Bbeakek  ax  Work.      Fig.  25.— Sectional  view  of  Breaker. 

Its  principal  features  are  a  heavy  frame,  in  which  are  set  two  upright  . 
jaws,  one  of  which  is  usually  fixed,  while  the  other  has  a  slight  vibratory  ^ 
movement  imparted  by  a  rotating  shaft.  These  jaws  are  wide  enough  apart  ; 
;vt  the  top  to  receive  the  ore  to  be  broken,  but  converge  toAvards  each  other  ] 
beloAV,  so  that  at  the  bottom  the  opening  is  only  Avide  enough  to  permit  the  i 
fragments  to  pass  Avhen  broken  to  the  required  size.  The  working  parts  j 
are  made  enormously  strong  and  massive  to  Avithstand  the  strain  and  wear  ' 
to  which  they  are  subjected  in  crushing  rocks  and  minerals,  some  of  Avhich 
Avill  yield  only  to  a  pressure  of  13^  tons  (27,000  lbs. )  to  the  square  inch.  ! 
One  of  these  machines,  Aveighing  11,600  lbs.,  and  requiring  6  horse-power,  : 
with  a  feed  opening  of  15  x  9  ins.  area,  will  reduce  100  to  150  tons  of  rock  : 
per  day  to  a  size  suitable  for  the  batteries.  Tliese  machines  are  made  of  ' 
various  sizes  ;  some  of  them  Avill  take  in  a  stone  Aveighing  half  a  ton  and 
reduce  it  to  fragments  in  5  seconds.  The  crank  should  make  about  180 
revolutions  per  minute.  For  macadamizing  purposes,  a  15  x  9  machine  Avill  ■ 
produce  100  cubic  j^ds.  of  road  metal  per  day,  the  fragments  being  1^  ins.  | 
in  diam.  and  less.    The  distance  between  the  jaws  at  the  bottom,  Avhich  . 


THE  STAMP  BATTERY. 


955 


limits  the  size  of  the  fragments,  may  be  regulated  at  pleasure,  and  the 
wearing  parts,  Avhen  worn  out,  may  he  replaced  by  new  plates  at  slight  cost. 

There  are  other  ore  breakers  in  the  market,  as  Alden's,  Bullock's,  &c., 
which  give  very  good  results,  and  are  iu  every  respect  reliable  machines. 

THE  STAMP  BATTERY. 

Fig.  26  presents  a  view  of  the  method  of  wet-crushing  by  stamp  batteries, 
with  a  row  of  Hepburn  and  Peterson's  amalgamating  pans  in  front.  In  the 
rear  is  the  engine  which  supplies  the  motive  power  to  operate  the  stain]^s, 
which  are  raised  by  cams  secured  to  the  horizontal  shafting  shown  in  front 
of  the  vertical  stamp  stems.  The  liquefied  mass  of  ore  passes  from  the  bat- 
teries through  the  perforated  sheet-iron,  or  wire  screens,  into  the  sluice 
boxes  displayed  in  front  of  the  batteries.  The  battery  comprises  the  frame . 
(usually  formed  of  strong  timbers),  stamps,  mortars,  stamp-stems,  cams, 
cam-shaft,  tappets,  shoes,  dies,  guides,  and  screens. 

In  operating  on  a  large  scale,  mortars  are  usually  arranged  to  accomo- 
date three,  four,  five,  or  six  stamps  each,  but  mill  men  of  long  experience 
prefer. the  five-stamp  mortar,  and  round  instead  of  square  stamps.  The 
cam-shaft  is  a  round  bar  of  iron,  usually  about  4|ins.  diam.,  turned,  finish- 
ed, and  witli  the  cams  secured  on  it  by  means  of  keys,  is  frequently  used  to 
operate  from  5  to  60  or  more  stamps  standing  in  line.  The  lift  of  the 
stamps  is  effected  by  the  cams  operating  on  tappets  which  project  from  the 
stamp  stems.  The  latter  are  of  wrought  iron,  turned,  finished,  and  fitted 
into  the  stamp  head,  which  is  formed  of  the  toughest  cast-iron,  and  armed 
with  a  "shoe"  formed  of  the  best  cast-steel  or  Avhite  iron,  on  the  lower 
part,  next  the  mortar  die.  The  shoes  may  be  removed  and  replaced  by 
new  ones  when  they  are  worn  out.  The  mortar  dies  should  bo  formed  of 
the  same  material  as  the  shoes,  and  well  secured  on  solid  timber  foundations 
with  one  die  under  each  stamp.  The  stamp  guides  are  usually  formed  of 
the  hardest  Avood  procurable,  and  are  fastened  by  iron  bolts  to  the  cross  ties 
of  the  battery  timber  frame. 

The  screen  in  general  use  for  working  ores  by  the  loet  process,  is  formed 
of  the  best  Russia  sheet-iron,  perforated  by  punches  ranging  in  size  from 
tlie  number  nine  to  the  number  one  sewing  needle.  In  working  ores  by  the 
dry  process,  the  screen  is  generally  made  of  wire,  ranging  in  fineness  from 
900  to  10,000  meshes  to  the  inch. 

Tlie  capacity  of  a  stamp  weighing  650  lbs.,  with  90  12-in.  drops  in  a  min- 
ute, is  equivalent  to  tlie  reduction  of  2|  tons  of  hard,  tough  ore  in  24  hours, 
and  the  power  used  is  nearly  ^  horse-power  per  ton  of  ore.  To  obtain  the 
best  results  iu  feeding  the  rock  into  the  battery,  the  rule  among  practical 
mill  men  is  to  grade  the  supply  of  rock  so  that  the  blows  of  iron  to  iron  will 
be  heard  every  10th  or  15th  stroke  of  the  stamp,  and  the  weight  of  water  to 
rock  required  for  the  reduction  of  gold  or  silver  ore  is  as  4|-  to  1. 

In  constructing  a  stamp-mill,  the  primary  object  should  be  to  secure  a 
site  of  at  least  21  or  22  ft.  elevation,  in  order  to  so  arrange  the  different 
floors  that  the  material  under  manipulation  shall  pass  by  its  own  gravity 
from  one  stage  of  the  process  to  another,  and  the  location  should,  if  possible, 
be  in  close  proximity  to  the  mine  from  which  the  mineral  products  are  ob- 
tained. The  foundations  under  all  the  machines  must  possess  absolute 
stability  :  if  the  bed-rock,  owing  to  its  depth,  is  not  available  for  founda- 
tion purposes,  brick  or  stone  work,  or  timber  mud-sills  must  be  substituted. 
For  stamp  batteries,  vertical  timbers,  strongly  bound  together,  resting  on 
the  bed-rock,  or  otherwise  properly  secured,  will  be  found  in  every  respect 
to  form  the  best  possible  foundation  for  the  mortars.  The  vertical  position 
gives  easier  access  for  making  repairs,  the  removal  of  defective  timbers, 
&c.,  together  with  less  concussion  from  the  blows  of  the  stamps  tlxau  when 
the  foundation  timbers  occupy  a  horizontal  position. 


AREAXGEMEXT  OP  GOLD  AND  .".ILVER  MILLS.  957 


The  entire  appliances  of  the  mill,  consisting  of  the  batteries,  rock- 
breaker,  grinders,  amalgamators,  concentrators,  &c.,  are  operated  by  means 
of  shafting,  which  transmits  the  power  to  the  various  machines  by  means  of 
pulleys,  belts,  or  gearing,  the  prime  mover  being  either  water  or  steam 
power. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  silvek  mill,  the  rocJc  breaker,  or  o?'e  crvsher 
is  the  first  in  order,  and  the  stamp  batteries  follow  at  a  distance  of  12  or 
more  feet,  the  feed  floor  of  the  latter  being  10  ft.,  more  or  less,  below  the 
lloor  of  the  ore  crusher.  Tlie  rock  fed  into  the  batteries  being  triturated 
sufficiently  fine  to  pass  through  No.  4  or  No.  5  perforated  Russia  iron 
screens,  the  fluid  mass  passes  from  the  stamps  into  the  settling  tanks,  Avhich 
are  generally  placed  so  that  their  tops  are  level  with  the  upper  side  of  the 
battery  frame  sills. 

The  tanJcs  should  be  arranged  in  successive  series  in  order  to  accord 
ample  space  for  the  water  to  deposit  the  suspended  ore  before  passing  off. 
A  good  size  for  tanks  is  5  X  7  ft.,  with  a  depth  of  3  ft.,  which  will  afford 
capacity  for  between  4  and  5  tons  of  crushed  ore. 

Next  in  order,  near  the  tanks,  follow  the  grinders  and  amalgamators, 
with  their  npper  rims  level  with  the  tops  of  the  tanks.  After  passing  the 
tanks  the  ore  is  worked  in  charges,  and  reduced  in  these  machines  to  a 
slimy  mass,  and  one  of  these  contrivances,  with  muller  4  ft.  diam.,  requir- 
ing about  5  ft.  fall  and  7  ft,  run,  the  muller  making  75  revolutions  per  ailin- 
ute,  will  reduce  5  tons  of  ore  in  24  hours  witli  5  horse-i^ower. 

The  separator  follows  in  close  proximity  to  the  grinder  and  amalgama- 
tor, its  sides  being  frequeutlj'-  under  the  platform  of  the  latter,  and  some- 
times removed  from  under  it  and  slightly  elevated  above  it.  Wheeler  and 
liandall's  Conoidal  Separator,  7  ft.  diam.,  with  a  capacity  for  working  10 
tons  of  ore  ])er  day  with  1  horse-power,  requires  of  itself  4  to  5  ft.  fall  and 
9  ft.  run,  including  platform. 

The  concentrator  is  the  next  in  order,  receiving  the  ore  as  it  passes  from 
the  separator,  the  denser  and  richer  portions  flowing  off  at  tlic  sulphuret 
pipe  into  the  tank,  and  the  less  valuable  part  passing  away  at  tlie  discharge 
end.  The  Tabular  Concentrator  requires  about  3  ft.  fall  and  10  ft.  run,  and 
is  capable  of  working  from  5  to  10  tons  of  ore  per  day  with  one-half  of  a, 
liorse-poAver. 

The  appliances  of  a  gold  mill  include  the  rock  breaker,  stamps, 
grinder  and  amalgamator,  separator,  &c.,  as  noted  above  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  silver  mill,  witlx  tlie  sole  exception  that  they  are  subject  to  greater 
modification  of  arrangement,  which  is  determined  in  every  case  by  the 
character  of  the  gold  and  the  rock  to  be  operated  upon. 

The  various  machines,  as  arranged  in  the  silver  mill  just  described,  may 
be  rendered  available  for  operations  on  gold  wliere  the  latter  is  fine  and 
equally  diffused  througli  the  rock,  only  a  larger  number  of  concentrators 
and  amalgamators  should  be  used,  the  latter  just  after  the  stamp  batteries, 
and  as  amalgamators  only. 

Amalgamators,  grinders  and  separators  should  not  be  emploj-ed  where 
the  gold  is  quite  coarse  and  clean  in  the  rock. 

What  is  known  as  the  "  continuous  process  "  is  the  one  best  adapted  for 
working  rock  wliere  the  gold  is  coarse  and  coated. 

Where  the  gold  in  the  rock  is  largely  combined  with  sulphurets,  the 
best  method  is  to  use  the  concentrators  and  amalgamators  immediately 
after  the  batteries,  the  approved  way  being  to  reduce  the  concentrated  por- 
tions of  the  roclc  in  the  grinders  and  amalgamators,  work  in  separators,  and 
lastly,  treat  by  means  of  another  series  of  concentrators. 

The  best  authorities  prefer  amalgamating  in  the  batteries,  but  this  nnist  ■ 
be  done  with  the  utmost  care,  for"  if  too  little  quicksilver  be  added  the 
amalgam  will  become  dry  and  granular,  and  flow  away  with  the  current  of 
crushed  ore  ;  if  too  much  be  added  the  resultant  amalgam  will  liquify  and 
be  carried  off  by  the  stream.   The  practical  rule  is  to  feed  th.e  quicksilver 


958 


MEXICAN  ARASTKA. 


into  the  'battcricfj  in  small  qunntltles,  and  feed  frequently,  sprinkling  or 
expressing  it  through  buckskin  or  other  porous  inatei'ial,  so  that  the  amal- 
gam, afteV  emerging  from  the  screens,  may  l)o  indented  by  a  slight  pres- 
sure between  the  fingei-s  ;  if  the  consistency  is  such  that  it  will  retain  the 
finger  marks  it  is  just  right.  The  quantity  of  quicksilver  required  varies 
witl*  the  amount  of  gold  in  the  ore  ;  1  oz.  of  quicksilver  to  1  oz.  of  gold  is  a 
common  allowance  ;  when  the  gold  is  very  fine,  1|  to  l-^-,  and  even  2  ozs.  to 
1  of  gold  may  be  added. 

In  amalgamating  in  the  battery,  the  sides  of  the  enclosure  containing  the 
stamps  is  fitted  the  entire  length  of  the  battery  with  amalgamated  co])per 
]-»lates  from  3  to  5  ins.  wide,  arranged  Avith  a  pitch  of  35°  or  40°  toward  tlio 
dies.  One  of  the  plates  is  placed  at  the  feed  side  and  the  other  at  the  dis- 
charge side  of  the  stamps,  and  the  amalgamation  is  effected  by  rubbing 
quicksilver  on  the  plates,  as  described  on  page  454.  With  ore  containing 
heavy  gold,  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  may  be  saved  in  the  battery  by  the 
amalgam  plates,  but  with  light  gold,  from  300  to  400  fine,  not  so  much,  as 
it  is  liable  to  become  cntangied  with  the  light  scum  of  foreign  aiiatters  and 
pass  away  with  the  current. 


Fig.  27.— Mexicak  Akastra. 

AMAT.GAMATION  OF  GoLD  IK  THE  AiiASTRA.— The  arastra  is  composed 
of  a  circular  granite-paved  bottom,  from  G  to  20  ft.  in  diam,,  surrounded  by 
fw  wooden  enclosure  over  2  ft.  high,  with  a  vertical  wooden  shaft  in  the  cen- 
tre, provided  with  two  or  more  projecting  arms  to  which  muUers  (composed 
of  large  blocks  of  granite)  are  attached  by  means  of  chains,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  27.  This  primitive,  but  effective  machine  is  operated  by  anules  when 
water-power  is  not  available  ;  the  muUers  making  from  G  to  iO  revolutions 
per  minute,  with  a  capacity  of  grinding  from  1|  to  2  tons  of  rock  (the  frag- 
ments being  broken  as  small  as  a  hen's  egg,  or  less)  in  24  hours.  Of  the 
arastra,  Mr.  Kustel,  a  high  authority,  writes  as  follows  : 

"  When  in  motion,  the  arastra  is  charged  with  200  lbs.  of  ore,  with  some 
water.  One-quarter  of  an  hour  afterward  the  balance  of  the  whole 
charge,  from  400  to  600  lbs.,  is  introduced.   As  soon  as  the  ore  is  turned 


TREATMENT  OF   GOLD  ORES. 


959 


into  mud  1  or  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  are  pressed  tlirougli  a,  dry  cloth  over  the 
thick  pulp.  A  sample  is  taken  from  time  to  time  witli  the  horn  spoon, 
washed,  and  examined.  When  free  gold  is  perceived,  after  the  amalgama- 
tion has  gone  on  for  some  time,  some  more  quicksilver  may  be  added.  The 
first  charges  require  a  little  more  quicksilver.  After  4  or  5  hours  the  pulp 
is  diluted  with  water  and  discharged.  The  next  charge  is  treated  in  the 
same  Avay,  and  so  on  till  100  or  150  tons  are  worked  through.  The  quick- 
silver must  be  used  always  in  proportion  with  the  gold — 1  or  1|  ozs.  to  1  oz. 
of  gold.  The  amalgam  imbeds  in  the  crevices  of  the  bottom,  and  must  bo 
always  dry.  The  use  of  too  much  quicksilver  makes  the  amalgam  thin, 
causes  an  imperfect  amalgamation,  and  a  loss  in  quicksilver,  which  is  often 
found  beneath  the  bottom  rock."  When  the  reducing  and  amalgamating 
process  is  finished  the  slime  is  washed  off,  and  the  amalgam  cleaned  up, 
squeezed,  and  retorted. 

Amalgamation  of  Gold  by  the  Pan  Process. — In  this  process  the 
ore,  as  it  comes  from  the  stamps,  is  still  further  reduced  by  being  thor- 
oughly ground  (with  sufficient  water  to  form  a  thin  paste)  in  iron  pans,  in 
combination  with  quicksilver.  Some  inaintain  that  the  process  is  acceler- 
ated by  means  of  heat,  applied  by  passing  steam  into  chambers  underneath 
the  pulp,  or  into  the  charge  in  the  pan,  but  extended  experiments  do  not 
confirm  this  view.  The  quicksilver  is  generally  added  as  the  pans  com- 
mence running,  and,  to  avoid  excessive' trituration  of  the  quicksilver,  the 
addition  is  often  made  with  the  muUer  slightly  elevated,  after  the  grindinji 
of  the  ores.  After  the  process  is  finished  the  charge  is  withdrawn  and 
washed,  leaving  the  amalgam  in  the  separators.  With  the  Wheeler  & 
liandall  grinders  and  amalgamators  (4  ft.  muller),  the  proportions  of  th^ 
charge  is,  ore  2000' lbs.,  quicksilver,  30  to  70  lbs.,  revolutions  of  muller,  CO 
to  65,  time  of  reducing,  generally  about  3  Iiours. 

The  pan  process,  if  Avell  conducted,  will  secure  as  much  as  95  per  cent, 
of  the  gold  detected  by  a  fire  assay,  but  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  treating 
raw  ores  containing  the  compounds  of  sulphur,  iron,  bismuth,  tellurium, 
antimony,  arsenic,  lead,  or  zinc,  until  such  ores  have  been  roasted  or 
smelted,  and  the  pernicious  substances  thoroughly  exxDclled. 

Treatment  of  Gold  Ores  by  the  Chlorination  Process. — In  this 
process  the  effective  agent  is  chlorine  gas,  evolved  by  heating  sulphuric 
acid,.per-oxide  of  manganese,  and  salt  in  a  leaden  generator.  The  aurif- 
erous ore,  after  being  well  pulverized,  roasted,  cooled,  and  wet  with  Avater, 
is  placed  in  wooden  tubs  about  7  ft.  diam.  and  25  or  30  ins.  deep,  provided 
with  false  bottoms.  The  chlorine  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  generator  under 
the  false  bottom  by  lead  pipes,  and  permeates  the  Avhole  mass  in  a  few 
hours,  transforming  the  gold  into  a  terchloride  of  gold.  When  the  greenish 
tinge  of  the  gas  becomes  visible  on  the  surface  of  the  mass,  the  tub  is  cov- 
ered close  by  a  wooden  cover  for  the  space  of  10  or  15  hours,  after  Avhich  it 
is  removed  and  clean  water  is  poured  on  the  ore,  which  leaches  through  it 
and  carries  oft  the  dissolved  gold  through  a  discharge  pipe  below  into  glass 
vessels.  The  addition  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  solution,  is  used  to  precipitate 
the  gold,  AA'hich  falls  in  the  form  of  a  black-brown  powder,  and  may  be  col- 
lected, melted,  and  run  into  bars.  Ores  containing  lime  and  talc  should  be 
roasted  with  salt  before  being  treated  by  this  process,  and  in  every  case  the 
gas  should  be  purified  from  muriatic  acid  by  being  forced  through  clean 
water  before  being  used.  Any  silver  in  the  metallic  state  present  in  the 
ore  treated  by'this  process,  is  transformed  into  chloride  of  silver,  wliich  is 
soluble  only  in  a  hot  solution  of  salt,  but  the  chloride  of  gold  is  soluble  in 
water,  as  described  above. 

Retorting  of  Gold  Amalgam. — The  retorts  in  common  use  are  cone- 
shaped  cast-iron  vessels  with  circular  bottoms.  The  cone  is  attached  to  the 
upper  part  by  a  clamp  and  wedge  (the  joint  between  being  luted  Avith  clay) 
and  is  provided  with  an  exhaust  pipe  in  syphon  shape,  the  shorter  arm  of 


.900 


METALLUllGY   OF  SILVER. 


whicli  is  Bcrcwed  into  tlic  cover,  Avliilothc  longer  one  ixasscs  tlirougli  a  ves- 
Kel  filled  with  cold  wnter  (or  a  Avrappiug  of  wet  clotlis  may  be  used  instead) 
during  the  time  of  operation.  The  interior  of  tlic  retort  sliould  be  dusted 
witli  whiting,  meal,  or  any  otlier  suitable  substance,  to  prevent  the  amalgam 
from  adhering,  and  tlien  filled  not  over  two-thirds  I'ull,  this  precaution  behig 
necessary  to  prevent  tlie  apparatus  from  rupture  by  tlic  choldng  of  the  ex- 
haust pipe,  or  from  any  other  cause.  Apply  the  heat  first  of  allto  the  upper 
part  of  tlie  retort  and  the  short  arm  of  the  pipe,  then  to  the  lower  part,  in- 
creasing the  heat  gradually  to  all  parts,  but  never  going  much  higher  than 
a  bright  cherry  red. 

Tlie  quicksilver,  volatilized  by  the  heat,  passes  over  and  down  the  long 
arm  of  the  pipe,  through  the  condenser,  and  into  the  receiver,  which  is 
usually  a  vessel  filled  with  water. 

Ck'ucibles.— Crucibles  are  used  for  melting  metals,  compounding  alloys, 
'reducing  ores,  assaying,  &c.  For  full  directions  for  making  crucibles,  con- 
sult pp.' 491  and  502. 

Ingot  Moulds. — These  arc  formed  of  cast-iron  with  a  trough-shaped 
cavity,  slightly  wider  and  longer  at  the  upper  part  than  at  the  lower,  so  as  to 
permit  the  easy  dislodgement  of  tlie  ingot.  This  is  further  promoted  by  oil- 
ing the  interior  of  the  mould  x^revious  to  use. 

In  estimating  the  capacity  of  an  ingot  mould,  it  is  usual  to  rate  each  cubic 
inch  for  gold  at  $125,  and  for  silver  at  $i.25. 

Flux. — In  metallurgy  or  chemistry  a  flux  is  a  substance  or  mixture 
used  to  promote  tlie  fusion  of  metals  or  minerals.  Black  flux  is  used  by  in- 
troducing slowly  ill  small  portions,  into  a  crucible  lieated  to  a  very  duli  red 
heat,  a  compound  of  either  equal  parts  of  cream  of  tartar  and  nitre,  or  two 
parts  of  cream  of  tarter  and  one  of  nitre.  White  flux  is  compounded  of  one 
part  of  cream  of  tartar  and  two  parts  of  nitre. 


METALLURGY  OF  SILVER. 

The  methods  in  common  use  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  the  ore  may 
be  classified  as  follows:   1.  Amalgamation  _of  unroasted  ores  in  iron  pans, 

2.  Amalgamation  of  roasted  ores  in  barrels,  iron  pans,  steam  tubs,  &c. 

3.  Patio  process  of  amalgamation  in  heaps.  4.  Smelting  with  lead  ores,  or 
lead,  and  final  separation  of  the  silver  by  cupellation. 

Amalgamation  of  Unkoasted  Ores  in  Ikon  Pans. — This  method, 
known  among  miners  as  the  "  wet  process,"  is  in  quite  extensive  use  for 
grinding  the  unroasted  ore  (after  passing  through  the  stamps  and  settling 
tanks)  with  water  into  an  impalpable  siime.  The  limited  capacity  of  the 
first  pans  proved  a  barrier  to  extensive  operations  by  the  Avet  process,  the 
small  quantity  of  ore  operated  on,  and  the  long  time  required  to  Avork  the 
charge,  being  serious  drawbacks  to  rapid  x)rogress.  Figures  28  and  29  pre- 
sent a  view  of  the  common  iron  pan,  in  AA'liicli  a  is  a  wooden  cross  in  Avhich 
wooden  blocks,  b,  Avitli  iron  shoes,  c,  are  fastened  by  the  bolts,  cl ;  each  shoe 
has  a  pin,  e,  fitting  into  the  wooden  block,  in  order  to  prcA^ent  its  moving  ; 
on  the  shaft,  r/,  is'the  yoke,/,-  the  two  ends  of  the  yoke  fit  in  the  holes, 7i, 
of  the  cross,  a,  but  not  too  tightlj^,  so  that  the  muller  can  descend  as  the 
shoes  Avear  aAvay.  Steam  is  passed  into  the  slimy  charge  of  ore  through  the 
pipe,  I;  k  k  are  discharge  pipes  ;  m  is  a  false  bottom  of  iron,  formed  in  one 
piece,  and  2  inches  thick.  In  these  pans  the  muller  revolves  Avith  a  grinding 
action,  like  a  millstone,  reducing  the  i)reviously  pulverized  ore  to  the  finest 
slime,  and  intermixing  the  quicksilver  Avith  the  mass. 

The  Wheeler  &  Randall  Excelsior  Grinding  and  Amalgamating  Pan,  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  28,  takes  liigh  rank  as  an  efficient  machine.  It  is  of  cast- 
iron,  has  the  conoidal  form,  the  centre  rising  as  high  as  the  rim,  and  moulded 


METALLURGY  OF  SILVEE. 


961 


so  that  its  vertical  section  forms  the  tractorj'  curve,  or  curve  of  equal  wear, 
securing  jperfect  uiiiforinity  in  the  wearing  of  tlic  shoes  on  the  muller 
and  the  dies.  The  muller  is  propelled  by  a  centre  shaft,  the  upper  part  of 
which  is  a  screw  to  which  the  muller  is  attached,  and  is  propelled  by  gear 


Fig.  28.— Common  Amalgamating  Pan. 


wheels  on  the  under  side  of  the  pan.  The  muller  is  attached  by  a  large  nut 
and  secured  to  its  place  by  a  key  which  enters  a  slot  cut  upon  one  side'of  the 
screAv.  The  bottom  is  provided  with  a  steam  chamber  or  false  bottom  ;  the 
distance  between  tlie  muller  and  the  dies  is  regulated  by  a  screw  on  the  out- 
side of  the  pan,  Avhich,  by  means  of  a  bent  lever  at  the  bottom,  raises  the 
vertical  shaft,  lifting  the  muller  from  the  surface  when  required! 

In  charging,  the  muller  is  raised  a  little,  so  as  to  revolve  freelv,  water  is 
admitted  through  the  hose  or  pipe,  the  ore,  as  it  comes  from  the  stamps  and 


962 


IMETALLUJIGY   OF  SILVER. 


settlinj;  tanks  (ores  coiitiiiiiing  much  antimony  should  bo  roasted)  is  shovelled 
in,  and  steam  is  introduccd  tliroiigh  the  steam  chamber  in  the  bottom,  or 
directly  into  the  pulp,  the  latter  method  giving  tlio  higher  temperature. 
Keep  tlio  heat  at  or  near  200°  Fahr.,  turn  ofl'  the  steam  if  the  pulp  becomes 
too  tliin,  and  allow  it  to  thicken  by  the  evaporation  of  the  Avater  Avhile  the 
temperature  is  iriaintaincd  by  means  of  the  steam  chamber.  Do  not  iiass 
the  exhaust  steam,  charged  with  oil  from  the  engine,  direct  into  the  pulp,  as 


Fig.  30.— Wheeler  akd  Kaxdall's  Amalgamating  Pax. 


it  prevents  amalgamation  ;  use  live  steam  from  the  boiler  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  former  may  be  used  in  the  steam  chamber  if  desired.  The  pulp,  if 
too  thicks  causes  a  Avaste  of  power,  if  too  thin  it  w^ill  not  amalgamate  welL^ 

After  commencing  to  grind,  the  muller  should  be  gradually  lowered  ;  in 
2  hours  the  ore  should  be  reduced  to  a  fine  pulp  ;  at  this  period  quicksilver 
is  suj/plied  by  pressing  it  through  canvas,  so  as  to  scatter  it  through  the  pulp 


METALLURGY  OF  SILVER.  963 

in  a  finely  divided  state  ;  the  muller  is  then  slightly  raised  from  the  bottom, 
to  avoid  grinding  the  quicksilver,  which  Avould  flour  it,  and  the  action  is 
continued  for  2  iiours  longer. 

The  proportions  used  to  cliarge  one  of  these  pans  with  4  ft.  muller,  are  : 
ore  to  the  charge,  2000  lbs.,  quicksilver,  30  to  70  lbs.,  varying  with  the  quality 


Fig,  31.— Agitator. 


Fig  32.— "Wheel-er's  Agitator. 
of  the  ore  ;  revolutions  of  muller  per  minute,  60  to  65.  Many  chemical  com- 
pounds have  been  used  in  treating  raw  ores  containing  sulphide  of  silver,  in 
order  to  promote  the  decomposition  of  the  ores,  but  their  use  was  more  prev- 
alent of  late  years  than  at  the  present  time.  A  number  of  practical  receipts 
for  making  them  wi'l  be  found  below. 


0G4 


MKTALLURfJY  OF  SILVICR. 


Tho  grinding:  und  ;im;ilg.ainating  being  completed,  tlie  pulp  is  diluted 
Avitli  water  and  discliarged  into  tho  ficpavator,  Avlien  it  is  thoroughly  washed 
iu  plenty  of  clean  water.  Dining  tlie  lirst  twenty  minutes  l)ut  little  water 
should  be  added  to  tho  slime  in  the  sei)arator  ;  alter  that  time  it  maybe 
filled  nearly  to  the  In-im  by  a  small  stream  of  pure  water  ke[)t  rumiing  for 
30  minutes  or  more  if  necessary  ;  then  one  after  anotlier,  beginning  with 
the  liighest,  draw  the  plugs  from  the  lioles  and  allow  the  pulp  to  run  off 
slowly,  clean  Avater  being  allowed  to  flow  into  the  machine  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  conoidal  separator  (capacity,  10  tons  of  ore  iu  24  hours)  the  amalgam 
is  deposited  witli  tlic  quicksilver  in  the  bowl  and  spiral  groove  at  the' cir- 
cumference. The  bulk  of  the  quicksilver  is  withdrawn  through  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  and  is  treated  by  being  washed,  squeezed,  and  re- 
torted. In  silver  amalgam  containing  lead,  squeezed  at  a  temperature  of 
144'' — 180"  Fahr.,  the  lead  passes  off  with  the  mercury,  but  if  squeezed  at  a 
lower  temperature,  it  will  remain  in  tho  bag.  The  pulp  is  conveyed  from 
tho  separator  into  agitators,  or  other  inventions  used  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting the  stray  amalgp.m  or  quicksilver  which  may  be  discharged  along 
with  the  coarser  sand  from  the  separator. 

Tlie  agitator  is  usually  a  tub,  2  or  3  ft.  in  diam.  and  about  12  ins.  liigh, 
fitted  with  an  upright,  ou  which  are  arranged  4  projecting  arms  carrying 
stirrers.    See  fig.  31. 

Wheeler's  agitator,  represented  by  fig.  32,  is  about  8  ft.  in  diam.;  the 
sides  are  formed  of  wooden  staves  from  25  to  30  ins.  high,  and  the  bottom  is 
composed  of  cast-iron,  dipping  towards  tlie  centre,  ending  in  the  cavity  h,  for 
the  accumulation  of  the  quicksilver  ;  thi^  is  always  kept  full,  and  wl'ien  the 
pans  are  discharged  the  surplus  quicksilver  passes  away  by  the  syphon 
shown  in  cut.  The  tailings  pass  away  continually  through  a  pipe  fths  of  an 
iu.  in  diam.  and  4  in.  from  the  bottom,  shown  at  k,  and  the  lower  pipe,  Z, 

1  in.  in  diam.,  is  the  discharge  pipe  when  the  agitator  requires  to  be  cleaned; 
another  discharge  hole  is  represented  at  o. 

Chemicals  used  in  Vakious  Mills  in  Treating  Silver  Ores  by 
THE  Pan  Process. — The  following  practical  receipts  are  transcribed  from 
Guido  Kustel's  valuable  work,  entitled,  ^'Processes  of  Gold  and  Silver  Ex- 
traction." The  allowance  in  each  case  is  for  1  ton  of  ore.  a.  Chloride  of 
copper,  13  lbs.  ;  common  salt,  60  lbs.  b.  Chloride  of  iron,  13  lbs.  c.  Sul- 
])hato  of  iron,  1  lb. ;  sulphate  of  copper,  8  lbs. ;  common  salt,  60  lbs.  d. 
Sulphuric  acid,  3  lbs.;  sulphate  of  copper,  2  lbs.;  salt,  15  lbs.  e.  Sulphuric 
acid,  2  lbs. ;  alum,  2  lbs. ;  sulphate  of  copper,  1^  lbs.  /.  Sulphate  of  cop- 
l)er,  18  ozs. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  16  ozs. ;  sal  ammoniac,  8  ozs. ;  common  salt, 

2  lbs.  (/.  Alum,  IJ  lbs.;  sulphate  of  copper,  IJlbs.;  salt,  40  lbs.  h.  Muri- 
atic acid,  30  ozs. ;  iieroxide  of  manganese,  8  ozs. ;  blue  vitriol,  10  ozs. ;  green 
vitriol,  10  ozs.  i.  Common  salt,  15  lbs.;  nitric  acid,  1  to  2  lbs. ;  sulphate  of 
iron,  1  to  2  lbs.    k.  Common  salt,  25  lbs. ;  blue  vitriol,  2  lbs. ;  catechu-,  2  lbs. 

Note. — a,  h,  c,  are  calculated  for  ore  containing  250  to  500  ozs.  of  silver  in  sul- 

{)huret3.  All  chemicals,  except  salt,  are  used  in  solution.  The  salt  is  charged 
lalf  au  hour  before  the  chemicals  are  put  in.  These  chemicals  are  not  well 
adapted  for  treating  ores  containing  sulphur,  arsenic,  or  antimony  ;  they  should 
bo  roasted. 

Description  of  the  Machine. — A,  Driving  shaft ;  B,  Cylinder  ;  CC, 
Levers  to  stuffing  boxes  ;  D,  Lever  for  pressing  upper  shoes  upon  the  cylin- 
ders ;  E  E,  Upper  shoes  or  dies  ;  E,  Inside  of  cylinder  ;  G,  Concave  bottom 
of  casing  ;  1 1,  Outside  of  casing. 

Instructons  for  using  Beath's  Amalgamator  and  Separator. — 
Two  of  tho  amalgamators  being  in  operation  vi'ith  one  separator,  each  amal- 
gamator is  to  be  charged  with  800  or  1000  lbs.  of  ore  as  it  is  collected  from 
ithe  batteries  ;  at  tho  same  time  add  sufficient  water  to  keep  it  at  a  thick, 
pulpy  consistency  ;  you  then  add  fom  10  to  50  lbs.  of  quicksilver,  according 
to  the  character  and  riclniess  of  the  ore.  The  machines  are  kept  in  opera- 
tion until  the  reduction  and  amalgamation  are  complete,  which  time  will 
vary  from  2  to  4  hours,  according  to  tlic  cliaractcr  of  the  ore  being  reduced. 


ROASTING  OP  SILVEK  ORES. 


965 


After  the  ore  is  sufficiently  reduced  and  araalgamated,  ILe  pulp  is  dis- 
charged into  the  separator,  aud  the  machine  is  immediately  re-charged 
without  stopping. 

After  the  pulp  is  received  by  the  separator,  it  is  to  be  thinned  with  water 
to  a  consistency  that  will  allow  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam  to  precipitate 
and  still  retain  sufficient  body  to  heep  the  coarser  particles  of  the  pulp  sus- 
jjeuded  in  the  Avater  with  the  slum. 


Roasting  of  Silver  Obes.— Argentiferous  ores  are  more  productive 
when  roasted  than  when  worked  ra,w.  The  volatile  components  of  the  ores 
must  be  expelled  bv  heat,  and  this'  is  effected  in  two  ways,  viz. :  in  heaps 
ov  in  furnaces.  By 'the  former  method  the  ore,  generally  as  it  comes  from 
the  mine,  is  piled  in  alternate  layers  Avith  fuel,  the  bottom  layer  being  of 
wood  piled  in  angular  form  in  order  to  permit  free  circulation  of  air.  For 
the  upper  layers  coal  or  wood  may  be  used,  the  proportion  of  ore  to  fuel 
varying  from  1  to  C,  to  1  to  18  ;  fine  ores,  or  ores  abounding  in  sulphur  re- 
quiring less  fuel  than  coarse  ores,  or  ores  poor  in  sulphur.  Antimonial  or 
or  arsenical  ores,  with  little  or  no  sulphurets,  should  pontain  an  addition  of 


nOASTING  OF  BIIiVER  OREB. 


2  or  3  per  cent,  of  calcined  green  vitriol  before  being  roasted.  The  fire  is 
ignited  through  vertical  openings  extending  downwards  through  the 
heap  to  the  ground  layer ;  those  apertures  are  closed  when  tlio  fire  is 
thoroughly  kindled,  and  the  smouldering  process  is  continued  for  weeks 
F.nd  montlis,  the  sulphur  in  the  ore  supplying  fuel  to  the  fire,  while  tlie 
intensity  of  tlie  heat  may  ho  controlled  to  any  extent  by  closing  or  opening 
tlio  draft  holes  or  chimneys.  It  sometimes  occurs  that  ores  similarly  inter- 
stratified  with  fuel  are  roasted  in  inclosures  resembling  kilns,  provided  with 
side  openings.  The  roastin<^  process  trairsforms  thc'silver  into  a  chloride, 
easily  decomposed  by  the  quicksilver,  and  therefore  rapidly  amalgamated. 

The  leading  reactions  which  take  place  in  roasting  silver  ores  with  salt, 
are  mainly  as  follows  :  In  submitting  iron  pyrites  and  other  sulphureta  to  a 
red  lieat  in  contact  with  air,  they  become,  in  a  great  measure,  transmuted 
into  sulphates,  part  of  the  sulphur  becomes  sulphuric  acid,  which  combines 
with  the  n'letallic  oxides,  while  another  portion  disappears  as  sulphurous 
acid.  As  this  part  of  the  process  requires  a  low  degree  of  lieat,  no  decom- 
position of  the  salt  will  take  place,  but  on  the  formation  of  the  sulphates 
and  the  disappearance  of  all  odor  of  sulphurous  iicid,  the  temperature 
must  be  increased  and  the  decomposition  of  the  salt  will  begin.  This  takea 
place  in  two  ways: — 

First. — In  roasting,  the  sulphates  of  iron  and  other  sulphates  give  off  vap- 
ors of  sulphuric  acid,  Avhich,  in  union  with  salt  forms  sulphate  of  soda,  while 
tlie  chlorine  escapes  in  a  gaseous  form  and  combines  Avith  any  native  metals  in 
the  mass  under  treatment,  decomposing  the  sulpliurets  in  such  a  manner 
that  one  part  of  the  chlorine  gas  combines  with  the  sulphur  as  chloride  of 
sulphur,  which  exhales,  while  the  other  part  forms  a  colorido  with  the  liber- 
ated metal. 

Second. — By  the  other  method  of  decomposition  the  salt  and  sulphate 
mutually  decompose  each  other.  The  sulphate  of  silver,  being  compounded 
of  sulphuric  acid,  oxygen,  and  silver,  being  heated  in  contact  with  common 
salt  (which  is  composed  of  chlorine  and  sodium),  the  silver  combines  with 
the  chlorine,  the  result  being  chloride  of  silver,  while  the  oxygen  and  sodium 
forming  soda,  is,  with  tl:e  sulphuric  acid,  converted  into  sulphate  of  soda. 
When  the  vapor  of  water  is  present,  during  these  various  reactions,  muriatic 
acid  is  formed  in  addition.  The  quantity  of  sulphurets  and  earthy  mat- 
ters present  in  ores  should  be  determined  by  inspection  previous  to  roast- 
in.^  them.  A  surplus  of  lime  in  the  ore,  will,  by  combining  with  sulphuric 
acid,  form  sulphate  of  lime,  which  will  remain  unchanged  throughout  the 
process.  To  effect  decomposition  in  such  ores,  sulphates  or  quartzose  ores 
must  be  added  in  quantity  sufficient  to  change  all  the  lime  into  sulphate. 
Talcose  ores  must  be  treated  in  a  similar  way,  the  primary  use  of  the  sul- 
phurets in  the  ore  being  to  decompose  the  quantity  of  salt  required  for  chlo- 
rination. 

Guido  Kiistel,  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  "Processes  of  Silver  and 
Gold  Extraction,"  writes  ;  "In  Freiberg  (Germany)  it  was  the  rule  to  sub- 
ject only  that  ore  to  roasting  Avhich  contained  enough  sulphurets  to  give 
25  to  30  per  cent,  of  matt  (sulphide  of  iron)  M'hen  assayed  for  that  purpose. 
If  less  matt  Avas  obtained,  the  ore  had  to  be  mixed  Avith  other  ore,  or  £o 
much  iron  pyrites  Avas  added  that  the  required  quantity  of  sulphurets  Avas 
obtained.  The  second  class  ore  of  the  Ophir  and  Mexican  claims  in  the 
Comstock  lode,  consisting  of  pure  decemposed  quartz,  contains  silver  sul- 
phurets, with  a  small  proportion  of  iron  pyrites,  yielding  from  G  to  8  per 
cent,  of  matt.  Tlie  roasting  with  salt,  however,  gives  a  satisfactory  result, 
Avhich  must  bo  attributed  chiefly  to  the  pure  quartzose  condition  of  the  ore. 

"If  the  ore  contains  an  abundance  of  sulphurets,  the  roasting  must  be 
performed  without  salt,  for  about  two  hours,  till  the  greatest  part  of  the 
sulphur  is  driven  off,  otherwise  it  Avould  bake,  and  cause  an  imperfect 
roasting. 


TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES. 


967 


"  The  quantity  of  sulphurets  has  a  great  influence  on  the  result  of  roast- 
ing. Ore  like  that  of  the  Ophir  or  Mexican  mines,  containing  silverglancc, 
polybasite,  brittle  silver  ore,  native  silver  and  gold,  some  iron,  and  bat  little 
copper  pyrites,  will  give  a  good  result  by  roasting,  even  when  less  attention 
is  paid  to  the  time  and  diligent  stirring,  than,  for  instance,  with  the  so- 
called  '  base-metal  ore,'  Avhich  abounds  in  copper  pyrites,  zinc-blend,  sul- 
phuret  of  lead,  etc.  The  presence  of  base  metals  causes  a  higher  loss  in 
silver.  The  chloride  of  silver  is  not  volatile,  except  at  a  high  temperature. 
But  it  has  been  observed  that,  in  the  presence  of  base-metal  chlorides,  the 
chloride  of  silver  volatilises  also.  The  increased  heat  increases  the  volatil- 
ization, but  decomposes  the  base-metal  chlorides.  By  keeping  a  low  heat, 
the  loss  of  silver  is  less  if  the  zinc-blend  is  not  argentiferous,  the  latter 
requiring  a  higher  heat  to  effect  decomposition.  But  in  roasting  at  alow 
heat,  the  base-metal  chlorides  remain  in  the  ore,  and  cause  more  loss  of 
quicksilver  in  the  subsequent  amalgamation,  and  require  more  metallic  iron 
in  the  barrels  ;  besides,  the  bullion  contains  a  great  deal  of  base  metals. 
In  treating  suck  ore  in  the  roasting-f  urnace,  the  application  of  steam  is 
advantageous,  creating  hydrochloric  acid  by  the  decomposition  of  chlorides, 
at  the  same  time  becoming  a  decomposing  agent  for  the  suli)hurets.  The 
liydrogen  of  the  steam  decomposes  also  the  chloride  of  silver,  which,  upon 
being  reduced  to  a  metallic  condition,  by  its  affinity  for  chlorine,  in  turn 
decomposes  the  hydrochloric  acid.  The  silver  may  thus  change  repeatedly 
from  metallic  condition  to  the  chloride,  while  the  base-metal  chlorides  are  re- 
duced to  oxides,  and  in  that  state  do  not  interfere  with  the  amalgamation." 

EoASTiNG,  Calcining,  and  Chlokidizing  Silver  Ores  in  Furnaces. 
— Of  the  many  furnaces,  and  for  this  purpose,  the  reverbatory  kind  is  by  far 
the  best.  The  interior  surfaces  should  be  constructed  of  the  best  fire  brick, 
placed  edgeways,  the  exterior  walls  may  be  of  stone  or  common  brick,  and 
the  Avholc  structure  should  be  throughly  braced  with  iron  rods  and  well- 
seasoned  previous  to  being  used.  The  reverberatory  furnace  is  constructed 
either  with  one,  or  two  hearths,  as  may  be  desired  ;  the  calcining  and 
chloridizing  being  effected  on  the  lower  hearth,  while  the  roasting  and 
sulphatizatioii  is  done  on  the  upper  one.  On  the  upper  hearth  the  pulver- 
ized ore  is  placed  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  4  ins.,  the  heat  is  maintained  at  a 
low  temperature,  not  over  a  brown  or  dull  red,  with  frequent  stirring  of 
the  ore,  and  the  su]3ply  of  air  should  be  abundant.  To  promote  oxidation 
and  control  the  temperature,  a  jet  of  steam  should  be  used.  When  the  ores 
contain  arsenic,  powdered  charcoal  in  small  quantities  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage,  and  if  the  ores  are  poor  in  sulphur,  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the 
sulphate  of  iron  may  be  added.  The  roasting  and  sulphatizing  will  be  com- 
pleted in  from  4  to  5  hours,  when  the  ore  is  permitted  to  drop  through  an 
aperture  in  the  upper  hearth  on  to  the  loAver  one,  where  for  some  time  it  is 
kept  at  a  temperature  but  slightly  higher  than  that  previously  noted,  but  is 
afterwards  raised  and  maintained  at  a  cherry  red,  and  should  never  exceed 
a  bright  red,  the  ore  being  stirred  meanwhile,  during  the  calcining  and 
chloridizing  processes.  When  the  calcination  is  effected,  which  will  be  in 
from  4  to  5  hours,  a  melted  and  well  pulverized  mixture  of  common  salt, 
and  7  parts  of  cold  calcined  ore,  are  added  to  the  hot  ore  on  the  hearth 
(calculated  at  15  parts),  and  the  whole  mass  is  completely  intermixed  by 
vigorous  stirring.  This  latter,  called  the  chlorinatiou  process,  will  usually 
occupy  about  15  or  20  minutes. 

Amalgamation  in  Dr.  Veitch's  Steam  Tubs.— The  primary  difference 
between  this  process  and  the  last  noted  consists  in  the  employment  of  tubs 
instead  of  barrels  and  the  use  of  steam  directly  in  the  pulp.  The  tubs  are 
about  4  ft.  deep  and  4  ft.  diam.  The  bottom  is  made  of  cast-iron  with  three 
circular  apertures  for  the  reception  of  cast-iron  perforated  plates  ;  below 
are  the  steam- chambers.  The  holes  are  about  2  ins.  apart,  and  very  small. 
In  the  centre  of  the  tub  is  a  vertical  shaft,  suspended  in  a  box  outside  of  the 


1)08 


AMALGAMATION  liY  PATIO  rKOCl^SS. 


tub.  Tliorc  lire  thrco  arms  attached  to  it,  each  havinjc  throe  arm:;  of  copper 
or  iron  plates  liaiigiiig  pcrpencliciUarly  in  concentric  lines.  Tlic  movablo 
cover  has  an  orifice  in  coiniection  Avitli  a  Hue  by  Avhich  tlic  steam  and  somo 
quicksilver  are  conveyed  into  coolin<;  tanks. 

In  operating:,  the  steam  is  projected  through  the  jicrforatcd  plates  into 
the  pulp,  and  impels  the  quicksilver  in  spray,  or  globules  of  every  size,  in  a 
stream  through  the  entire  mass,  causing  an  intimate  blending  between  tlio 
ore  and  the  mercury.  The  nine  iron  x)latcs  (or  if  there  is  )nuc]i  coi)per  in 
the  ore,  copper  plates  should  bo  used)  pass  tlirough  the  ore  edgeways,  Avitli 
a  circular  motion,  and  agitato  the  ptilp,  the  decomposition  of  the  chlorides 
meantimo  progressing  very  rapidly  by  means  of  the  heat  and  impact  against 
the  plates,  which  present  a  surface  of  nearly  3600  sq.  ins.  of  surface  to  GOO 
or  800  lbs.  of  ore.  If  the  ore  has  been  properly  roasted  amalgamation  will 
be  effected  in  5  hours.  Argentiferous  ores,  intended  to  be  treated  cither  by 
this,  or  the  barrel  amalgamation  process,  should  be  free  from  metallic  gold, 
or  it  must  be  extracted  previous  to  roasting  tlic  ore,  for  subsequent  to  roast- 
ing, the  gold  is  not,  like  silver,  in  a  soluble  state,  bat  in  a  metallic  condition, 
usually  coated  with  an  oxide  (especially  if  in  contact  Avith  sulphurct  of 
lead),  which  renders  the  amalgamation  of  the  gold  extremely  difficult. 


Amalgamatiok  by  tpie  Mexican  or  Patio  Process.— The  )Spanis]i 
-word  Patio  denotes  a  yard.  The  ores  best  adapted  to  this  treatment  are,' 
ruby  silver,  brittle  silver  ore,  polybasite,  stromeyrite,  iodyrite,  silverglance, 
and  chloride  of  silver.  Silver  ores  containing  gold  arc  unfit  for  treatment 
unless  that  metal  has  been  previously  extracted  by  some  other  process. 
Argentiferous  zinc-blend,  pyrites,  and  a  few  other  combinations  cannot  bo 
treated  unless  perfectly  roasted.  Silver  ore  combined  with  antimony  and 
copper  should  be  slightly  roasted  previous  to  treatment.  Argentiferous 
lead  ores  and  gold  ores  arc  utterly  unsuitable  for  treatment. 

The  amalgamating  yard  is  levelled  off,  paved  Avith  granite  blocks  or 
bricks,  encompassed'by  high  Avails,  and  is  generally  left  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.  Over  this  i)avement,  the  silver  ore  (previously  dissolved  to  an 
impalpable  slime,  by  means  of  arastras,  stamps,  or  other  machinery)  is 
deposited  and  spread  to  a  depth  of  from  7  to  12  ins.,  and  surrounded  by  Ioav, 
close  curbs.  Next,  salt,  in  quantity,  to  conform  Avith  its  quality  and  the 
richness  of  the  ore,  is  added  to  the  mass  and  thoroughly  intermixed  by  being- 
turned  Avith  shovels  :ind  trodden  by  horses,  njules,  or  oxen.  Sec  iig.  34. 
The, chemical  action  of  the  salt  produces  chloride  of  silver  and  desulpliur- 
izes  the  sulphides.   The  mass  is  then  allowed  to  rest  one  Avhole  day. 

Magistral,  i.  c,  coj^per  pyrites,  roasted  and  pulverized,  are  added  to  the 
mass  one  hour  after  the  treading,  turning,  &c.,  begins,  the  quantity  varying 
Avitli  its  quality,  the  temiDoraturo  of  the  season,  and  the  richness  of  the  ore, 
the  primary  effect  of  the  magistral  being  to  rcA'iA'O  the  silver  by  depriving  it 
of  chlorine. 


rig.  34.— Amalgamation  by  Patio  Process. 


SMELTING  OF  SILVER  OKES. 


969 


The  next  addition  is  qniclcsilver,  which  in  usually  added  in  three  charges 
to  the  ore  by  being  sprinkled  throngh  cloth,  buckskin,  canvas,  &c.  ;  alter 
the  first  charge  the  mass  is  thoroiiglily  mixed,  and  formed  into  heaps  of 
about  one  ton  each,  smoothed  off,  and  let  stand  24  hours.  Then  during  tlie 
morning,  every  other  day,  the  treading,  turning,  and  heaping  processes  is 
repeated  for  the  space  of  5  to  6  hours.  The  second  charge  of  quicksilver  is 
added  and  the  treatment  repeated,  and  by  washing  a  sample  of  the  mixture 
it  is  determined  whether  or  not  the  first  charge  has  been  properly  blended 
with  the  mass.  The  third  charge  is  added  after  the  dne  incorporation  of 
the  second,  in  order  to  absorb  any  stray  particles  of  silver,  and  to  render  the 
amalgam  more  suitable  for  separation. 

Lime  is  added  to  cool,  and  magistral  to  beat,  as  the  temperature  of  the 
ore  may  require.  With  too  much  heat  the  quicksilver  becomes  pulverulent 
and  of  a  dark  shade,  with  scattered  brown  spots  upon  its  surface  ;  with  too 
little  it  retains  its  natural  appearance  and  fluidity.  With  tlie  proper  tem- 
j)erature  the  amalgam  will  present  a  grayish  Avhite  tint  and  yield  easily  to 
gentle  pressure.  An  excess  of  quicksilver,  magistral,  or  lime,  is  inimical  to 
the  process  ;  an  overplus  of  salt  will  cause  a  loss  of  quicksilver  but  no 
further  injury. 

For  ore  valued  at  $50  per  ton,  a  proper  proportion  of  the  above  noted 
ingredients  would  be,  to  each  ton  :  salt,  of  prime  quality,  80  lbs.  ;  magistral 
(containing  10  per  cent,  of  the  sulphate  of  copper),  in  summer,  20  lbs.,  in 
winter,  10  lbs.  ;  quicksilver,  first  charge,  14  lbs.,  second  charge,  5  lbs.,  third 
charge,  7  lbs.  ;  lime,  more  or  less,  15  lbs.,  as  may  be  required.  Tiie  time  of 
treatment  varies  from  12  to  GO  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  etc. 

The  separation  is  effected  by  washing  the  mass  Avith  plenty  of  water  in  a 
capacious,  deep,  circular  vessel,  essentially  the  same  in  principle  as  the 
common  separator  or  settler,  whereby  the  ligliter  portions  are  caused  to  flow 
slowly  away,  leaving  the  amalgam  to  be  gathered  last  of  all  by  itself,  to  be 
removed  and  retorted  at  the  refining  works. 

Smelting  of  Ores. — This  is  effected  by  various  contrivance,"?,  snch  as 
"  Cupola  "  and  "  Revcrberatory  "  Furnaces,  "  Backwoods  hearths,"  "  Scotch 
and  American  hearths,"  &c.,  the  object  being  to  reduce  the  ores  to  the  metal- 
lic state  by  means  of  fire,  assisted  by  fluxes  of  limestone  or  lime,  carbonate 
of  soda,  iron,  and  fluor  spar.  Lead  ore,  granulated  lead  and  litliarge  are  used 
as  fluxes  for  gold  and  silver.  The  size,  form,  capacity,  &c.,  of  the  furnace 
may  be  made  to  conform  to  the  requirements  in  each  case  :  the  Castilian 
furnace  is  of  an  annular  shape,  while  tlie  McKenzie  Cupola  is  more  of  an 
elliptical  form.  The  fuel  and  ore  are  intermixed  in  proper  proportions  in 
the  cupola,  being  introduced  through  the  charging  door,  several  feet  above 
the  bottom  of  the  cupola.'  The  furnace  is  vertical  in  position,  about  15  ft. 
in  height,  with  an  interior  area  througli  its  largest  horizontal  section  of 
about  12  sq.  ft.,  varying  more  or  less  according  to  size.  See  page  C84  for  de- 
tails of  furnaces,  modes  of  operating,  blast,  &c. 

The  fire,  urged  by  the  blast,  consumes  the  fuel,  and  imparts  its  heat  to 
the  ore,  which  is  arranged  in  alternate  layers  with  the  fuel.  The  fluxes, 
which  have  an  affinity  for  some  part  of  the  mineral  under  treatment,  either 
induce  its  dissipation  or  form  with  it  a  fusible  compound  or  slag,  Avhich' 
being  lighter  than  the  metal,  is  frequently  separated  from  it,  either  "by  being 
drawn  off  from  the  surface,  or  permitted  to  rest  until  the  metal  is  with- 
drawn from  below.  The  kind  of  flux  to  be  used  depends  largely  upon  tlie 
variety  at  hand  and  the  character  of  the  ores  and  gangues  to  be  treated.  If 
the  ganguo  of  the  ore  is  composed  of  different  earths,  with  the  oxides  of 
base  metals,  litharge,  quartz  and  carbonate  of  soda  may  be  used  as  fluxes. 
If  quartz  forms  the  gangue  of  the  ore,  lime,  the  oxides  of  the  base  metals, 
and  carbonate  of  soda  may  be  used,  while  sucli  fluxes  as  metallic  iron  and 
litharge,  lime,  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  well  adapted  for  the  treatment  of 
ores  containing  much  sulphide. 


970 


TUEATMEXT  OP  SILVER,  ETC. 


A  primary  condition  in  almost  every  form  of  smelting;  silver  ores  is  tlio 
use  of  lead  in  one  or  more  of  its  various  forms  ;  if  lead  is  not  combined 
Avitli  tlie  ore  under  treatment  it  must  be  added  tiiereto.  In  smelting  silver 
ores  the  notable  uses  subserved  by  lead  and  its  compounds,  are  these,  viz.  : 
On  the  fusion  of  lead  with  tlie  sulphate,  oxide,  or  sulj)hidc  of  silver,  the 
latter  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  and  forms  an  alloy  Avith  excess  of 
lead  ;  in  fusing  sulphate  of  lead  witli  sulphate  of  silver  argentiferous  lead  is 
formed  ;  a  blast  of  air  directed  upon  a  fused  compound  of  silver  and  lead 
lias  an  oxidizing  effect  on  the  lead,  but  effects  no  change  on  tlie  silver  ;  lead 
has  a  greater  affinity  for  silver  than  for  any  of  the  inferior  metals  ;  nnder 
treatment  in  the  furnace,  the  sulphide  or  sub-sulphate  of  lead  and  the  sul- 
j)hate  of  lead  react  upon  each  other,  and  absorb  the  silver,  if  any  be  present. 
Further  ;  three  parts  of  sulphate  of  lead  and  one  part  sulphide  of  lead 
react  on  each  other  and  produce  litharge.  Again  ;  sulphide  of  lead  and 
copper,  antimony,  zinc,  or  metallic  iron  in  a  fused  state,  react  upon  each 
other  and  produce,  on  the  one  basis,  sulphide  of  iron,  and  on  the  other,  metal- 
lic lead,  &c.  Similar  results  will  take  place  if  the  sulphide  of  lead  at  tlie 
same  time  contain  the  sulphide  of  silver,  and  the  lead  and  silver  combine 
together  in  an  alloy,  while  the  iron  or  other  metals  noted  is  formed  into  a 
sulphide. 

In  smelting  ores  containing  gold  and  silver  it  is  not  necessary  to  change 
or  vary  the  process  by  reasou^of  the  presence  of  the  former  metal. 

Treatment  op  Silver  Ores  by  Silesian  Process  in  a  Cupola 
Furnace. — The  raw  argentiferous  galena  and  the  necessary  iron-flux  are 
first  broken  into  small  pieces  and  thoroughly  mixed,  Avhen  they  are  passed 
into  the  cupola  so  that  they  wall  occupy  the  rear  of  the  chamber,  while  the 
fuel  is  placed  in  the  front  part.  The  blast  is  applied  so  that  a  gradual  fu- 
sion results  and  the  cupola  hearth  becomes  overspread  Avith  molten  lead  and 
floating  slags,  owing  to  the  reactions  of  the  sulphur  and  iron  combined  with 
oxygen.  At  proper  intervals,  the  lead,  all  ready  for  cupellation,  is  with- 
drawn through  an  orifice  in  the  bottonci  of  the  furnace  and  the  floating  slags 
through  a  higher  aperture  ;  the  more  valuable  portion  of  the  slags,  or 
matt,  being  composed  of  the  sulphide  of  iron  and  lead  with  silver  in  min- 
ute quantity,  are  put  through  an  additional  treatment  of  roasting  and 
fusion.  The  proper  proportions  of  a  charge  are  :  argentiferous  galena,  well 
broken,  100  parts  ;  broken  slag  from  iron  forge,  parts  ;  cast-iron,  12  parts; 
coal,  126  parts. 

In  the  Rammelsberg  Process  of  Cupola  treatment  the  ores  of  argen- 
tiferous galena  loaded  with  a  large  surplus  of  impurities  and  foreign  matter, 
are  first  treated  either  in  Heaps  in  tlie  open  air  or  in  Reverberatory 
Furnaces.  In  Heaps,  ores  rich  in  sulphides  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron  are 
thoroughly  intermixed  with  galena,  and  graded  according  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  blocks,  the  largest  below  and  the  smallest  at  top,  in  a  fabric  erected 
to  a  height  of  several  feet  upon  a  thick  substratum  of  wood.  The  whole  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  granulated  roasted  ore,  to  exclude  an  excess  of  air. 
The  wood  being  kindled,  ignites  the  sulphides  throughout  the  ore,  which  in  a 
heap  containing  about  150  tons,  will  keep  smouldering  away  for  from  4  to  6 
months.  This  constitutes  the  first  roasting,  which  is  to  be  followed  by  a 
series  of  roastings,  to  conthiue  until  the  volatile  components  of  the  ore  are 
expelled. 

In  the  Reverberatory  Furnace  the  ore  is  first  roasted  in  the  usual  manner 
to  the  proper  degree  of  oxidation.  The  furnace  door  is  then  closed,  the 
heat  raised,  and  the  charge  fused.  The  silicates  of  lead,  lime,  &c.,  are 
generated,  and  with  the  sulphate,  oxide,  and  sulphide  of  lead  are  spread 
upon  the  floor  of  the  furnace,  cooled  off,  and  broken  into  lumps  about  the 
si^e  of  oranges,  the  dimensions  best  adapted  for  treatment  in  a  cupola 
furnace. 

In  charging  the  cupola  the  right  proportions  are  :  roasted  ore,  140  parts  | 


BARREL  AMALGAMATIOIs^,  ETC. 


971 


highly  silicious  slags,  40  parts  ;  litharge,  1  to  2  parts.  The  ore,  intermixed 
Avitli  the  slags,  aud.  pieces  of  old  cupels,  should  ho  reduced  to  the  size  of 
ordinary  potatoes,  and  well  mixed.  Apply  a  vigorous  blast,  fuse  and  treat 
the  slags,  matt,  and  lead  as  noted  under  the  preceding  j)rocess. 

Cupola  Treatment  of  Silver  Ores. — Mexican  Process.  The  ore, 
uncontaminated  with  lead,  and  largely  composed  of  sulphide  of  iron  and 
quartz,  sulphide  of  silver,  &c.,  is  well  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  charcoal 
and  roasted  in  kiln-like  enclosures  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  Sometimes 
dry  wood  is  substituted  for  charcoal,  and  the  roasting  is  accomi)lished  in 
circular  structures  with  an  interior  diam.  of  4J  ft.  ;  height  the  same,  built  of 
adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick,  with  a  capacity  (including  fuel)  of  1  ton  of  ore 
each.  The  roasted  ore  (from  these  kilns),  with  the  proper  fluxes,  being 
thoroughly  mixed,  the  cupola  is  charged  in  the  following  ratio  ;  charcoal, 
60  to  75  parts  ;  roasted  ore,  as  above  described,  75  parts  ;  litharge,  100 
parts  ;  matt  of  former  operations,  25  parts  ;  lead  slags,  16  parts  ;  cupel 
bottoms,  IG  parts  ;  native  carbonate  of  soda,  16  parts.  The  blast  being  ai3- 
plied,  fusion  takes  place,  and  the  metal  drawn  off  at  stated  periods  is  cast 
into  ingots  ready  for  cupellation,  while  the  matt  secured  is  finally  returned 
to  the  furnace  to  aid  in  the  fusion  of  future  charges  of  ore.  ^ 

Amalgamation  by  the  Foster-Firmin  Process. — In  this  process  the 
quicksilver  is  atomized  by  steam,  compressed  air,  water,  or  other  equivalent 
medium,  and  forced,  after  the  manner  of  the  well-known  sand  blast,  through 
a  stream  of  falling  ore  which  may  be  either  wet  or  dry.  While  in  the  act 
of  entering  the  amalgamator  the  ore  is  imi:)inged  upon  by  a  stream  of  mer- 
cury which  escapes  from  a  small  receptacle  at  the  rear  of  the  hopper  (con- 
taining the  ore)  through  an  inner  pipe.  The  flow  of  ore  and  rHercury  is 
broken  up  and  carried  forward  by  steam  or  air  pressure.  The  ore  which 
flows  into  the  amalgamator  is  discharged  into  the  washer,  where  it  is  heated 
by  steam  aud  worked  for  a  short  time  until  it  is  mulched  sufficiently  to 
flow  evenly.  Water  is  then  injected  into  the  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the 
washer,  when  the  bulk  of  the  mercury  is  withdrawn  and  the  waste  flows 
into  the  first  settler  of  the  series,  and  the  water  passes  on  until  it  finally 
escapes  from  the  lower  settler.  The  mercury  is  deposited  in  the  central 
conical  space  in  the  vessels,  from  which  it  is  removed  occasionally  through 
the  discharge  cocks.  One  of  the  settlers  is  provided  with  amalgamated 
copper  plates,  which  are  vibrated  by  the  action  of  the  water,  thus  effecting 
the  arrest  of  the  fine  particles  of  gold  or  mercury  carried  in  the  water  as  it 
passes  between  them,  while  any  gold  leaf  which  may-  float  on  the  surface  is 
retained  by  partition. 

The  inventors  claim  that  with  their  apparatus  they  have  obtained  the 
entire  quantity  of  metal  contained  in  the  ore  and  have  recovered  from  98  to 
100  per  cent,  of  the  mercury  used,  the  whole  operation  from  the  commence- 
ment to  the  production  of  the  amalgam  being  completed  within  one  hour,  at 
a  very  low  cost,  thus  rendering  the  working  of  poor  ores  profitable.  During 
a  recent  public  trial  of  this  apparatus,  silver  ore  was  passed  through  a  single 
amalgamator  at  the  rate  of  3000  lbs.  per  hour  ;  99  per  cent,  of  silver  and  97-^ 
per  cent,  of  the  mercury  were  recovered  within  an  hour.  During  another 
similar  trial  ore  was  passed  through  at  the  rate  of  3,600  lbs.  per  hour,  97.88 
per  cent,  of  mercury  aud  silver  together  were  recovered  in  45  minutes,  and 
within  half  an  hour  (1^  hour  from  the  start)  97  per  cent,  of  the  silver  was 
crucibled  ;  subsequently  an  additional  quantity  of  amalgam  was  collected 
and  treated,  bringing  up  the  result  to  fully  99  per  cent,  of  silver  and  99^  per 
cent,  of  mercury  recovered. 

Barrel  Amalgamation  of  Silver  Ore,— The  following  account  of  the 
treatment  of  silver  ores  by  barrel  amalgamation,  at  Halsbruecke,  near  Frei- 
berg, is  from  Phillip's  Metallurgy,  and  closely  resembles  similar  methods 
now  used  in  Nevada  : — The  usual  components  of  the  ores  there  treated  are 
sulphur,  antimony,  arsenic,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  zinc,  which  are 
more  or  less  mixed  with  various  earthy  minerals,  besides  sometimes  cou- 


972 


BARREL  AMALGAMATION. 


tainins  pmall  qnaiitities  of  bismuth,  gold,  nickel,  and  cobalt.  In  the  selec- 
tion of  tliese  ores,  tiiey  are  so  assorted  as  not  to  contain  above  7  per  cent,  of 
load,  or  1  per  cent,  of  copper,  as  from  combining  Avith  the  mercury  added 
these  metals  give  tlio  amalgam  a  pasty  consistency,  and  thereby  render  the 
treatment  extremely  difficult  and  ex[)ensive.  Tlio  mixture  of  the  different 
ores  obtained  from  "tlie  mines  is  so  arranged  tliatthe  charges  of  tlie  furnaces 
shall  contain  75  to  80  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton  of  mineral;  it  is  also  essential 
that  tliey  should  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  sulphur.  Tliis  usually  ex- 
ists in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites,  which,  on  being  roasted,  gives  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  sulphate  and  oxide  of  iron  necessary  to  tlie  success  of  tlie  sub- 
sequent operations.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  tlie  amount  of  iwritcB 
naturally  occuring  in  the  ores  is  not  sufficient  for  those  ])urposes,  addition 
is  made  either  of  this  mineral,  or,  in  some  instances,  of  ready-formed  sul- 
phate of  iron. 

Tlie  ore,  when  thus  prepared,  is  laid  on  a  large  floor,  40  feet  in  length  and 
about  12  in  width,  and  on  the  top  of  it  is  thrown  about  10  per  cent,  of  com- 
mon salt,  Avhich  is  let  drop  from  an  upper  room  through  a  spout  placed  in  the 
floor  for  that  i^urposc.  TJie  heap,  Avhen  it  has  been  thus  made  up  of  alter- 
nate strata  of  ore  and  common  salt,  is  well  mixed  by  being  carefully  turned 
over,  and  is  subsequently  divided  into  small  parcels  called  roast-posts,  each 
Avcighing  from  3}  to  4^  cwts.  The  salt  annually  employed  for  this  purpose 
at  the  Halsbruecke  works  amounts  to  300  tons,  and  is  supplied  by  the  Prus- 
sian salt-mines. 

The  mixture  of  ore  and  salt  is  now  roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  pro- 
vided Avith  fume-flues  for  the  reception  of  any  pulverulent  matters  which 
]nay  be  mechanically  taken  over  by  the  draught.  The  prepared  charge  is 
spread  on  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  Avhere  it  'is  at  first  very  gently  heated, 
for  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  moisture,  wliicli  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
it  variably  contains.  During  the  process  of  drying,  Avhich  usually  occupies 
two  hours,  the  charge  is  kept  constantly  stirred  by  a  log  iron  rake,  and 
Avhen  this  operation  is  considered  sufficiently  advanced,  the  lieat  is  so  far  in- 
creased as  to  cause  the  ignition  of  the  sulphur,  and  to  render  the  ore  red-hot. 

The  furnace  is  kept  at  this  temperature  for  about  four  hours,  during 
Avhich  time  the  metals  become  oxidized,  and  sulphurous  acid  gas  is  rapidly 
given  off,  whilst  the  ore  is  by  constant  stirring  prevented  from  becoming 
agglutinated  in  masses.  The  temperature  is  noAV  still  further  raised,  and 
sulphurous  acid  is  again  given  oS,  together  with  A'apors  of  chloride  o£  iron 
and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  hydrochloric  acid  generated  at  this  stage  of 
the  operation  is  due  to  decomposition  of  the  chloride  of  iron,  by  the  action 
of  oxygen  and  watery  vapor.  This  last  firing,  Avhich  occupies  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  is  continued  Avith  constant  stirring  until  a  sample  taken 
from  the  furnace  ceases  to  evolve  any  odor  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  has  for 
its  object  the  decomposition  of  the  sea-salt  by  the  metallic  sulphates  pro- 
duced. During  this  process  the  ore  increases  considerably  in  volume,  and 
assumes  a  deep  brown  color.  Wheu  the  roasting  is  terminated  the  charge 
is  raked  from  the  furnace  to  the  floor  of  the  establishment,  from  whence, 
after  having  been  allowed  to  cool,  it  is  removed  for  the  purpose  of  being 
passed  through  a  set  of  fine  sieves,  by  which  the  finer  powder  is  separated 
from  the  agglutinated  lumps.  These  are  broken  down  to  a  proper  size,  and 
after  being  mixed  Avith  a  fresh  quantity  of  sea-salt  are  again  roasted  in  the 
usual  Avay.  The  finer  particles  are,  on  the  contrary,  taken  to  a  pair  of  heavy 
mill-stones,  where  they  are  reduced  to  the  state  of  an  impalpable  powder. 
At  the  Halsbruecke  Avorks  there  are  14  roasting-f  urnaces,  and  as  many  pair 
of  granite  mill-stones,  Avliich,  together,  are  capable  of  preparing  and  grinding 
about  70  tons  of  ore  per  Aveek.  The  ore,  after  passing  through  the  mill, 
Avhich  makes  from  one  100  to  120  revolutions  per  minute,  is  sifted  through 
a  dressing  apparatus,  which  renders  it  as  impalpable  as  the  finest  flour. 

The  amalgamation  of  this  prepared  ore  is  performed  in  20  wooden  casks, 
arranged  in  four  rows,  and  each  turning  on  cast-iron  axles,  secured  to  the 


BAEEEL  AMALGAMATION^. 


973 


ends  by  raoans  of  bolts.  These  barrels,  which  are  2  ft.  10  ins.  in  length, 
and  2  ft.  8  ins.  in  internal  diameter,  are  made  of  oak  staves  3^  ins.  in  thick- 
ness, and  arc  further  strengthened  by  iron  hoops  and  binders.  On  one  of 
the  ends  of  each  tun  is  placed  a  tootlied  wheel,  which  Avorks  into  another 
toothed  wheel,  mounted  on  an  axle,  which  receives  its  motion  directly  from 
a  water-wheel.  Above  each  of  the  tuns  so  arranged  is  placed  a  wooden 
case,  into  which  is  thrown  the  prepared  mineral,  and  which  is  furnished 
Avith  a  leathern  hose,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  tlie  powdered  ore  into 
the  different  barrels.  AVith  this  view,  each  cask  is  furnished  with  a  circular 
opening,  and  an  iron  or  wooden  pin,  which  is  employed  for  running  off,  at 
the  termination  of  the  i^rocess,  the  argentiferous  amalgam. 


Fig.  35.— Baeeel  Amalgamation. 
The  basins,  situated  immediately  above  each  tun,  are  of  such  a  size  as 
to  exactly  contain  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for  one  charge.  Below 
the  tuns,  and  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  placed  triangular 
troughs,  destined  to  receive  the  various  elaborated  products  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  operation.  At  the  commencement  of  the  operation,  3  cwts.  of 
water  are  run  into  each  barrel  from  the  reservoir,  after  which  10  cwts.  of 
the  finely-ground  and  sifted  ore  are  introduced  through  the  liose.  To  this 
are  added  from  78  to  100  lbs.  of  wrought-iron,  cut  into  fragments  of  about 
an  inch  square,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  Avhich,  in 
proportion  as  they  become  dissolved  by  the  action  of  the  substances  by 
\yhich  they  are  associated,  are  replaced  by  fresh  ]Heces,  The  casks  are  now 
tightly  closed  by  screw-stoppers,  and  as  soon  as  they  have  all  been  charged, 
the  apparatus  is  thrown  into  gear  by  the  means  of  a  screw,  and  the  sliding 
block,  which  cause  the  tuns  to  rotate  Avith  a  rapidity  of  from  18  to  20  turns 
per  minute.  At  the  expiration  of  two  hours  the  machinery  is  again  stopped, 
and  the  tuns  are  opened  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  state  of  the 
metalliferous  paste  which  they  contain.  If  the  charge  is  too  firm,  a  little 
water  is  added  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  found  to  be  too  liquid,  a  small 


974 


HAilUEL  AMALGAMATION. 


quantity  of  powdered  ore  is  thrown  in.  Wlien  this  luis  been  attended  to,  5 
cwts.  of  mercury  arc  poured  into  each  cask,  and  the  tuns,  after  being  se- 
curely closed,  arc  again  thrown  into  gear,  and  l^ept  constantly  revolving  for 
IG  or  18  liours,  at  tlic  rate  of  from  20  to  25  turns  per  minute.  During  tliis 
time  they  arc,  however,  twice  examined,  for  tlie  purpose  of  seeing  wliether 
the  paste  wliicli  tli3y  contain  be  of  the  proper  consistence  ;  for  if  it  be  too 
tliick,  the  particles  of  mercury  arc  not  sulFiciently  brought  into  contact  witli 
the  silver  contained  in  the  ore,  and  if  too  much  water  has  been  added,  they 
remain  at  the  bottom  of  tlic  cask,  and  are  not  sufficiently  mixed  Avitii  the 
different  constituents  of  the  charge.  In  the  first  case  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a-  small  quantity  of  water,  and,  in  the  second,  a  little  powdered  ore.  After 
the  introduction  of  the  mercury,  the  temperature  of  the  casks  becomes  con- 
fuderably  raised  by  the  chemical  changes  constantly  going  on  within,  so  that, 
evc^i  in  winter,  it  .sometimes  stands  as  higli  as  104°  Fahr. 

At  the  expiration  of  20  liours  the  amalgamation  of  the  silver  is  ordinarily 
complete,  and  the  tuns  are  now  entirely  filled  with  water,  and  again  made 
to  turn  2  hours,  with  a  velocity  of  only  8  revolutions  per  minute.  The  amal- 
gam is  by  this  means  separated  from  the  slimy  matters  witli  Avhich  it  was 
mixed,  and  collects  in  one  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  tuns.  Wlien  this  ag- 
gregation of  the  amalgam  has  been  accomplished,  the  different  casks  are 
successively  thrown  out  of  gear,  and  are  stopped  with  their  apertures  im- 
mediately over  the  spouts.  A  small  peg  in  tlie  bung  is  now  removed,  and 
the  liquid  amalgam  flows  out  and  is  received  in  the  triangular  spout  ;  the 
workman  closely  watches  this  period  of  the  operation,  and  the  moment  any 
of  the  earthy  matters  begin  to  flow  from  the  orifice,  it  is  again  tightly  closed. 
The  mercury  is  now  run  off  through  the  iron  tube,  into  the  gutter,  by  which 
it  is  conducted  into  a  receiver  prepared  for  that  j)iirpose. 


Fig.  36.— BAKEEIi  Amalgamatiox. 


Tlie  casks  are  now  turned  with  their  apertures  upward,  and  as  soon  {;s 
the  bungs  have  been  removed,  they  are  again  brought  back  to  their  former 
a)osition,  and  the  muddy  residuum  is  discharged  into  a  spout  from  which  it 
flows  into  large  reservoirs  situated  at  a  lower  level.  This  residuary  ore  is 
found  to  be  striijped  of  its  silver  to  within  about  5-^  ozs,  to  the  ton,  and  is 
therefore  often  subjected  to  another  amalgamation.  The  emptying  and  dis- 
charging of  the  casks  occupies  about  two  hours,  and  the  whole  process  is 
therefore  finished  in  less  than  24  hours.  In  14  days  160  tons  of  mineral  are 
treated  in  this  establislimeiit,  every  5  tons  of  which  require  an  expenditure 
of  15  lbs.  of  metallic  iron,  and  2  lbs.  12|  ozs.  of  mercury:  so  that  every 
pound  of  metallic  silver  produced  is  obtained  at  an  expense  of  0.95  of  an 
ounce  of  mercurv. 

During  the  first  2  hours  that  the  casks  are  set  in  action,  and  before  tlie  in- 
troduction of  the  mercury  the  sesquichloride  of  iron  contained  in  the  ore  is 


CAEREL  AMALGAMATION,  ETC". 


975 


decomposed  by  the  met.illic  iron  present,  and  converted  into  protochloride. 
If,  instead  of  operating  in  the  way  described,  the  mercury  were  innnediately 
introduced  into  the  casks,  it  would,  by  reacting  on  the  procliloride  of  iron, 
become  partially  converted  into  calomel,  which,  not  becoming  again  reduced 
during  the  subsequent  stages  of  the  operation,  would  be  productive  of  a 
considerable  loss  of  this  valuable  metal.  This  inconvenience  is,  however, 
completely  avoided  by  the  action  of  the  metallic  iron,  as  the  protochloride 
thus  formed  is  entirely  v/itliout  action  on  metallic  mercury.  The  chloride 
of  silver  contained  in  the  roasted  ore  is  held  in  solution  with  the  chloride 
of  sodium,  and,  becoming  reduced  to  tlie  metallic  state  by  the  constant 
agitation  with  the  metallic  iron,  combines  with  the  mercnry  to  form  a  liquid 
amalgam.  The  chlorides  of  lead  and  copper  are  decomposed  at  the  same 
time  as  the  chlorides  of  silver,  and  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  amal- 
gam produced. 

When  the  residual  earthy  matters  are  drawn  off  from  the  casks,  the 
pieces  of  metallic  iron  are  retained  by  means  of  a  grating,  whilst  the  slimes, 
after  being  run  into  proper  receivers,  are  conducted  into  pug-tuhs,  where 
they  are  constantly  kept  stirred  with  a  large  quantity  of  water'. 

These  tubs  are  furnished  with  openings  at  various  distances  from  the  bot- 
tom, by  which  the  muddy  water  is  successively  drawn  off,  whilst  a  certain 
quantity  of  amalgam  is  found  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
collected  at  the  close  of  the  operation,  and  added  to  that  obtained  by  tapping 
directly  from  the  amalgamation  tubs,  as  before  described. 

The  mercury  and  amalgam  obtained  from  the  casks  is  afterward  filtered 
through  close  canvas  bags  by  wliich  the  liquid  quicksilver  is  separated  from 
the  pasty  amalgam,  which  is  retained  by  the  closeness  of  the  web,  whilst  the 
mercury  passes  tlirough  into  reservoirs  prepared  for  that  purpose.  The  pasty 
amalgam  which  is  retained  in  the  bags  consists  of  a  mixture  of  six  parts  of 
mercury  and  one  part  of  an  alloy  composed  of  about  80  per  cent,  of  silver, 
and  20  of  a  mixture  of  copper,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony,  gold,  nickel,  zinc, 
and  some  other  metals.  This  mixture  is  subsequently  heated  in  a  distilla- 
tory furnace,  and  is  thus  freed  from  the  adhering  mercury,  whilst  the  nou' 
volatile  constituents  of  the  alloy  are  obtained  in  the  solid  form. 

Mr.  Kostel  remarks  :  "  The"^amalgamation  in  barrels  is  not  adapted  to 
ore  containing  gold.  Unroasted  ore  has  been  tried  witli  chemicals  unsuC'^ 
cossfully.  Tlie  construction  of  the  barrels  does  not  differ  much  in  the  differ- 
ent works  of  Nevada  Territory,  They  have  a  cylindrical  shape,  the  diameter 
and  depth  being  nearly  equal.  The  staves  are  3  or  4  inches  thick.  There 
are  two  sizes  in  use.  The  smallest,  capable  of  receiving  from  1000  to  IcOO 
pounds  of  ore,  are  32  inches  each  way  ;  the  larger,  receiving  a  ton  of  ore, 
measure  from  44  to  48  inches  in  the  clear. 

Ayeb's  Process  of  Treating  Silver  Ores. — By  this  process  the  ore, 
as  received  from  the  mine,  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  intense  heat  in  a  fur» 
nace,  and  afterwards  thrown,  while  still  hot,  into  alkali  water  or  brine,  which 
has  the  effect  of  crumbling  it  into  small  pieces  ;  the  fragments  are  subjected 
to  additional  reducing  processes,  and  afterwards  amalgamated. 

Fig.  37  represents  Kent's  method  of  arranging  barrels  for  amalgamating. 
The  amalgamation  is  effected  by  the  rotary  motion  of  the  barrels,  aftei 
wdiich  tlie  mass  is  discharged  through  large  spouts  into  the  agitator  below, 
Avhere  the  amalgam  accumulates  at  the  bottom.  The  following  is  Mr.  Kent's 
account  of  his  improved  process  of  treating  gold  and  silver  ores. 

"  By  this  '  improved  mode  of  preparing  ores,'  the  ore  is  not  only  desul- 
phurized in  the  best  and  cheapest  manner,  but  the  base  metals  are  converted 
into  soluble  chlorides,  wliich  are  not  readily  decomposed  by  heat,  and  may 
be  subsequently  removed  by  washing  the  prepared  ore,  or  by  the  water  used 
in  the  process  of  amalgamation,  and  the  gold  is  thus  left  free  and  bright,  and 
in  the  best  jjossible  condition  for  combining  with  the  mercury  used  in  that 
process. 

"  To  effect  this  object,  the  crushed  ores  or  tailings  are  simply  mixed  with 


976 


KKXr  S  AMALGAMATING  PIIOCESS, 


a  Bolution  of  common  salt,  aiul  made  into  cakes,  lumps,  or  bricks,  which 
are  then  calcined  in  a  common  kih;,  sticli  as  is  used  lor  burning  lime  or 
bricks.  In  this  process,  the  sulphur  in  the  ore  is  oxidized  by  tlie  oxygen  of 
tho  atmosphere,  and  tlic  sulphuric  acid  thus  produced  innnediately  combines 
•with  the  soda  in  the  salt,  forming  suli>hate  of  soda,  and  liberatiiig  the  muri- 
atic acid,  which  in  its  turn  attacks  the  base  metals,  forming  chlorides  of 
copper,  zinc,  antimony,  etc.,  together  with  chloride  of  silver,  and  leaving 
metallic  gold.  All  the  acid  used  in  the  ])rocoss  is  prepared  in  the  process  it- 
self, Jind  the  chemical  changes  are  produced  in  tlic  nascejit  state,  whicli  is 
the  most  favorable  condition  for  effecting  theni,  and  tlie  sulphur  being  thus 
combined  Avith  the  soda,  a  smaller  proportion  escapes  into  the  atraospherc 
thau  when  ores  are  simply  roasted  alone. 


Fig.  37.— Kent's  AMALGAMATiira  BakeeLs. 

'*  'By  the  application  of  the  salt  in  solution,  one  bushel  will  make  suffl- 
cient  for  a  ton  of  ore  ;  and  by  making  the  ore  into  bricks,  wduch  may  be  done 
witn  one  machine,  at  the  rate  of  25  tons  per  day,  the  use  of  expensive  rever- 
beratory  furnaces,  as  nsed  at  Freiberg,  is  avoided,  and  25  tons  of  gold  or 
silver  ore,  in  a  common  lime-kiln,  or  1200  tons  in  a  brick-kiln  composed  of 
the  caked  ore  in  the  form  of  bricks,  may  be  calcined  at  one  operation,  in  the 
cheapest  and  best  manner,  without  any  furnace  at  all,  by  the  passage  of  a 
current  of  hot  air  through  the  interstices  of  the  brick  so  formecl. 

"  After  the  chemical  decomposition  of  the  ore  is  thus  effected,  it  becomes 
so  soft  that  it  may  be  ground  with  common  burr-mills,  at  the  rate  of  40 
bushels  per  hour,  for  amalgamation  in  barrels,  or  it  may  be  ground  and 
amalgamated  at  the  same  time,  by  the  use  of  the  "VVaslioe  pans.  When  two 
different  kbids  of  oi'e  are  mixed  together,  in  suitable  proportions,  before 
caking,  which  is  sometimes  of  very  great  advantage,  and  the  calcination  and 
amalgamation  are  done  in  the  best  manner,  about  five  times  as  much  gold 
or  silver  as  from  crude  ore,  or  from  seventj^-five  per  cent,  to  the  full  assay 
value,  may  be  obtained." 

Extraction  of  Silver  by  Hot  Process  in  Copper  Kettles. — This 


MIXTURES  OF  OEES,  ETC. 


9T7 


process  is  mainly  used  in  Sontli  America,  on  ores  rich  in  native  silver,  or  in 
the  chloride,  iodide,  or  bromide  of  silver,  -which  are  first  linely  pulverized 
and  concentrated  by  washing,  and  then  placed  in  kettles  fitted  with  copper 
bottoms  where  they  are  boiled  with  a  considerable  volume  of  water.  From 
10  to  15  per  cent,  of  salt  is  then  introduced  into  the  boiling  mass  and  thor- 
oughly stirred.  Next,  quicksilver,  of  less  weight  tlian  that  of  the  silver 
present,  is  added  to  the  pulp,  with  continued  stirring,  adding  more  quick- 
silver whenever  a  test  discloses  the  slightest  dryness  in  the  amalgam. 
Lastly,  the  amalgam  and  gangues  are  separated  by  washing  ;  the  amalgam 
is  squeezed,  retorted  and  refined,  while  the  gangues,  if  desired,  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Patio  process. 

In  the  Parke  Process,  lead  containing  silver  is  fused  in  massive  cast-irou 
pots,  and  melted  zinc  is  added  and  well  intermixed.  The  fire  is  then  Avith- 
drawn  from  under  the  pot,  and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a  brief 
period,  while  the  silver  and  zinc,  separating  from  the  lead,  rise  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  molten  metal,  and  are  skimmed  off  as  long  as  the  alloy  con- 
tinues to  rise.  Next,  the  scum  alloy  combined  with  some  lead  is  heated  in 
a  liquation  retort  ;  the  silver  and  lead  fuse,  and  are  then  in  large  proportion 
conducted  into  j^repared  moulds.  The  alloy  thus  obtained  is  afterwards 
cupelled,  and  the  alloy  of  zinc  and  silver  remaining  in  the  retort  is  sub- 
mitted to  distillation  in  order  to  effect  a  partial  separation,  while  the  silver 
thus  obtained  is  deprived  of  its  impurities  by  cupellation.  The  proportions 
used  in  charging  the  pot  are  :  argentiferous  lead,  G  to  7  tons  ;  quantity  of 
silver  to  the  ton  of  lead,  10  to  15  ozs.  ;  estimated  quantity  of  zinc  to  each  oz. 
of  silver,  1.5  to  2  lbs.  The  alloy  should  be  stirred  from  iO  to  15  liours  after 
the  addition  of  the  zinc,  and  the  proportion  of  silver  (to  the  ton  of  alloy) 
when  ready  for  cupellation  should  be  1000  ozs. 

The  Liquation  Process  is  based  on  tlie  principle  that  an  alloy  of  lead  and 
copper,  melted  together,  separate  if  slowly  cooled,  but  cohere  in  intimate 
union  if  quickly  cooled.  A  compound  of  copper  and  lead,  if  slowly  heated 
to  near  the  melting  point,  will  also  separate,  and  the  silver,  if  any  be  i^res- 
ent,  Avill  go  with  the  lead.  In  practice,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  or 
copper  matt  (as  it  comes  from  the  smelting  furnace)  containing  silver,  is 
melted  with  about  four  times  its  weight  of'  lead  in  a  cupola,  and  cast  in 
annular  plates,  which  are  rapidly  cooled.  These  circular  plates  are  termed 
liquation  cakes,  and  are  arranged  in  a  liquation  furnace,  on  their  edges, 
with  alternate  layers  of  charcoal.  The  latter  being  lighted,  the  heat 
is  raised  to  a  degree  slightly  less  than  the  melting  point  of  copper,  when  the 
silver  and  lead  fusing,  are  conducted  to  a  receiver,  while  the  copper,  in  a 
honey-combed  condition,  remains  in  the  original  form.  If  the  separation 
jiroves  defective  the  cakes  may  be  submitted  to  the  further  treatment  of  a 
higher  degree  of  heat  in  the  sweating  furnace.  The  separation  of  tLe  silver 
from  the  lead  is  finally  effected  by  cupellation. 

The  following  mixtures  of  ores  and  fluxes  are  noted  in  Mr.  Kustel's  excel- 
lent work,  as  possessing  reliable  proportions  for  smelting  purposes. 

No.  1.  MixTURK  roB  Ores  without  Roasting,  and  liEFORE  Litharge 
IS  Obtained  from  the  Manipulation. — Silver  ore,  100  lbs. ;  Granulated 
lead  (or  200  lbs.  lead  ore),  85  lbs.;  Soda  ash,  25  lbs.  ;  Iron,  25  lbs.  ;  Lime 
(and  26  lbs.  slag,  when  obtained),  3  lbs. 

No.  2.  Mixture  for  Roasting  Ore.— Silver  ore,  100  lbs.  ;  Granulated 
lead,  85  lbs.  ;  Soda  ash,  20  lbs.  ;  Iron,  8  lbs.  ;  Lime,  3  lbs. 

No.  3.  Mixture  of  Silver  Ore  after  Products  of  Smelting  are 
at  Hand.— Silver  ore,  100  lbs.  ;  Granulated  lead,  25  lbs.  ;  Litharge,  75  lbs:  ; 
Hearth,  10  lbs.  ;  Soda  ash,  15  lbs.  ;  Charcoal.  5  lbs.  ;  Iron,  8  lbs.  ;  Lime,  3 
lbs.  ;  Slag,  25  lbs. 

When  the  melting  is  executed  with  an  addition  of  lead  ore,  Nos.  2  and 
3  do  not  require  granulated  lead,  but  it  is  always  very  useful  to  add  sufB- 
«ient  litharge.  The  quantity  of  flux  required  depends  much  on  the  quality 
of  the  ore.   If  tlie  slag  is  tob  thin  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  so  much  soda- 


978 


TIIEATMEXT  OK   SILVER   DUES,  1:TC. 


ash.  The  mixture  is  introduced  with  a  sliovel  -when  the  furnace  is  at  a 
Avhito  heat,  and  fqu'cad  about  5  or  G  ins.  deep,  to  about  lialf  the  len.utli  of  the 
flux,  between  the  door  and  the  crucible.  Tlio  door  is  closed,  and  the  h.rhv^ 
continued  so  that  the  flame  reaches  the  end  of  the  flux.  The  ore  -will  Hoon 
begin  to  melt  and  run  into  the  crucible,  when  a  new  charge  must  be  intro- 
duced as  soon  as  the  melting  ore  malccs  room  for  it.  Stir  the  charge 
thoroughly  with  a  long  iron  bar,  and  continue  the  process  until  the  crucible 
is  filled.    Use  the  furnace  illustrated  on  page  983. 

Treatment  of  Silvek  Okes  by  Solution. — Augiistin's  Process.  The 
principle  on  -whicli  this  process  is  based  is  the  soluLility  of  chloride  of  silver 
in  a  hot  concentrated  solution  of  common  salt.  The  "ores,  which  should  bo 
free  from  zinc,  antimony  and  arsenic,  are  first  submitted  to  dry  crushing  by 
stamps,  and  further  pulverized  by  grinding  in  suitable  mills,  after  which 
they  are  roasted  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  at  a  Ioav  temperature,  Avith  a 
fr6e  admission  of  air.  A  thorough,  uniform  roasting,  at  a  dull  red  heat, 
])romotes  the  formation  of  various  sulphates  of  the  different  metala  joresent. 
This  object  being  attained  the  heat  is  increased  to  a  cherry  red,  by  which 
the  aforesaid  sulphates  (with  the  sole  exception  of  the  sulphate  of  silver)  are 
decomposed.  The  sulphate  of  silver  is  next  converted  into  chloride  of  silver 
by  adding  common  salt,  previously  melted,  ground,  and  intermixed  with 
cold  ore,  to  the  hot  ore  in  the  furnace,  with  wliicli  it  is  thoroughly  incor- 
l^orated  by  vigorous  stirring 

The  apparatus  for  the  hurried  portion  of  the  process  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing, arranged  in  the  order  of  mention,  viz.  :  1  spacious  heating  reser- 
voir, a  set  of  dissolving  tubs,  2  large  settling  cisterns,  4  precipitating  tubs  to 
each  dissolving  tub,  and  2  roomy  recei)tacles,  all  arranged  on  descending 
steps.  The  aforesaid  tubs  are  nearly  circular  in  form,  and  are  arranged 
Avlth  filters  composed  of  straAV  and  broken  sticks,  covered  with  cloth.  Each 
tub  is  divided  into  two  unequal  divisions  by  means  of  a  vertical  partition 
placed  on  the  filter. 

The  chloridized  ore  being  placed  into  the  largest  divisions  of  the  dissolv- 
ing tubs,  a  hot  salt  solution,  sufficient  in  quantity  to  completely  saturate  the 
ore,  is  conducted  into  the  tubs  from  the  heating  reservoir  aforesaid,  and 
allowed  to  remain  one  hour.  The  outlet  cocks  of  the  heating  reservoir  and 
tabs  are  now  opened,,  and  the  hot  salt  solution  is  permitted  to  filter  through 
the  ore  in  the  tubs,  and  pass  off  through  the  smaller  compartments  through 
apertures  at  first  above  the  level  of  the  ore,  and  afterwards  through 
orifices  near  the  base  of  the  tubs,  into  the  large  settling  cisterns  above 
noted.  The  current  is  shut  off  when  it  is  ascertained  by  a  piece  of  clear 
copper  that  no  trace  of  silver  exists  in  the  filtrate. 

The  next  step  is  to  place  copper  (copper  cement)  in  each  of  the  upper  two 
precipitating  tubs  in  the  different  classes  of  four,  and  wrought  scrap  iron  in 
each  of  the  corresponding  lower  two,  and  conduct  the  chloride  solution 
slowlj^  from  the  settling  cisterns  by  filtering  it  through  the  various  precipi- 
tating tubs  into  the  large  receptacles  beloAv.  The  chemical  effect  is  to  pre- 
cipitate the  silver  by  means  of  the  copper  in  the  upper  tubs,  and  the  copper 
in  solution,  if  it  be  present  in  the  ore  at  first,  is  precipitated  by  the  iron  in 
tlio  lower  tabs.  The  silver  is  removed  every  three  days  from  the  precipitat- 
ing tubs  and  refined,  while  the  filtrate  in  the  large  receptacles  is  pumiced 
into  the  heating  reservoir  for  future  operations. 

The  ore,  previous  to  roasting,  should  contain  at  least  20  per  cent,  of 
sulphur,  and  the  proportions  of  the  charge  to  the  furnace,  should  be,  of  ore 
for  roasting  and  calcining,  500  lbs. ;  melted  salt,  pulverized,  35  lbs.  ;  roasted 
ore,  cold,  and  mixed  witli  the  salt,  220  lbs.  ;  time  of  roasting  on  ui^per  hearth 
of  furnace,  4  to  4^  hours  ;  calcining  on  lower  hearth,  4  to  4|  hours  ;  time 
occupied  in  chloridizing,  from  15  to  20  minutes  ;  heat  of  salt  solution,  131° 
Fahr.  The  depth  of  copper  in  the  precipitating  tubs  should  be  about  G  ins., 
of  iron  in  do.  (provided  the  ore  contains  copper  in  quantity  worth  saving),  G 
ins.  The  time  for  dissolving  and  precipitating  will  occupy  20  to  24  liours  ; 
solution  of  salt  run  through  each  tub  to  1000  lbs.  of  ore,  200  to  250  cubic  feet 


TKEATMENT  OF   SILVEIl  OliES,  ETC. 


979 


Teeatment  of  Silvek  Ores  by  Sulphuric  Acm.—Freiberr/  Process. 
The  argentiferous  cop])er  matt,  as  it  comes  from  the  furnace,  is  thoroughly 
pulverized,  roasted  and  chloridized  as  in  the  last  described  process,  in  tubs, 
and  submitted  to  the  action  of  hot  sulphuric  acid.  By  this  means  the  cop- 
per and  iron  (if  any  is  present)  are  dissolved,  while  the  silver  remains 
intact.  Tlie  copper  solution  is  conducted  into  vats,  and  crystallized  into 
sulphate  of  copper,  while  the  intact  remainder,  containuig  the  silver, 
is  smelted  Avith  lead  and  cupelled. 

Treatment  of  Silver  Ores  by  Solution. — ZiervogeVs  Process. 
The  ore,  of  the  class  described  under  Augustin's  process,  is  effectually  pul- 
verized, roasted  and  calcined  to  decomi^ose  the  sulphates  of  iron  and  other 
Inferior  metals,  the  sulphate  of  silver  only  remaining  unaffected.  The  test 
of  complete  calcination  being  a  slight  blue  color  given  out  by  a  small  quantity 
of  the  roasted  ore  when  thrown  into  water.  The  process  is  predicated  on  the 
solubility  of  sulphate  of  silver  in  liot  water,  the  sulphatized  ore  being 
treated  in  every  way  as  the  chloridized  ore  in  Augustin's  process,  with  the 
sole  cxce]:»tiou"tbat  pure  water,  at  a  temp,  of  149'?  Fahr.,  is  used  instead  of 
the  hot  salt  solutioii. 

Treatment  of  Silver  Ores  by  the  Rammelsberg  Process. — Argen- 
tiferous granulated  copper  ore  is  placed  in  tubs  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  submitted  to  the  action  of  hot  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  slowly  flowed 
over  it  in  a  small  stream,  converting  it  into  sulphate  of  copper.  The  solu- 
tion of  dissolved  copper  is  conducted  through  an  arrangement  of  troughs, 
in  which  it  is  deposited  in  the  shape  of  rough  crystals,  while  the  liquid  por- 
tion is  returned  and  reheated,  to  be  again  poured  over  the  ore  in  the  tubs. 
The  next  step  is  to  wash  the  rough  crystallized  salt  deposited  in  the  trouglis, 
conduct  it  into  vats,  and  allow  it  to  recrystallize.  The  silver  present  in  the 
ore  will  be  found  in  the  dissolving  tubs,  and  is  finally  smelted  Avith  lead  and 
cupelled  for  its  silver. 

Pattinson's  Process. — 1st.  This  process  is  founded  on  these  facts :  If  a 
melted  alloy  of  silver  and  lead  is  stirred  Avhile  cooling  slowly,  crystals 
of  lead  form  and  sink,  which  may  be  removed  by  a  drainer.  A  large  por- 
tion of  the  lead  may  thus  be  separated  from  the  silver,  2nd.  Cast-iron 
pans,  capable  of  holding  about  5  tons  each,  provided  Avith  fire-places,  are 
arranged  in  a  series,  as  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  in  a  straight  line.  3rd.  The 
metal  of  ores  containing  silver  and  lead  as  it  comes  from  ordinary  smelting 
works,  is  melted,  for  instance,  in  pan  D,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  A^ery 
sloAvly.  The  metal,  while  cooling,  is  stirred,  especially  near  the  edges  of 
the  pan  with  an  iron  bar.  As  soon  as  crj^stals  form  and  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom they  are  taken  out  Avith  an  iron  drainer,  raised  to  a  temperature  some- 
what higher  than  that  of  the  metal  bath.  From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of 
the  charge  is  thus  removed  to  pan  E,  and  the  balance  taken  to  pan  C. 
Other  cliarges  of  D  are  similarlj'"  treated,  and  disposed  of  in  like  manner, 
except  that  the  crystals  of  E  go  to  F,  and  the  balance  to  D,  and  the  crystals 
of  C  go  to  D,  and  the  balance  to  B.  Thus,  after  successive  meltings  and 
drainings,  the  alloys,  rich  in  silver,  pass  to  A,  wliile  the  lead,  almost  entirely 
deprived  of  silver,  goes  to  G.  The  alloys  obtained  in  pan  A  are  then  sub- 
jected to  cupellation.  4th.  The  lead  of  an  alloy  treated  by  this  process 
often  contains  less  than  $1  in  silver  to  the  ton.  The  silver  of  the  enriched 
alloy  should  not  exceed  $600  to  the  ton. — Qnartz  Operator's  Hand-Boolc. 

To  Purify  Mercury.— Quicksilver,  to  be  in  prime  condition  foramalgani- 
ating  purposes,  should  be  free  from  irapurites  and  foreign  substances,  as  zinc, 
bismuth,  lead,  &c.,  AAdiich  impair  its  poAver  for  combining  with  the  i^recious 
metals.  To  effect  this  the  impure  quicksilver  should  be  distilled  in  a  common 
covered  retort,  or  if  this  is  not  available  a  retort  may  be  readily  improvised 
by  using  a  common  quicksilver  flask  and  an  iron  pipe  bent  in  tlie  shape  of  a 
syphon,  the  short  leg  of  the  pipe  being  inserted  in  the  flask  in  the  orifice  at 
the  top,  Avhile  the  long  leg,  a  yard  or  more  in  length,  extends  doAvnwards 
beloAV  the  bend,  and  must,  Avhilc  in  operation,  be  kept  cold  by  means  of  wet 


080 


CUrELLATION  FUKNACE. 


clotlis  find  cold  wuter.  Fill  tlio  retort  two-thirds  full  with  the  impure  quick- 
silver, apply  tlic  heat  first  of  all  to  the  short  leg  of  the  syphon  and  thou])pcr 
part  of  the  retort,  then  to  all  parts  of  the  flask  alike,  keeping  the  discharge 
end  of  the  syphon  in  cold  water,  Avithin  the  receiver.  Keeptlie  heat  regular 
and  do  not  hurry  the  distillation. 

Lastly,  treat  the  distilled  quicksilver,  in  thin  sheets,  by  frequent  agitation 
with  2  parts  of  pure  water  and  1  part  nitric  acid,  niaintahiing  nieanwhilc  a 
temperature  of  120^  Fivhr.  for  several  hours.  The  operations  may  be  re- 
peated until  the  impurities  are  removed,  when  the  quicksilver  may  be  poured 
off  for  use. 

To  Restore  Quicksilver  when  "Floured,"  or  "  Sickened."— "When 
quicksilver  becomes  inoperative  through  being  "  floured,"  or  "sickened," 
or  in  a  state  of  minute  division,  or  in  the  scum  form,  the  trouble  may  be  rec- 
tified by  the  addition  of  1  part  of  sodium  to  2000  or  2500  parts  of  quicksilver 
by  weight.  With  a  very  slight  degree  of  heat  sodium  and  quicksilver  com- 
bine with  a  i-)0Avcrful  affinity  for  each  other,  forming  sodium  amalgam, 
which  possesses  an  energetic  chemical  attraction  for  the  precious  metals  and 
some  other  substances.  Its  use  is  of  unquestionable  value  in  extracting  gold 
or  silver  from  sweepings,  in  the  treatment  of  gold-bearing  quartz  in  batteries, 
barrels,  pans,  arastras,  &c.,  or  in  amalgamating  silver  ores  in  which  the  sil- 
ver has  been  reduced  to  a  metallic  condition. 


Fig.  38.  CUPELLATION  FuRKACE.  Fig.  39. 


CuPELLATiON  OF  GoLD  AND  SiLVER.— This  process  is  based  on  the  re- 
fractory nature  of  these  precious  metals  and  their  affinity  for  lead  in  a  state 
of  fusion,  conjoined  with  the  well  known  tendency  of  the  latter  metal  to  ox- 
idize Avhile  being  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat.  The  alloy,  composed  of 
lead,  gold,  and  silver,  or  lead  and  gold  or  silver,  is  fused  in  a  furnace  con- 
structed with  apertures  for  the  admission  of  a  blast  of  air,  and  the  exit  of 
the  litharge,  vapors,  &c.,  dissipated  by  the  heat.  Figs.  33  and  39  represents 
a  furnace  of  this  kind.    The- iron  pan  is  4  ft.  in  diam.  with  a  throat,  /,  16 


EEFIlSriJSrG  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


981 


inches  long  and  12  wide  for  the  escape  of  the  litharge,  which  falls  upon  the 
cast-iron  plate,  g.  The  pan  is  filled  with  wood-ashes,  marl,  bone-ashes,  or  a 
combination  of  pulverized  limestone  and  clay,  well  beaten  together.  The 
bars  of  lead  are  passed  in  at  i,  where  a  fire-tile  is  placed  inclining  slightly 
inward,  and  the  blast,  introduced  at  is  directed  on  the  surface  of  the  fused 
alloy  on  the  hearth.  This  connects  the  melted  lead  into  an  oxide  of  lead  or 
litharge,  which  is  partially  absorbed  by  the  porous  substance  of  the  cupel 
and  partially  dissipated  by  tlie  heat.  If  copper,  or  other  inferior  metals  bo 
present  in  the  alloj^,  they  will  also  be  oxidized.  The  base  metals  being  tluis 
dissipated,  absorbed,  and  oxidized,  the  gold  (and  silver,  if  any  is  present) 
will  remain  a  brilliant  mass  on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace'  in  a  nearly  pure 
condition.  If  any  lead  remain  it  can  be  removed  by  the  humid  method  of 
assay. 

REFijrnsrCr  of  Gold  and  SrLVER. — If,  after  cupellation  as  above  described, 
,tho  metal  obtained  be  an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  it  is  submitted  to,  1st. 
Quartation :  This  consists  in  the  alloying  of  one  part  of  gold  witli  three  parts 
of  silver.  2d.  Granulation:  This  is  performed  by  passing  the  prepared 
melted  alloy  through  tlie  fine  meshes  of  an  iron  sieve  into  water,  or  upon  a 
bundle  of  wicker  or  small  branches  lying  in  the  vpater.  Parting :  This  is  ef- 
fected by  submitting  the  granulated  metal  to  the  action  of  boiling  nitric  acid 
or  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  For  this  purpose  use  a  glass  vessel  and  149 
parts  nitric  acid  of  specific  gr.  1.32  to  100  parts  of  silver.  Tiiis  dissolves  the 
silver  and  any  base  metals  that  may  be  present  out  of  the  alloy,  leaving  the 
gold  pure,  lleduction :  In  this  process  the  gold  is  removed  from  the  dissolv- 
ing vessel  and  further  treated  by  boiling  in  jiitric  acid,  then  Avashed,  dried, 
and  melted  in  a  crucible  Avith  a  flux  of  nitre  and  cast  into  ingots.  The  silver 
in  the  parting  solution  may  be  precipitated  by  means  of  copper  plates  or  by 
a  solution  of  salt.  In  the  former  case  the  i)recipitate  is  purified  by  washing 
in  water,  then  pressed,  melted  Avitli  saltpetre  and  pulverized  borax,  and  cast 
into  ingots  ;  in  the  latter  case  the  chloride  of  silver  is  melted  with  a  flux  of 
carbonate  of  soda  or  other  suitable  flux,  then  run  into  bars. 

Flttxes  fob  Redtjcing  Photographic  Wastes.— 1.  BlacJc  JP'lux— Cream 
of  tartar  8  ozs.,  saltpetre  4  ozs.  Place  the  mixture  upon  an  iron  pan  and  ignite 
it  with  a  red-liot  coal.  When  the  combustion  is  completed,  the  black  mass  should 
be  powdered  and  sifted  while  still  hot,  and  placed  in  a  closely-stoppered  bottle 
to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  Is  both  a  fusing 
and  reducing  agent.  2.  Muxes  for  Chloride  of  Silver— Common  rosin,  finely 
pulverized  and  intimately  mixed  with  the  chloride,  is  an  excellent  flux.  Pul- 
verized castile  soap,  molasses,  or  sugar,  are  also  reliable  fluxes  for  chloride  of 
silver,  3.  Mux  for  Beducing  the  Ashes  of  Paper  Clippings  and  Filters— Carhomxte 
of  potash  8  ozs.,  carbonate  of  soda  2  ozs.  Mix  the  ashes  (previously  powdered 
and  sifted  through  a  fine  flour  sieve,  to  cleanse  them  from  impurities  and  foreign 
matters)  thoroughly  with  their  own  weight  of  the  flux ;  fill  a  Hessian  crucible 
about  three-quarters  full  of  the  compound ;  scatter  a  thin  layer  of  salt  over  the 
mass,  and  place  on  the  fire.  4.  Flux  for  Developer  Drainings — When  these  have 
been  prepared  by  adding  a  solution  of  salt  (after  the  black  powder  has  been 
thoroughly  dried),  it  may  be  mixed  with  its  weight  of  the  following  flux,  placed 
in  the  crucible,  and  submitted  to  the  fire :  carbonate  of  potash  10  ozs.,  saltpetre 
2  ozs.  An  excellent  flux.  5.  Flux  for  Collodion  Film  ^s/tes— Carbonate  of  potash 
16  ozs.,  carbonate  of  soda  2  ozs.  Use  4  ozs.  of  flux  to  every  5  ozs-  of  ashes,  and 
proceed  as  with  the  last.  G.  Flux  for  Boasted  Sul2yhide  of  Silver— CarhonatQ  of 
potash  714  ozs.,  carbonate  of  soda  5  ozs.  Use  14  ozs,  sulphide  to  IG  ozs.  of  flux, 
and  treat  as  before  described.  7.  Flux  for  Toning  Bath  Precijntate-Gold  pre- 
cipitate (dry)  8  ozs.,  saltpetre  G  to 7  ozs.  Fill  the  crucible  not  over  half  full,  bring 
to  a  bright  red  heat,  and  the  gold  obtained  will  be  nearly  pure.  8.  Flux  for 
Chloride  of  Silver— Garhonate  of  potash  8  ozs.,  powdered  rosin  1  oz.  Mix  the 
chloride  (well  dried)  with  half  its  weight  of  the  flux,  tamp  the  crucible  jiearly 
three-quarters  full,  with  a  thin  layer  of  salt  on  top,  and  submit  to  the  fire.  9. 
Flux  for  Old  Collodion  i^iZms— Saltpetre  8  ozs.,  carbonate  of  potash  4  ozs.  Use 
half  as  much  flux  as  ashes.  To  obtain  the  best  results  from  these  fluxes,  they 
must  be  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles. 


082 


DESClllPTIONH  OF  FUKNACEH,  ETC. 


DESCRIPTIONS   OF   FURNACES    USED  IN 
ROASTING  ORES. 

Figs.  40  <ind  41  represents  tlie  ground  plan  of  a,  furnace  used  for  roasting 
silver-ores  iu  wliich  a  is  t!ic  hearth-bottoin,  composed  of  the  hardest  bricks, 
placed  compactly  edgewise,  llie  ore  to  he  roasted  is  introduced  attlie  aper- 
ature,  c,  Fig.  41,  and  after  being  treated  is  discharged  tlirougli  the  orjiice,  b, 
Fig.  40,  in  the  hearth  of  the  furnace.  The  space  between  the  arch  a'nd  bot- 
toni  near  the  bridge,  rj,  is  21  ins.,  converging  to  8  ins.  near  the  flue,  c.  Tho 
flue  is  conducted,  either  directly  or  tlirough  dust-chambers,  into  a  chimney, 
the  capacity  of  which  for  a  single  furnace  should  be  from  IG  to  18  ins.  sq. 
and  from  25  to  30  ft.  high,  and  the  bridge,  r/,  should  be  formed  of  mnterial 
sufflciently  refractory  to  withstand  tlie  actiou  of  the  fire  and  the  friction  of 
the  lioes  used  iii  turning  the  mass  of  ore. 


-     Fig.  41.— Furnace  for  Roasting  Orks.  

Figs.  42,  43  and  44  is  a  plan  of  a  furnace  suitable  for  the  smelting  of  sil^ 
ver  ores,  for  refining  silver,  or  melting  retorted  amalgam  ;  the  cast-iron 
pan,  a  a,  15  ins.  deep  and  37  ins.  diam.,  is  lined  with  fire-proof  material  to 
form  the  hearth,  and  is  supported  by  fire-bricks  to  permit  access  of  air  under 
and  around  the  bottom  and  sides  in  order  to  temper  the  heat.  The  fire- 
proof material  is  formed  of  old  fire-brick  pulverized  and  mixed  with  oue- 
third  its  bulk  of  good  clay,  or  of  3  pts.  pulverized  white  quartz  (pure)  with  1 
pt.  clay  ;  is  beaten  with  rammers  so  as  to  project  6  ins.  above  the  verge  of 
the  pan,  and  is  finally  moulded  into  proper  shape  with  a  curved  tool.  The 


DESCPJPTION  OF  FUEXACES. 


983 


flue-plate,  d,  is  first  lined  with  a  floor  of  fire-brick,  and  finull}^  coated 
with  a  mortar  of  the  fire-proof  material  carefully  smoothed  down.  The  ore 
is  passed  in  at  Jc,  whence  it  descends  to  the  hearth,//;  the  slag  is  discharged 
at  the  orifice,  o,  and  the  metal  and  matt  at  the  tap-hole  passing  through  the 
hearth,  represented  at  b,  Fig.  43,  The  ore,  carried  by  the  draft  into  the  dust 
chamber,  p,  is  removed  at  intervals  through  the  aperture,  b.  The  fire-place. 
H,  is  adapted  for  coal  :  the  capacity  of  the  chimney  should  be  from  18  to  20 
ins.  square  inside,  40  to  50  ft.  high,  and  lined  with  fire-brick. 


Fig,  45  represents  a  reverberatory  roasting  furnace  in  which  the  stirringis 
performed  by  the  iron  stirrers,  n,  and  mechanically  by  the  rotation  of  the 
heartli.    The  iron  hearth-stone,  a  a,  is  12  ft.  in  diam.  with  sides,  b,  10  ins. 


984 


DKSr'IUPTIOX  Ol'^  I''UUNA(;KS. 


hi^h,  composed  of  firc-tilcs  ;  the  , bottom,  4  ins.  tliick,  i:i  formed  of  fire- 
brioks  ;  the  ore  is  introduced  tliron,i>li  the  i'nnnel,;),  jind  dischar^^cd  lliroiigli 
the  opcnin<(,  d,  .'59  ins.  lon.i,'  and  4  wide,  with  a  iilngcd  iron  door,  into  tl)0  fun- 
nel, CjWliich  carries  itoutside  the  furnace.  The  cog-wliecls  Ijy  wliich  the  heartli 
is  rotated,  and  tlie  balls  and  rollers  on  wliich  it  rests,  arc  shown  at  (j  and  h. 


Fig.  45.'-FUENACE  FOE  EOASTIXG  ORE. 


Fig.  46.      Furnace  for  Operating  Crucible.      Fig.  47. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FURNACES.  985 

Fig.  40  represents  <i  furnace  adapted  for  operations  with  a  crucible.  The 
crucible  is  supported  on  a  piece  of  fire-briclc  on  the  grate,  composed  of  mov- 
able iron  rods  ;  a,  is  a  sliding  door  at  the  top  ;  the  furnace  is  15  ins.  square 
and  is  lined  with  tire-brick. 


Fig.  48.— Furnace  for  Distilling  Mercury. 

Figs.  47  and  48  shows  the  plan  of  a  furnace  used  for  the  distillation  or  re- 
torting of  the  quicksilver  from  tlie  various  gold  and  silver  amalgams  obtained 
in  the  treatment  of  ores.  Fig.  47  represents  a  front  view  ;  the  cover,  a,  Fig. 
48,  of  the  retort  being  removed.  The  retort  has  two  wings,  h  6,  Fig.  47,  by 
which  it  is  supported  on  brick  work  so  as  to  leave  three  "ins.  clear  on  each 
side  ;  it  is  formed  of  cast-iron,  4  ft.  long,  11  ins.  wide,  and  0  ins.  liigh.  The 
fire  has  a  full  sweep  over  the  Avhole  surface  of  the  retort  both  above  and 
below  ;  the  fire-place  is  fitted  with  grates  2  ft.  long,  and  may  be  made  longer 
if  required,  to  conform  to  the  kind  of  fuel  used.  The  condensing  pipe,  k,  is 
terminated  by  a  funnel,  I,  while  a  constant  stream  of  cold  water  is  kept  flow- 
ing around  the  pipe.  The  funnel  is  wrapped  around  with  cloth,  p,  Avhich 
reaches  into  the  water.  The  water  in  the  vessel,  a,  should  be  kept  at  a  level 
about  half  an  inch  below  the  funnel. 

Figs  49,  50,  and  51,  represent  furnaces  emioloyed  by  the  Colorado  Gold 
and  Silver  Separating  Co.  in  treating  ores  by  the  Hagan  process. 

DESCRiPTiONOFTiiEFiTRisrACES.— A,  Furnaces  ;  B,  Blast-holes  ;  C,  Deliv- 
ery-openings;  D,  Perforated  steam  pipes  ;  E,  Superheated  chamber  ;  G,  Flue, 
Gx8  :  J,  Dampers  ;  L,  Bridgewall  of  Furnaces  ;  M,  Flue,  18x18  ;  N,  opening, 
24x  24  ;  0,  Ash-pits  ;  P,  Stone  walls  to  save  brick  ;  Q,  Brick  walls  ;  R,  Wood 
furnaces;  S,  Coalfurnaces  ;  T,  Pipes  for  for  superheated  steam  over  furnaces; 
M,  Grate-bars  ;  V,  Steam  pipes  for  controlling  the  action  in  the  reducing 
chamber. 

Working  Directions.— Fill  the  furnace  with  ore  broken  G  to  8  inches 
square,  put  fire  under,  and  work  very  moderately  for  24  hours  ;  then  make 
the  fire  strong,  and  let  the  ore  remain  in  48  hours  longer .  At  the  expiration 
of  that  time,  commence  to  draw  out,  taking  out  2  tons  per  hour,  at  the  samp 
time  putting  in  a  like  quantity  ;  thus  keeping  the  furnace  always  full,  and 
bringing  the  ore  gradually  from  a  temperature  of  about  300°  at  the  top  to  a 
temperature  of  about  900'^  as  it  fails  to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace. 


980 


I)ES(;RIPTIO^r  OF  FUIINACES. 


Lot  in  steam  at  tlic  bottom  of  the  furnace,  for  10  minutes,  cncli  time  be- 
fore taking  out  ore,  -wliich  cools  it.  After  taking  tlie  ore  out  of  the  furnace, 
it  should  bo  run  through  some  grinding  process  to  bring  it  down  to  find  f^and. 
It  should  then  bo  run  througli  the  second  process,  whicii  should  liavc  a 
strong  wood  fno  and  good  supply  of  hydrogen  gas,  as  tlio  time  running 
througli  would  bo  very  short  ;  after  which  it  should  be  put  in  some  amal- 
gamating process,  such  as  Boatli's,  which  grinds  to  fine  powder  as  it  amal- 
gamates, and  clears  off  the  oxides  at  the  same  time. 


m 


t 


1 


Fig.  50. 


Fig,  51. 


"  The  following  is  an  explanation  of  the  rationale  of  the  Hagau  process 
for  disintegrating  and  desulphurizing  gold  and  silver  ores.  Superheated 
steam  is  introduced  into  the  fire  in  such  a  manner  that,  in  a  gaseous  form, 
the  steam  imi)iuges  upon  the  ignited  coals  or  wood  without  admixture  of 
atmospheric  air,  and  thus  effects  the  decomposition  of  water  into  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  gases.  The  oxygen  unites  immediately  with  the  carbon  of 
the  burning  coals  or  wood,  while  the  liberated  hydrogen  passes  from  the 
fire  and  burns  in  the  presence  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  hydrogen  flame 
and  the  resulting  gases  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  heated  gold  and 
silver  ores,  the  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.,  are  dissolved,  and  are  car- 
ried off  with  the  products  of  combustion.  The  powerful  effect  of  the  flame 
of  hydrogen,  in  dissolving  pyritous  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.,  and  in 
attacking  oxygen,  is  weirknown,  but  the  expense  of  producing  it  has  hither- 
to prevented  its  application  to  the  disintregration  and  desulphurization  of 
gold  and  silver  ores.  Not  until  the  invention  of  Dr.  Hagan's  cheap  and 
simple  method  of  decomposing  Avater  and  thus  furnishing  hydrogen  gas  and 
flame  abundantly,  has  it  been  at  all  possible  to  apply  it  to  tins  purpose  ;  but 
now  so  economically  can  this  powerful  agent  be  produced  that  the  cost  of 
treating  ores  by  it  is  only  one  dollar  per  ton. 

' '  The  treatment  of  gold  and  silver  ores  by  the  Hagan  process  requires  a  fur- 
nace of  very  simple  and  inexpensive  construction,  wliich  may  be  built  of  ma- 
terials at  hand  in  every  miner's  locality,  costing  not  over  s];2d00,  for  working 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FURNACES. 


987 


50  tons  per  day.  The  ores  are  fed  in  at  the  top  of  the  furnace  as  they  come 
from  the  mine,  and  are  drawn  oat  at  the  bottom  as  soon  as  they  become  dis- 
integrated and  desulphurized,  and  thus  tlie  operation  is  kept  up,  day  and 
night,  uninterrupedly,  the  ore  requiring  48  hours  to  pass  through. 

"  The  ores  tluis  treated  become  soft  and  friable,  and  their  character  -will 
be  destroyed,  so  that  they  will  crumble  into  powder  under  slight  pressure. 
The  salphurets  of  iron,  copper,  and  other  base  mineral  compounds,  will  be 
converted  into  oxides.  The  finest  particles  of  metallic  gold  will  be  liberated 
from  their  inclosing  matrix,  and  the  silver  ore  will  be  put  in  a  chemical  con- 
dition suitable  for  perfect  amalgamation,  so  that  both  the  silver  and  gold  may 
be  easily  separated  without  the  great  waste  and  losses  attending  the  old  meth- 
ods of  working  the  ores. 

"  When  properly  manipulated,  the  ores  can  be  made  to  render  all  the 
precious  metals  they  contain,  or,  say,  within  five  per  cent,  of  the  assay— 
whereas  by  the  ordinary  method,  the  miners  of  Colorado  have  only  obt?ined 
$25  per  ton  from  ores  actually  containing  from  $100  to  $500  or  more  per 
ton." 


Fig.  52.— FURIJACE  FOR  EXTRACTI2JG  QUICKSILVER. 

Fig.  52  represents  furnace  used  for  the  extraction  of  quicksilver  from  the 
cinnabar  at  the  New  Almaden  mines.  It  is  constructed  of  bricks  witli  a  ca- 
pacity for  holding  from  G0,000  to  110,000  lbs.  of  ore,  according  to  its  gi*ade. 
The  fuel  used  is  wood,  fed  into  a  lateral  furnace  which  supplies  heat  to  the 
chambers  containing  the  ore,  but  separated  from  them  by  a  wall  pierced 
with  numerous  apertures  formed  by  the  omission  of  bricks  at  proper  inter- 
vals. The  heat  is  conducted  among  the  ore  and  through  all  the  chambers 
exhibited  in  the  diagram,  until  the  mercury  is  thoroughly  condensed,  while 
the  draft  is  conducted  through  inclined  stacks  to  tlie  'top  of  a  distant  emi- 
nence where  the  deadly  emanations  of  the  furnace  are  discharged.  The  fur- 
naces rest  upon  double  arches  of  brick- work  and  the  whole  is  arranged  with 
effective  appliances  for  securing  the  condensed  quicksilver.  The  ore  is  hand- 
broken  to  remove  the  barren  rock  ;  no  flux  is  employed,  the  lime  associated 
with  the  ore  being  all-sufficient  for  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphurets. 

The  metal  begins  to  run  in  from  4  to  6  liours  after  the  heat  is  applied,  and 
the  process  is  complete  in  about  60  hours.    The  mercury  is  conducted  by 


988 


MONNIEll's  DESULPIIUlUZmO  PllOCESR. 


h;on  pipes  throiigU  various  coiulciising  chambers,  and  finally  discharged,  in 
a  pure  condition,  into  large  kettles. 

Fig.  5'2  represents  JjJriickner's  i'lu-naco  for  roasting  ores.  The  contrivance 
is  formed  of  an  iron  cylinder  susijended  by  chains,  Avhich  by  means  of  a  ro- 
tary motion  mixes  and  stirs  the  ore  while  under  treatment.  These  furnaces 
are  made  of  two  sizes,  one  G  ft.  long  to  contain  800  lbs.,  and  the  other  9  ft. 
long  to  hold  1400  lbs.,  the  first  noted  requires  three-fourths  of  a  horse-power 
to  drive  it  and  the  other  one  horse-power.  They  are  eminently  suitable  for 
localities  difficult  of  access  as  they  can  be  transported  on  the  backs  of  amies. 


Moistnier's  Dhsulphurizikg  Peockss. — This  process  is  adaptable  to 
cupriferous  or  niekeliferous  ores,  as  also  where  gold  and  silver  occur  with 
the  sulphides  of  copper  and  iron,  one  of  the  primary  features  being  the 
utilization  of  the  eliminated  sulphur  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol  by 
the  conversion  of  the  sulphurous  fumes  into  sulphuric  acid.  The  extraction 
of  tlie  silver,  copper,  nickel,  or  cobalt,  as  either  of  these  metals  may  be  pres- 
ent in  the  ore  under  treatment,  is  effected  by  means  of  sulphate  of  soda, 
the  gold  remaining  in  the  residue  and  desulphurized  oxide  of  iron  in  a  state 
permissive  of  easy  amalgamation.  The  ore,  mixed  with  sulphate  of  soda, 
is  first  pulverized  by  means  of  ore-crushers  so  as  to  pass  through  a  sieve 
with  20  holes  to  the  inch,  and  afterwards  calcined  in  a  muffle-furnace  80  ft. 
in  length  and  6  ft.  wide,  the  hearth  of  the  muffle  (upon  which  the  ore  is 
placed)  being  built  of  tile  4^  ins.  thick  ;  the  heated  gases  traverse  the  entire 
length  of  the  furnace  from  the  fire-chamber  to  the  end  of  the  structure  un- 
derneath, without  communicating  with  the  muffle.  Access  to  the  ore  is 
gained  by  side-doors  along  one  side  of  the  furnace,  through  which  it  is 
turned  and  stirred  once  every  hour,  being  gradually  worked  onwards  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  furnace  towards  the  front,  where  it  is  recharged  through 
a  hopper  into  the  muffle  towards  the  front,  where  it  is  charged. 

The  ore  is  thus  gradually  heated,  and,  by  the  presence  of  the  sulphate  of 
soda,  most  of  the  sulphur  is  eliminated  and  a  large  amount  of  sulphates  of 
the  oxides  of  iron  and  copper  (silver,  nickel  and  cobalt)  produced.  When 
the  charge  reaches  the  front  of  the  muffle,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
fire  box,  and  where  the  temperature  is  most  elevated,  the  sulphate  of  the 
oxide  of  iron  is  decomposed,  producing  oxide  of  iron,  some  bi  sulphate  of 
soda,  and  completely  converting  the  copper  (silver,  nickel  and  cobalt)  into 


Fig,  53.— Bruckner's  Furnace. 


moj^^niee's  desulphueizing  process. 


989 


soluble  sulphates.  This  stage  of  the  operation  requires  care  in  tlie  manage- 
jnent  of  the  temperature,  since,  by  too  low  a  degree  of  heat  the  iron  may 
not  all  be  converted  into  insoluble  oxide,  or,  by  too  great  an  elevation  of 
temperature,  some  of  the  other  metals  may  be  rendered  insoluble  by  a  de- 
privation of  tlieir  sulphuric  acid.  If  it  be  the  object  of  the  operation  to 
manufacture  oil  of  vitriol  as  well  as  to  extract  the  metals,  the  re"-ister 
placed  at  the  end  and  above  the  fire-box,  must  be  regulated  so  as  to  admit 
the  quantity  of  atmospheric  air  requisite  to  the  oxidation  of  the  s-ulphur  in 
Its  passage  through  the  length  of  the  muffle— the  exit  pipe  for  the  sulphur- 
ous acid  gas  leading  from  the  rear  eiid  of  the  muffle,  close  to  the  chargin,"-  fun- 
nel, into  the  oil  of  vitriol  chamber.    Tlic  ore  thus  calcined  is  lixiviatecf  with 


Fig.  54.— FURKACE3  USED  IN  MONls'IER'S  PROCESS. 


Fij.  55.— Sectional  Drawing  of  Furnace. 


990 


LIXIVIATING  TUBS,  ETC. 


water  to  extract  the  sulphates  of  copper,  silver  and  soda  (cobalt  and  nickel), 
and  the  insoluble  residue  consists  of  oxide  of  iron  and  earthy  matters,  and 
contains,  if  the  ore  treated  has  been  auriferous,  all  the  ,uold.  The  method 
of  lixiviation  [see  Fig.  56]  is  the  same  as  that  practiced  in  soda  works  for 
what  is  called  "  black  ball  ; "  that  is  to  say,  the  calcined  ore  is  placed  in  a 
series  of  tanks  [a.  a.  a.]  having  false  bottoms,  serving  as  filters.  The  warui 
water,  introduced  at  the  top,  percolates  through  the  mass,  dissolving  the 
sulphates,  and,  passing  through  the  filter,  is  raised  through  a  leaden  pipe 
(placed  vertically  through  the  ore  and  communicating  with  the  space 
under  the  false  bottom  or  filter)  into  anotlier  similar  tank  charged  with 
the  calcined  ore,  and  thus  through  the  series,  becoming  more  and  more  satu- 
rated with  the  soluble  salts.    If  the  residue  [collected  in  agitator,  c]  after 


Fig.  56.— Lixiviating  Tubs,  Moknier's  Process. 


lixiviation  contains  only  oxide  of  iron  and  gangue,  it  is  thrown  away  ;  but 
should  the  ore  treated  have  been  auriferous,  the  insoluble  residues  contain 
the  whole  of  the  gold,  perfectly  free  from  sulphur,  Avhicli  may  easilj''  be  ex- 
tracted by  first  re-grinding  the  mass  in  a  Behr  mill,  and  then  i)assing  it 
through  a  series  of  tliree  Tyrolean  amalgamators.  The  preliminary  grind- 
ing requires  but  small  power  as  the  calcined  ore  is  very  friable .  With  three 
amalgamators  the  operation  is  perfect,  as  has  been  demonstrated  on  a  large 
scale  in  North  Carolm a.  The  solution  containing  the  sulphates  is  treated 
according  to  the  metals  present.  If  cobalt  and  nickel  are  present  in  suf- 
ficient quantities,  the  operation  becomes  exceedingly  complicated.  The 
liquor  containing  the  sulphates  of  soda,  copper  and  silver  is  treated  as  fol- 
lows :  the  silver  is  first  precipitated  by  means  of  plates  of  copper,  and  sub- 
sequently this  added  copper,  as  well  as  that  existing  in  the  ore,  is  removed 
from  the  solution  by  cast-iron,  after  which  it  is  evaporated  to  dryness  to 
recover  the  sulphates  of  soda,  Avhicli  may  thus  be  repeatedly  used  for  the 
calcination  of  fresh  ore.  The  metallic  copper  and  silver  so  obtained  are 
separately  worked  in  the  usual  way.  The  copper  is  so  pure  that  it  requires 
only  a  single  fusion  to  produce  ingots  of  the  first  quality.  The  precipitation 
is  made  iji  a  reverberatory  furnace  of  peculiar  constrnction.  In  a  wooden 
trough  (54  feet  long,  10  feet  Avide  and  2g  feet  deep)  is  a  leaden  pan  (of  10 
pounds  to  the  square  foot)  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
covered  by  a  two-inch  floor  of  Avood;  and  the  sides  of  which  are  protected  by 
a  nine-inch  brick  wall,  extending  one  foot  above  the  sides  of  the  leaden  pan, 
and  the  whole  covered  Avith  a  low  arch  and  well  braced .  Along  one  side 
and  above  the  leaden  pan  is  placed  a  number  of  Avorking  doors,  through 
which  the  copper  is  removed  after  precipitation.  The  plates  of  cast-iron 
(2  feet  long,  1^  feet  wide  and  one  inch  thick)  are  placed  across  the  furnace, 
at  intervals  of" one  foot,  so  as  to  form  partitions.  At  a  distance  of  two  feet 
from  the  end  of  the  furnace  is  constructed  the  fire-box,  which  connects  by 
an  arch  with  the  arch  of  the  precipitating  furnace,  and  the  gases  from  which 


ELOW-PIPE  ASSAY,  &C. 


991 


are  discluarged  from  a  stack  in  tlio  latter  arch.  Tlic  liquid  to  be  j^recipitated 
is  tlien  iatrodaced  into  tlie  furnace  to  the  height  of  the  leaden  pan,  and 
removed  after  the  precipitation  of  the  copper  by  means  of  a  large  plug  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  The  fire  is  very  moderate,  the  object  being  to 
create  a  reducing  atmosphere,  to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  protoxide  of 
iron,  the  presence  of  Avhich  would  cause  a  loss  of  cast-iron.  The  evaporator 
is  of  similar  construction,  except  that  the  arch  is  close  to  the  upper  edge  of 
the  leaden  pan,  so  as  to  compel  the  heat  to  travel  as  close  as  possible  to  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  to  be  evaporated,  but  at  a  distance  of  ten  feet  from  tlic 
fire  box  commences  gradually  to  raise,  in  order  that  tlio  fire  may  be  admit- 
ted at  about  3  ft.  above  the  solution-  The  furnace  is  kept  constantly  full  of 
water,  in  order  that  the  leaden  sides  may  not  be  melted.  Wlien  nearly  full 
of  sulphate  of  soda,  the  fire  is  extinguished,  the  mother  liquid  removed,  and 
the  three  working  doors  at  the  bottom  opened.  The  sohd  and  semi-fluid 
sulphate  is  discharged  upon  a  wooden  floor,  and  as  soon  as  consolidated  is 
placed  upon  the  top  of  the  furnace  to  dry.  The  dry  sulphate,  as  above 
stated,  is  mixed  with  the  fresh  ore,  ground,  and  used  repeatedly  in  the  de- 
sulphurization.  The  precipitating  and  evaporating  furnaces  might  be 
constructed  of  brick,  but  the  diflacixlty  in  preventing  leakage  through  the 
brick,  and  cost  of  material,  will  nearly  counterbalance  the  expense  of  the 
lead,  which  preserves  at  all  times  its  value.  In  tlie  old  method  of  manufac- 
turing sulphuric  acid  from  pyrites  containhig  a  small  quantity,  the  residue 
has  been  submitted  to  a  smelting  i:)rocess.  In  this  method  water  does  the 
work,  and  an  ore  containing  not  more  than  3  or  4  per  cent,  of  copper  (which 
has  hitlierto  been  refused  by  smelting  works  in  this  country)  can  be  suc- 
cessfully and  profitably  treated.  A  residue,  with  no  greater  content  of  cop- 
per than  above  given,  and  perfectly  free  from  sulphur,  is  worthless  to  smelt- 
ing establishments  in  this  country  ;  but  by  the  application  of  the  process 
we  have  described,  the  wliole  is  extracted  by  water  at  but  small  cost,  saving 
concentration  and  waste  of  ore,  and  enabling  mines  scattered  over  the  coun- 
try, now  considered  valueless,  to  become  profitable  and  dividend  paying . — 
Abridged  from  Miner'' s  Iland-BooJc. 


BLOW-PIPE  ASSAY,  FLUXES,  HYDROSTATIC 
WEIGHING,  CUPELLATION,  &c. 

In  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe,  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  1  of  pure  oxy- 
gen generates  the  greatest  lieat  and  light  ever  produced.  The  most  refrac- 
tory substances  are  fused,  melted,  and  dissipated  immediately.  Before  it 
opal  and  flint  dissolve  into  enamel ;  quartz  and  rock  crystal  are  reduced  to 
glass  ;  the  diamond  and  gold  are  volatilized  ;  brass  wire  and  platina  burn 
with  a  green  flame  ;  emerald,  blue  sapphire,  lapis  lazuli,  and  talc  are  con- 
verted into  glass  ;  copper  melts  without  burning,  and  iron  evolves  a  brilliant 
light, 

Tlie  common  blowpipe  Is  simply  a  bent,  tapering  tube  of  brass,  from  7  to 
10  ins.  long,  with  a  very  minute  orifice  for  the  breath  to  escape.  Small  and 
Simple  as  it  is,  however,  it  is  of  paramount  utility  to  every  miner  and  mill- 
man,  as  by  its  use  every  effect  of  the  most  intense  furnace  heat  may  be 
produced  by  concentrating  to  a  point  the  flame  of  a  candle  or  lamp  by 
urging  it  with  the  breath  upon  a  small  particle  of  any  substance.  By  this 
means  the  identity  and  value  of  most  mineral  substances  may  be  ascertained 
and  established  by  an  operation  requiring  less  than  30  minutes  to  perform  it. 
A  blow-pipe  should  be  of  brass,  Avith  an  ivory  or  liorn  mouth-piece  to  secure 
ease  of  operation  ;  a  chamber  to  retain  the  condensed  moisture  from  the 


992 


BLOW-PIPE  ASSAY,  ::C. 


breath,  and  ri  plutiiunn  tip,  or  point,  to  withstand  immersion  m  tnc  acida 
required  to  ensure  cleanliness. 

]5esides  tlio  l)lo\v-pii)C,  tlie  assayer  requires  the  followin;::  apparatus  :  1. 
An  assay  or  blow-pipe  balance.  2.  A  small  hamiucr  with  sli;;htiy  rounded 
face  and  a  transverse  sharp  cdj;o  attho  otlier  exti'crnity.  .'!.  A  square,  smooth 
piece  of  steel  to  use  as  an  anvil.  4.  A  small  porcelain  or  agate  mortar,  in 
which  to  pulverize  the  assay.  5.  A  mixing  scoop,  in  which  to  mix  ore  with 
fluxes.  G.  A  small  inagnct  to  test  ores  for  iron,  &c.  7.  A  small  magnifying 
glass.  8.  A  small  drill  to  perforate  cavities  in  the  charcoal  in  which  tho 
paper  tubes  containing  the  ore  is  to  be  placed.  9.  A  small  cylinder  to  make 
l)aper  tubes  in  which  to  pack  and  melt  the  tmntiy.  10.  Cupels  made  of  bono 
ash.  11.  A  cupel  holder  made  of  copper  or  brass.  12.  A  variety  of  fluxes, 
charcoal,  &c.  13.  A  steel  forceps,  or  cutting  pliers,  for  separating  small  frag- 
ments of  minerals.  11.  A  small  file,  and  glass  tabes  in  lengths  from  24  to 
3(5  ins,,  with  apertures  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  in.  in  the  clear.  They 
are  cut  with  the  file  into  lengths  of  4  and  8  Ins.,  of  Avhich  tlio  shorter  aro 
open  at  both  ends,  and  ready  for  use.  By  heating  the  8  in.  pieces  over  an 
alcohol  lamp,  with  the  fingers  over  each  end,  until  they  become  red-hot,  and 
then  drawing  them,  they  will  part  in  two  pieces,  each  with  one  end  closed, 
a  most  convenient  form  for  many  operations. 


Fig.  57.— REDtJCixG  Flame. 


Fig.  58.— OxiDizi:yG  Flame. 


To  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  blow-pipe  in  treating  refractory 
minerals,  &c.,  it  is  necessary  that  the  blast  should  bo  continuous.  To  effect 
this,  breathing  and  blowing  should  go  together.  This  may  be  difficult  to  a 
beginner,  but  is  soon  perfected  by  practice  in  breathing  through  the  nostrils 
and  blowing  through  the  instrument  with  the  mouth  at  the  same  time.  Tho 
mode  of  operating  with  the  blow-pipe  is  exhibited  by  Figs.  57  and  58. 

The  blow-pipe  flame  is  formed  of  two  cones  ;  an  inner,  of  a  blue  tint, 
producing  a  most  vehement  heat,  just  beyond  the  verge  of  the  blue  flame. 
This  is  called  the  reduction  flame,  and  should  entirely  envelope  the  assay,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  57.  The  outer,  called  the  oxidation  flame,  is  represented  by 
Fig.  58,  and  in  this  case  the  assay  should  be  placed  just  beyond  the  verge  o'^f 
the  outer  flame,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  To  produce  tho 
former,  tho  point  of  the  blow-i)ipe  must  just  touch  the  flame  as  shown  at  a. 
Fig.  57;  to  produce  the  last  noted,  tho  point  of  the  blow-pipe  must  be  inserted 
a  little  into  the  flame,  as  shown  at  «,  Fig.  58.  The  exact  adjustment  of  the 
blow-pipe,  to  produce  the  desired  effect  in  each  case,  is  well  exhibited  in  the 
engravings.  The  flame  may  be  supplied  by  a  spirit  lamp  ;  a  candle  with 
a  largo  wick,  or  by  a  lamp  with  a  large  wick  fed  with  olive  oil. 

To  sustain  the  mineral  under  treatment  in  the  flame,  a  platinum  Avire  or 
forceps  may  be  used,  or  a  piece  of  sound  charcoal  made  from  pine  wood, 
with  a  slight  cavity  for  the  assay  (to  prevent  it  from  blowing  away  by  the 
blavSt),  will  ansAver  every  purpose.  For  many  minerals  charcoal  is  the  best 
support  obtainable,  as  the  carbon  of  the  coal  renders  great  assistance  to  tho 


BLOW-PIPE  ASSAY,  &C.  993 

reducing  process.  Where  no  better  can  be  had,  mica,  and  the  niiuera} 
liyanite,  may  be  used  as  supports  for  the  assay. 

The  specimens  of  minerals,  &c.,  selected  for  treatment  in  the  blow- 
pil->e  flame  should  be  very  little,  if  any,  larger  than  those  represented  in  tha 
cuts.  With  many  kinds  of  a  refractory  character  very  thiii  specimens  should 
be  selected,  as  thereby  fusion  is  greatly  promoted,  where  otherwise  it  would 
be  impossible.  The  size  of  the  whole  assay  should  be  less  than  the  bulk  of 
a  small  pea. 

Many  minerals  are  absolutely  infusible  without  a  flux  to  aid  reduction. 
The  substances  in  common  use  as  fluxes,  are  :  carbonate  of  soda,  borax,  bi- 
sulphate  ofpotassa,  and  salt  of  phosphorus  or  microcosmic  salt.  The  carbon- 
ate of  soda  should  be  free  from  sulphuric  acid,  as  any  contamination  will 
induce  a  reddish  tint  in  the  glass  obtained  by  the  fusion  of  silica.  To  obtain 
the  full  energy  of  borax  it  should  be  vitrified  by  melting,  on  a  sheet  of  iron 
or  in  a  crucible,  common  borax  into  a  clear,  transparent  glass,  which  is  sub- 
sequently pulverized  and  set  away  in  glass  stoppered  bottles  for  use  as 
required.  This  mvst  be  kept  where  it  will  not  absorb  damp  or  moisture,  which 
ruins  it  for  use.  To  prepare  bi-sulphate  ofpotassa,  mix  in  a  porcelain  cup  2 
ozs.  pulv.  sulphate  of  potassa  and  1  oz.  sulphuric  acid  ;  heat  over  an  alcohol 
lamp  until  the  mixture  assumes  a  quiet,  clear,  transparent  appearance.  It 
is  then  removed  from  the  fire  and  poured  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron.  It  is 
used  for  testing  ore  for  bromine  and  iodine.  To  prepare  salt  of  phosphorus, 
dissolve  16  parts  of  sal-ammoniac  in  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water,  then 
add  100  parts  of  crystallized  phosphate  of  soda,  boilincf  gently  the  whole, 
then  set  off  to  cool.  The  salt  of  phosphorus  is  deposited  in  small  crystals. 
Too  much  heat  while  boiling  will  cause  decomposition. 

The  fluxes  should  be  carefully  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  powdered 
mineral  in  the  mixing  scoop  previous  to  being  inserted  in  the  paper  tubes 
and  placed  on  the  charcoal.  Tough  silver  ore  may  be  treated  in  small 
pieces,  and  three  times  as  much  lead  as  silver  should  be  used.  Proportion 
of  borax  should  be  about  60-lOOOths,  but  more  may  be  added  if  necessary. 
Soda,  when  used,  may  preferably  be  added  in  small  successive  quantities. 
The  paper  tubes  for  receiving  the  assay  are  formed  by  cutting  note  paper 
into  strips  1^  ins.  by  1,  and  winding  the  strips  around  the  small  wooden 
cylinder  (above  noted)  so  as  to  form  a  tube,  in  which  the  asi=ayis  packed 
previous  to  placing  it  on  the  charcoal.  One  part  of  the  tube  should  project 
a  little  over  the  cylinder,  and  this  projecting  part  should  be  turned  down  so 
as  to  close  one  end. 

In  addition  to  the  apparatus  above  noted,  the  assayer  should  have  on 
hand  a  quantity  of  fine  platinum  wire  (bent  at  one  extremity  into  a  circle 
one  or  two  lines  in  diameter)  for  holding  the  assay  during  the  operation  ; 
also,  platinxim  foil,  for  enveloping  minerals  that  decrepitate.  The  following 
chemicals,  etc.,  will  also  prove  useful  in  many  cases  as  reliable  tests  : 

1.  Tin-foil,  for  using  with  various  per-oxides  of  metals  to  reduce  them  to 
protoxides.  By  touching  the  assay,  previously  heated  in  the  reducing-flame, 
with  the  extremity  of  the  tin-foil,  a  very  small  quantity  of  a  metallic  oxide 
may  at  once  be  detected,  2.  Anhydrous  bisulphate  of  potash,  used  for  de- 
tecting lithia.  It  should  be  kept  (well  pulverized)  in  a  bottle  where  it  will 
not  absorb  moisture,  3.  Saltpetre  is  used  in  detecting  manganese.  It  devel- 
opes  the  peculiar  amethystine  color  when  the  amount  of  this  mineral  is  too 
small  to  color  glass  without  this  re-agent.  The  heated  globule  is  touched 
with  the  point  of  a  crystal,  just  at  the  instant  of  suspending  the  blast.  The 
fused  mass  swells,  foams,  and  either  turns  immediately  colored,  or  becomes 
so  soon,  upon  cooling.  4.  Boracic  acid  and  iron  wire  is  used  for  testing  for 
phosphoric  acid.  5.  Mtrate  of  Cobalt  (ipure)  in  solution,  is  used  for  distin- 
guishing alumina  and  magnesia.  Use  a  platinum  wire  inserted  in  cork 
stopper  to  apply  a  drop  when  required  for  use.  G.  Gypsum  and  flvor,  as 
tests  of  each  other.  Two  parts  of  calcined  gypsum  and  one  of  fluor,  when 
intermixed  and  heated,  fuse  into  a  clear  glass,  presenting  a  milk-white  en- 


D94 


TEST  TUJiES,  CUPELLATION,  &C. 


amol  on  coolinjj.  7.  Oxalate  of  2Tickd,  or  Nitrate  of  Nickel,  is  used  to  detect 
potash.  It  should  be  free  from  cobalt,  for  which  it  may  bo  tested  by  treat- 
ing it  with  borax  ;  the  result  Hhould  give  a  brown,  not  a  blue  bead. 

The  behavior  of  different  minerals  before  the  blow-pipe  is  various. 
Some  are  so  refractory  as  to  bo  wholly  infusible  ;  some  specimens  melt  only 
at  the  edfres  ;  others  are  easily  fused,  while  some  are  dissii)ated  wholly  or 
in  part.  Kobell's  scale  for  representing  the  various  degrees  of  fusibility  by 
figures,  is  as  follows:  1.  Gray  Antimony.  2.  Nairoliie.  3.  Cinnamon 
Stone  (Var.  of  garnet).  4.  Black  Hornblende.  5.  Feldspar.  G.  Chrondro- 
dite.  The  fusibility,  when  equal  to  that  of  natroliac.  is  represented  by  2  ; 
or  if  like  hornblende,  by  4,  etc. 


The  tost  tubes  above  noted  are  used  to  determine  the  presence  of  water 
and  other  volatile  components  of  various  ores.  The  mode  of  operation  ia 
exhibited  by  Fig.  59,  in  which  A  represents  the  tube,  B  the  mineral  under 
treatment  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp,  and  C  the  aqueous  or  volatile  pro- 
ducts as  usually  condensed  on  the  np])er  part  of  the  tube.  Acid  fumes 
may  be  detected  by  inserting  a  strip  of  litmus  or  other  test  paper  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  tube  ;  the  fumes,  if  acid,  v/illturn  the  paper  red. 

CurELLAXioN.  The  object  of  this  process  is  to  separate  gold  and  silver 
from  lead,  by  absorbing  and  oxidizing  the  base  metal  while  the  other  is  left 
pure.  Fig.  GO  rej)resents  the  manner  in  which  this  process  is  performed 
by  the  blow-pipe.  A  is  the  assay  under  treatment,  C  is  the  cupel,  and  B  is 
the  cupel  holder.  A  circular  perforation,  about  J  in.  each  Avay,  is  made  in 
a  firm  piece  of  charcoal ;  in  this  cavity  place  some  moistened  bone-ashes, 
pressed  down  smooth ;  dry,  and  on  this  place  the  assay,  and  submit  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  outer  flame.  Under  this  treatment  fusion  takes  place  ;  the  lead 
is  eliminated  as  an  oxide  and  is  absorbed  by  the  bone  ashes,  while  the  sil- 
ver is  left  as  a  small  brilliant  globule  in  the  cavity. 

As  usually  performed,  the  assay  is  treated  in  a  cupel  made  of  bone-ashes 
(or  in  a  small  hollow  on  charcoal,  containing  bone-ashes,  as  above  noted), 
Avhere  the  air  has  free  admission.  The  assay  being  melted,  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere  effects  the  oxidation  of  the  lead,  which  disappears  iu  the 
porous  cupel,  being  absorbed  by  the  bone-ashes. 


Fijj,  59. 


Fig.  60. 


HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE,  &C. 


995 


The  specific  gravity  of  a,  mineral  is  determined  by  tlic  blow-pipe  bal- 
ance, which  is  adapted 'for  hydrostatic  weigliings,  as  represented  by  Fig.  61, 
where  A  is  the  balance  whose  scales  are  suspended  by  threads  of  unequal 
length.  To  obtain  a  density  by  the  balance,  the  inineral  a  must  be  placed 
in  a  sling  suspended  by  a  iiair  or  a  filament  of  silk  from  the  small  hook 
below  the  scale  b.    The  ore,  thus  suspended  ou  the  thread,  is  weighed  and 


Fig.  61.— Hydrostatic  Balance,  &c. 


the  contents  noted.  The  mineral,  still  suspended,  is  next  immersed  about  J 
in.  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  the  glass  vessel  c.  All  adherent 
bubbles  of  air  are  carefully  wiped  away  from  the  ore  ;  it  is  now  weighed  a 
Becoud  time,  and  the  loss  by  immersion  calculated.  By  the  specific  grav- 
ity, or  density  of  a  mineral,  is  understood  its  weight  as  compared  with  tliat 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled  water,  at  the  temp,  of  00°  Fahr. 

The  preceding  instructions  cannot  fail  to  prove  of  immense  utility  to  the 
operator  in  proceeding  with  the  practical  tests  noted  in  the  following  elab- 
orate details  relating  to  minerals,  etc. 

HOW  TO  IDENTIFY  AND  TEST  METALLIC 
ORES  :  CONDENSED  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE 
CHEMISTRY,  GEOGNOSTIC  SITUATION, 
&C.,  OF  METALS. 

Characteristics  of  Metals. — Metals  are  distinguished  by  the  i^roperties  of 
fu.sibility,  malleability,  ductility,  tenacity-,  ela,sticity,  crystalline  texture,  and 
brilliancy,  combined  Avith  the  quality  of  conducting  heat  and  electricity. 

GOLD. — This  metal  is  seldom  found  in  its  native  purity  ;  it  is  found 
only  in  its  metallic  state  in  combination  with  other  metals,  generally  in 
veins  perv\ading  primary  and  secondary  rocks,  as  granite,  slate,  hornstone, 
quartz,  limestone,  sandstone,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  mica,  and  sometimes  in 
graywacke  and  tertiary  strata  ;  also  in  veins  of  silver,  copper,  antimony, 
zinc,  lead,  iron  ore,  barytes,  &c.  The  attrition  of  the  elements  operating  on 
the  containing  rocks  and  metallic  lodes  during  uncounted  ages,  has  washed 
thousands  of  millions  into  the  beds  of  streams,  the  margins  of  i-ivers,  and 
alluvium  or  drift  deposits.  In  the  primary  rocks  it  is  found  mainly  in 
schi.stose  or  slaty  fissures. 

In  external  appearance  gold  is  of  a  golden  or  orange  yellow  color,  pass- 
ing into  grayish  or  brass  yellow,  and  is  the  heaviest  of  metals  except  pla- 
tina.  It  is  the  most  ductile,  tenacious,  and  malleable  of  all  the  metals.'  On 
being  struck  with  a  hammer  it  will  flatten  out  ;  iron  and  copper  i-)yrites, 
and  yellow  mJca,  which  resemble  it,  will  crumble  under  this  test.  Inter- 
nally it  is  bright  yellow,  shining,  glistening  and  metallic.  It  lias  equal  axes 
like  the  cube,  has  no  cleavage,  has  a  hackly  fracture,  and  often  exists 
crystalUzcd  in  cubes,  octohedrons,  rhomboidal  dodecahedrons,  and  tetra- 
hedrons. ' 


99G  SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLURGY,  AO. 

Gold  is  fusible  with  tlio  blow-plpo  (use  the  reducing  flame  with  carbon, 
ate  of  soda  for  lliix),  inelts  at  255)0°,  is  soluble  in  nitro-muriatie  acid,  -which 
is  simply  2  ])arts  muriatic  acid  and  1  part  nitric  acid,  and  remains  unal- 
tered by  exposure  to  simplo  acids,  air,  or  moisture.  Nitric  acid  (aqua 
fortis)  will  dissolve  any  suspected  brass  filings  in  gold  dust.  Specific  grav- 
ity 19.20  to  19.5. 

ly  Solutions  of  Gold  (Peroxide),  Ammonia  produces  a  yellow  precip- 
itate (aurate  of  ammonia  or  fulminating  gold)  ;  Ferrocyanide  of  Fotassuivi 
produces  an  emerald  green  color  ;  Oxalic  Acid  produces  a  precipitate  of 
metallic  gold  ;  Protosnlphate  of  Iron  produces  in  concentrated  solutions  an 
instant  precipitate  of  metallic  gold.  In  dilute  solutions  a  blue  coloring  is 
first  perceived,  followed  by  a  brown-colored  precipitate  ;  Potassa  (in  heated 
solutions),  after  a  time  produces  a  trifling  reddish-brown  precipitate,  con- 
sisting of  teroxide  of  gold  mixed  with  terchloride  of  gold  and  potassa. 
Protochloride  of  Tin,  to  which  a  drop  of  nitric  acid  has  been  added,  im- 
parts a  reddish  purple  color  to  very  dilute  solutions  ;  in  concentrated  solu- 
tions a  red-purple  precipitate  (purple  of  Cassius)  is  formed.  A  Bar  of 
Metallic  Zinc  precipitates  metallic  gold  in  the  form  of  a  brown  coating. 

PLATINUM. — This  metal  is  mainly  found  in  alluvium  or  drift,  some- 
times in  granite^  syenite,  &c.,  combined  witli  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  &c,,  but  always  in  the  metallic  state  in  round  grains  and  rolled  pieces 
about  the  size  of  peas,  and  like  largo  iron  filings. 

In  color  platinum  is  steel-gray,  nearly  resembling  silver,  but  not  quite 
so  bright.  In  lustre  it  is  shining  and  glistening  ;  in  structure  it  is  some- 
times lameller  ;  is  malleable  and  ductile  ;  with  hardness  almost  equal  to 
that  of  iron. 

Platinum  is  infusible  in  the  hottest  furnaces,  but  melts  readily  before 
the  reducing  flame  of  the  compound  blow-pipe  at  a  temp,  of  3080°.  Dis- 
solves in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  is  unaffected  by  exposure  to  air,  mois- 
ture, or  simple  acids.    Specific  gravity  20.98. 

In  Solutions  of  Platinum  (Peroxide),  Potassa  produces  a  yellow  crys- 
talline precipitate,  consisting  of  the  double  chloride  of  platinum  and  potas- 
sium ;  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  favors  its  formation  ;  it  is  insolu- 
ble in  acids,  bxit  dissolves  in  potassa  Avith  the  aid  of  lieat  ;  it  is  very  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  and  insoluble  in  strong  alcohol ;  Chloride  of  Tin,  in  pres- 
ence of  free  hydrochloric  acid,  imparts  to  solutions  of  bichloride  of  i)lati- 
uum  a  deep-brown  color  without  producing  any  precipitate  ;  Subnitrate  of 
Mercury  produces  a  yellowish  red  precipitate. 

SILVER.— This  metal  is  found  native,  as  also  combined  with  muriatic 
acid  and  sulphur  in  primary  and  secondary  slates.  Great  quantities  exist 
in  the  metallic  state  combined  with  gold,  copper,  arsenic,  and  lead,  in 
rocks  composed  of  mica-slate,  gneiss,  clay-slate,  graywacke, 

Native  Silver  occurs  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  irregular  quartz, 
&c.,  with  the  ores  of  copper,  silver,  cobalt.  In  color  it  is  white,  sometimes 
a  tarnished  gray,  or  reddish  shade.  It  occurs  in  plates  and  spangles,  and 
crystallized  in  tubes,  octohedrons,  rhomboidal  docabedrons  and  tetrahe- 
drons, dentiform,  capillary,  ramose,  reticulated,  rarely  large,  and  generally 
disseminated.  When  broken  if  appears  fine  and  hackly,  with  a  bright, 
shining  lustre.    Its  color  and  malleability  are  prominent  characteristics. 

It  is  composed  of  silver  with  a  little  iron,  antimony,  copper,  or  arsenic, 
is  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  is  fusibl*  into  a  globule,  and  melts  at  ISTS**  Fahr. 
Oxide  of  silver  with  borax  in  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  forms  a 
white  opaque  glass  ;  in  reducing  flame,  with  carbonate  of  soda,  readily  re- 
duces to  metal.    Specific  gravity  10  to  10.5. 

Antimonial  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  84  parts  ;  antimony,  14  parts  ;  oc- 
curs in  granite  and  clay-slate,  combined  with  the  other  ores  of  silver  ;  is 
found  in  curved  laminie,  also  in  grains,  in  cylinders.  Is  massive ;  yields  to 
the  knife  ;  has  a  coiichoidal  fracture  ;  and  is  fusible  under  the  blow-pipe 


SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLURGY. 


997 


(evolving  nntimonial  vapors)  into  ii  button  of  silver.  The  characteristics 
are,  the  antimonial  vapor,  a  silver  or  tin-wliito  color,  the  want  o£  ductility, 
and  not  giving  a  blue  globule  with  borax. 

Sulphuret  of  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  85  parts  ;  sulphur,  15  parts  ;  a 
very  productive  ore  ;  occurs  in  the  primary  and  secondary  rocks  ;  is  of  a 
dark,  lead-gray  color  ;  frequently  with  an  iridiscent  tinge,  and  exists  in 
tubes  and  octohedrons  ;  also  ramose,  reticulated,  araori)lious,  lamelliform, 
and  in  plates.  The  characteristics  are,  malleability  ;  imperfect  cleavage  ; 
flat,  conchoidal  fracture  ;  can  be  cut  with  a  knife  ;  has  less  specific  gravit}; 
than  native  silver,  and  fnses  Avith  intumeseuce  and  a  sulphurous  odor  un- 
der  the  blow-pipe.    Specific  gravity,  7. 

Brittle  Sulphuret  of  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  G6. 5  parts  ;  antimony,  10 
parts  ;  sulphur,  12  parts  ;  iron,  5  parts  ;  arsenic  and  sulphur,  5  parts  ;  is  a 
very  rich  ore,  and  occurs  in  the  primary  rocks  with  otlier  ores  of  silver. 
It  exists  in  crystalline  structure  and  diffused  ;  also  in  hexahedral  prisms, 
and  is  of  a  dark,  lead-gray  hue,  or  bluish-gray,  passing  into  iron-black.  The 
structure  is  foliated  ;  crystals  mostly  intercept  each  other,  Avith  a  dull,  me- 
tallic lustre.  The  ore  is  soft  and  brittle  ;  the  fracture  is  conchoidal.  Solu- 
ble in  nitric  acid,  and  fusible,  with  the  emission  of  sulphur,  antimony  and 
arsenic,  into  a  globule  of  silver  surrounded  by  a  slag.  The  character- 
istics, compared  with  other  ores,  are  its  darlc  color  and  brittleness  ;  from 
sulphuret  of  silver  it  differs  in  its  lack  of  malleabilit3\    Specific  gravity,  7. 

Salphureted  Antimonial  Silver  {Red  Silver),  composed  of  silver,  (JO  parts  ; 
antimony,  20.3  parts  ;  sulphur,  14.7  parts  ;  oxygen,  5  parts  ;  is  an  excellent 
ore,  and  is  found  in  primary  rocks,  mainly  in  mica-slate,  granite  and  por- 
phyry. It  possesses  a  metallic  adamantine  lustre  ;  structure  is  imperfectly 
foliated,  has  a  red  color  of  various  tints,  passing  into  lead-gray  and  grayish- 
black  ;  the  powder  is  crimson  red.  It  exists  in  masses  and  grains,  also 
dentritic,  capillary,  membranous,  and  crystallized  in  hexahedral  prisms, 
terminated  by  hexahedral  i^risms  ;  also  in  double  six-sided  pyramids  ;  is 
translucent,  opaque. 

The  characteristics  are,  malleability,  differs  from  sulphuret  of  arsenic 
in  leaving  a  globule  of  silver,  and  in  possessing  greater  specific  gravity.  Is 
fusible,  with  emission  of  antimonial  fumes.  Sulphuret  of  mercury  volatil- 
izes under  the  blow-pipe.  The  red  oxide  of  copper  is  readily  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  the  blow-pipe  ;  specular  oxide  of  iron  is  rendered  magnetic 
by  the  same  process.    Specific  gravity,  6.20  to  G.68. 

Muriate  of  Silver  (Horn  Silver),  composed  of  muriate  of  silver,  88.7 
parts;  oxide  of  iron,  G  parts  ;  alumine,  1.75  parts  ;  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vit- 
riol), 0.25  parts  ;  an  excellent  ore  ;  is  found  in  the  primary  rocks,  with  other 
ores.  In  color  is  pearl  gray,  greenish  or  reddish-blue,  yellowish  or  greenish- 
white  and  brown.  In  lustre  is  glistening  and  wavy.  Is  malleable  ;  feebly 
translucent  ;  becomes  brown  by  exposure.  Exists  massive,  investing  otlier 
minerals,  amorphous,  reniform,  and  crystallized  in  tubes,  octohedrons,  and 
acicular  prisms. 

The  characteristics  are,  the  emission  of  muriatic  acid  fumes  before 
the  blow-pipe  ;  fusibility  in  the  flame  of  a  cahdle  ;  softness  ;  yields  to  the 
knife  and  to  pressure.  Abraded  on  damp  or  wet  zinc  it  leaves  a  film  of 
silver.  Muriate  of  mercury  volatilizes  before  blow-pipe  without  leaving  a 
film  of  silver.    Specific  gravity,  5.5. 

MERCURY. — This  metal  rarely  occurs  in  its  native  stat6.  By  far  the 
greater  part  is  found  in  the  form  of 

Sulphuret  of  Mercury  {Ci7inabar),  composed  of  mercury,  84.5  parts  ;  sul- 
phur, 14. 75  parts.  It  occurs  mainly  in  new  red  sandstone  ;  occasionally  in 
limestone,  mica-slate,  graywacke,  gneiss,  deposits  of  bituminous  shale,  com- 
bined with  black  mineral  resin,  alluvium,  clay,  gray  sandstone  and  limestone, 
and  in  rocks  of  the  coal  formation.  In  color  it  is  scarlet  or  carmine,  shading 
off  into  cochineal  red  and  lead-gray,  occasionally  witli  a  yellow  tint.  la 
tmnsluccut  or  opaque.  Occurs  massive  and  crystallized  in  acute  rhomboids; 


998 


SYNOPSIS  OF  MKTALLIFRGY,  &C. 


certain  kinds  with  a  yellow  tint;  is  somctiincs  found  in  thin  pI:itof<  or  tubnlai 
crystiils.  Lustre  is  adamantino,  varying  to  metallic  ;  occasionally  shining 
silky.   The  fracture  is  granular  or  fibrous. 

Tlie  characteristics  are,  the  emission  of  sulphur  vapors,  Avhilc  the  com- 
pound volatilizes  before  the  blow-pipe.  Tiiis  test  determines  the  difference 
between  this  ore  and  red  silver  ore,  arsenate  of  cobalt,  red  oxide  of  copper, 
and  sulphuret  of  arsenic.   Specific  gravity,  8. 

COPPER. — Copper  is  found  in  ])rimary  and  transition  rocks,  syenite, 
pandstono,  coal  strata  and  alluvial  ground.  It  occurs  in  beds  and  largo 
blocks.    The  ores  of  copper  are  the  following  : 

Native  Copper  is  nearly  pure,  and  is  found  in  the  veins  of  primary  and 
secondary  rocks.  In  color  is  copper-red,  brownish-black  ;  tarnished  exter- 
nally ;  is  malleable,  fusible  at  2518°  Fahr.,  and  soluble  in  acids.  Occurs 
dentritic,  reuiform,  capillary,  amorphous  ;  also  crystallized  in  tubes  and 
octohedrons.    Specific  gravity,  8.5. 

Gray  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  52  parts  ;  iron,  23  parts  ;  and  sulphur, 
14  parts ;  is  found  with  other  ores  of  copper.  In  color  is  steel-gray,  verging 
into  black,  with  brownish  streak.  Is  brittle,  with  metallic  lustre,  and  small 
crystals.  Specular  oxide  of  iron  gives  out  arsenical  fumes  Avhen  heate"^  ;  is 
magnetic,  and  softer  than  arsenical  iron.  Gray  copper  ore  is  fnsible  but 
very  refractory.    Specific  gravity,  5. 

Copper  Pyrites,  composed  of  copper,  40  to  35.3  ;  iron,  40  to  33:  sulphnr,  20 
to  35;  a  very  valuable  ore;  is  found  in  beds  and  veins  in  primary  and  second- 
ary rocks  as  well  as  in  other  prominent  formations.  The  color  is  brass-- 
yellow,  with  metallic  lustre  ;  lamellar  structure  ;  tessular  cleavage,  and 
uneven  fracture.  Is  the  most  abundant  ore  of  copper  ;  yields  to  the  knife. 
It  occurs  dendritic  ;  stalactical ;  amorphous  ;  in  concretions,  and  crystallized 
in  tetrahedrons  and  dodecahedrons.  Is  fnsible,  and  tinges  borax  green. 
Iron  pyrites  does  not  tinge  borax  green.  Lacks  malleability.  Native  gold 
is  malleable  and  native  bismuth  is  lamellated.    Specific  gravity,  4.3. 

Sidphitret  of  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  76.50  parts  ;  sulplmr  22,  ; 
iron,  0.50  ;  is  found  located  same  as  the  last  noted  ore.  Exterior  color  is 
blackish  steel-gray,  occasionally  iridescent ;  internally  is  lead-gray.  Has 
lamellar  structure  ;  conchoidal  fracture  ;  is  easily  sectile,  with  brilliant 
faces  ;  crumbles  readily,  and  has  equal  axes  like  the  cube. 

The  characteristics  "are,  fusibility,  with  the  emission  of  sulphur  fumes ; 
is  also  soluble  in  hot  nitric  acid.  Is  distinguished  from  gray  copper  oi-e 
by  being  softer,  also  by  the  latter  decrepitating,  before  the  biow-pix)e.  A 
very  productive  ore.   Specific  gravity,  5. 

Blue  Carbonate  of  Copper,  composed  of  oxide  of  copper,  70  parts  ;  carbonic 
acid,  24  parts  ;  w.ater,  G  parts  ;  is  found  in  the  primary  and  secondary  rocks. 
The  color  is  blue,  fracture  irregularly  foliated,  generally  showing  broad 
fibres.  Occurs  massive  ;  diffused  ;  stalactical ;  incrnsting,  and  crystal- 
lized. 

The  chai-acteristics  are,  solubility  in  nitric  acid  with  effervescence,  is 
refractory  without  a  flux  ;  fused  with  borax  yields  a  green  glass  ;  does  not 
become  magnetic  under  the  blow-pipe,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  Copper 
melts  at  2548o. 

Red  Oxide  of  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  88.5  to  91  parts  ;  oxygen,from 
11.5  to  9  parts ;  is  found  Avith  other  ores  of  copper.  Is  of  a  red  color,  lamel- 
lated structure,  metallic,  adamantine  lustre  ;  is  brittle,  translucent,  easily 
sectile  ;  has  irregular  and  conchoidal  fracture.  Is  found  amorphous  and 
crystallized  in  octahedrons  and  cubes. 

The  prominent  characteristics  are,  easy  reduction  and  solubility  ;  is 
soluble  in  nitric  acid  with  effervescence  and  in  muriatic  acid  without.  Oxide 
of  copper  fuses  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe  ;  in  the  reducing 
flame  forms  metal  ;  Avith  borax,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  colors  the  glass 
green  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  browu-red.    Specii5e  gravity,  4  to  5.9. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLUKGY,  &C.  999 

IRON. — Occurs  both  in  primary  and  secondary  rocks.  Tlie  principal 
ores  from  whicli  iron  is  extracted  are  the  following  : 

Broxon  Hematite. — This  ore  is  found  in  primary  rocks  and  occasionally 
in  secondary  formations.  It  yields  a  superior  iron.  In  color  it  is  brown, 
yellowish,  or  blackish-brown  ;  on  the  outside  resembling  black  glazed  earth- 
en-ware. It  yields  to  the  knife  ;  is  fibrous  in  structure,  with  silky  and  res- 
inous lustre.  It  occurs  stalactical,  tuberous,  nodular,  and  amorphous.  A 
variety  of  this  ore  lias  a  compact  structure,  devoid  of  lustre,  with  yellow- 
ish-brown streak,  and  conchoidal  or  earthy  fracture. 

Specxdar  Oxide  of  Iron  {Iron  Glance),  composed  of  iron,  G9  parts  ; 
oxygen,  31  parts  ;  yields  an  excellent  malleable  iron,  and  occurs  mainly  in 
primary  rocks,  associated  with  magnetic  iron,  red  hematite,  quartz,  &c.  ; 
occurs  also  in  secondary  rocks.  In  color  is  steel-gray,  with  a  highly  polish- 
ed surface  ;  often  tarnished.  Occurs  crystallized  in  pyramidal  dodecahe- 
drons, hexahedral  tables  ;  also  massive,  disseminated,  in  concretions.  Has 
a  cherry-red  streak,  lamellar  structure  ;  brilliant  lustre  ;  is  slightly  attracted 
by  the  magnet  ;  infusible  ;  and  insoluble  iu  acids.  Affords  a  red  powder  on 
being  heated,  and  becomes  magnetic.    Specific  gravity,  .5.52. 

Eed  Hematite,  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  90  parts ;  silica,  2  parts ;  lime, 
Ipart;  yields  a  first-class  iron  for  drawing  and  rolhng  ;  is  found  mainly  in 
primarj^  rocks  ;  frequently  in  lead  mines.  In  color  is  blood-red;  also  steel- 
gray.  Yields  readily  to  the  knife  ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  plates;  also  re- 
niform,  globular,  and  pulverulent.  It  adheres  to  the  tongue;  the  fracture 
is  uneven  and  earthy.  Is  infusible,  but  becomes  magnetic.  Specific  gravity, 
4.75. 

Spathic  Iron  {Clay  Iron  Ore),  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  58  parts;  car- 
bonic acid,  35  parts;  oxide  of  manganese,  4.25  parts  ;  magnesia,  0.75 parts; 
lime,  0.05  parts  ;  yields  an  iron  well  adapted  for  steel  making  ;  is  found 
principally  in  carboniferous  limestone,  arranged  in  thick  formations  ;  also 
in  veins  in  granite,  mica-slate,  clay-slate,  gneiss,  and  gray  wacke ;  associated 
•with  ores  of  silver,  lead,  and  cobalt,  but  seldom  in  nickel  or  bismuth  ;  more 
frequently  with  galena,  iron  pyrites,  antimony  ore,  and  copper  ore.  In 
otlier  veins  it  is  associated  with  brown,  red,  and  black  iron  ore,  quartz,  and 
calcareous  spar  ;  occurs  also  filling  up  amygdaloidal  cavities  in  trai>rocks. 

The  colors  of  the  ore  are,  yellow,  brown,  white,  and  black.  It  yields 
to  the  knife,  is  easily  broken  ;  the  structure  is  foliated  or  lamellar,  vpith 
shining,  vitreous  lustre,  and  white,  or  yellowish-brown  streak.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated  with  pyramidal  impressions;  also  in  granular  distinct 
concretions  ;  nodular  and  crystallized.  Crystals  are  usually  small,  and 
exist  in  groups. 

The  chemical  tests  are  :  effervescence  -with  muriatic  acid  ;  is  infusible, 
blackens,  and  becomes  magnetic.  Heated  with  borax,  it  makes  an  olive- 
green  glass.  It  m.-fy  be  distinguished  from  earthy  minerals  by  its  -weight, 
from  other  iron  ores  by  its  crystalline  foliated  cleavage,  and  from  blendo 
by  its  yielding  magnetic  iron.   Specific  gravity,  about  4. 

Magnetic  Oxide  of  Iron  {Iron  *S'and),  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  85.50 
parts  ;  oxide  of  titanium,  14  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  0.50  parts  ;  an  ex- 
cellent ore,  yielding  from  50  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  best  bar  iron,  is  generally 
found  imbedded  in  trai)-rocks,  and  styled  mountain  ore.  The  color  is  iron- 
black  ;  is  found  in  octahedral  crystals,  also  in  minute  grains.  The  powder 
is  black  ;  the  fracture  conchoidal ;  intensely  magnetic,  and  infusible  by  the 
blow-pipe. 

Peroxide  of  iron  remains  unchanged  in  the  oxidizing  flame  of  the  blow- 
I)ipe  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  blackens  and  becomes  magnetic  ;  with  borax, 
in  the  oxidizing  flame,  forms  glass  bright-red  while  hot,  pale  dirty-red  when 
cold  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  forms  glass  varying  from  bottle-green  to  black- 
green  ;  with  carbonate  of  soda,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal  as  a  dark 
magnetic  powder.    Specific  gravity,.  G.22. 


1000  SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLUIIGY,  &C. 

Tests  for  Iron. — Prussiato  of  ]x)ta.sli  added  to  iron  dissolved  in  an  acid 
causes  a  blue  precipitate,  and  an  infusion  of  galls  a  black  precipitate. 

LEAD. — The  principal  ore  from  which  the  great  mass  of  the  lead  ol 
commerce  is  obtained  is  the  stilplmret  of  lead,  or  r/alena.  It  is  com- 
posed of  lead,  sulphur,  lime,  and  silex,  and  is  often  combined  with  ores 
of  silver,  and  frequently  with  ores  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron.  It  occurs  in 
beds,  veins,  and  imbedded  masses  in  primary  jind  secondary  rocks  ;  fre- 
quently in  the  latter,  and  very  often  in  limestone  ;  also  in  alluvial  deposits. 

Tiie  shades  of  color  are  bluish-gray,  lead-gray,  and  on  the  outside  blackish- 
gray.  Is  soft ;  yields  to  the  knife  ;  has  a  lamellated  structure  ;  metallic 
lustre,  very  brittle,  and  opaque  Submitted  to  heat,  it  first  decrepitates,  Avitli 
the  emission  of  sulphur  fumes,  then  melts  into  a  globule  of  lead  ;  blende, 
molybdena  and  graphite,  which  resemble  this  ore,  arc  infusible. 

Tests  for  Lead. — Oxalic  acid  produces  in  neutral  solutions  of  oxide  of 
lead  a  white  precipitate.  Glauber's  salts  and  an  infusion  of  galls,  give  to 
a  solution  of  this  metal  a  white  precipitate.  Oxide  of  lead,  in  oxidizing 
flame  before  the  blow-pipe,  turns  first  blue,  then  fuses  to  a  glass  of  orange 
color  ;  with  carbonate  of  soda,  on  charcoal,  in  the  reducing  flame,  reduces 
to  metal  ;  with  borax,  forms  glass  yellow  while  liot^  colorless  Avhile  cold. 

TIN. — The  regular  ore  from  which  this  metal  is  extracted  is  : 

Oxide  of  Tin  ( Tinstone),  composed  of  tin,  77.6  parts  ;  oxygen,  21.5  parts; 
oxide  of  iron,  0.25  part ;  silica,  0.75  part  ;  usually  occurs  in  primary  rocks 
in  veins,  traversing  gneiss,  granite,  mica-slate,  poqAyry,  and  clay-slate, 
and  is  generally  found  with  iron  pyrites,  chlorite,  quartz,  topaz,  fluor,  &c 
The  metal  obtained  from  ores  thus  located  is  called  block  tin.  The  grain 
tin  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  stream  tin  ore  found  in  alluvium  and 
drift. 

The  colors  are  black,  brown,  green,  red,  white,  and  yellow.  It  is  brittle, 
gives  sparks  with  steel  ;  has  a  lamellar  structure,  with  adamantine  or 
resinous  lustre,  and  grayish-white  streak.  Occurs  iu  crystals,  and  in  masses 
from  the  size  of  grains  to  that  of  the  fist. 

On  a  chemical  test  it  decrepitates,  but  by  the  blow-pipe  it  may  be  reduced 
to  tlie  metallic  state  on  charcoal.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  spathic  iron 
by  the  latter  leaving  an  iron  button  under  the  blow-pipe.  Blende  cannot 
be  reduced,  and  is  not  so  hard.   Specific  gravity,  6.7  to  7. 

Tests  for  Tin. — In  solution  of  tin  oxide,  phosphate  of  soda  produces  a 
white  precipitate.  A  bar  of  metallic  zinc  precipitates  tin  in  small  grayish- 
white  metallic  spangles.  To  a  solution  containing  the  metal,  present  a  per- 
fectly clean  sheet  of  iron,  the  result  is  metallic  tin.  Oxide  of  tin,  in  the 
oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  presents  a  dirty-yellow  color  ;  with 
carbonate  of  soda,  in  reducing  flame,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal ;  with 
borax  forms  a  clear  glass. 

ZINC. — One  of  the  ores  of  zinc  is  : 

Blende  {Mock  Lead,  False  Galena,  Black  Jack),  composed  of  zinc,  sul- 
phur, iron,  and  silica  ;  is  found  in  veins  of  primary  and  secondary  rocks, 
usually  united  with  iron  and  copper,  with  galena.  It  is  frequently  used 
after  roasting  in  the  preparation  of  brass,  but  is  usually  too  much  dissemi^ 
nated  in  its  gangue  to  make  its  extraction  profitable. 

The  colors  are  brown,  yellow,  and  black.  It  is  brittle,  yields  to  the 
knife,  has  a  foliated  structure,  with  shining,  adamantine  lustre.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  lamelliforra,  in  granular  concretions,  and  crystal- 
lized. It  decrepitates  when  heated  ;  evolves  the  smell  of  rotten  eggs  when 
thrown  into  oil  of  vitriol  ;  is  infusible,  and  does  not  tinge  borax  green. 
Specific  gravity,  3.7  to  4. 

Calamine,  composed  of  oxide  of  zinc  and  carbonic  acid,  is  found  in  veins, 
often  associated  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  occasionally  with  galena ;  is  also 
found  in  beds,  nests,  filling  up  or  lining  hollows,  in  conglomerato  rock  and 
secondary  limestone. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLURGY,  &C.  1001 

The  colors  are  sometimes  nearly  "white,  at  others  gray,  greenish,  or 
brown-  yellowisli.  Is  easily  sectile.  Occurs  compact,  amorphous,  pseudo- 
morphous,  crystallized,  and  cupriferous.  In  chemical  tests  it  dissolves 
with  efferveseuce  in  heated  nitric  acid,  or  muriatic  acid,  and  is  infusible. 
Oxide  of  zinc,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  exhibits  a 
whitish-green  color  ;  while  hot  this  oxide  is  slightly  yellow— Avhen  cold  is 
white  :  with  borax  forms  glass,  which  in  an  intermittant  flame  becomes 
milky  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  on  charcoal,  reduced  to  metal,  which  readily 
sublimes. 

Eed  Ore  of  Zinc,  composed  of  oxide  of  manganese  and  oxide  of  zinc,  is 
found  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  limestone,  and  iron  mines.  It  is 
brittle  ;  yields  to  the  knife  ;  has  a  foliated  structure  and  shining  lustre, 
becoming  dull  by  exposure.  The  color  is  red  ;  it  occurs  massive  and  dis- 
seminated. In  chemical  tests  it  dissolves  with  effervescence  in  strong  acids. 
Is  distinguishable  by  its  weight  and  iufusibility .    Specific  gravity,  G.22. 

MANGANESE.— This  metal  in  its  metallic  state  is  of  no  avail  in  the 
arts.  The  ore,  which  subserves  all  required  uses  without  preparation,  is 
called 

BlacJc  Oxide  of  Manganese. — ^It  is  composed  of  manganese,  oxygen,  and 
water  ;  is  found  in  imbedded  masses  and  veins  in  primary  rocks,  and  often 
with  ores  of  iron.  The  color  is  of  a  dark  steel-gray,  with  metallic  lustre, 
black  streak,  and  conchoidal  earthy  fracture.  It  occurs  massive,  in  fibrous 
concretions,  and  crystallized.  In  a  chemical  test  is  decomposed  by  being 
thrown  into  water,  and  turns  the  water  green.  On  exposure  to  the  air  ab- 
sorbs so  much  oxygen  that  it  falls  into  powder.  Is  infusible  alone,  but  with 
borax  yields  a  purple  globule  ;  becomes  brown  by  lieat ;  with  borax,  in  the 
oxidizing  flame,  much  oxide  employed,  the  glass  is  black  ;  little  oxide  em- 
ployed, the  glass  is  of  an  amethyst  color — in  the  reducing  flame,  and  on 
charcoal,  this  latter  globule  becomes  colorless,  and  so  remains  if  quickly 
cooled  ;  with  soda  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  and  on  platinum  foil,  forms  an 
opaque  green  glass. 

COBALT. — This  metal  is  of  no  avail  in  its  metallic  state  for  use  in  the 
arts  ;  is  in  use  mainly  by  painters  and  bronzers,  as  zaffre,  smalt,  &c.  The 
ore  producing  them  is. 

Arsenical  Cobalt,  composed  of  cobalt,  arsenic,  and  sulphur,  is  found 
combined  with  silver,  bismuth,  nickel,  arsenic,  and  copper,  in  veins  trav- 
ersing primary  rocks.  The  color  is  silver-white,  with  a  reddish  copper  tint. 
Has  a  metallic  lustre  ;  is  brittle  ;  difiicult  to  cut ;  with  conchoidal  fracture. 
Occurs  massive,  reticulated,  dendritic,  stalactical,  and  crystallized  in  cubes 
and  octahedrons.  Fused  with  borax  it  yields  a  blue  glass.  Turns  black, 
with  the  emission  of  garlic  fumes,  in  the  blaze  of  a  candle.  The  oxide  is 
unchangeable  by  itself  (before  the  blow-pipe),  but  with  carbonate  of  soda, 
on  charcoal,  forms  a  gray  magnetic  powder  ;  with  borax,  both  in  oxidizing 
and  reducing  flame,  gives  a  deep  blue  bead.    Specific  gravity,  6.30  to  7.30. 

For  full  directions  for  preparing  smalt,  see  page  283. 

NICKEL, — The  ore  from  which  this  metal  is  derived  is. 

Arsenical  Nickel  {Knpfer,  or  Copper  Nickel),  composed  of  nickel,  arsenic, 
sulphur,  lead,  iron,  and  cobalt,  is  found  associated  with  cobalt.  It  occurs 
massive,  reticulated,  and  botryoidal.  In  color  is  copper  red,  with  metallic 
lustre  ;  is  cut  with  difficulty  ;  forms  a  green  solution  in  aqua  fortis,  and 
emits  garlic  fumes  when  heated.  Oxide  of  nickel  (before  the  blow-pipe)  is 
infusible  alone  ;  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  with  borax,  forms  an  orange-red 
globule  which  becomes  nearly  colorless  on  cooling  ;  in  the  reducing  flame, 
on  charcoal,  the  bead  becomes  gray  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  with  soda,  on 
charcoal,  reduces  to  a  magnetic  jjowder.    Specific  gravity,  6.60  to  7.70. 

BISMUTH. — This  mineral  is  often  found  in  its  pure  state  fit  for  imme- 
diate use,  but  more  frequently  associated  with  cobalt,  iron  pyrites,  galena, 
arsenic,  silver,  &c.,  in  the  primary  rocks,  especially  in  gneiss,  quaitz,  and 
mica-slate.   In  color  is  silver-Avhite,  with  a  reddish  tint.   Is  softer  thaij 


1002  SYNOPSIS  OP  METALLURGY,  &C. 

copper  ;  tarnishes  ;  has  a  metallic  lustre,  lamellar  structure,  and  melts  ai 
47{j*^.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  bismuth  fuses  and  gives  off  inodorous  fumes. 
On  charcoal  it  becomes  surrounded  with  a  dark  brown  oxide,  which  is  pale- 
yellow  on  coolinj?  ;  the  flame  directed  on  the  coatinpc  is  not  tinged  ;  ulti- 
mately the  metal  is  wholly  vaporized.  The  oxide  of  bismutli,  with  carbon- 
ate of^soda,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal.    Specific  gravity,  9. 

ANTIMONY.— The  ore  from  which  commercial  autimoiiy  is  obtained  is 

the 

Sulplniret  of  Antimony,  composed  of  antimony,  74  parts  ;  sulphur,  2G 
parts  ;  and  found  chiefly  "in  granite,  mica-slate,  and  gneiss,  associated  with 
ores  of  iron,  copper,  arsenic,  blende  and  galena.  It  occurs  crystallized  and 
massive,  composed  of  delicate  threads  or  needles.  Is  brittle  ;  yields  to  the 
knife  ;  has  fibrous  fracture  and  splendid  lustre.  Tested  in  a  candle-flame 
it  melts.  The  ores  of  antimony  afford  fumes  usually  white  on  charcoal, 
which  are  inodorous.  The  oxides  form,  with  soda  on  the  platinum  wire,  a 
clear,  colorless  bead,  whicli  becomes  white  on  cooling  ;  on  charcoal  they 
are  reduced.  In  an  open  tube,  antimony  gives  white  funics,  which  coat 
tlie  glass  and  vaporize  easily  on  a  new  application  of  the  heat,  without 
fusion  to  globules.    Specific  gravity,  4  to  4.80. 

GRAPHITE  (Black  Lead,  Plumbago),  composed  of  carbon,  9  parts  ; 
iron,  1  part ;  is  found  in  clay-slate,  also  in  the  coal  formation.  The  Dixon 
Crucible  Co.,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  obtain  their  graphite  from  the  "  Black 
Lead  Mountain,"  near  the  village  of  Ticonderoga,  Essex  Co.,  N.  Y.  The 
ore  is  chiefly  of  the  foliated  variety,  interspersed  in  gneiss  and  quartz  in 
veins.    Graphite  is  also  found  in  great  abundance  near  Ottawa,  Canada. 

ROCK  SALT  is  found  in  secondary  strata  ;  frequently  associated  witli 
gypsum,  marl,  clay,  &c.  Near  Goderidi,  in  Canada,  at  a  depth  of  about 
1000  ft.,  there  is  a  bed  of  rock-salt  14  to  40  ft.  thick.  The  salt  of  Salina  and 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  obtained  from  wells  of  saltwater  150  ft.  and  upwards  in 
depth,  which  are  borings  in  saliferous  rocks,  which  here  are  from  700  to 
1000  ft.  thick.  From  35  to  45  gals,  of  the  water  yields  a  bushel  of  salt, 
while  of  sea  water  it  takes  350  gals,  for  the  same  quantity. 

PRECIOUS  STONES. — Diamonds  are  found  in  association  with  sand  or 
alluvium  which  contain  grains  of  gold.  In  Brazil  the  diamond  district  is 
called  Minas  Geraes,  50  miles  by  25,  near  Tejuco.  The  emerald,  garnet, 
amethyst,  tourmaline,  chalcedony,  topaz,  chryspraso,  chrysoberyl,  sapphire, 
iolite,  spinel,  are  always  found  in  the  primary  rocks.  The  sardonyx,  jas- 
per, carnelian,  cacholong,  are  often  found  in  secondary  strata,  principally  in 
the  trap  rocks.  Cairngorm  is  a  species  of  quartz.  The  exudations  which 
form  crystals  are  a  very  extensive  mode  of  rock  formation  in  all  varieties. 
For  hardness  of  precious  stones  see  page  925. 

COAL. — Among  the  varieties  of  coal  may  be  noted 

Anthracite  {Blind  or  Glance  Coal),  sometimes  called  stove  coal,  is  found 
in  imbedded  masses,  veins  and  beds  in  primary  and  secondary  rocks,  fre- 
quently in  trai>rocks,  graywacke,  slate,  sandstone,  &c. 

Black  or  Bituminous  Coal  occurs  chiefly  in  the  secondary  rocks,  some- 
times in  sandstone,  limestone,  and  clay.  The  various  kinds  are  styled 
slate,  coarse,  foliated,  and  cannel  coal.  The  coal  beds  vary  in  thickness 
from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  30  or  40  ft.,  but  seldom  exceed  8  ft.,  and  are 
generally  much  thinner  ;  8  to  10  ft.  is  the  thickness  of  the  principal  bed  at 
Pittsburg,  Pa.  ;  29^  ft.,  that  of  the  "  Mammoth  vein"  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pa., 
37^  ft.  that  of  one  of  the  two  great  veins  at  Pictou,  in  Nova  Scotia.  The 
coal  beds,  taken  together,  make  up  not  more  than  one-fiftieth  part  of  tho 
coal  formation  ;  that  is,  there  are  50  feet  or  more  of  barren  rock  to  1  foot  of 
coal.  An  acre  of  coals  2  ft.  thick  yields  3000  tons,  3  ft.  thick,  4840  tons, 
and  5  ft.,  8000  tons. 

Lignite  (Broion  Coal)  occurs  in  secondary  rocks,  and  occasionally  ih 
alluvium.    For  facts  relating  to  coal,  fuel  values,  &c.,  see  page  627. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  METALLURGY,  &C.  1003 

LIMESTONE,  composing  most  of  the  rocks  below  the  drift,  is  a  com- 
pact rock  of  grayish  aud  other  dull  shades  of  color  to  black.  Consists  es- 
sentially of  carbonate  of  lime.  When  impure,  and  therefore  good  foi 
making  hydraulic  lime  (lime  that  will  set  under  water),  it  is  called  hyclmvl- 
ic  limestone.  '  When  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia  it  is 
called  dolomite.  Wlien  containing  fossils  it  is  called  fossilifei^ons  limestone. 
The  limestone  rocks  owe  their  origin  to  the  organic  remains  of  various 
species  that  have  lived  and  died  during  past  time.  The  best  marble  is 
found  in  the  upper  part  of  the  primary,  aud  lower  parts  of  the  secondary 
rocks. 

Lime  (oxide  of  calcium),  before  the  blow-pipe,  is  infusible  alone  ;  with 
borax,  effervesces  ;  with  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  borax,  forms  a 
clear  glass  which  becomes  angular  on  cooling  ;  in  the  flame  of  the  oxyhy- 
drogen  blow-pipe  emits  a  dazzling  white  light,  and  fuses  at  the  edges. 

BORAX  {Bihorate  of  Soda),  before  the  blow-pipe  intumeses>  and  fuses 
to  borax-glass  ;  with  fluor-spar  and  bisulphate  of  potash,  colors  the  flame 
green  ;  soluble  in  water  ;  the  solution  changes  vegetable  blues  to  green. 

ALUMINA  (Sesquoxide  of  aluminum),  before  the  blow-pipe,  remains 
unaltered  both  alone  and  with  soda  ;  fuses  with  borax  with  great  diffi- 
culty, also  with  salt  of  phosphorus  ;  moistened  with  cobalt  solution  and 
brought  to  a  high  heat,  becomes  blue  ;  is  not  attacked  by  acids. 

SULPHUR,  heated  in  an  open  glass  tube,  emits  fumes  of  sulphurous 
acid  ;  heated  with  soda,  the  compound,  moistened  with  water,  blackens  sil- 
ver. 

TELLURIUM  (Oxide),  before  the  blow-pipe,  colors  the  flame  green, 
fuses  and  sublimes  ;  with  borax,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  forms  a  colorless 
glass  ;  in  the  reducing  flame  the  glass  becomes  gray  ;  its  behavior  with  car- 
bonate of  soda  is  similar  as  with  borax ;  on  charcoal,  readily  reduces  to 
metal. 

QUARTZ  (Silicic  acid),  before  the  blow-pipe,  undergoes  no  change 
alone  ;  with  soda,  readily  fuses  to  a  transparent  glass. 

NITRE,  before  the  blow-pipe,  deflagrates  vividly  ;  detonates  with  com- 
bustible substances  ;  dissolves  readily  in  water  ;  not  altered  by  exposure. 

FLUOR-SPAR  (Fluoride  of  Calcium),  before  the  blow-pipe,  decrepitates 
and  fuses  to  an  enamel ;  the  flame  continued,  the  specimen  assumes  a  cauli- 
flower ;  heated  with  salt  of  phosphorus  in  a  glass  tube,  it  etches  or  rough- 
ens the  inside  of  the  glass. 

PHOSPHORUS,  moistened  with  sulphuric  acid  and  heated,  gives  a  green, 
tinge  to  the  flame. 

CHLORINE.— A  substance  containing  chlorine,  combined  with  the  salt 
of  phosphorus  and  oxide  of  copper,  on  the  platinum  wire,  colors  the  flame 
deep  blue. 

SODA  ( Oxide  of  Sodium),  colors  the  flame  deep  yellow. 

ARSENIC  (Oxide),  before  the  blow-pipe,  volatilizes  in  white  fumee  of  a 
garlic  odor  ;  heated  to  redness  burns  with  a  pale  bluish  flame. 

The  following  additional  tests,  &c,,  for  the  determination  of  gold  and 
silver  ores,  is  extracted  from  Mr.  Kustel's  incomparable  work, 

Seo.  10.  The  use  of  the  following  systematic  proceedmg  can  be  under- 
stood easily  by  an  example  : 

A  silver  mineral,  for  instance,  approved  as  such  by  an  examination  on 
silver,  must  be  observed  first  as  to  what  lustre  it  shows,  or  whether  it  is 
dull.  Suppose,  then,  the  mineral  has  a  metallic  lustre.  (See  I.)  The  color 
must  be  observed  next,  and  compared  with  those  under  I.  The  ore  is  fur- 
ther found  to  be  "  lead  gray."  We  have  then  to  proceed  from  the  indicated 
letter,  B,  on  the  right  side,  to  B  on  the  left,  and  examine  accordingly, 
whether  the  mineral  gives  a  sublimate  or  not.  If,  for  instance,  no  sublimate 
has  been  obtained,  we  must  proceed  to  c,  as  indicated.  On  the  described 
examination  under  c,  the  mineral  appears  tough  ;  it  can  be  cut  with  a  knife. 


1004 


METALLURGY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


Wo  go  over  to  Section  10,  and  see  the  numberH  2  and  20,  Silvcrglance  and 
Hcssitc.  The  description  of  both  will  lead  to  the  right  determination  of  the 
mineral. 

I.— Lustre  metallic  or  Sub-metallic. 


Color,  white,  greyif5h-white,  yellowish-white,  or  yellow,  sec   A 

Color,  lead-gray,  blackish  lead-gray,  or  iron-black,   IJ 

Color,  light  steel-gray   C 

Color,  reddish  lead-gray,   J) 

Color,  piuchbcek-brown,   E 

11. — Lustre  Eesinous  and  Adamantim. 

(jolor,  pearl-gray,  yellowish-green,  green,  olive-green,  lemon-yellow,  or 

light  yellow,  see.   F 

llh—Dull. 

Color,  red,  dark  red  (sometimes  externally  lead-gray),   G 

Color,  blackish-blue,  '   // 

Color,  greenish-black,   / 

A  It  can  be  cut  with  a  knife,  see  ,  a 

A  Cannot  be  cut ;  is  brittle,     6 

B  In  a  closed  tube,  no  sublimate,  even  under  the  plow-pipe,   c 

B  It  gives  a  sublimate,  with  or  Avithout  the  blow-pipe,   d 

G  In  a  closed  tube,  no  sublimate,   e 

G  It  gives  a  sublimate,  ,   f 

I)  In  a  closed  tube,  dark-red,  sublimate.   See  Sec.  16  (8  or  9). 
E  In  a  closed  or  open  tube,  no  sublimate.   See  Sec.  6  (4). 

F  In  a  closed  or  open  tube,  no  sublimate,   7 

F  Gives,  with  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  slight  sublimate,   h 


G  In  a  closed  tube,  red-brown  or  reddish-yellow  sublimate.    Sec.  16  (10). 
G  It  gives  three  sublimates— black,  yellow,  and  gray.    Sec.  16  (16). 
TI  In  an  open  or  closed  tube,  no  sublimate.    Sec.  16  (3  a'). 
I  In  an  open  or  closed  tube,  no  sublimate.   Sec.  16  (11  a'). 
a  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  metallic  white  globule.    Sec.  16  (1). 
a  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  metallic  yellow  or  yellowish  globule.    Sec.  15 

(I)  . 

b  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  globule  of  metallic  lustre,  coating  the  coal  white. 
Sec.  16(17). 

6  It  decrepitates  somewhat,  giving,  before  fusing,  a  slight,  very  volatile 
whitish  coating.  Sec.  15  (4),  or  Sec.  16  (22  or  23).  i 
c  It  can  be  cut  with  a  knife.  Sec.  16  (2  or  20).  I 
c  It  cannot  be  cut ;  is  brittle.  Sec.  16  (3  or  4  a  or  6),  or  Sec.  15  (2).  i 
d  In  a  closed  tube,  it  gives  a  reddish-yellow  sublimate.  Sec.  16  (6  a').  | 
e  On  charcoal  it  fuses,  giving  a  yellow  and  white  coating.  Sec.  15  (3). 
f  In  a  closed  tube,  by  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  dark  red  sublimate.    Sec.  16 

(II)  . 

g  On  charcoal  it  fuses,  emits  an  acrid  odor,  and  leaves  globules  of  silver ;  in 
a  closed  tube,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa,  emits  no  colored  vapors.  Sec. 
16  (12). 

(/  It  gives,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa,  red-brown  vapors.  Sec.  16  (13  or  14). 
h  In  a  closed  tube,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa,  violet  vapors.    Sec.  16  (15). 

DESCRIPTION  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  ORES.  A.  Gold  Ores.— 
Sec.  15.  Gold  appears  mostly  in  metallic  condition,  but  never  free  from 
silver.  It  is  found  generally  in  the  form  of  grains,  scales,  dust,  also  in  the 
shape  of  leaves,  threads,  or  crystals.  It  is  not  ascertained  but  supposed  that 
a  part  of  the  gold  in  iron  pyrites  does  not  exist  in  metallic  state,  but  com. 


METALLURGY  OF  GOLD  AND   SILVER.  1005 


Dined  with  sulphur,  or  with  arsfenic  in  the  arsenical  pyrites.  The  gold  is 
found  in  combination  with  the  following  metals  : 

1.  Silver.— In  different  proportions.  The  gold  of  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T., 
contains  forty-seven  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  silver  ;  that  of  the  Com  stock  lode, 
thirty  to  forty-five  ;  Gila  River  and  Australian  gold,  three  to  five  per  cent. 
According  to  the  amount  of  silver,  the  gold  appears  more  or  less  whitish. 
Sixty  per  cent,  of  silver  renders  the  alloy  white. 

On  charcoal,  treated  with  the  oxidation  flame,  it  gives  sometimes  a 
bluish-white  coating  of  antimony.  With  borax,  played  upoji  with  reduction 
flame,  a  reaction  of  copper  may  be  observed. 

2.  With  Tellurium. — It  contains  gold,  26  ;  silver,  14  ;  tellurium,  59  ; 
with  traces  of  lead,  copper,  and  antimony  ;  hardness,  1.5  ;  gravity,  5.7  to 
6.8  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  light  gray. 

In  an  open  tube  it  emits  white  fumes,  and  gives  a  gray  sublimate  of  tel- 
lurium. Directing  the  flame  on  the  sublimate,  it  melts  into  transparent 
drops.  The  fumes  have  a  peculiar  sour  odor.  On  charcoal,  it  melts  to  a 
dark-gray  globule.  Played  upon  with  the  oxidation  flame,  it  gives  a  white 
coating,  Avhich  disappears  with  a  bluish-green  color,  under  the  oxidation 
flame."  Continued  blowing  yields  a  yellow,  bright  gold  button. 

3.  With  Tellurium  cuid  Lead.— Gold,  9  ;  tellurium,  32  ;  lead,  54,  with 
traces  of  copper,  sulphur,  and  antimony  ;  H.  =  1.5  ;  Gr.  =7.72  ;  color, 
dark  lead-gray. 

In  an  oi:»en  tube  it  fumes,  and  yields  a  gray  sublimate,  the  upper  part  of 
which,  formed  by  antimonious  acid,  can  be  driven  away  by  the  flame.  On 
charcoal  it  fumes  and  gives  two  coatings — a  white  one,  which  is  volatile, 
consisting  of  tellurous  and  antimonious  acids  and  sulphate  of  lead  ;  the 
other  coating  is  yellow,  less  volatile,  and  consists  principally  of  oxide  of 
lead.  Continued  blowing  leaves  a  small  metallic  button,  showing  gold  color 
when  cupelled. 

4.  With  Mercury  and  Silver. — Gold,  36  ;  silver,  5  ;  mercury,  58.  The 
gold  is  found  also  alloyed  with  molybdenum,  platinum,  and  rhodium. 

i?.— SILVER  ORES.  Sec.  16.  Silver  is  found  mostly  in  combination 
with  sulphur,  also  alloyed  with  other  metals  and  substances.  It  appears 
often  in  metallic  condition. 

1.  Native  Silver  is  found  crystallized,  in  threads  or  filaments.  It  often 
contains  a  small  amount  of  antimony,  arsenic,  iron,  gold,  or  copper.  The 
native  sliver,  one  variety  of  the  Comstock  lode,  N.  T.,  contains,  silver, 
60-85  ;  gold,  1.9  ;  lead,  8-30  ;  copper,  1-5  ;  H.  =  2.7-3  ;  Gr.  =- 10.6-11.3. 
Heated  on  charcoal,  it  becomes  covered  with  lead  globules,  disappearing 
again  when  red  hot.  It  gives  a  yellow  coating  of  lead,  and  further  off,  a 
bluish-white  of  antimonious  acid.  It  colors  the  borax  glass  green  with  the 
oxide  of  copper. 

a.  Combination  with  Sulphiir.—2.  Silver  qlance  {Sulphuret  of  Silver). 
—Silver,  87  ;  sulphur,  12.9;  H.  =2.5;  Gr.  =6.9-7.2;  lustre,  metallic; 
color  and  streak,  blackish  lead-gray  ;  streak,  shining.  It  may  be  cut  like 
lead.  On  charcoal,  it  melts  into  a  dark  blue  globule,  generally  emitting 
metallic  silver  on  the  surface  on  cooling,  especially  if  a  small  particle  of 
borax  glass  is  added,  which  dissolves  impurities.  It  yields  a  silver  globule 
when  melted  with  soda. 

3.  Stromeyerite  {Silver-Copper  (jlance). — Silver,  50-53  ;  copper,  31  ;  sul- 

fihur,  15  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  =  6.2  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  blackish  lead-gray, 
n  a  closed  tube,  gives  sometimes  a  little  sulphur  sublimate  ;  in  an  open 
tube,  sulphurous  acid.  On  charcoal,  it  fuses  to  a  steel-blue  globule,  emit- 
ting sometimes  metallic  silver  on  cooling.  Melted  with  soda,  it  gives  a  cop- 
per button,  which  yields  silver  when  refined.  It  occurs  in  the  Heintzelman 
mine,  Arizona. 

a' .  A  variety  of  this  ore,  containing  40-33  per  cent,  of  silver,  with  a  dull 
blackish-blue  color  ;  streak,  shining  ;  can  be  cut ;  occurs  in  Arizona. 

4.  Sternhergite  [Sulphuret  of  Silver  and  /ro»).— Silver,  SO-33  ;  iron,  36  ; 


lOOG 


METALLUKdY  OF  (iOLI)  ANT)  SILVER. 


f5ulphur,  00;  H.  —  1;  Gr.  =  4.2;  metallic  lustre  ;  color,  ])inclibcck -brown; 
f<tre;ik,  bliiclc.  In  tliiu  laminre,  flexible,  resembliiiff  gniphitc.  In  an  open 
tube  it  gives  out  sulphurous  acid.  It  melts  to  a  globule  on  charcoal,  emit- 
ting silver,  and  followH  the  magnet, 

.  A  variety  of  this  ore  is  found  in  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T.  It  consists 
rof  silver,  33.25  ;  iron,  34.05  ;  11.  ==  2.8  ;  Gr.  =  5.2  ;  color,  dull  bluish-gray. 
'Tlie  fracture  has  a  metallic  lustre  and  dark  lead-gray  color.  Tlic  powder  ia 
blackish-brown.  It  is  found  in  small  fragments  pf  indistinct  cubic  shape. 
On  charcoal,  it  melts,  Avith  a  spongy  appearance,  to  a  dull  gray  globule, 
following  the  magnet.  A  slight  yellow  coating  indicates  a  trace  of  lead.  In 
melting,  it  gives  out  a  great  deal  of  sulphurous  acid.  Treated  Avith  soda,  a 
silver  globule  is  easily  obtained, 

b.  Combinations  vnih  Snlphvr  and  Antimony,  or  Arsenic. — 5.  Brittle 
Silver  Ore.— Silver,  70  ;  antimony,  13.9  ;  sulphur,  15.7  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  = 
'C.2  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color  and  streak,  iron-black,  or  blackish  lead-gray. 
In  a  close  tube,  it  decrepitates,  melts  to  a  globule,  and  gives  a  blackish  sub- 
limate, which  turns  red-brown  wlien  cold,  consisting  of  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony. In  an  open  tube  it  melts,  evolving  stilphurous  acid,  and  fumes. 
On  charcoal  it  fuses,  and  coats  tlic  coal  white  with  antimonious  acid.  By 
continual  bla.st,  the  coating  assumes  a  pink  color,  derived  from  the  oxide  of 
silver.    It  occurs  frequently  in  the  Comstock  lode. 

G.  Pobjbasite  {Enr/cn  Glance). — Silver,  G4-72  ;  copper,  3-10  ;  sulphur, 
17  ;  H.  =2.5;  Gr.  =0.2,  It  contains  also  antimony,  arsenic,  iron,  and 
sometimes  zinc.  Lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  iron-black  ;  streak,  blaclc.  In  a 
closed  tube  it  yields  nothing  volatile.  In  an  open  tube  it  gives  antimonial 
fumes  and  sulphurous  acid.    It  occurs  also  in  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T, 

a'.  The  polybasitc  of  tlie  Comstock  lode  contains  64  per  cent,  of  silver. 
It  gives,  in  a  closed  tube,  with  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  reddish-brown 
sublimate,  with  a  yellow  edge.  In  an  open  tube,  white  fumes  arise,  and 
some  white  sublimate  deposits.  On  charcoal,  with  the  reduction  flame,  it 
evolves  an  odor  of  garlic.  Played  upon  Avith  the  oxydatioji  flame,  it  gives 
out  sulphurous  acid  and  a  white  coating  of  antimonious  acid.  It  melts  to  a 
globule  with  a  metallic  lustre.  If  the  hot  blast  is  changed  suddenly  to  a 
cold  one,  and  directed  on  the  globule,  holding  tlie  blow-pipe  point  close  to 
it,  metallic  silver  is  emitted.  If  the  cold  blast  is  stopped  too  soon,  the  silver 
will  disappear  again, 

1.  Miargyrite. — Silver,  35.8;  antimony,  42.8  ;  sulphur,  21;  IL  =  2.5  ; 
Gr.  =5.2-5.4  ;  lustre,  metallic  adamantine  ;  color,  iron-black  ;  streak,  dark 
cherry-red.  In  a  closed  tube  it  decrepitates,  melts  easily,  and  gives  out  a 
sublimate  of  sulphide  of  antimony.  In  an  open  tube,  sul])hurous  acid  and 
antimonial  fumes  are  emitted,  depositing  a  Avhite  sublimate  of  antimonious 
acid.  On  charcoal  it  melts  quietly,  emitting  sulphurous  acid  and  antimonial 
fumes.  It  covers  the  coal  with  a  white  coating,  Avhich  becomes  pink-colored 
by  continual  blast.  Melted  with  soda,  a  silver  button  is  obtained,  which, 
treated  with  borax  and  tin,  reacts  on  copper. 

8,  Dark  red  Silver  Ore  (Pyrargyrite,  Antimonial  Blend). — Silver,  58.9  ; 
antimony,  23.4  ;  sulphur,  17.5  ;  II.  =2.5  ;  Gr.  =  5.7.  Lustre,  metallic-like 
admantine  ;  color,  dark-red  ;  powder,  cochineal-red.  In  a  closed  tube,  by 
the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  it  yields  a  sublimate  of  sulphide  of  antimony,  black 
wliile  hot,  but  varying  from  red  to  reddish-yelloAV  Avhen  cold.  In  an  open 
tube  it  gives  antimonial  fumes  and  sulphurous  acid.  On  charcoal  it  melts 
easily,  and  deposits  a  white  coating  of  antimonious  acid.  With  soda  it 
gives  a  silver  globule.    It  occurs  also  in  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T. 

9,  Lil/ht  red  Silver  Ore  {Provstite,  Arsenical  Blend).— Silver,  65.4 ; 
arsenic, '  15.1  ;  sulphur,  19.4;  H,  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  =  5.5-5.6  ;  color,  similar  to 
dark  red  silver  ore,  but  lighter.  Behaves  like  the  preceding,  except  the 
arsenical  fumes.  .  < 

10,  A'ani^ocone.— Silver,  64  ;  arsenic,  13.4  ;  sulphur,  21.3  ;  H.=2  ;  Gr. 
=5-5.2  ;  color,  dull  red  to  clove  brown  ;  powder,  yellow.    When  heated  in 


METALLUEGY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVEK. 


J  007 


it  closed  tube  it  becomes  dark  red,  raolts,  and  gives  some  sublitiiato  of  sul- 
phide of  arsenic.  While  liot,  it  is  dark,  brownish-red,  and  red  to  reddish- 
yellow  Avlien  cold.  In  an  open  tube  and  ou  charcoal,  it  behaves  like  the 
preceding. 

11.  Silver  Fahlerz  ( Argentiferous.  Gray  Copper  Ore).— Silver,  17.71- 
31.29  ;  antimony,  26.G3-24.63  ;  sulphur,  23.52-21.17  ;  copper,  25.23-14.81  ; 
iron,  3.72-5.98  ;  zinc,  3.10-0.99  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  light  steel-gray.  In 
a  closed  tube  it  sometimes  decrepitates,  melts,  and  gives,  by  aid  of  the 
blow-pipe,  a  dark  red  sablimate  of  tcrsulphide  of  antimony,  with  antimo- 
nious  acid.  In  an  open  tube  it  fuses,  gives  antimonial  fumes  and  sulphur- 
ous acid.  On  cliarcoal  it  fuses  easily,  and  gives  a  bluish-Avhite  coating  of 
antimonious  acid  and  antimonial  fumes.  There  is  also  a  yellowish  coating 
close  to  the  test,  which  appears  white  on  cooling.  ^  This  coating  is  created 
by  oxide  of  zinc.  '  -  - 

a'.  The  Reese  River  ore,  from  the  Comet  lode,  seems  to  be  a  metamor- 
pliosed  silver  fahlerz.  The  sulphur  is  represented  by  carbonic  acid,  so  that 
almost  all  copper  and  silver  is  a  carbonate.  It  contains  silver,  22. 35,  cop- 
per, 17,  antimony,  and  some  lead.  It  has  a  dull  greenish-black  or  black 
color  ;  streak,  shining  ;  powder,  greenish-gray.  In  a  closed  tube  it  yields 
nothing  volatile.  In  an  open  tube  some  sulj^hurous  acid  can  be  observed. 
On  charcoal,  fuses  slowly,  but  boils  iip  suddenly  in  contact  with  glowing 
coal,  leaving  a  button  of  silver  and  copper.  This  button,  when  played 
upon  with  the  oxidation  flame  on  another  spot  of  the  charcoal,  gives  firsta 
bluish  coating  of  antimonious  acid,  then  a  yellow  one,  nearer  to  the  assay 
•of  the  oxide  of  lead.  The  silver  can  be  separated  from  copper  by  cupella- 
tion  with  lead. 

h\  The  silver  fahlerz  of  Sheba  lode  (Humboldt)  contains,  silver,  8.20, 
gold,  0.008,  some  antimony  and  lead,  but  very  little  copper.  It  has  a  light 
gray  metallic  lustre.   It  is  also  called  gray  silver  ore. 

c.    Combination  xoiih  Chlorine,  Bromine  and  Iodine. 

12.  Horn  Silver  {Chloride  of  Silver).— Silyer,  75.2  ;  chlorine,  24.6  ;  H.= 
1.5  ;  Gr.=r5.5-5.6  ;  lustre,  adamantine  ;  color,  gray,  greenish  or  blackish  ; 
streak,  shining.  It  looks  like  horn  or  wax.  It  is  translucent,  and  may  be 
cut  like  wax.  Occurs  frequently  in  the  Comstock  and  Gold  Hill  lodes,  also 
in  California.  It  fuses  in  a  candle  flame.  On  charcoal  it  is  easily  reduced, 
and  gives  an  odor  of  chlorine.  If  treated  under  the  reduction  flame,  with 
an  addition  of  copper,  it  forms  a  chloride  of  copper,  and  colors  the  flame 
aznrc-blue. 

13.  Emholite  {Chlorohromide  of  Silver).~-Silvev,  66.9  to  75  ;  H.rrl-1.5  ; 
Gr.  =5.3-5.4  ;  lustre,  resinous  ;  color,  yellowish-green  or  green.  On  char- 
coal it  fuses  easily,  evolves  vapors  of  bromine,  and  gives  metallic  silver. 
Mixed  with  oxide  of  copper,  it  colors  the  flame  greenish-blue. 

14.  Bromyriic  (Brotnic  Silver ).—Sil\cv,  57.56  ;  bromine,  42.44  ;  H.= 
1-1.5  ;  Gr.=5.8-5.6.  In  a  closed  tube,  treated  with  bisulphnte  of  potassa, 
it  emits  brown  vapors.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  easily  and  yields  a  globule  of 
silver.    It  is  yellow  or  greenish,  and  may  be  cut  like  chloride  of  silver. 

15.  lodyrkc  {Iodide  of  /S'i7yer).— Silver,  46  ;  iodine,  54  ;  H.=1.5  ;  Gr.= 
5.5  ;  lustre,  adamantine  ;  color,  yellow,  also  greenish.  It  is  translucent. 
In  scale  shape  it  is  always  lemon-yellow.  .  When  heated  in  a  closed  tube  it 
becomes  fire-red,  but  assumes  its  former  color  when  cold.  It  fuses  easily, 
•and  gives,  by  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  reddish-yellow  sublimate,  getting 
lemon-yellow  on  cooling.  With  bisulphate  of  potassa,  it  emits  beautiful 
violet  vapors.  In  an  open  tube  it  gives  an  orange  sublimate,  Icmon-j'^ellow 
on  cooling.  On  charcoal  it  assumes  a  fire-red  color  before  it  fuses,  and 
spreads  on  the  coal  and  yields  many  minute  silver  globules.  With  an  addi- 
tion of  oxide  of  copper,  it  makes  an  intensely  green  flame  with  a  bluish 
tinge.      '  -. 

16.  Iodide  of  Silver  and  Mercury. — Silver,  40-42  ;  iodine,  quicksilver, 
and  sulphur  (chlorine  ?),  color,  dull,  dark  red  ;  streak,  shining  ;  powder, 


1008 


METALLUKGY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


dark  red,  but  changes  soon  into  lead-gray,  if  exposed  to  tlic  light.  In  a 
closed  tube  it  gives  three  sublimates,  separated  in  rings.  The  nearest  to 
the  assay  is  black  (sulphide  of  mercury),  the  second,  yellow  (subchloride 
of  mercury  ?),  the  third  is  gray  (metallic  mercury).  An  addition  of  bisul- 
phate  of  potassa  causes  it  to  yield  violet  vapors,  which  come  from  the 
iodine.  In  an  open  tube  it  gives  the  same  sublimate,  but  the  black  is  very 
slight;  it  gives  also  yellow  fumes.  A  gold  particle  in  the  tube  becomes 
amalgamated.  Litmus  paper  at  the  upper  end  is  colored  red  by  the  sul- 
phur. Heated  on  charcoal  it  turns  black,  fuses  easily,  and  yields  silver 
globules.  Melted  with  soda,  it  draws  partly  into  the  coal.  If  this  crust  is 
broken  out  and  laid  on  a  blank  piece  of  silver,  witlx  a  drop  of  water,  the 
sulphur  in  it  will  cause  a  black  spot  on  the  silver.  Heated  with  a  small 
piece  of  pure  lead,  it  gives  a  beautiful  green  coating,  with  a  yellow  border, 
nearest  the  assay.  This  coating  (iodine  and  lead)  is  far  off  from  the  test. 
With  copper  oxide,  like  the  iodyrite. 

This  mineral  occurs,  to  my  knowledge,  only  in  the  Heintzelman  mine, 
Arizona. 

d.  Combination  xoith  Antimony. — 17.  Antimonial  (SVfccr.— Silver,  77.84: 
antimony,  23-16  ;  H.=3.5  ;  Gr.=9.4-9.8  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color  ana 
streak,  silver-white.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  easily  to  a  globule,  coating  the 
coal  wliite,    A  continual  blast  renders  the  white  coating  reddish. 

c.  Combination  xoith  Selenium. — 18.  Naximannite  (Sehnid  of  Silver), — 
Silver,  73  ;  selenium,  26  ;  H.=2.5  ;  Gr.=8  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  iron- 
black.  It  melts  easily  on  charcoal,  but  with  intumescence  in  the  reduction 
flame.  It  emits  the  selenium  odor  of  rotten  radish.  With  soda  it  yields 
metallic  silver. 

19.  Exicairite  {Selenid  of  Silver  and  Copper). — Silver,  43.1  ;  selenium, 
31.6  ;  copper,  25.3  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  lead-gray.  On  charcoal  it  melts 
to  a  gray  metallic  globule,  fumes,  and  re-acts  on  borax  with  copper.  This, 
mineral  is  soft,  and  can  be  cut  with  a  knife. 

/.  With  Tclhirixnn.— 20.  Ilessite  (Tellxtrid  of  Silver).— SiWer,  62.42  ; 
tellurium,  36.96  ;  iron,  0.24  ;  Gr.=8.4-8,6  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  lead- 
gray  or  steel-gray.  It  is  soft,  and  can  be  cut  like  lead.  According  to  Mr. 
Blake,  this  mineral  is  found  in  California  also.  He  describes  the  re-action 
as  follows  : 

"  In  an  open  tube  the  mineral  fuses  quietly,  coloring  the  glass  a  bright 
yellow  under  assay.  A  w^hite  or  gray  sublimate  is  deposited  at  a  short  dis- 
tance, immediately  over  it,  which,  on  being  heated,  fuses  into  transparent 
drops  resembling  oil.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  to  a  leaden-colored  globule, 
■which,  on  cooling,  becomes  covered  with  dendrites.  This  globule.flattens 
under  the  hammer.  With  the  addition  of  soda,  a  silver  globule  is  -ob- 
tained." 

/.  With  Bismxdh.— 21.  Bismxith  Silver.— ^iXv^T,  60  ;  bismuth,  10  ;  cop- 
per, 7.8,  and  some  arsenic  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  tin-white  or  grayish. 
On  charcoal  it  melts  easily,  covering  the  coal  dark  orange.  It  is  yellow 
while  hot,  and  lemon-yelloAv  when  cold.  The  oxide  of  copper  in  it  colors 
the  borax  green,  when  melted  on  charcoal. 

r/.  With  Mcrcxmj. — 22.  Silver  Amahjam.. — Silver,  34.8-26.2  ;  quicksil- 
ver, 65.2-73.7  ;  H.=3.5  ;  Gr.=13.7-14  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  silver-white; 
brittle.    In  a  closed  tube  the  mercury  sublimates. 

23.  Arquerite. — Silver,  86.49 ;  quicksilver,  13.51.  It  behaves  like  the 
amalgam 


FIRE  ASSAY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  ORES.  1009 

DRY  AND  HUMID  ASSAY  OF  MINERALS. 

Assay  of  Ores  by  the  Dry  and  Humid  Processes.— In  the  dry, 
or  fire  assay  of  gold  and  silver  ores,  the  apparatus  required  is,  1.  A  re- 
liable assay  balance,  as  previously  noted.    2.  A  pair  of  less  delicate 
balances,  Avith  the  capacity  of  weighing  3  ozs.,  the  weights  to  be  troy 
ounces  ;  each  ounce  to  be  divided  into  iSg.    3.  An  iron  mortar.    4.  A  lot 
of  French  clay  No.  7  crucibles,  glass  mattresses,  and  small  crucibles  of 
(dry  cups)  pipe  clay.    5.  Crucible  tongs.     6.  A  fine  wire  cloth  sieve  (50  j 
holes  to  the  inch  ;  2500  to  a  sq.  in.),  extended  on  a  wooden  frame.    7.  j 
Cupel  tongs.   8.  Two  or  3  muffles,  10  ins.  long,  4  ins.  wide,  and  3  ins.  high. 
9.  Avery  small,  stifE  brush.    10.  A  fine  sieve  with  about  40  holes  to  the  ' 
Inch.    11.  A  brass  mould,  and  bone  ashes  for  making  cupels. 

The  formation  of  the  cupels  requires  bones  to  be  burned  perfectly 
white,  then  pulverized  and  sifted  through  the  last-noted  sieve.  Tliese 
ashes  are  mixed  with  water  and  worked  with  theha^ids  to  a  putty-like  con- 
sistence, then  placed  in  the  mould  and  beaten  with  the  pestle  by  a  wooden 
mallet.  The  pestle  is  finally  withdrawn  by  a  twisting  movement  and  the 
cupel  is  forced  out  of  the  mould  by  the  ball  of  the  hand . 

In  addition  to  the  above  noted,  the  following  materials  will  be  required. 
1.  Wheat' flour ;  to  use  as  a  substitute  for  charcoal  in  reducing  a  portion  of 
the  litharge  to  lead.  A  compound  of  12  parts  of  wheat  flour  with  100  parts 
©f  soda  is  an  excellent  flux  for  lead  assays,  2.  Litharge ;  is  of  great  utility 
in  promoting  fusion.  It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  sifted,  and  kept  from 
damp.  With  silver  ore,  in  a  crucible,  1^  ozs.,  with  10  grs.  of  wheat  flour, 
will  produce  a  button,  which  is  to  be  cupeled,  and  the  weight  of  silver 
product  noted.  This  weight  is  to  be  deducted  from  the  assays  where  this 
.nmount  of  litharge  is  used.  3.  Iron ;  is  used  to  desulphurize  the  sulphu- 
rots.  Should  be  supplied  in  small  pieces  of  wire  |  or  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  from  J  to  ^  in.  in  length.  4.  Carbonate  of  soda;  for  use  expose  the 
crystals  to  the  air  until  it  forms  a  dry  white  powder.  Soda-ash  or  Bicar- 
bonate of  soda  may  be  substituted  for  it  with  good  results,  5.  Common 
table  salt ;  to  use,  the  water  of  crystallization  must  be  expelled,  by  melt- 
ing the  salt  on  a  sheet-iron  plate  until  intumescence  ceases.  The  early 
fusion  of  the  salt  hi  the  assay  mixture  prevents  the  injurious  contact  of 
air  with  the  latter  during  the  process.  6.  Glass;  serves  as  an  excellent 
flux  ;  for  use  it  must  be  well  pulverized  in  the  iron  mortar,  and  afterwards 
sifted. 

The  sample  of  ore  to  be  treated  being  thoroughly  pulverized,  it  is,  with 
the  fluxes,  weighed  out  in  the  following  proportion  : 

a.  Ores  or  Tailings  contQiining  but  little  Sulphurets. — Ore,  250  grs. ;  glass, 
125  grs.  ;  flour,  8  grs.  ;  litharge,  1^  ozs.  ;  soda,  1  oz. 

b.  Ores  containing  about    per  cent,  of  Sulphurets. — Ore,  250  grs. ;  glass, 
125  grs.  ;  iron,  50  grs.  ;  litharge,  1^  ozs.  ;  soda,  1  oz. 

c.  Ores  being  nearly  all  Sulphurets. — The  mixture  is  like  the  preceding, 
but  double  the  amount  of  iron,  100  grs.  must  be  used.  The  foregoing  pro- 
portions are  given  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Kustel. 

The  soda  and  litharge  are  first  placed  in  the  crucible,  over  a  sheet  of 
paper  ;  then  the  rest  of  the  mixture  ;  all  are  carefully  mixed  together 
(making  sure  that  no  portion  is  lost  or  spilled),  tap  the  crucible  in  order  to 
settle  the  mixture  ;  strew  over  the  whole  a  layer  of  salt  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  deep,  cover,  and  place  the  crucible  on  the  muffle  in  the  middle  of  the 
furnace  ;  if  there  are  several  assays  place  them  in  a  row  touching  each 
other,  but  apart  from  the  walls  of  the  furnace,  and  pile  the  fuel  (charcoal) 
around  them,  but  not  higher  than  the  tops  of  the  crucibles.  Ignite  the  char- 
coal and  maintain  the  fire  as  it  burns  down,  by  means  of  fresh  fuel,  so  as  to 
keep  the  fire  nearly  level  with  the  tops  of  the  crucibles.   The  latter  should 


mo 


FIRE  ASSAY  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  OllES. 


be  largo  enough  to  prevent  the  assay  gcetihing  over  into  the  fire.  As  the 
melting  proceeds  the  bone-ash  cupels  are  placed  on  the  muffle  and  brought 
to  a  red  heat. 

The  melting  will  occupy  about  one  hour  ;  when  accomplished,  remove 
first,  the  crucible  covers,  and  then  the  crucibles  themselves,  by  grasping 
tliem  with  the  long  crucible  tongs  provided  for  that  purpose  ;  remove  from 
the  furnace,  and  pour  the  contents  into  the  iron  moulds,  which  are  formed 
with  small  cavities  or  depressions,  about  |  in.  deepj  for  receiving  tlic  melted 
assay.  The  metallic  button  in  the  mould,  after  being  cooled,  is  freed  from 
adhering  slag  by  being  hammered  into  a  square  shape,  and,  by  means  of 
the  cupel  tongs  above  noted,  is  transferred  into  the  red-hot,  bone-ash  cupels, 
where  it  fuses  in  a  short  time  and  the  lead  in  the  mixture  assumes  a  bright, 
agitated  appearance,  fumes,  works  up  to  the  surface,  and  draws  off  to  the 
sides  of  the  cupel,  wliere  it  is  absorbed  and  disappears  in  the  porous  mass. 
By  a  proper  application  of  heat  this  activity  continues  until  a  bright  dazzling 
play  of  rainboAv  colors  announces  the  final  disappearance  of  all  the  lead, 
leaving  the  button  of  silver  behind. 

The  silver  button  is  freed  from  any  adherent  bone-ash  by  hammering 
on  the  edge  :  it  is  then  weighed,  and  the  weight  noted,  then  transferred  to 
a  glass  tube  containing  about  ^  oz.  of  pure  nitric  acid,  and  submitted  to  the 
flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp,  v/here  it  soon  boils,  emitting  reddish-brown 
vapors,  and  separates  from  any  gold  that  may  be  present,  leaving  the  latter 
as  a  blackish  sediment,  undissolved  in  the  tube.  The  silver  being  dissolved, 
the  acid  solution  is  carefully  poured  off,  leaving  the  gold  behind,  and  the 
tube  is  then  filled  with  distilled  water.  When  the  auriferous  sediment  has 
settled,  the  water  is  poured  off  carefully,  and  it  is  again  filled  with  all  the 
water  it  will  contain.  The  tube  is  then  covered  with  a  dry  cup,  or  pipe-clay 
crucible,  and  suddenly  turned  upside  down  so  as  to  deposit  the  sediment  on 
the  bottom  of  the  cup.  The  tube  is  very  carefully  Avithdrawn  from  the 
water  so  as  to  leave  exerj  particle  of  the  gold  in  the  fluid,  and  after  the  gold 
lias  completely  subsided  the  water  is  slowly  drained  off,  and  the  sediment 
dried  in  the  cup  over  an  alcohol  flame  until  the  gold  assumes  a  yellow 
color.   This  gold  is  weighed  and  the  weight  noted. 

The  utility  of  this  manipulation  will  be  manifest  from  the  important  re- 
sults obtained,  as  shoAvn  by  the  following  calculations,  transcribed  from 
Kustel  : 

"  The  gold  was  found  to  weigh,  for  instance,  and  the  silver  button 
before  dissolving  tcfoc.  If  the  gold  is  subtracted  from  the  silver  which  con- 
tained this  gold,  we  find  thus  the  pure  silver — 

356—35  =  321  silver  X  IIG  =  372-3  ounces  per  ton. 
and  35  gold  x  1'16  =  40  6  " 
To  find  the  value,  the  ounces  of  gold  must  be  multiplied  with  20.67  and 
those  of  silver  with  1.30.    These  numbers  in  their  fractions  are  not  perfectly 
correct,  but  will  serve  our  purpose.    Continuing  the  calculation  we  find 
Silver  =  372-3  ounces  X  1-30  =  $483.99 
Gold    n=  40-6      "     X  20-67  =  W.20 

Total  value  $1,323.19  per  ton. 

In  case  the  ore  for  the  assay  has  been  weighed  out  by  half  an  ounce,  equal 
to  240  grains,  the  calculation  is  made  the  same  way  as  before,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  number  1.215  must  be  substituted  for  1.16.  The  procedure 
of  the  preceding  example  would  be  as  follows : 

The  weight  of  the  button  was  321.  This  multiplied  with  1.215  will  give 
the  amount  of  ounces  per  ton  of  ore  of  2000  lbs. 

32  (321)  X  1  -215  =  390  ounces.  The  quantity  of  fluxes  used  for  250 grains 
of  ore  will  also  serve  for  half  ounce  assay 


FIRE  ASSAY  OF  MINERALS.  1011 

In  gold  assays,  the  resulting  button  being  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  it  must 
be  weighed,  melted  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe  with  three  timea  its 
Aveight  of  pure  silver,  then  dissolved  and  treated  as  above  noted." 

The  assay  of  gold  or  silver  ores  may  also  be  effected  by  fusing  in  a 


crucible  the  following  mixture  : 

Ore  finely  pulverized   4  parts. 

Litharge   4  " 

Black  Flux   3  " 


If  much  oxide  of  lead  be  present  in  the  ore  use  the  black  flux  only.  If 
pyrites  are  abundant  in  the  sample  under  treatment  use  saltpetre  and  nitre. 
If  the  resultant  button  be  an  alloy  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead,  add  to 
it  silver  and  lead,  so  that  the  sample  will  approximately  consist  of  gold,  1 
part ;  silver,  3  parts  ;  and  Ifead,  from  12  to  IG  parts.  Place  the  lead  within 
a  bone-ash  cupel  within  a  muffle,  melt,  then  add  the  gold  and  silver  wrap- 
ped in  paper,  maintain  the  heat  until  the  play  of  colors  comes  over  the  but- 
ton as  it  brightens  and  becomes  tranquil  ;  then  cool,  and  weigh  it.  To 
"  part "  the  gold  from  the  silver,  anneal  the  button,  hammer  it  thin,  and 
twist  it  into  a  roll  (called  a  "  cornet " )  and  submit  to  heat  in  dilute  nitric 
jJcid  as  long  as  action  continues,  then  in  concentrated  nitric  acid  until  the 
silver  is  wholly  dissolved.  Next,  well  wash,  dry,  and  ignite  the  "  cornet "  ; 
the  weight  of  silver  is  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  the  button  before  ijarting, 
less  that  of  the  refined  cornet. 

JVbie,— Chloride  of  silver  (Horn  silver),  composed  of  silver,  75.2  parts  ; 
chlorine,  24.G  parts,  cannot  be  decomposed  by  heat  alone.  It  melts  at  500" 
Fahr.  At  a  temperature  of  212**  Fahri,  it  is  decomposed  by  caustic  potassa 
and  soda,  and  may  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  cane  sugar.  It  may  also  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  fusing  1 
part  of  the  chloride  Avith  2  parts  carbonate  of  soda,  or  1  part  of  the  chloride 
with  2  parts  of  chalk  and  2  parts  of  charcoal. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores,  containing  Sulphur,  hxtt  othenoise  same  as  the  last. 
— Pulverize  well,  and  melt  in  an  earthen  crucible,  at  a  dull  red  heat,  equal 
parts  of  ore  and  vitrified  borax,  remove  from  the  slag  the  matte  (crude 
copper)  button.  Pulverize  it  well  and  slowly,  roast  in  an  earthen  crucible, 
stirring  meanwhile  with  a  steel  rod  to  promote  the  emission  of  sulphurous 
acid  fumes.  When  no  more  vapors  are  evolved  raise  and  maintain  the  tem- 
perature at  a  white  heat  for  several  minutes  ;  then  introduce  into  the  same 
crucible. 

Roasted  matte.   1  part. 

Black  flux   3  to  4  parts. 

Cover  the  compound  with  a  layer  of  vitrified  borax  and  submit  it  to  a 
clierry-red  heat  for  20  minutes  in  a  wind  furnace  ;  then  remove  and  weigh 
the  resultant  copper  button. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores  containinr/  Arsenic  and  various  other  Metals.— Treat 
the  pulverized  matte  as  in  the  previous  case,  then  roast  it  with  pulverized 
charcoal  until  the  emission  of  arsenical  fumes  ceases.  Melt  the  resultant 
matte  with  black  flux  and  borax  as  above  noted ,  and  cupel  the  button  in  a 
bone-ash  cupel  with  pure  lead.  After  the  metallic  globule  becomes  tran- 
quil, and  tlie  brightening  takes  place,  cool,  extract,  and  weigh  the  metallic 
button. 

Assay  of  Silver  Ores  by  the  Humid  Process. — Digest  the  pulverized  ore  iii 
nitric  acid,  then  add  a  solution  of  common  salt  or  muriatic  acid  to 
the  silver  solution  as  long  as  any  precipitate  is  thrown  down.  Next, 
filter  and  dry  the  residuum,  then  melt  the  dry  residuum  with  carbonate 
of  soda  in  an  earthen  crucible  ;  when  cool,  extract  and  weigh  the  metallic 
button.    Chloride  of  silver  (Horn  silver)  is  not  adapted  for  this  treatment, 


1012 


DRY  AND  HUMID  ASSAY  OF  ORES. 


being  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  it  can  bo  dissolved  in  ammonia,  or  iu 
boiling  solutions  of  the  chloride  of  potassium,  barium,  sodium,  strontium 
and  calcium.  Cyanide  of  potassium,  in  solution,  will  also  dissolve  chloride 
of  silver  ;  strong  sulphuric  acid  gradually  decomposes  it ;  iron  and  zinc 
will  likewise  elfect  its  decomposition,  especially  in  presence  of  free  muriatic 
acid.   The  behavior  of  Bromide  of  silver  is  nearly  identical  with  the  chloride. 

Assay  of  Gold  Ores  by  the  Humid  Process.— Bigestthe  ore  (well  pulverized) 
in  1  part  of  nitric  and  4  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid,  then  dilute,  filter  and 
evaporate  nearly  to  dryness  to  expel  excess  of  acid.  Next,  dilute  the  dried 
filtrate  in  pure  water,  and  boil  the  solution  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  which  precipitates  the  gold  as  a  dark  purple  powder.  Next,  filter  and 
heat  the  residuum  with  hydrochloric  acid,  then  filter,  wash,  and  dry  the  gold 
powder.  Oxalic  acid,  substituted  for  the  sulphate  of  iron,  precipitates  the 
gold  in  large  flakes. — Quartz  Operator's  Hand-Book. 
'  Assay  of  Iron. — Melt  iu  a  covered  crucible  a  well-pulverized  mixture 
of : 

Powdered  and  roasted  ore   4  parts. 

Fluor-spar  2  " 

Charcoal   2  " 

Common  salt  strewed  over  the  wliole   8  " 

After  fusion  remove  and  weigh  the  resultant  button  of  cast  iron.  A 
variety  of  fluxes,  as  clay,  lime,  &c.,  may  be  employed,  according  aa  the 
nature  of  the  ore  may  require. 

Assay  of  Galena,  or  Ores  of  Lead  containinc/  Sulphur. — Place  the  follow- 
ing in  au  earthen  crucible  in  the  order  of  mention  : 

Well  pulverized  ore   10  parts. 

Iron  in  strips  or  plates....   1  to  3  " 

Black  flux.....   30  " 

Common  salt,  a  thick  layer  over  all,  with  a  piece  of  charcoal  on  top. 
Cover  the  crucible,  melt  the  assay,  gradually  increasing  the  temperature 
from  a  low  heat  to  a  bright  red,  continuing  the  latter  about  30  minutes. 
Next,  tap  the  crucible  to  consolidate  the  contents,  cool,  and  remove  the 
metallic  button. 

Assay  of  Oxidized  Ores  of  ieacZ.— Place  the  following  in  an  earthen  cru- 
cible in  the  order  of  mention  : 

Well  pulverized  ore   10  parts. 

Carbonate  of  soda  30  to  40  " 

Granulated  charcoal   3 

Iron,  in  strips  or  plates,  if  sulphur  be  present.    1  " 
Common  salt,  a  thick  layer  over  all. 

Treat  as  in  preceding  manipulation. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores  where  no  other  Metals  are  present  hut  Iron  and 
Copper. — Place  in  a  crucible  the  following  : 

Well  pulverized  ore   2  parts. 

Black  flux   6  " 

Begin  with  a  gradual  heat,  increasing  to  a  bright  red,  continuing  15 
minutes,  then  extract  the  button  from  the  slag,  and  note  the  weight. 

To  recover  Gold  and  Silver  Residues  in  Photographic  Wastes. — A  large  list 
of  fluxes  for  reducing  these  wastes  will  be  found  on  page  981.  To  precipi- 
tate the  precious  metal  from  rejected  solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver,  add  the 
following  as  long  as  it  causes  a  precipitate ;  carbonate  of  soda,  4  ozs.  ; 
water,  6  ozs. 

Add  water,  and  then  thoroughly  wash  the  precipitate  in  plenty  of  warm 
water ;  lastly,  dry,  and  put  up  the  precipitate  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  if 
not  to  be  reduced  forthwith.  Lime  water  is  also  a  first-dass  precipitating 
solution  for  giiver.  To  obtain  it  place  some  pieces  of  lime  iu  a  wide-mouthed 


TKOCESSES,  ETC.,  IN  VARIOUS  TKADES.  1013 

bottle  or  covered  vessel ;  fill  up  wl^h  vrjtft5.r,  shake  well  and  allow  the  mixture 
to  subside  for  several  days,  then  pour  off  the  clear  for  use. 
I  Among  other  precipitating  solutions  for  photogfrapher's  use  the  following 
may  be  noted:  1.  J^^or  Developer  Washings.  Common  salt,  4  ozs.,  water, 
10  ozs.  2.  For  Toning  Bath.  Sulphate  of  iron,  4  ozs.,  water,  16  ozs.  3.  For 
Hyposulphite  Fixing  Baths.  Sulphide  of  potash,  4  ozs.,  water,  16  ozs.  4.  The 
Nitric  Acid  Plate-Solution.  Hydrochloric  acid,  4  ozs.,  water,  8  ozs.  5.  For 
Nitrate  of  Silver  Solution^  old  Baths,  etc.  Hydrochloric  acid,  4  ozs.,  water, 
4  ozs.  The  above  are  used  for  promoting  the  separation  of  valuable  ingre- 
dients in  a  solid  state  from  chemical  solutions.  The  process  is  assisted  by 
previously  heating  the  solution  ;  then  add  the  reagent  gradually,  and  stir  well 
to  effect  a  thorough  intermixture.  The  solution  is  then  allowed  to  rest  until 
the  precipitate  subsides.  Then  add  a  few  drops  more  of  the  reagent  to  the 
jliquid,  and  if  no  additional  precipitation  is  effected  the  process  is  complete. 

IVALUABLE  PROCESSES,  ETC.,  IN  VARIOUS 
TRADES. 

The  following  items,  selected  from  the  Watchmaker,  having  been  crowded 
[out  of  the  appropriate  department,  arc  inserted  here,  being  deemed  too  valua- 
ble to  omit. 

[  MAIN  SPRINGS. — When  a  main  spring  is  cleaned,  most  inexperienced  work- 
men will  take  hold  of  one  end  and  pull  the  spring  about  half  its  length  straight 
out,  to  save  time.  This  practice  will  break  springs  when  nothing  else  will ; 
and  springs  treated  thus  generally  break  after  the  watch  has  been  delivered  to 
the  customer  only  a  few  days.  Breaking  into  many  pieces  is  owing  to  the  acid 
in  the  oil  which  is  used.  We  will  suppose  the  main  spring  is  a  tine  one,  and 
has  been  evenly  tempered  and  properly  cleaned ;  if,  now,  old  oil  is  used,  or 
that  of  an  inferior  quality  if  fresh,  the  acid  it  contains  will  eat  into  the  spring, 
and  will  finally  destroy  its  texture.  The  coil  nearest  the  centre  breaks  first, 
and  as  it  recoils  it  breaks  every  coil  in  the  barrel,  and  sometimes  each  coil  is 
broken  twice.  'The  spring  has  become  so  impregnated  with  acid  that  it  has 
no  life  left, 

TO  PURIFY  OIL.— To  make  the  oil  pure,  take  a  good  sized  bullet  or 
other  piece  of  lead  which  has  a  thick  coating  of  lead  rust,  cut  it  up  fine,  put  it 
into  the  oil,  and  let  it  stand  for  two  weeks.  This  causes  the  acid  to  settle, 
and  it  then  resembles  milk  at  the  bottom.  Now  pour  off  the  top,  and  your  oil 
is  pure.  Common  clock  oil  can  be  treated  in  this  manner  and  made  better 
than  some  watch  oil. 

TO  RESTORE  LUSTRE.— If  not  too  much  darkened  it  may  be  restored 
by  dipping  the  wheel  in  pure  muriatic  acid.  Test  your  acid  by  dipping  a 
piece  of  polished  steel  in  it  \  if  it  destroys  the  polish,  reduce  the  acid  with 
rain  water  until  it  will  not.  Rinse  the  wheels  well  in  water.  This  will  also 
restore  the  polish  to  steel  that  has  been  blued  by  heat. 

GRINDING  GLASSES. — Provide  two  pieces  of  cork,  one  concave  and  one 
convex  (which  may  bd  cut  to  shape  after  fitting  to  lathe).  Take  a  copper  cent, 
■or  other  suitable  article,  and  soft  solder  a  screw  to  fit  the  lathe  and  then  wax 
it  to  the  cork ;  then  get  a  twenty-five  cent  emery  wheel,  such  as  is  used  on 
sewing  machines,  and  you  have  a  complete  outfit  for  cutting  your  watch 
glasses.  Polish  the  edge  on  the  zinc  collar  of  the  emery  wheel,  or  use  a  piece 
of  zinc  to  do  it.  The  other  cork  should  be  waxed  to  a  penny  and  centred. 
The  spectacle  lenses  may  be  cut  on  the  same  emery  wheel,  if  the  wheel  is 
attached  to  the  lathe  so  as  to  revolve. 

Another  method  is  to  take  a  common  piece  of  window  glass  (green  glass  is 
the  best)  and  make  a  grindstone  of  that,  using  the  flat  surface  to  grind  on. 
Cement  it  on  a  large  chuck,  the  glass  being  from  3  to  2.5  inches  in  diameter. 

Any  one  not  familiar  with  this  method  would  be  surprised  to  see  how  fast 
the  glass  is  cut  away,  for  either  spectacles  or  watches.  In  grinding  watch 
gUtases  put  them  fiat  on  the  chuck  j^lasa — not  oa  the  edge. 


i  i  PllOCESSES,  ETC,  IN  VARIOUS  TRADES. 

5oino  watohmakc'ra  are  excusablo  for  not  keeping  a  full  supply  of  waich 
,sscs  on  hand  all  the  time,  when  it  is  remembered  that  there  are  over  four 
)usaiid  different  sizes. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BRONZE  FOR  MACHINERY.— Below  will  be 
uid  the  composition  of  alloys  approved  of  and  used  by  prominent  French 
chanics  in  government  and  railway  work. 


FBENCH  MAiiiNE.  Copper.  Tin.  Zinc, 

igh  bronze  for  rods,  valves,  cooks,  etc   88  12  2 

•y  tough  bronze  for  eccentric  straps,  etc   90  10  2 

)iize  for  pluminer  blocks    fg  14  g 

rd  bronze   84  16  2 

[•y  hard  bronze  for  steam  brass-cocks   82  18  2 

1  bronze   78  22  0 

ti-friction  bronze,  with  8  parts  antimony. . . ,   4  96  0 

FUEXCH  RAILROADS. 

■pillows   82  18  2 

;omotivc  and  tender  oil  boxes   84  IfJ  2 

slide  valves   82  18  2 

!ks   88  12  2 


Dhe  bronze  composed  of  86  copper,  14  tin,  and  2  zinc,  is  least  porous,  and 
!refore  is  most  suitable  when  pressure  is  to  be  resisted. 
:»ARAFFINE  AS  A  LUBRICANT.— According  to  a  correspondent  of 
!  Railroad  Gazette.^  the  Erie  Railway  has  reduced  its  oiling  expenses  from 

000  to  $1,000  a  year,  by  using  paraffine  on  passenger  car  journals,  and  has 
[need  the  number  of.  hot  journals  from  535  to  ^2.  During  the  winter 
nths  it  is  used  without  the  addition  of  any  other  oil,  but  during  the  summer 
s  mixed  with  some  other  lubricant  to  give  it  body,  as  owing  to  its  limpidity 
3  difficult  to  retain  in  the  axle  boxes.  A  lubricant  of  notable  power  for 
>ling  hot  journal  boxes  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  sulphur  with  oil  or 
ase.  Used  on  the  hot  bearings  of  steamships,  etc.,  it  is  unequalled. 
VOODS  HEAVIER  THAN  WATER.— These  are  French  box,  Irish 
f  oak,  pomegranate,  vine  lignum vitae,  Indian  cedar,  eboliy,  mahogany, 

1  heart  of  oak.  Lignumvitte  is  one-third  heavier  than  water,  pomegranate 
her  more.    Cork  and  poplar  are  the  lightest  woody  products. 

V.  COMSTOCK  LODE  MINING  PUMP.— The  new  Chollar  Potosi 
ning  pump  consists  of  double  columns  of  15  in.  plungers.  The  rods  with 
ich  these  are  worked  are  14  x  14,  each  stick  being  of  Oregon  pine  and  100  ft.  in 
gth.  They  are  locked  together  and  held  by  iron  plates  10  ins.  wide  and  1  in. 
ck.  The  motive  power  is  a  compound,  condensing,  direct  acting  engine,  of 
'  H.  P.,  the  initial  cylinder  being  10  ft.  10  ins.  long,  by  33  ins.  diam.  ;  the 
)ansion  cylinder  being  8  ft.  long  and  65  ins.  diam. 

?HE  DEEP  MINES  OF  THE  WORLD.— The  Yellow  Jacket  is  the 
ipest  mine  on  the  Comstock  Lode,  being  now  (March,  1879)  2,500  ft.  below 
mouth  of  the  main  shaft,  and  2,933  ft.  below  the  Gould  &  Curry  crop- 
gs,  the  datum  line  of  the  Comstock  Mines.  The  highest  heat  known  in 
se  mines  is,  for  air  1.54°,  in  a  closed  drift  in  the  Crown  Point  Mine,  and  for 
ber  154°,  in  the  Savage,  Hale  <fe  Norcross  Mines.  The  Adalbert,  a  lead- 
'er  mine,  in  Austria,  is  probably  the  deepest  mine  in  the  world,  the  perpen- 
Lilar  shaft  being  3,280  ft.  deep.  The  next  deepest  on  the  Continent  of 
rope  is  the  Viviers  coal  mine  in  Belgium,  2,847  ft.  deep  This  mine 
let  rated  to  a  depth  of  3,583  ft.,  but  no  coal  being  found,  all  below  the 
17  ft.  level  has  been  abandoned.  In  England  the  Dunkirk  Colliery,  Lan- 
hire,  has  been  opened  to  a  depth  of  2,824  ft.,  and  the  Rosebridge  Colliery, 
le  locality,  to  a  depth  of  2,458  ft.,  these  being  the  deepest  mines  iu  Great 
tain. 

NSIDB  SURFACE  COATING  TO  PREVENT  SCALE  IN  STEAM 
>\li^^^—BeMtqenhacK&  Process. — Gradually  dissolve  5  lbs.  of  a  mix- 
e  of  35  parts  of  colophonium,  2}4  parts  graphite,  and  2}^  parts  of  lamp- 
ck,  in  40  lbs.  of  boiling  gas-tar,  adding  about  1  lb.  of  tallow.    The  solution, 


PROCESSES,  ETC.,  IN  VAllIOUS  TKADES.  101 0 

with  about  50  per  cent,  of  petroleum,  is  applied  in  a  warm  state.  It  has  a  pun- 
gent smell,  and  should  be  put  on  rapidly,  taking  the  precaution  of  using  closed 
lanterns.  Its  effect  is  to  cause  the  scale  to  come  off  in  large  flakes  when  picked. 

PLUMBAGO  AS  A  LUBRICANT  FOR  STEAM  CYLINDERS.— A 
practical  engineer,  in  a  communication  to  the  American  Machinist,  gives  the 
result  of  his  remarkable  experience  with  dry  plumbago  as  a  lubricant  for 
steam  cylinders,  which  fully  establishes  its  vast  superiority  over  the  oil,  tal- 
low, etc.,  generally  used  for  that  purpose.  The  engine  upon  which  the  experi^ 
ments  were  carried  on  was  an  11  x  30  horizontal  engine,  with  a  piston  speed  of 
SO'J  ft.  per  minute,  and  was  worked  to  its  full  capacity.  To  obtain  the  best 
results,  the  common  oil-cup  was  exchanged  for  a  goblet-shaped  tallow-cup 
with  a  lid,  after  which  the  piston-follower  and  springs  were  taken  out  and 
cleaned.  Before  starting  the  engine,  one-third  of  an  ounce  of  finely  pulverized 
plumbaso  was  placed  in  the  cup,  "When  fairly  under  way  the  valve  of  tho 
tallov/-cup  was  opened  half  way,  and  a  little  later  it  was  opened  to  its  utmost 
extent.  The  piston-rod  became  coated  with  tho  plumbago  soon  after  starting, 
and  by  noon  tho  whole  had  passed  from  the  tallow-cup  into  the  cylmder.  On 
starting  up  in  the  afternoon,  one-third  ounce  more  was  placed  in  the  cup,  and 
the  engine  ran  till  six  o'clock  with  a  like  result.  There  was  no  noise  in  the  cyl- 
inder, either  in  tho  starting,  running,  or  stopping  of  the  engine,  and  after 
eighteen  months'  use,  with  the  aljove-named  quantity  applied  twice  a  day,  no 
noise  had  been  heard  in  the  cylinder,  except  when  the  steam  was  shut  off  for 
the  purpose  of  stopping  the  engine,  when  it  would  be  heard  during  on©  or 
two  strokes  of  the  piston  just  before  the  engine  stopped.  This  occurred  not 
more  frequently  than  would  have  taken  place  if  tallow  or  oil  had  been  used. 
Soon  after  beginning  to  use  it,  a  portion  of  the  plumbago  would  be  found  re- 
maining in  the  cup.  To  obviate  this,  about  one  ounce  of  water  was  poured 
into  the  cup,  after  tho  plumbago  had  been  put  in,  when  a  decided  improve- 
ment was  observed,  in  that  it  could  bo  fed  into  the  cylinder  as  readily  as  oil 
or  tallow.  After  four  weeks'  use,  the  cylinder-head  was  taken  off,  and  tho 
working  part  of  the  cylinder  was  found  coated  with  plumbago,  which  could 
not  be  easily  rubbed  off  with  the  fingers.  The  interior  of  the  piston  was  found 
as  clean  as  when  it  left  the  lathe,  so  far  as  dirt  of  any  kind  was  concerned,  and 
such  was  the  condition  at  the  time  of  writing. 

There  was  an  absolute  freedom  from  all  choking  in  the  steam  passages.  Tho 
gum  joints,  six  in  number,  had  been  renewed  a  few  days  before  the  new  lubri^ 
cant  was  applied,  and  at  the  latest  advices  all  were  in  perfect  condition,  show- 
ing no  signs  of  leakage,  whereas,  if  oils  or  tallow  had  been  used,  they  would 
have  required  two  renewals  during  that  time. 

SILVER  POLISH  STARCH  ENAMEL.— Melt  3K  l^s-  of  the  very  best 
A  X  paraffino  wax  over  a  slow  fire.  When  liquified,  remove  from  the  fire  and 
stir  in  100  drops  oil  of  citronella.  Have  a  lot  of  round  new  pie-tins,  clean 
and  nice  ;  place  them  on  a  level  table  and  coat  them  slightly  with  sweet-oil, 
and  pour  about  G  tablespoonf  uls  of  the  enamel  into  each  tin.  The  pan  may 
bo  floated  in  water  to  cool  the  contents  sufficiently  to  permit  the  mixture  to 
be  cut  or  stamped  out  with  a  tin  cutter  into  small  cakes  about  the  size  of  a 
peppermint  lozenge.  Two  of  these  cakes  added  to  each  pint  of  starch  will 
cause  the  smoothing-iron  to  impart  the  finest  possible  finish  to  muslin  or  linen, 
])esides  perfuming  th3  clothes  in  first-class  style.  Thousands  of  dollars  have 
been  made  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  out  of  this  one  article,  for,  when  well 
made  and  attractively  put  up  in  boxes,  etc.,  the  sale  is  great  and  the  profits 
immens«s. 

SUPERIOR  BAKING  POWDER.— Take  2  lbs.  best  tartaric  acid  in  crys- 
tals, 3  lbs.  bi-carbonate  of  soda,  and  3  lbs.  potato  starch.  Each  article  must 
be  pulverized  separately  and  slowly  dried  by  a  gradual  heat,  and  afterwards 
thoroughly  mixed  by  being  passed  through  a  fine  sieve.  In  quality  this  arti- 
cle has  no  superior,  and,  when  attractively  packed  in  tins,  lead  foil,  or  paper 
glazed  on  tho  outside  (it  must  bo  hopt  free  from  damp),  it  commanda  a  most 
profitable  sale. 


1010  PKOOESSES,  ETC.,  IN  VARIOUS  TRADES. 

VIOLET  WRITING  INK.— For  2  gals.,  heat  2  gills  of  alcohol  in  a  water 
bath ;  add  to  the  alcohol  2  ozs.  of  violet  aniline,  and  stir  till  dissolved,  then 
add  the  mixture  to  two  gals,  of  boiling  water  ;  mix  well,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Smaller  quantities  in  proportion.  Tijis  is  the  secret,  from  the  sale  of 
which,  together  with  the  products  of  manufacture,  so  many  fortunes  are  said 
to  have  been  made.  Some  parties  assert  that  it  is  worth  to  an  active  man 
more  than  $1,000,  on  account  of  the  large  profits  obtainable  from  possible 
■ales. 

MANIFOLD  PAPER,  sometimes  called  copying-paper,  is  produced  by 
mixing  finely  pulverized  plumbago  or  lampblack  into  a  putty-like  paste.  Pass 
the  substance  over  tissue  paper  with  flannel,  and  remove  the  surplus  matter 
with  a  soft  rag.  In  use,  tnese  sheets  are  alternated  with  black  carbon  paper, 
and  when  written  on  with  a  hard  graphite  pencil  the  product  will  be  several 
copies  of  a  letter  with  one  writing. 

DUNCAN,  FLOCKHART  &  CO.'S  BLUE-BLACK  AND  COPYING 
INKS. — Blue  Aleppo  galls  (fres  from  insect  perforations),  4X  ozs. ;  bruised 
cloves,  1  dr.,  cold  water,  40  ozs.,  purified  sulphate  of  iron,  1}4  ozs.,  pure 
sulphuric  acid  (by  measure),  35  minims,  sulphate  of  indigo  (in  the  form  of  a 
paste)  and  which  should  be  neutral,  or  nearly  so,  1  oz.  The  weights  used  are 
avoirdupois,  and  the  measures  apothecaries'  measures.  Place  the  galls,  when 
bruised,  with  the  cloves,  in  a  50  oz.  bottle,  pour  upon  them  the  water,  and 
digest,  often  daily  shaking  for  a  fortnight.  Then  filter  through  paper  in 
another  50  oz.  bottle.  Get  out  also  the  refuse  of  the  galls,  and  wring  out  of  it 
the  remaining  liquid  through  a  strong  clean  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  into  the 
filter,  in  order  that  as  little  as  possible  may  be  lost.  Next  put  in  the  iron, 
dissolve  completely,  and  filter  through  paper.  Then  the  acid,  and  agitate 
briskly.  Lastly  the  indigo,  and  thoroughly  mix  by  shaking.  Pass  the  whole 
through  paper ;  just  filter  out  of  one  bottle  into  another  until  the  operation  is 
finished.  Note. — No  gum  or  sugar  is  proper  and  on  no  account  must  the  acid 
be  omitted.  When  intended  for  copying,  b}4  ozs.  of  galls  is  the  quantity.  On 
the  large  scale  this  fine  ink  is  made  by  percolation. 

GLAZE  FOR  ROAST  COFFEE.— In  one  patented  process  the  roasted 
coffee  is  coated  with  a  preparation  composed  of  Irish  moss,  3^  oz,,  gelatin,  ^ 
oz.,  isinglass,  3^  oz,,  white  sugar,  I  oz,,  eggs,  24,  The  first  three  are  boiled  in 
water  and  the  moss  strained  clear.  Another  recipe  is  1  oz.  French  isinglass 
and  4  ozs,  water,  the  moss  mixed  and  molded  to  form.— American  Grocer. 

VALUE  OP  FOREIGN  COINS.— By  a  recent  official  statement  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury,  the  value  of  foreign  coins  in  U. .  S.  money  is 
rated  as  here  shown,  and  the  values  of  all  foreign  merchandise  made  out  in  any 
of  these  currencies,  imported  on  or  after  Jan.  1,  1879,  will  be  estimated  on 
the  following  basis : 

Belgium,  franc,  gold  and  silver,  lO.h  cents. 
Bolivia,  dollar,  gold  and  silver,  9G.5  cents. 
BrazD,  milreis  of  1000  reis,  gold,  54.5  cents. 
British  Possessions  in  N.  A.,  dollar,  gold, 

Bogota,  peso,  gold,  96.5  cents. 
Central  America,  dollar,  silver,  96.5  cents. 
Chili,- peso,  gold,  91.2  cents. 
Denmark,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents. 
Ecuador,  dollar,  silver,  93.5  cents. 
Egypt,  pound  of  100  piasters,  gold,  $4,97.4. 
France,  franc,  gold  and  silvei-,  19,3  cents. 
Great  Britain,  pound  sterling,  gold,  $4  86 

Greece,  drachma,  gold  and  silver,  19,3 
cents. 

German  Empire,  mark,  gold,  23.8  cents, 
Jndia,  rupee  of  16  annas,  silver,  44.4  cents, 
Italy,  lira,  gold  aud  silver,  19,3  cents. 


Japan,  yen,  gold,  99.7  cents. 
Liberia,  dollar,  gold,  $1. 
Mexico,  dollar,  silver,  01.015. 
Netherlands,  florin,  gold  &  silver,  38.5  cents. 
Norway,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents, 
rem.  dollar,  silver,  93.5  cents. 
Portugal,  milreis  of  1000  reis.  gold,  $1.08. 
Russia,  ruble  of  100  copecks,  silver,  74.8 
cents. 

Sandwich  Islands,  dollar,  gold,  $1. 
Spain,  peseta  of  100  centimes,  silver,  19.3 
cents. 

Sweden,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents, 
Switzerland,  franc,  gold  and  silver,  19.3 
cents, 

Tripoli,  mahub  of  25  piasters,  silvo  ,  84.4 
cents. 

Turkey,  piaster,  gold,  4.3  cents. 

U.  S.  of  Columbia,  peso,  silver,  93.6  cents. 


• 


I. 


I 


